Chapter 6X

CHAPTER 6
High Performance Cooling

for
Power Electronics
In many instances, standard finned aluminium heat sinks, even with fan assistance, cannot achieve the
required cooling performance due to physical limitations in heat transfer capabilities, namely the limited
thermal conductivity of air for convection and copper and aluminium for conduction.
Figure 6.1 shows a comparison of various cooling techniques as a function of the attainable heat transfer
in terms of the heat transfer coefficient, h. For example, using equation 5.4, to accommodate a heat flux of
2
100W/cm at a temperature difference of 50K requires an effective heat transfer coefficient (including a
2 2
possible area enlarging factor) of 20kW/m K (h = 100W/cm /50K). From Figure 6.1 it can be concluded
that liquid cooling can play an important role in thermal management.
air He 20kW/m2K
FC
air jet
water
water jet
legend water boiling
natural convection He water condensation
forced convection jet water boiling

water condensation
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
2
Heat transfer coefficient h W/m K
Figure 6.1. Heat transfer coefficient h attainable with natural convection, single-phase liquid forced
convection, and boiling for different coolants. (see figure 6.33)
BWW
Chapter 6 High performance cooling for Power Electronics 180
6.1 Conduction and heat spreading
In all power electronic cooling applications, heat from the device sources must be transmit via thermal
conduction to the surfaces exposed to the cooling fluid before it can be rejected to the coolant. As shown
in Figure 6.2, heat must be conducted from the die to the Aℓ 203 substrate and Cu base plate to the heat
sink before it can be rejected to the flowing air. A thermal interface material (TIM) may be used to facilitate
thermal conduction from the die to the base plate and from the base plate to the heat sink. In power
electronics, heat spreaders (heat sinks without any cooling fins and less bulky structures) in the form of a
flat plate with good thermal conductivity may be interposed between the die mounted substrate and
heatsink, to facilitate spreading of the heat from its small source. Vapour chambers are also used to
spread heat from a concentrated die or module heat source to a larger heat sink.
Heat Sink
External
External
interface
TIM2 Internal
Lid
Chip
Internal interface TIM1
Figure 6.2. Power semiconductor package with thermal conduction path to heat sink via TIMs.
For high-power applications, the interface thermal resistance becomes an important constraint. Direct
soldering (for example, reflow soldering) is often difficult, particularly when copper is used because of the
large co-efficient of thermal expansion CTE mismatch between Cu and Aℓ 203 and in turn, Si.
Diamond-filled greases have an effective thermal conductivity of over 20W/mK. Also possible is a
nanostructured foil, which utilizes a fast exothermic reaction to create a soldered connection virtually at
room temperature.
Heat spreading is an effective method of mitigating the need for complicated high-heat flux cooling
options. To be effective the benefits of decreasing the heat flux density by increasing the area should
outweigh the penalty of adding another thermal layer through which the heat must conduct. Other than a
traditional copper heat spreading base plate, the alternative is to use advanced heat spreading materials
such as carbonaceous materials, metal-matrix composites, ceramic matrix composites (for example,
diamond-particle-reinforced silicon carbide), or ScD (Skeleton cemented Diamond), all with higher thermal
conductivities than copper, are much lighter, and have tuneable CTEs.
By employing heat spreaders, cooling methods such as loop heat pipes and low-flow liquid cooling may be
augmented to accommodate higher heat flux applications. Figure 6.3a shows heat spreading results for a
2
300W heat source of 2cm area as a function of thermal conductivity λ, thickness t, and cooling boundary
condition (that is, heat transfer coefficient h). Heat spreading is a complex phenomenon because the
conduction and convection effects cannot be separated and the two effects compete: increasing the
thickness increases the through-plane thermal resistance but decreases the in-plane thermal resistance.
For example, comparing the two upper curves with the two lower curves, their order is changed. The figure
also shows that heat spreaders can be used to decrease the required fluid-side heat transfer coefficient to
2
manageable values, below 5kW/m K, which can be realized with hydrofluoroether (HFE) cooling fluids.
2
For example, using an 8×8=64cm heat spreader of an advanced composite with a thermal conductivity λ
of 800W/mK and a thickness t of 4mm results in a temperature rise of 40°C with a heat transfer coefficient
2
h of 2500W/m K.
For a single heat energy source, minimal thermal gain results from a Cu base plate thickness in excess of
6mm. In the case of power IGBT modules, this boundary is complicated by the fact that many heat
sources, die, are adjacently bonded to a given copper coated ceramic substrate, which is then bonded to
a Cu spreader base plate.
The relative heat spreading resistance for varying spreader thicknesses in aluminium, copper, silver, and
Cusil (72%Ag+28%Cu) is shown in figure 6.3b. Aluminium is extensively used (also for air-cooled heat
sinks) even though its relative thermal conductivity is the poorest of the materials shown; because of its:
 lowest cost
 ease of fabrication
 performance adequacy
181 Power Electronics
6.2 Heat-sinks
Heat sinks are devices that enhance heat dissipation from a hot surface, usually the case of a
heat-generating component, to a cooler ambient, usually air. Air is assumed to be the cooling fluid. In most
situations, heat transfer across the interface between the solid surface and the coolant air is the least
efficient within the system, and the solid-air interface represents the greatest barrier to heat dissipation. A
heat sink lowers this barrier by increasing the surface area that is in direct contact with the coolant. This
allows more heat to be dissipated and/or lowers the device operating temperature. The primary purpose of
a heat sink is to maintain the device junction temperature below the maximum allowable temperature
specified by the device manufacturer.
°C
110
die heat source 300W, 1×2cm Area λ h
100
cm2 W/mK W/m2K
ΔT
90
4x4 800 2500
Temperature rise
80
70
4x4 400 5000
60
50 6x6 800 2500
40
6x6 400 5000
8x8 800 2500
30 8x8 400 5000
0 4 8 12 16
Thickness t mm
(a)
Relative spreading resistance
0.25
die heat source, 1×1cm
0.20
(b)
0.15 Aluminium Al
0.10
Copper Cu
Silver Ag
0.05 Cusil 72% Ag 28% Cu
0
0 4 8 12 16
Thickness t mm
Figure 6.3. Example of effect of thickness of heat spreader for various:
(a) heat source areas, material thermal conductivities, and heat transfer coefficients and
(b) material and resultant relative heat spreading resistance.
6.2.1 Required heat-sink thermal resistance
To begin the heat sink selection, the heat sink thermal resistance required to satisfy the thermal criteria of
the component is determined. By rearranging equation 5.11 into terms of the ambient temperature Ta, the
heat sink resistance is obtained as
 
T -T  1  1 1 1
R s a  j a - R j c - Rc s   (6.1)
Pd  mc p 
hA
mc p v 
 1e
mc p

where Tj, Pd and Rθj-c are provided by the device manufacturer, and
Ta and Rθc-s are user-defined parameters.
The ambient air temperature Ta for cooling electronic equipment depends on the operating environment in
which the component is used. Typically, it ranges from 35 to 45°C, if external air is used, and from 50 to
60°C, if the component is enclosed or in the wake of another heat-generating component.
6.2.2 Heat-sink selection

In selecting an appropriate heat sink that meets the required thermal criteria, it is necessary to examine
various parameters that affect not only the heat sink performance itself, but also the overall performance
of the system. The choice of a particular heat sink type depends largely on the thermal budget allowed for
the heat sink and external conditions surrounding the heat sink. There is not a single thermal resistance
value assigned to a given heat sink, since thermal resistance varies with external cooling conditions.
When selecting a heat sink, it is necessary to classify the airflow as natural, low flow mixed, or high flow
forced convection. Natural convection occurs when there is no externally induced flow and heat transfer
relies solely on the free buoyant flow of air surrounding the heat sink. Forced convection occurs when the
flow of air is induced by mechanical means, usually a fan or blower. There is no clear distinction on the
flow velocity that separates the mixed and forced flow regimes. Generally the effect of buoyant force on
the overall heat transfer diminishes to a negligible level (under 5%) when the induced airflow velocity
excess 1 to 2m/s.
Next, the required volume of a heat sink is determined. Table 6.1 shows approximate ranges of volumetric
thermal resistance of a typical heat sink under different flow conditions.
Table 6.1: Range of volumetric thermal resistance
flow condition volumetric resistance

3
m/s cm °C/W
natural convection 500-800
1.0 150-250
2.5 80-150
5.0 50-80
The heat sink volume for a given low flow condition is obtained by dividing the volumetric thermal
resistance by the required thermal resistance. Table 6.1 is used only as a guide for estimation purposes at
the beginning of the selection process. The actual resistance values may vary outside the shown range
depending on additional parameters, such as actual dimensions of the heat sink, type of the heat sink, flow
configuration, orientation, surface finish, altitude, etc. The lower values shown correspond to a heat sink
3 3
volume from approximately 100 to 200cm up to about 1000cm .
The tabulated ranges in Table 6.1 assume that the design has been optimized for a given flow condition.
Although there are many parameters to be considered in optimizing a heat sink, one of the most critical
parameters is the fin density. In a planar fin heat sink, optimum fin spacing is mainly related to two
parameters: flow velocity and fin length H in the direction of the flow, as shown in Table 5.5.
It is beneficial to increase the width of a heat sink rather than its length. Also, the effect of radiation heat
transfer is important in natural convection, as it can be responsible for up to 30% of the total heat
dissipation. As the ambient temperature rises the heatsink temperature increases for a constant thermal
power loading, and the heatsink thermal resistance decreases due to the increased significance of
4
thermal radiation (T dependence in equation 5.1) in the heat removal process. As the ambient
temperature decreases the heatsink thermal resistance decreases slightly.
Unless the component is facing a hotter surface nearby, it is imperative to have the heat sink surfaces
suitably ‘black’ painted or anodized to enhance radiation.
6.2.3 Heat sink types
Heat sinks separate into three broad categories:

 Plate-fin – suitable for general straight airflow;
 Pin-fin – suitable for omni-directional airflow; and
 Foam-fin – suitable for ducted airflow with a high pressure drop.
Heat sinks can be classified in terms of manufacturing methods and their final form shapes. Conventional
heat sink manufacturing methods involve extruding and die-casting.
The most common types of air-cooled heat sinks are summarised in Table 6.2 and include:
Extruded fins:
Extrusion is a process in which a solid block is converted into a continuous length of uniform cross-section
by forcing it to flow under high pressure through a die orifice, which is so shaped, as to impart the required
form to the product. Typically, billets of aluminium are placed within a strong walled enclosure and are
caused to extrude through the die under a high pressure exerted by a ram, actuated hydraulically or
mechanically. Extrusion is the most widely used method for heat sink manufacture.
This process allows the formation of elaborate two-dimensional shapes capable of dissipating large heat
loads. They may be cut, machined, and coated. Cross-cutting will produce omni-directional, rectangular
pin fin heat sinks, and incorporating serrated fins improves the performance by approximately 10 to 20%,
but with a slower extrusion rate. Extrusion limits, such as the fin height-to-gap fin thickness, L/s, usually
dictate the flexibility in design options (see figure 5.4). Typical fin height-to-gap aspect ratio L/s of up to 6
and a minimum fin thickness t of 1.3mm, are attainable with a standard extrusion. A 10 to 1 aspect ratio
W/L and a fin thickness t of 20mm can be achieved with special die design features. However, as the
aspect ratio increases, the extrusion tolerance is compromised.
Casted fins:
In the die-casting method, molten metal is forced under pressure into metal dies or moulds to produce
accurately dimensioned parts. It is the fastest of all casting processes and is often employed where
rapidity and economy in production are essential. The thermal conductivity of cast heat sinks may be
worsened by porosity caused by gases evolving during solidification.
Sand, lost core, and die casting processes are available with or without vacuum assistance, in aluminium
or copper/bronze. This technology is used in high-density pin fin heat sinks which provide maximum
performance when using impingement cooling.
Modified die-casted fins:

The modified die-casting process involves the extension of basic die-casting principles, whereby the base
of the heat sink is die-cast around a fixtured array of extremely thin stamped fins. The fins are separated
by spacers, which prevent the die-cast material from flowing into the fin-to-fin spacing. Aluminium is the
most commonly used material for this technique. The absence of a so-called interface between the fins
and the base eliminates the impact of an interface resistance. This process allows much higher aspect
ratios while fulfilling the requirement of small inter-fin spacing. These heat sinks are usually combined with
a heat pipe to provide an effective thermal solution.
Bonded/fabricated fins:
Bonded heat sinks are often built-up extrusions, typically manufactured by assembling extruded plates
into slots or grooves on an extruded or machined heat sink base plate, and held in place by an interface,
usually a two part thermosetting thermally conductive aluminium-filled epoxy or a solder. However, the
bonding agent presents a thermal barrier. These heat sinks are often costlier to manufacture, and the
base typically requires special machining. Process limitations are usually related to the strength of the
bonding agent and dimensional constraints for the slot in the heat sink base. Hybrid heat sinks utilizing
different materials for the fins and the base are possible. Bonded fin arrays are most commonly
rectangular plate fin arrays.
Most air-cooled heat sinks are convection limited, and the overall thermal performance of an air-cooled
heat sink can be improved if more surface area can be exposed to the air stream. The bonding process
allows for a much greater fin height-to-gap aspect ratio L/s of 20 to 40, greatly increasing the cooling
capacity without increasing volume requirements.
Forged/stamped fins:
In forged heat sinks, the fin arrays are formed by forcing raw material into a moulding die using a punch. A
common problem in forging is the choking of material in the moulding die cavity, which leads to fins of
uneven height. Aluminium and magnesium alloys are readily forged, and an important economic
advantage is a typically low rejection rate for the process.
Some of the attractive benefits of forging include high strength, superior surface finish, structural rigidity,
close tolerance capabilities, continuity of shape, and high uniformity of material.
Copper or aluminium sheet metals are stamped into desired shapes. They are used in traditional
air-cooling of electronic components and offer a low cost solution to low density thermal problems. They
are suitable for high volume production, because advanced tooling with high-speed stamping lowers
costs. Additional labour-saving options, such as taps, clips, and interface materials, can be factory applied
to help to reduce the assembly costs.
Folded/convoluted fins:
Folded heat sinks are built-up sheet metal, manufactured by folding sheet metal into a serpentine fin array.
The folded metal sheets are attached to the base of the heat sink by soldering or brazing, which results in
additional thermal resistance at that interface. This contact resistance is small, due to the fact that the
‘bends’ of folded fins are typically flattened while bonding or brazing, thus increasing the contact surface
area. Difficulty in achieving smaller fin pitches required to construct dense arrays is a common issue.
Similar to the bonding process, this manufacturing method allows flexibility in designing hybrid heat sinks
made up of a combination of different materials.
Alternatively, corrugated sheet metal of either aluminium or copper increases surface area, hence, the
volumetric performance. The heat sink is then attached either to a base plate or directly to the heating
surface via epoxying or brazing. It is not suitable for high profile heat sinks because of the availability and
fin efficiency.
Skived fins:
In the skiving process, fins are machined using special tooling, whereby precisely sliced layers from an
extruded metal block are bent at the base of the slice to form slender curved fins. Since the fins and base
are an integral unit, the interface resistance found in folded and bonded heat sinks is absent. Aluminium
6063 is the preferred material because of its superior machinability and strength, but copper arrays are
also available. The depth of cut determines the fin thickness and can result in extremely thin fin structures,
yielding light and competitive heat sink designs.
Machined fins:
Heat sinks are machined out of a metal block by material removal to create the inter-fin spaces. Most
commonly, they are manufactured by gang saw cutting on a computer numerical control machine. The
gang saw consists of multiple saw cutters on an arbour with precise spacing, which depends on the heat
sink geometry to be machined. Fins damaged and distorted during processing require extensive
secondary operations. Material is also consumed in an unproductive manner by the generation of scrap
swarf metal.
Swaged fins:
Individual fins are placed in a pre-grooved base, and then rollers swage the sides of the fins to maintain
them in place.
Table 6.2: Feature of different types of heatsinks
Thermal
Heatsink fin type Applications Advantages Disadvantages
resistance
extruded most applications varies versatile limited size
low thermal conductivity,
die-casted low power high expensive
expensive die charge
bonded large applications high close tolerances expensive
light weight and
single-fin fabricated
all application very low low profile with high expensive
assembly
degree of flow
limited in design and flow
forged most applications moderate inexpensive
management
stamped low power high inexpensive low performance
convoluted high at low flows expensive,
ducted air high heat flux density
(folded) fin low at high flows needs ducting
thick base, high weight,
skived most applications moderate close tolerances
orientation sensitive
high aspect ratio fins
machined prototypes design dependant quickly produced difficult to machine –
inconsistent fin geometry
heavy and bulky,
suitable for power
swaged high power medium limited availability for flow
devices
management
6.2.4 Heatsink fin geometry
Figure 6.4, showing the nomenclature of the array geometry, including the fin height, L, fin thickness, t,
inter-fin spacing, s, width of base, W, and the length of the heat sink base, H.
Figure 6.5 shows the results of thermal resistance calculations for an aluminium heat sink (0.1x0.1m heat
3
sink base; fin height, L=0.05m), in forced air convection for flow conditions of 20Pa and 0.01m /s. The
thermal resistance is defined as the ratio of the excess temperature difference in °C to the heat dissipation
rate in W, where the excess temperature difference is between the bottom surface of the heat sink base
and the incoming air at the heat sink inlet. It is assumed that such a flow condition is defined by a pressure
drop and flow rate representing a single point on a fan characteristic curve.
intake air
W
exit air
s
t
Figure 6.4. Geometry of the plate fin heat sink analysed.
For each value of fin density, there is a corresponding fin-to-fin spacing, s, and fin thickness, t, which
meets the pressure drop requirement at the specified flow rate. Increasing fin number decreases both the
fin thickness and the spacing. For a given thermal operating condition, described by pressure drop and
volumetric flow rate, designs with particularly small and relatively large fin densities yield high values of
thermal resistance, the former due to limited surface area and the latter caused by the highly inefficient
thin fins. An intermediate geometry, which minimizes the thermal resistance, can thus be identified, where
the thermal optimization illustrated in Figure 6.5 uses a heat sink volume as the driving thermal constraint
and not an actual application specification.
°C / W
1 3
Aluminium, 20Pa, 0.01m /s
10cm × 10cm × 5cm
Heat sink thermal resistance, Rθhs-a
0.8 die-casting
0.6
skiving
bonded fin, folded fin,
0.4 Modified die-cast
machine
extrusion forging
0.2 swaging
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fin Density, fins/cm
4.6 2.8 2.2 1.9 1.75 1.6

Fin Spacing, s, mm
5.4 2.2 1.1 0.6 0.25 0.04

Fin Thickness, t, mm
Figure 6.5. Typical thermal characteristic plot for a heat sink:

Thermal Resistance versus Fin Density, 0.1mx0.1m, 0.05m, Aluminium, 20Pa, 0.01m3/s.
Table 6.3: Process capabilities for different manufacturing techniques
Conventional Processes Modern Processes
Parameter Modified
Extruded Die-Casting Bonding Folding Forging Skiving Machining
(see figure 5.4) Die-Casting
min t, mm 1 1.75 0.75 0.25 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.5
max L/s 8:1 6:1 60:1 40:1 20:1 50:1 25:1 50:1
min s, mm 6.6 8.3 0.8 1.25 0.2 1 2 1
Material Aℓ Aℓ, Zn-Alloy Aℓ, Cu, Mg Aℓ, Cu Aℓ, Zn-Alloy Aℓ Aℓ Aℓ, Cu, Mg
For the conditions illustrated in Figure 6.5, a minimum value of 0.135°C/W occurs at 4 fins/cm, yielding a
design that will dissipate 186W at a 25°C excess temperature from the base to the inlet air. The fin
thickness and spacing for this aluminium structure are 0.57mm and 1.93mm, respectively with a heat sink
mass of 0.308kg. In Table 6.3, not all the processes are capable of creating a heat sink with such
dimensions with a gap aspect ratio of 26 and a fin aspect ratio of 86.
Figure 6.6 shows the typical range of cost functions for different types of heat sinks in terms of required
thermal resistance Rθ.
2
10
US $
heat pipes
liquid
systems bonded fins
1
10
Cost per heatsink @ 5000 quantity
folded fins
fabricated
extrusions
0
10
stampings
-1
10
-2 -1 0 -2 2
10 10 10 10 10
Thermal resistance Rθ C/W (junction to heatsink)
Figure 6.6. Cost versus required thermal resistance.
The performance of different heat sink types varies dramatically with the airflow across the surface area of
the heat sink. To quantify the effectiveness of different types of heat sinks, the volumetric heat transfer
efficiency is defined as
PD
v  (6.2)
mf c p T sa
where mf is the mass flow rate through the heat sink, cp is the heat capacity of the fluid, and ΔTsa is the
average temperature difference between the heat sink and the ambient air. The heat transfer efficiencies
for a wide range of heat sink configurations, and their ranges are listed in Table 6.4. The improved thermal
performance is associated with additional costs in either material or manufacturing, or both.
Table 6.4: Range of heat transfer efficiencies
Heat sink type

ηv range
%
Stamping & flat plates 10-18
Finned extrusions 15-22
Impingement flow
25-32
Fan heat sinks
Fully ducted extrusions 45-58
Ducted pin fin,
78-90
Bonded and folded fins
6.2.5 Thermal performance graph
Typical heat sink performance graphs are shown in figure 6.7. It is assumed that the device to be cooled is
correctly mounted, and the heat sink is in its normal mounting orientation with respect to the direction of
airflow. The solid plot is the natural convection curve of heat sink temperature rise, ΔTsa, versus PD, which
assumes that the heat sink is appropriately painted or anodized black. The dashed curve is the forced
convection curve of thermal resistance versus air velocity. In forced convection, ΔTsa is linearly
proportional to PD, hence Rθsa is independent of PD and becomes a function only of the flow velocity.
However, the natural convection phenomenon is non-linear, making it necessary to present ΔTsa as a
function of PD.
The performance graphs can be used to identify the heat sink and, for forced convection applications, to
determine the minimum flow velocity that satisfy the thermal requirements. For example, if the required
thermal resistance in a force convection application is 8°C/W, the thermal resistance versus flow velocity
curve indicates a velocity of at least 2.4m/s (480lfm). For natural convection applications, the required
thermal resistance Rsa can be multiplied by PD to yield the maximum allowable ΔTsa. The temperature rise
of a chosen heat sink must be equal to or less than the maximum allowable ΔTsa at the same PD.
Heat dissipated PD W
0 1 2 3 4 5
100 20
°C/W
°C
80 16 Rθ
ΔT
60 12
Thermal resistance
Temperature rise
40 8
20 4
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Air velocity m/s
Figure 6.7. Typical finned heatsink thermal performance graphs.
The natural convection curves assume an optimal orientation of the heat sink with respect to gravity. Also,
the flow velocity in the forced convection graph represents the approach flow velocity without accounting
for the effect of flow bypass. Flow bypass reduces the performance of a heat sink by as much as 50% for
the same upstream flow velocity.
When a device is substantially smaller than the base plate of a heat sink, the thermal spreading resistance
needs to be considered in the selection process. Performance graphs generally assume that the heat is
evenly distributed over the entire base area of the heat sink, and therefore, do not account for the
additional temperature rise caused by a concentrated heat source. This spreading resistance could
typically be 5 to 30% of the total heat sink resistance.
Metal heat sinks may act as electromagnetic radiators, even when earthed. When EMC is an issue,
thermal conducting plastic resins (thermoplastics) may be a viable alternative to a metal heat sink.
Thermal conductivities from 5 up to 50W/mK (similar to stainless steel 15W/mK and ceramic aluminium
oxide 25W/mK) are a result of additives. Such composite plastic heat sinks (moulded base, folded fin) are
50% lighter than aluminium equivalents and advantageously are available in electrically insulative and
electrical conductive grades.
6.3 Heatsink cooling enhancements
Other than natural convection cooling of heatsinks, other possible active thermal management
technologies for power electronics applications include:
Heatsink air-cooling with fans and blowers
Enhanced air-cooling
Piezo fans
'Synthetic' jet cooling
'Nanolightning'
Indirect liquid cooling
Heat pipes
Cold plates
Direct liquid cooling
Immersion cooling
Liquid jet impingement
Spray cooling
Microchannels and minichannels
Electrohydrodynamic and electrowetting cooling
Liquid metal cooling
Solid-State cooling
Thermoelectric (Peltier devices)
Superlattice and heterostructure cooling
Thermionic and thermotunnelling cooling
Phase change materials and heat accumulators
6.4 Heatsink fan and blower air-cooling

Fans are low-pressure air pumps that utilize power from an electric motor to output a volumetric flow of air
at a given pressure. A propeller converts torque from the motor to increase static pressure across the fan
rotor and to increase the kinetic energy of the air molecules. Electronic cooling fans draw or flow air from
outside an electronic enclosure into the electronics area, expel heated air from inside the enclosure, or
move air across a heat sink or electronic device to accelerate the removal of heat energy from the device.
Fan motors are typically permanent split capacitor ac induction or brushless dc.
Air moving devices are generally either a type of axial (and/or propeller) fan, figure 6.8a, or a centrifugal
blower, figure 6.8b. The main difference between fans and blowers is their flow and pressure
characteristics. The specific ratio - the ratio of the discharge pressure over the suction pressure - is used
for defining fans (<1.11), blowers (1.11 to 1.20), and compressors (>1.20). Axial fans take and deliver air in
an overall direction that is parallel to the fan blade axis (no change in direction) and can be designed to
deliver a high flow rate, but work against low pressure. Radial (centrifugal) blowers tend to deliver air in a
direction that is perpendicular to the blower axis at a relatively low flow rate, but against high pressure. The
air changes direction twice (on entering and on leaving).
The most common axial fans are propeller, tube-axial and vane-axial styles.
 Propeller fans are the simplest type of fan, consisting of a motor and propeller. One
problem with propeller fans is that tip vortices are produced by the pressure differential
across the airfoil section. The required pressure is low.
 A tube-axial fan (the most common type in electronic cooling systems) is similar to a
propeller fan, but also has a Venturi around the propeller to reduce the vortices. It
develops high pressure but has a low efficiency, with peak efficiency generally occurring
just before the stall dip.
 The vane-axial fan has vanes that trail behind the propeller in the airflow to straighten the
swirling flow created as the air is accelerated.
Impeller types, known as flat packs, have a small aspect ratio, with good flow rate and pressure drop.
Centrifugal blowers may have a forward curved wheel, a backward curved wheel, airfoil-tubular, or be of
the squirrel cage (radial) variety. They tend to be quiet: noise decreases with increased number of blades
and have excellent pressure drop characteristics.
Mixed flow fans combine the characteristics of both the axial fan the radial blower. The air flows in both
axial and radial directions relative to the shaft. Mixed flow fans develop higher pressures than axial fans.
In a cross flow fan the airflows in an inward direction and then in an outward radial direction .
Table 6.5 Design, characteristics, and applications of axial fans and blowers
Performance
type Impeller design Housing design applications
characteristics
 Low efficiency
PROPELLER
 Simple circular ring,  High flow rate but low efficiency Low pressure, high volume air moving
 Limited to low pressure applications
orifice plate or Venturi and pressure capabilities applications such as air circulation in a space
 Low cost impellers have at least two
Optimum design is  Maximum efficiency near free or ventilation through a wall without ductwork
blades of constant thickness
small blade tip gap delivery (zero static pressure) Some exhaust applications
connected to a small hub
and forms smooth  Discharge pattern circular and Used for makeup air applications
Primary energy transfer is by airfoil into wheel airstream swirls
velocity pressure
 High flow rate, medium pressure
Low and medium pressure ducted HVAC*
TUBE-AXIAL
 More efficient and develops higher capabilities

applications where air disturbance
static pressure than propeller fans  Higher efficiency than propeller
AXIAL FANS
 Cylindrical tube with downstream is not critical

 Usually 4 to 8 blades with airfoil or types
close clearance to Some industrial applications such as drying
single thickness cross section  Performance curve dips before
blade tips ovens, paint spray booths, and fume exhausts
Hub less than transfer by velocity peak pressure
pressure  Discharge pattern circular and air *HVAC Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning
stream rotates or swirls
 Good blade design give medium to  High pressure characteristics with General HVAC* systems with low, medium, to
 Cylindrical tube with
high pressure capability at good medium volume flow capabilities high pressure applications where straight
VANE-AXIAL
close clearance to
efficiency  Performance curve dips before through flow and compact installation are
blade tips
 Most efficient versions have airfoil peak pressure due to aerodynamic required
blades Guide vanes up or down stall. Avoid operation in this region Good down-stream air distribution
 Blade may be fixed, adjustable or stream from impeller
increase pressure
 Guide vanes correct circular Replaces tube-axial fans in industrial
controllable pitch motion imparted by wheel and applications
capability and
Hub is usually less than half fan tip efficiency
improve fan pressure More compact than centrifugal fans for same
diameter characteristics and efficiency duty
BWW
type Impeller design Housing design Performance characteristics
PRESSURE POWER
PROPELLER
EFFICIENCY
VOLUME FLOW RATE
PRESSURE POWER
TUBE-AXIAL
Axial fans
EFFICIENCY
VOLUME FLOW RATE
PRESSURE POWER
VANE-AXIAL
EFFICIENCY
VOLUME FLOW RATE
Performance
type Impeller design Housing design applications
characteristics
 Highest efficiency of all centrifugal fan designs
 Scroll-type design for
 10 to 16 blades of airfoil contour curve
efficient conversion of  Highest efficiencies at 50% to 60%
backwards from rotation direction. Deep blade  General HVAC large
AIRFOIL
velocity pressure to static of wide open volume. This volume

allow for efficient expansion within blade systems
pressure has good pressure characteristics
passage  Large clean-air operations
 Maximum efficiency requires  Power reaches maximum near peak
 Air leaves passage at velocity less than tip for significant energy
close clearance and efficiency and decreases or
speed savings
alignment between wheel self-limits toward free delivery
 For a given duty, has highest speed of and inlet
centrifugal designs
BACKWARD INCLINED
BACKWARD CURVED
 HVAC, as for airfoil types

 Efficiency slightly less than airfoil fan
 Uses same housing  Industrial applications
 10 to 16 single thickness blades curved or  Similar to airfoil fan, except peak
CENTRIFUGAL FANS
configuration as airfoil where airfoil blade may

inclined away from rotation direction efficiency slightly lower
design corrode or erode due to
 Efficient for same reasons as airfoil
environment
 Scroll. Usually narrowest of all  Material handling in
 Higher pressure characteristics than airfoil and
 Higher pressure characteristics than industrial plants
RADIAL
centrifugal designs
backward blade types
 Because wheel design is less airfoil and backward blade fans  Rugged wheel is easy to
 Curve has a break before pea pressure and fan
efficient, housing dimensions  Pressure drop before peak pressure repair. Wheel may be
should not be operated in this area
are not as critical as for airfoil but this usually causes no problems specially coated
 Power rises continually to free air delivery
and backward blade types  Usual not for HVAC
 Pressure curve less steep than
FORWARD CURVED
backward curved fans. Curve dips

 Flatter pressure curve and lower efficiency than  Scroll similar to possibly before reaching peak pressure
airfoil and backward blade types identical to other centrifugal  Highest efficiency after peak  Primarily for low-pressure
 Do not rate fan in pressure dip before peak designs pressure at 40 to 50% of wide open HVAC, such as residential
pressure  Fit between wheel and inlet volume furnaces, central station
 Power rises continually to free air delivery. not as critical as for airfoil and  Rate fan to volume greater peak units and packaged
Motor selection must account for this backward blade types airfoil pressure air-conditioners
and backward blade types  Account for power curve which rises
continually towards free delivery,
when selecting motor
type Impeller design Housing design PRESSURE POWER
Performance characteristics
AIRFOIL
EFFICIENCY
VOLUME FLOW RATE
BACKWARD CURVED
PRESSURE POWER
BACKWARD
INCLINED
EFFICIENCY
CENTRIFUGAL FANS
VOLUME FLOW RATE
PRESSURE POWER
RADIAL
EFFICIENCY
VOLUME FLOW RATE
PRESSURE POWER
FORWARD
CURVED
EFFICIENCY
VOLUME FLOW RATE
Axial flow Radial flow Mixed flow
Axial flow Radial flow Cross flow

with Meridional acceleration with inducer section
(a) (b)
Forward Curved Backward Curved Radial
Figure 6.8. Typical (a) impeller axial fan and (b) radial blower with backward curved blades.
BWW
Pressure increase and flow rate in conjunction with the rotational velocity ω at the perimeter, the outer
diameter Do of the impeller, and the density ρℓ of the fluid medium result in the dimensionless parameters
pressure figure Φf and volume figure, θf.
p
f  (6.3)
½   2
V
f  (6.4)
¼ Do2
These parameters allow comparison of different designs, dimensions and speed, with one another. Figure
6.9 illustrates this comparison for typical characteristic curves of the various designs, making the
advantages apparent, in particularly:
 Radial fans give a large increase in pressure and low flow rates
 Mixed-flow fans give medium pressure and medium flow rates
 Axial fans give high volume flow rates and low increase in pressure
The fan curve

The aerodynamic aspects of a fan are exhibited in a fan curve such as is shown in figure 6.10. Healthy
aerodynamic flow is on the x-axis and rotates anticlockwise through to aerodynamic stall (the vertical
axis). A stalled fan continues to deliver air, but at an increased static pressure and a decreased volumetric
flow rate, and also at the cost of an increase in noise. If noise is not a consideration, the fan can be utilized
in this condition.
The fan performance curve can be understood in terms of energy. At the shut-off or no-flow point, A, the
fan is in a condition of maximum potential energy, hence produces a maximum possible pressure. At free
delivery, point D, the fan is in the maximum kinetic energy condition. Although neither of these extreme
conditions are likely to occur in practice, they are useful parameters when comparing fans. The fan stall
region, B, is unstable, and should be avoided. The region C to D is the fan stable low-pressure area, where
a preferred operating point near D improves efficiency and compensates for filter clogging.
static,
no delivery
pu speed
centrifugal 4th sector
1 A Blowers, which provide
medium flow at high pressure
system
centrifugal impedance
forward blades 3nd sector
Φ
0.8 curve
Mixed Flow fans, which provide
B high flow at increased pressure
stall
Static pressure
0.6 region th
4 2nd sector
C sector Mixed Flow fans, which
Pressure figure
axial rd
provide high flow at
mixed flow recommended 3 increased pressure
0.4 sector
selection range
nd
2
1st sector
maximum sector
0.2 Tube-axial fans, which
flow rate st provide very high flow at
centrifugal
1
low pressure
radial sector
D
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Airflow G cfm
Volume figure θ equation 6.4
Figure 6.9. Fan curves: (a) comparison of normalized curves for various fan designs and
(b) typical fan characteristic regions.
The governing principle in fan selection is that any given fan can only deliver one flow at one pressure in a
particular system. This ‘operating point’ is determined by the intersection of the fan static pressure curve
and the system pressure curve. Figure 6.10 illustrates the operating points of both high and low resistance
systems. It is better to select a fan that gives an operating point toward the high flow, low-pressure end of
the performance curve to maintain propeller efficiency and to avoid propeller stall. Each particular power
electronic system should be analyzed for possible reduction in the overall resistance to airflow.
Considerations, such as available space and power, noise, reliability, and operating environment are other
deciding factors.
BWW
Shut off
Pa Normal operating range

η η
operating
point
m
syste
Fa
W W
Static pressure
n
cu
nce
rv
operating Pa Pa
e
ta
resis
point
high
s te m
e sy Backward curve axial
ta n c operating
re s is point Maximum centrifugal
Lo w
free
delivery
3 3 3
Airflow G m /s m /s m /s
Figure 6.10. Fan curve: (a) fan (backward curved centrifugal) system interaction;
input power and efficiency (b) backward curved centrifugal and (c) axial fans.
pressure
forward
pressure and shaft power
curved
radial
power
backward
curved
flow rate/ air volume
airfoil
backward
radial
efficiency
tubular
forward
flow rate/ air volume
Figure 6.11. Fan curves: (a) shaft power and pressure and (b) efficiency fans versus flow rate.
Acoustic noise
Sound is propagated in air by pressure waves. The effective value of pressure change is expressed
relatively as sound pressure level, SPL, in decibels, dB. The so-called A weighting curve is normally used
and the sound pressure level obtained is expressed in dB(A).
P
SPL  20 log (6.5)
PRef
where P is pressure and
Pref is the reference pressure
Since sound pressure level varies with distance to and direction of a device, it is not suitable as a fan
comparison basis. By contrast, the sound power level, PWL, determined from sound pressure
measurements, comprises all sound emissions, and is unaffected by distance to the fan noise source.
W
PWL  10 log (6.6)
WRef
where W is the acoustic power of the source and
Wref is the acoustic reference power
52 52 10
Maximum static
0
Pa
Radial pressure
Pa
dBA
50 50
80
Δp
Δp
Mixed flow
Lp
Bigger radial component
48 48 Radial fan
60
Pressure increase
Diagonal
Pressure increase
Bigger radial
Sound pressure
46 46
component 40
Axial Axial fan
44 44
20
Maximum
fluid volume
42 42
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-3 3 -3 3
Flow rate G x10 m /s Flow rate G x10 m /s
Figure 6.12. Sound pressure level characteristics at 1m; comparison between axial and radial fans.
The sound radiation of a fan changes with its operating state, so sound power level is only conditionally
indicative for applications in which the fan does not operate under optimum conditions. A ‘characteristic
acoustical curve’ of the fan results when the sound pressure level is measured in relation to a pressure
increase or flow rate. Figure 6.12 depicts this characteristic for axial and radial fans, wherein the sound
pressure level measured at a 1m distance from the fan intake side is depicted as a function of flow rate.
For axial designs, a sharp increase in noise is particularly noticeable when the flow rate is excessively
restricted. The axial fan enters an operating range in which the airflow no longer follows the contour of the
impeller hub, resulting in additional noise.
For a specific operating point, an ideal blade geometry achieves the highest aerodynamic efficiency, which
coincides with minimal noise generation. For this reason, the lowest noise generation can only be
achieved for the given point of operation.
Sources of fan noise include:
 Vortex shedding - This is a broad-band noise source generated by air separation from the
blade surface and trailing edge. It can be controlled by the blade profile design, proper pitch
angle, and notched or serrated trailing blade edges.
 Turbulence - Turbulence is created in the airflow stream itself. It contributes to broad-band
noise. Inlet and outlet disturbances, sharp edges and bends will cause increased turbulence
and noise.
 Speed - Speed is a major contributor to fan noise and its effect can be seen through the fan
laws in Table 6.6.
 Fan load - Noise varies as the system load varies. This variation is unpredictable and fan
dependent. However, fans are generally quieter when operated near their peak efficiency.
 Structure vibration - This can be caused by the components and mechanism within the fan,
such as residual unbalance, bearings, rotor to stator eccentricity and motor mounting. Motor
mounting noise is difficult to define. Cooling fans are motors and should be treated as such
when mounted.
The following points will aid in the minimization of fan noise.
 System impedance - This should be reduced so that the least noise for the greatest airflow is
obtained. The inlet and outlet ports of a cabinet can make up to between 60 and 80% of the
total system impedance, which is too high for a low-noise result. Also, if a large part of the
fan's flow potential is used up by the impedance of the inlet and outlet, a larger, faster and
noisier fan will be required to provide the necessary cooling.
 Flow disturbance - Obstructions to the airflow must be avoided, especially in the critical inlet
and outlet areas. When turbulent air enters the fan, noise is generated, usually in discrete
tone form, adding up to 10 dB. Obstructions placed near the fan intake raise the noise level
more than obstruction on the exhaust side of the fan.
 Fan speed and size - Most fans have several low speed versions. These should be
assessed and used if possible. Various fan sizes should also be explored; quite often a
larger, slower fan will be quieter than a smaller, faster fan delivering the same airflow.
 Temperature rise - Airflow is inversely proportional to allowable temperature rise within the
system. Therefore, the ΔT limit placed on the equipment will dictate the required flow, and
therefore, noise. If the temperature limit can be relaxed slightly, a noise reduction results.
 Vibration isolation - Fan isolation from the cabinet will avoid vibration transmission. Because
fans operate at a low frequency, and are light in weight, vibration isolators must be soft and
flexible. Since noise transmission is system dependent, experimentation is the best
approach to identify quiet system/fan interaction. In systems that require 20 cfm or less,
noise radiated by the cabinet is the predominant noise, and isolation of the fan is the only
practical solution. Mount the fan on the enclosure interior surface rather than on an exterior
surface. Use structural reinforcements to control enclosure resonant frequencies.
6.4.1 Fan selection
Estimate the required airflow

Before selecting a fan, it is necessary to estimate accurately the heat to be dissipated, because the overall
system air temperature differential above the inlet ambient is directly proportional to the heat dissipated.
Then the amount of required cooling air can be estimated.
The basic heat transfer equation is:

PD  mf  c p  T (6.7)
where PD = amount of heat dissipated in the enclosure and transferred to the cooling system, W
cp = specific heat of air, 1.021 kJ/kg.K
mf = mass flow rate of air through enclosure, kg/s
ΔT = desired air temperature differential (enclosure inlet to discharge ambient outside air), K
The relationship between mass flow rate and volumetric flow rate is
mf     G (6.8)
3
where G = volumetric flow rate, m /s [1 cfm = 1.7m³/h]
3
ρℓ = air density, kg/m , which is altitude dependant, see Table 6.8
From equations (6.7) and (6.8), the required volumetric flow rate is calculated as
PD PD  3 PD 
G     0.78  10 T at STP  (6.9)
   c p  T c v  T  
This equation yields an estimate of the airflow needed to dissipate a given amount of heat at sea level.
Note that it is the mass flow rate of air, not its volumetric flow rate that governs the amount of cooling.
Estimate the actual system airflow

The actual operating airflow is determined by the intersection of the fan curve and the system resistance
curve, as shown in figure 6.9b. There are three options for estimating the operating point:
 experimental measurement using a thermal/mechanical mock-up of the system,
 calculation of the operating point using airflow network methods, or
 calculation of the system airflow using computational fluid dynamics software.
The experimental procedure can be used to measure the total airflow for specific fans or several
pressure-airflow data pairs can be measured to develop a complete system resistance curve. The latter
experimental method requires superimposition of the selected fan pressure versus airflow curve and
system resistance curve to obtain the operating airflow.
The airflow network procedure provides adequate results when the geometry is simple and the flow path
within the enclosure is known or an estimate can be made.
Determining system impedance

To estimate the system airflow, all enclosures are characterized by a system resistance curve of the type
shown in Figure 6.13. System resistance curves are expressed as a non-linear expression of pressure
versus airflow:
n
P  k exp     G q (6.10)
2
where ΔP = system static pressure loss [1Pascal = 1N/m² and velocity pressure Pv = ½ρℓv ]
kexp = a load or resistance factor specific to the system (determined experimentally)
ρℓ = density of fluid, air
G = airflow rate
nq = airflow quality constant, which varies between 1 and 2 depending on whether the flow is
completely laminar (nq = 1) or completely turbulent (nq = 2)
0.4 A
120 cfm High impedance design
fan
Static pressure
0.3 B D E
100 cfm optimal design
fan
0.2 low impedance design
70 cfm F
0.1
fan
C
Pressure increase
Pressure loss
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Air flow G cfm
Figure 6.13. Fan characteristics of three different fans.
System flow
Once the volume of air and the static pressure of the system to be cooled are known, their intersection
specifies the fan, specifically its airflow. To find the most effective fan for a system the typical airflow curve
is divided into four sectors, as in Figure 6.9b. In general, each type of air mover will be best suited to one
area, from high-flow/low-pressure to high-pressure/low-flow, as shown. Any given fan can only deliver one
flow at one pressure in a given system.
Figure 6.9a shows a typical fan pressure versus flow curve along with what is considered the normal
operating range of the fan. The fan, in any given system, can only deliver as much air as the system will
pass for a given pressure. If the estimated value of the actual airflow is significantly less than the required
value, before increasing the number of fans in a systems, or attempting to increase the air volume using a
larger fan, the system should be analysed for possible reduction in the overall resistance to airflow. Other
considerations, such as available space and power, noise, reliability, and operating environment should
also be considered.
If this should fail to provide a solution, a different fan or perhaps even multiple fans should be considered.
The consideration of multiple fans is more complex. An additional fan doubles the cost, doubles the noise,
doubles the heat generated by fans, and may provide only a minimal improvement to the cooling, but
redundant fans may increase system reliability.
Impact of varying system impedance

To demonstrate the impact of system resistance on fan performance, figure 6.13 shows three typical fans,
where A is a 120cfm fan, B is a 100cfm fan and C is a 70cfm fan. Line D represents a system impedance
within a given designed system. If 50cfm of air are needed, fan A will meet the need. However, fan A is a
high performance, high noise fan that draws more power and is more costly. If the system impedance
could be improved to curve E, then fan B would meet the 50cfm requirement, with reduced cost, noise and
power draw. If the system impedance could be optimized to where curve F were representative, then fan C
meets the airflow requirement, at a dramatically lower power, noise and cost level. This is a well-designed
system from a forced convection cooling viewpoint, noting that a given fan can only deliver a single airflow
into a given system impedance.
Multiple fans - series and parallel operation

Combining fans in series or parallel can achieve the desired airflow without greatly increasing the system
enclosure size or fan diameter.
 Parallel operation is two or more fans blowing together side by side. The performance of two
fans in parallel will increase the volume flow rate (by ΔG and double at maximum delivery). The
best results for parallel fans are achieved in systems with low resistance. A fan curve simulating
multiple, identical fans in parallel may be constructed by scaling the fan curve airflow axis data in
direct proportion to the number of fans. As figure 6.14 shows, when a system curve is overlaid on
the parallel performance curves, the higher the system resistance, the lower the flow gain with
parallel fan operation. Thus, this type of application should only be used when the fans can
operate in a low impedance near free delivery.
 In series operation, the fans are stacked one upon the other, resulting in an increase of static
pressure, ΔP, doubling at shut-off, but less elsewhere, as seen in figure 6.14. The best results
for series fans are achieved in systems with high resistance. A fan curve simulating multiple,
identical fans in series, may be constructed by scaling the fan curve pressure axis data in direct
proportion to the number of fans.
In both series and parallel fan operation, certain areas of the combined performance curve will be unstable
and should be avoided. This instability is unpredictable and is a function of the fan and motor construction
and the operating point.
high
impedance
system
low
Static pressure
impedance
system
2 fans in
series
ΔP
single
fan 2 fans in
parallel
ΔG
Air flow G
Figure 6.14. The effects of multiple fans (series versus parallel fan operation)
on system pressure and flow rate.
6.4.2 The fan (affinity) laws
It may be necessary to determine the output of a given fan under other operating conditions of speed or
fluid density, or to convert the known performance of an air mover of one size to that of another
geometrically similar unit of a different size. The fan laws permit this and geometrically similar fans can be
characterized by the following five equations:
Volumetric Flow-rate: G  Kq ND 3
Mass Flow Rate: mf  Km  ND 3
Pressure: P  K p  N 2D 2 (6.11)
Power: HP  KHP  N 3D 5
sound: Lw  3.71log10 Vt  0.96 log10 Q  10.8 imperial units 
where: Kq, Km, Kp, KHP = constants for geometrically and dynamically similar operation
3
G = volumetric flow rate, m /s
mf = mass flow rate, kg/s
N = fan impeller speed, rps
D = fan diameter, m
HP = impeller input power to rotate
3
ρℓ = air density, kg/m
Lw = sound pressure level, dB
Vt = tip speed of impeller
These five fan laws apply where the fan airflow rate and pressure are independent of Reynolds’s number,
Re, specifically when
 ND 2
Re   2  106 (6.12)
CR 
where CR = correction factor

2
ν = absolute viscosity, Ns/m
From these relationships, it is possible to calculate fan performance at a different condition. Table 6.6 is a
summary of the fan law equations in a dimensionless form, useful for fan analysis.
Table 6.6: Basic fan laws, scaling
Variable Constants Fan Laws

G2 = G1 (N2 / N1)
Diameter (D) 2
Speed (N) P2 = P1 (N2 / N1)
Density (ρℓ) 3
HP2 = HP1 (N2 / N1)
3
G2 = G1 (D2 / D1)
Speed (N) 2
Diameter (D) P2 = P1 (D2 / D1)
Density (ρℓ) 5
HP2 = HP1 (D2 / D1)
Diameter (D) 2
P2 = P1 (p2 / p1)
Density (ρℓ) Speed (N) 5
HP2 = HP1 (p2 / p1)
Volumetric Flow Rate (G)
G2 = G1 (p2 / p1)
Diameter (D) P2 = P1 (p2 / p1)
Density (ρℓ)
Mass Flow Rate (m) N2 = N1 (p2 / p1)
2
HP2 = HP1 (N2 / N1)
N  D   
sound: Lw 2  Lw 1  55log10  2   55log10  2   20log10  2 
 N1   D1   1 
Example 6.1: Fan laws
A chassis uses a single 120mm fan for cooling. The maximum acceptable temperature rise in the
enclosure is 15°C, when it dissipates 900W. A redesign results in the power dissipation increasing to
3
1200W. At 900W dissipation, the 120mm fan produces a 3m /s flow rate at 3000rpm using 8W of power.
What are the fan requirements at 1200W enclosure dissipation?
Solution
The new flow rate, from equation (6.9), is

P 0.05  P 0.05  1200W
G     4m3 /s
  c p  T T 15K
3
This is a flow increase of 1m /s.
The volumetric flow rate G is given by equation (6.11)
G  K q ND 3
that is
G2
rpm2   rpm1
G1
4m3 /s

 3, 000rpm  4, 000rpm
3m3 /s
The fan power requirements are given by
HP  K HP N 3D 5
that is
3
 rpm2 
Power2  Power1   
 rpm1 
3
 4, 000 
 8W     19.0W
 3, 000 
The pressure increase produced is given by
P  K p  N 2D 2
that is
2
 rpm2 
Pressure2  Pressure1   
 rpm1 
2
 4, 000 
 Pressure1     Pressure1  1.78
 3, 000 
The pressure is increased by 77.8%. The expected noise increase is 55×log10(4000/3000) = 6.87dBA.
♣
Fan Efficiency
The overall fan efficiency, ηf, is the ratio between power transferred to the airflow (power output from the
impeller) and the electrical input power used by the fan. The fan efficiency is in general independent of air
density and can be expressed as:
P p  G
f  f 
Pe Pe
where
Pe is the electrical power input to the fan motor (W)
Pf is the fan power output calculated from volume flow (m³/s) and pressure developed (Pa).
3
G = air volume delivered by the fan (m /s)
dp = static/total pressure (Pa)
The pressure could be total (mechanical) or static pressure and there can be a significant difference.
The equation for determining mechanical efficiency is:

p total pressure   G
f mechanical  (6.13)
Pe
The static efficiency equation is the same except that the outlet velocity pressure is not added to the fan
static pressure
p  static pressure   G
f static  (6.14)
Pe
Table 6.7 Fan peak efficiencies
Fan type Peak efficiency range, %
Airfoil backward curved/inclined 79-83

Centrifugal fan
Modified radial 72-79
Radial 69-75
Pressure blower 58-68
Forward curved 60-65
Vane axial 78-85

axial fan
Tube axial 67-72
Propeller 45-50
Density (altitude) effects on fan performance

Since a radial fan is a constant volume machine, it will move the same volume flow of air G independent of
the density of the air, as shown in figure 6.15. A fan is not a constant mass flow machine, therefore mass
flow m changes as the density changes. This is important when equipment must operate at various
altitudes. The mass flow m is directly proportional to density change Δρℓ, while the volume flow G remains
constant. As air density decreased, mass flow decreases and the effective cooling diminishes
proportionately. Therefore, equivalent mass flow is needed for equivalent cooling, or the volume flow
required at altitude (low-density air) will be greater than that required at sea level to obtain the equivalent
heat dissipation.
impedance
performance at
at sea level
sea level
static pressure
performance
at altitude impedance
at altitude
air flow
Figure 6.15. Density effects on fan performance.
G is volumetric flow rate; a measurement of volume over time. It pertains to no particular gas or gas
density. G is strictly a rate of volume measurement. But within that volume of gas, and in this case - air, the
quality of the air and its ability to transfer heat can be calculated. Every molecule of air has a mass, and
this mass has the ability to absorb or emit energy; also known as transferring heat. The number of
molecules for a given volume gives the density of the air (mass/volume). If more molecules of air are
packed into a given volume, increasing the density, mass per volume increases and the ability to transfer
heat increases; and vice versa.
3
At sea level, the density of air is 1.19kg/m , as seen Table 6.8. This value is created by all of the other
molecules in the atmosphere weighing down on the molecules at sea level. As the elevation increases,
there are fewer higher up molecules weighing down and the density of the air decreases. At non-sea level
altitudes, the heat transfer equation is recalculated using the appropriate density for the altitude that the
fan is operating at. In equation (6.9), the specific heat, cp, which is mass dependant, is a constant for a
given molecule, viz. 1.021kJ/kg.K for air.
Table 6.8: Air density ρℓ and thermal resistance change with altitude, z
Altitude z Density ρℓ Heatsink thermal resistance multiplier, p.u.

Naturally Cooled
m kg / m
3 Fan-Cooled Fan-Cooled R  z  1
(General) (High Power) 
RO metres 1  5  10 z
5
Sea Level 1.19 1.00 1.00 1.00

1,500 1.06 1.20 1.16 1.10
3,000 0.904 1.45 1.35 1.21
4,500 0.771 1.77 1.58 1.33
6,000 0.652 2.18 1.86 1.48
7,600 0.549
9,100 0.458
Enclosure cooling
In addition to selecting a fan, it is important to consider fan placement in or on the enclosure. Pressurizing
(as opposed the evacuating) the enclosure is the preferred cooling method, since incoming air can be
readily filtered. In addition, a pressurized enclosure will prevent dust entering through cracks or crevices.
The fan is also transferring cooler, denser air, and therefore has a slightly higher-pressure capability,
which may be a slight advantage for low heat dissipating systems. An important feature of a pressurized
system is that the fan life and reliability are increased due to the fan ambient temperature being lower. The
disadvantage of pressurization is that heat generated by the fan is dissipated into the enclosure.
When locating the fan or fans, the enclosure layouts illustration in Figure 6.16 highlight some desirable
cooling aspects. The airflow path will always take the path of least resistance, so use baffles to eliminate
recirculation of the same air and to direct the airflow. Importantly, air is forced in at a lower level than the
outlet vents in order to benefit from the chimney effect, where less dense (hot) air rises.
 Locate components with highest heat dissipation near the enclosure air exits.
 Size the enclosure air inlet and exit vents at least as large as the Venturi opening of
the fan used.
 Allow enough free area for air to pass with a velocity less than 7m/s.
 Avoid hot spots by spot cooling with a small fan.
 Locate components with the most critical temperature sensitivity nearest to inlet air
to provide the coolest airflow.
 Blow air into cabinet to keep dust out, that is, pressurize the cabinet.
 Use the largest area filter possible, in order to:
o increase dust capacity
o reduce pressure drop.
6.4.3 Estimating fan life
Convection air-cooling is the most commonly used method of cooling power electronics. In order to deliver
air-cooled equipment with higher reliability, life expectancy of the air moving devices must be considered.
Definition of Fan Failure

Fan parametric failures typically include excessive vibration, noise (+ 3dBA), rubbing or hitting of the
propeller, reduction in rotational speed (< 0.8×Nnom), increased running current (> 1.2×Inom), etc.
Non-functional failure include locked rotor and failure to start.
Increased noise is a result of a bearing failure, which is usually caused by a loss of lubricant, which leads
to bearing wear. ambient
air out
return
air
am bient side
electronics
enclosure
side
Locate component with Size outlet openings at
highest dissipation near least as large as Venturi
air outlet opening of fan
supply
air
ambient
air in
Avoid hot spots
with small fan ambient
cooling air out
Allow enough free return air

Use vertical baffles
am bient air in
am bient side
area to pass with

enclosure
velocity <7m/s to direct air flow

side
supply air
Locate components
with most critical
temperature sensitivity
ambient
near the inlet air air out
ambient
air out
supply air
am bient side
am bient air in
enclosure
side
return air
Use largest filter possible Blow air into the enclosure
i. increase dust capacity to keep dust out
ii. reduce pressure drop
supply air
ambient
air out
Figure 6.16. Cabinet cooling, external mount versus through-mount, with vertical orientation.
The capacitor may fail in ac fans and the electronics may contribute to early failures in dc fans. Failure
criteria in fan life tests can also include a change in coast-down time or start time to reach full speed.
Problems with winding insulation breakdown or similar, are classified as workmanship problems or an
out-of-control manufacturing process.
Reliability concepts
Experimentation and model fitting have shown that the Weibull distribution provides a good fit to fan life
data, because it accurately represents wear-out phenomena. For the Weibull distribution, the cumulative
distribution function, a function of age t, is given by
ß
- t
 

 
F (t )  1 - e (6.15)
where αs is the characteristic life (for example, 9780 hours) and
ßs is the shape parameter (for example, 4.9).
Shape parameters for Weibull models fit to fan life are generally greater than 1, which means that a fan's
failure tendency increases with age (wear-out). The reliability function is 1 - F(t), which at any age t
represents the proportion of survivors from the original population. The Weibull hazard rate (also known as
the failure rate or hazard function) is given by
s -1
 t 
H (t )  s    (6.16)
s  s 
Two metrics of fan reliability are the L2 life and L10 life, which are the second and tenth percentiles under
some assumed fan life distribution, such as the Weibull distribution. L10 refers to the time at which 90% of
a large population of fans continue to operate. Since F(t) = 0.1 at L10 and 0.02 at L2 in equation (6.15):
L10  s  0.105361 / ßs L2  s  0.020201 / ßs (6.17)
For example, given αs = 100k POH (power on hours) and ßs = 1.5, L2 = 7, 418 hours represents the age at
which 98% of the population is expected to still be operating. The advantage of specifying an L2 life in
place of L10 life, is that the desired early life failure distribution is more tightly specified.
Sometimes the mean time to failure (mttf) is also quote. For the Weibull distribution
 1
mttf      1   (6.18)
 ß 
where Γ denotes the Gamma function.
The mttf is often confused with the mean time between failures (mtbf). The mtbf should only be used in a
repairable system setting. If a system uses ten fans, and any failed fan is promptly replaced, then the mtbf
may be used to understand the system's maintenance needs and service cost. But since the underlying
hazard rate of the fans is not constant, computing the mtbf of a multiple-fan system is quite difficult.
Instead, system reliability studies use a one-number hazard rate for the individual fans, in which case the
average hazard rate may be appropriate.
Fan life estimation
The life of most fans is limited by the bearings. Electronics, even in dc fans, play a secondary role.
When temperatures range from 25 to 60°C, ball bearing fans on average outlasted sleeve-bearing fans by
50%. When temperatures exceeded 70°C, ball bearing fans ran for 45,000 hours, while sleeve-bearing
fans became inoperable. Yet, when the ambient temperatures are relatively low, sleeve bearing fans
lasted as long as ball bearing fans. Therefore, if an application generates high levels of heat, a ball bearing
fan is used. If the equipment generates low heat intensities, or if the equipment has a short life span, a
sleeve-bearing fan can be used.
Bearing life is generally limited by the grease life, which is primarily a function of temperature. Grease life
is affected by the type of grease, percentage of grease fill, operating environment, load, and bearing
design. The Booser grease life equation is based on grease life tests on electric motor bearings, and is
valid for rolling-element bearings. The equation for the bearing grease life in the application is
kT
log L10  -2.6  - 0.301  S ½ (6.19)
T brg
where
S ½  SG  S N  S P (6.20)
D N
S N  0.86  H
DN L
where
D N P
S P  2.95  H 2
Cr
P equivalent dynamic bearing load, kg

N speed, rpm
Cr basic dynamic load Capacity, kg
DH bore diameter, mm
DNL speed limit, rpm-mm
S½ half-life subtraction factor; for S½ = 1, the life falls 50%
SG grease half-life subtraction factor, typically 0 for many greases
SN speed half-life subtraction factor
SP load half-life subtraction factor
kT grease temperature factor = 2450 for acceleration factor of 1.5 for each 10°C
Tbrg bearing temperature, K
This equation, however, does not account for the effect of grease quantity and may not cover all available
greases, particularly modern synthetic oils. For these new greases and depending upon the operating
conditions, the results from the Booser equation may be conservative. Therefore, unless adjustment
factors are available for a certain fan type, it is better to use the Booser equation to obtain a qualitative
comparison of two fan designs rather than an absolute life estimate.
Example 6.2: Fan lifetime
Calculate fan tenth percentile lifetime, L10, using the following fan data sheet information.
P = 960g,
Cr = 57kg,
D = 3 mm
N = 2200 rpm,
DNL = 270,000 rpm-mm,
Tbrg = 42°C when Tamb = 25°C
Solution
The half-life subtraction factor, from equation (6.20), is calculated as

D N 3mm×2200rpm
S N  0.86   0.86×  0.021
DN L 270,000rpm-mm
D N P 3mm×2200rpm×0.96kg
S P  2.95   0.28×  0.540
C r2 57kg2
thus
S = SG + SN + SP = 0 + 0.021 + 0.540 = 0.561
(25-25)/10 0
kT =2450/1.5 = 2450/1.5 = 2450, that is, assume no temperature derating.
From equation (6.19)
2450
log L10  -2.6  - 0.301  0.561
273.2°C  42°C
 -2.6  7.78 - 0.169  5.01
The resulting life estimate is L10 = 102,000 hours.
♣
In situations where fan reliability is critical, limit the bearing temperature rise to 10°C, particularly when a
single fan failure results in a system shutdown. The Booser life estimate can also be significantly affected
by the bearing load and the bearing size. Installing a fan with the shaft mounted vertically will result in a
lower bearing load and a longer fan life. Using a larger bearing will also yield a longer fan life.
Fan life experiments

Because of economic and time constraints, a zero failure test strategy and/or accelerated testing
techniques are adopted. A zero failure test strategy may be used to estimate the test time required to verify
a life expectancy criterion such as a minimum L10 life. The precision of this approach depends on the
accuracy of the shape parameter assumption.
Example 6.3: Fan testing
How long should a sample size of 30 fans be tested to determine with 90% confidence that L10 is greater
than or equal to 80,000 hours, at 30°C?
Solution
Assuming a Weibull distribution, each of n fans should be tested t1 hours, with
1
 
t1    2 C 
 2; 2n 
where  2 is the C-th percentile of the Chi Square distribution with two degrees of freedom; C is
2
determined by the desired confidence level. From a Chi Square table, 2;2 0.90 = 4.60.
Assuming ß = 2, solving for α in equation (6.17) gives
  L10  0.10536 
½
 246, 460hours
Substituting α, with n = 30 into the Weibull distribution equation, gives t1 = 68,280 hours of test time for
each fan. If all 30 fans operate t1 hours, at 30°C, without failure, then it can be asserted with 90%
confidence that L10 is at least 80,000 hours.
♣
Accelerated Life Testing
Since life test durations are lengthy, even when a zero failure test strategy is used, accelerated testing
techniques are essential to complete component evaluation within a reasonable time and cost.
The first acceleration factor is on/off cycles. These cycles stress the fan by accelerating the bearing from
zero speed to normal speed. An on/off cycle every 8 hours would be representative of a personal
computer application. Even if this degree of stress is not appropriate, some on/off cycles are required to
detect fan problems such as failure to start, changes in rotational speed, coast down time or start time, and
increased noise.
Elevated temperature is generally the primary acceleration factor. The range of acceleration factors
typically used in fan reliability calculations is 1.3 to 2 per 10°C increase. For fan failures caused by
lubricant breakdown, it is reasonable to use the acceleration factor of 1.5 per 10°C increase as in Booser's
equation. For example, to extrapolate the results of a life test run at 80°C down to 40°C, use a decreasing
(80-40)/10
acceleration factor of 1.5 = 5.1.
At the accelerated life test temperature, there should not be a significant change in grease structure. The
performance of the grease is degraded mainly due to evaporation loss and oxidation. Accelerated life
testing should therefore be conducted at air temperatures below 85°C.
Although Booser's nominal temperature acceleration factor applies specifically at a bearing temperature of
100°C, no model exists for a room temperature of 25°C.
A reliable fan will maintain system cooling and protect against system meltdown. A quality axial fan can
fulfil these requirements. Debate exists over which bearing (ball or sleeve) to use in the axial fan. The
bearing type is a crucial factor in determining an axial fan’s reliability. Table 6.9 outlines the relative
features of the two bearing types when used in axial fans.
Table 6.9: Fan ball and sleeve bearing comparison
Criteria Ball Bearing Sleeve Bearing

Fan Longevity Longer life Shorter life
Heat Endurance Higher Lower
Fan Mounting Options Vertical, shaft centre line parallel, perpendicular Vertical
Noise Emission Quieter at high speeds Quieter at low speeds in early life
Parts Precision Non-precision
Lubricant Less evaporation More evaporation
Contact Point Line
Cost More expensive per unit Less expensive per unit
In summary, if the system has a short life span, or will not generate high levels of heat, a sleeve-bearing
fan can be used. However, if the application is a densely packed or a compact electronic system, a ball
bearing fan will endure hotter temperatures, have a greater life span, and ultimately provide a better
long-term investment.
6.5 Enhanced air cooling
With ever increasing gravitational and volumetric power density demands, traditional air-cooling
techniques have reached their limit for cooling of high-power applications. With standard fans and
2
blowers, a maximum heat transfer coefficient of h = 150W/m K can be reached with acceptable noise
2
levels, which is about 1W/cm for a 60°C temperature difference. Using 'macrojet' impingement,
2
theoretically 900W/m K may be reached, but with unacceptable noise levels. Dedicated non-standard
2
fans - heat sink combinations for cooling have a maximum of about 50W/cm . Advanced methods to
extend the useful range of air-cooling are piezo fans, 'synthetic' jet cooling, and 'nanolightning'.
Piezo fans:
Piezoelectric fans are low power, small, relatively low noise, solid-state devices that are viable thermal
management solutions for a variety of portable power electronics applications in laptop computers and
cellular phones. Piezoelectric fans utilize piezoceramic patches bonded onto thin, low frequency flexible
blades to drive the fan at its resonance frequency. The resonating low frequency blade creates a
streaming airflow directed at the electronic components.
'Synthetic' jet cooling:

Due to the periodic pulsating flow nature, synthetic jets introduce a stronger entrainment than
conventional-steady jets of the same Reynolds number and more vigorous mixing between the wall
boundary layers and the rest of the flow. A synthetic jet draws cool air from ambient, impinges on the top
hot surface and circulates the heated air back to the ambient through the edges of the plate. A radial
counter air current flow is created in the gap between the plates with hot air dispersed along the top and
ambient air entering along the bottom surface.
'Nanolightning':
'Nanolightning' increases the heat transfer coefficient with 'micro-scale ion-driven airflow' using high
electric fields created by nanotubes. The ionized air molecules (tiny wind currents) are moved by another
2
electric field, thereby inducing secondary airflow. Cooling at a heat flux level of 40W/cm (similar to water)
is possible.
6.6 Liquid coolants for power electronics cooling
Although air-cooling continues to be the most widely used method for cooling electronic packages,
2
significantly higher heat fluxes (W/m ), due to the higher heat transfer coefficient are achievable with liquid
cooling. Coolants are used in both single phase and two-phase applications.
 A single-phase cooling loop consists of a pump, a heat exchanger (cold plate/mini- or
micro-channels), and a heat sink (radiator with a fan or a liquid-to-liquid heat exchanger
with chilled water-cooling). The heat source in the power electronics system is attached to
the heat exchanger. The fluid does not change state: water does not change to steam.
 Liquid coolants are also used in a change of state or two-phase systems, such as heat
pipes, thermo-siphons, sub-cooled boiling, spray cooling, and direct immersion systems.
2
A heat flux of 2kW/cm can be removed through boiling water, based on water molecules turning into
vapour without influencing each other, using high velocities and high pressures. Available microcoolers
2
can handle about 1kW/cm . Liquid cooling for power electronics applications is generally divided into the
two main categories of indirect and direct liquid cooling.
 Indirect liquid cooling is one in which the liquid does not directly contact the components
to be cooled.
 Direct liquid cooling brings the liquid coolant into direct contact with the components to be
cooled.
The following sections discuss indirect liquid cooling in the form of heat pipes and cold plates and direct
liquid cooling in the form of immersion cooling and jet impingement.
Liquid cooling can reduce the effective thermal resistance to as low as 0.01K/W. Both oil and water (which
has 4 times the thermal capacity and 770 times the density of air) are used as the coolant and the
heat-sink arrangement can either be immersed in the fluid (direct), or the fluid is pumped through a hollow
heat sink (indirect). The fluid heat is dissipated remotely. Fluid boiling with direct cooling should be
avoided, since the creation of air bubbles can cause local hot spots. Water has the advantage of low
viscosity, so can be pumped faster than mineral oil. While oil may be inflammable, water corrodes thus
requiring the use of de-ionised water with an oxide inhibitor, like antifreeze (ethylene glycol). Oil emersion
has the added advantage of offering possibilities of increasing the breakdown and corona voltage levels,
particularly with devices rated and operated at voltages above a few kilovolts.
6.6.1 Requirements of a liquid coolant
There are many requirements for a liquid coolant for power electronics applications and vary depending on
the type of application. Some of the general requirements are:
 Good thermo-physical properties (high thermal conductivity and specific heat; low viscosity; high
latent heat of evaporation for two-phase application)
 Low freezing point and burst point. The burst point (or solidification temperature) is the
temperature associated with expansion of a freezing coolant.
 High atmospheric boiling point (or low vapour pressure at the operating temperature) for a single
phase system; a narrow desired boiling point for a two-phase system
 Good chemical and thermal stability for the life of the power electronics system
 High flash point and auto-ignition temperature (sometimes non-combustibility is a requirement)
 Non-corrosive to the construction materials (metals as well as polymers and other non-metals)
 No or minimal regulatory constraints (environmentally friendly, non-toxic, and biodegradable)
 Economical
The best electronics coolant is an inexpensive and non-toxic liquid with excellent thermo-physical
properties and a long service life. A high flash point and auto-ignition temperature are desired so that the
fluid is less susceptible to ignition. Good thermo-physical properties are required to obtain the high heat
transfer coefficients and low pumping power needed for the fluid to flow through a tube or a channel.
Electrical conductivity (not mentioned in the list) of a coolant becomes important if the fluid comes in direct
contact with the power electronics (such as in direct immersion cooling), or if it leaks out of a cooling loop
or is spilled during maintenance and comes in contact with the electrical circuits. In certain applications, a
dielectric coolant is necessary, whereas in many other applications it is not a requirement because of the
remote chance of coolant leakage (or in case of a leak, the coolant does not come in contact with the
power electronics).
The various liquid coolant chemistries are divided into dielectric and non-dielectric fluids and their
properties: refer to Table 6.10 and Table 6.19. Water, deionised water, glycol/water solutions, and
dielectric fluids such as fluorocarbons and polyalphaolefins PAO are the heat transfer fluids commonly
used in high performance liquid cooling applications. The heat transfer fluid must be compatible with the
fluid path, offers corrosion protection or minimal risk of corrosion, and meet the application’s specific
requirements.
Table 6.10: Properties of different liquid coolant chemistries at 20°C
freezing flash thermal specific

viscosity density
point point conductivity heat
cooling
ν λ cp ρℓ
chemistry
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
°C °C ×10 kg.m .s W.m .s J.kg.K kg.m-3
Aromatic (DEB) < -80 57 1 0.14 1700 860

Silicate-ester
< -50 > 175 9 0.132 1750 900
(coolanol 25R)
Aliphatic
< -50 > 175 9 0.137 2150 770
(PAO)
Silicone
< -110 46 1.4 0.11 1600 850
(syltherm XLT)
Fluorocarbon
< -100 none 1.1 0.06 1100 1800
(FC-77)
EG/water
-37.8 none 3.8 0.37 3285 1087
50:50 vol
PG/water
-35 none 6.4 0.36 3400 1062
50:50 vol
Methanol/water
-40 29 2 0.4 3560 935
40:60 wt.
Ethanol/water
-32 27 3 0.38 3500 927
44:56 wt
Potassium
Formate/water -35 none 2.2 0.53 3200 1250
40:60 wt
Ga-In-Sn -10 none 2.2 39 365 6363
6.6.2 Dielectric liquid coolants
While the food industry might be more likely to select propylene glycol PG over ethylene glycol EG for heat
transfer, the power electronics, laser, and semiconductor industries might be more likely to choose
dielectric fluids over water. A dielectric fluid is non-conductive and therefore preferred over water when
working with sensitive electronics. Perfluorinated carbons, such as dielectric fluid Fluorinert, are
non-flammable, non-explosive, and thermally stable over a wide range of operating temperatures.
Deionised water is also non-conductive, Fluorinert is less corrosive than deionised water and therefore
may be a better choice for some applications. However, water has a thermal conductivity of approximately
0.59W/m°C, while Fluorinert FC-77 has a thermal conductivity of only about 0.063W/m°C. Fluorinert is
also much more expensive than deionised water.
Polyalphaolefin, PAO, is a synthetic hydrocarbon used frequently in military and aerospace applications
for its dielectric properties and wide range of operating temperatures. PAO compatible recirculating
chillers are available for cold plates and heat exchangers that use PAO as the heat transfer fluid. PAO has
a thermal conductivity of 0.14 W/m°C. Although dielectric fluids provide low risk liquid cooling for
electronics, they generally have a much lower thermal conductivity than water and most water-based
solutions.
 Aromatics: Synthetic hydrocarbons of aromatic chemistry (that is, diethyl benzene DEB,
dibenzyl toluene, diaryl alkyl, partially hydrogenated terphenyl) are common heating and cooling
fluids used in a variety of applications. However, these compounds cannot be classified as
non-toxic. Also, some of these fluids (namely, alkylated benzene) have strong odours, which can
be irritating to the personnel handling them.
 Silicate-ester: This chemistry (that is, Coolanol 25R) was widely used as a dielectric coolant in
airborne radar and missile systems. These fluids have caused significant and sometimes
catastrophic problems due to their hygroscopic nature and subsequent formation of flammable
alcohols and silica gel. Therefore, these fluids have been replaced by more stable and dielectric
aliphatic chemistry (polyalphaolefins or PAO).
 Aliphatics: Aliphatic hydrocarbons of paraffinic and iso-paraffinic type (including mineral oils)
are used in a variety of direct cooling of electronics parts as well as in cooling transformers.
Many petroleum based aliphatic compounds meet the criteria for incidental food contact. These
petroleum-based fluids do not form hazardous degradation by-products. Most of these fluids
have a non-discernible odour and are non-toxic in case of contact with skin or ingestion. As
mentioned, aliphatic PAO-based fluids have replaced silicate-ester fluids in a variety of military
electronics (and avionics) cooling applications in the last decade.
 Silicones: Another class of coolant chemistry is dimethyl- and methyl phenyl-poly (siloxane) or
commonly known as silicone oil. Since this is a synthetic polymeric compound, the molecular
weight and the thermo-physical properties (freezing point and viscosity) can be adjusted by
varying the chain length. Silicone fluids are used at temperatures down to -100°C and as high as
400°C. These fluids have excellent service life in closed systems in the absence of oxygen. Also,
with essentially no odour, the non-toxic silicone fluids are workplace friendly. However, low
surface tension gives these fluids the tendency to leak around pipe-fittings, although the low
surface tension improves the wetting property. Similar to the aliphatics, high molecular weight
silicone oils are used in cooling transformers.
 Fluorocarbons: Fluorinated compounds such as perfluorocarbons (that is, FC-72, FC-77)
hydrofluoroethers (HFE) and perfluorocarbon ethers (PFE) have certain unique properties and
can be used in contact with the electronics. First, these fluids are non-combustible and
non-toxic. Some fluorinated compounds have zero ozone depleting potential and other
environmental properties. Second, some of these fluids have low freezing points and low
viscosities at low temperatures. However, these fluids are expensive, have poor thermal
properties, some have global warming potential (greenhouse effect), and, due to the extremely
low surface tension, leaks can develop around fittings.
6.6.3 Non-dielectric liquid coolants

Non-dielectric liquid coolants are often used for cooling electronics because of their superior thermal
properties, as compared with the dielectric coolants. Non-dielectric coolants are normally water-based
solutions. Therefore, they possess a high specific heat and thermal conductivity. De-ionized water is an
example of a widely used coolant.
 Water: Water is a suitable choice for liquid cooling applications due to its high heat capacity and
thermal conductivity. It is also compatible with copper, which is one of the best heat transfer
materials to use in the fluid path. Water used for cooling comes from different sources. The
benefit of using facility or tap water is that it is readily available and inexpensive. However,
facility water or tap water is likely to contain impurities, which cause corrosion in the liquid
cooling loop and/or clog fluid channels. Therefore, use good quality water in order to minimize
corrosion and optimize thermal performance.
Water’s ability to corrode metal can vary considerably depending on its chemical composition.
Chloride, for example, is commonly found in tap water and can be corrosive. Facility or tap water
should not be used in liquid cooling loops if it contains more than 25ppm of chloride. The levels
of calcium and magnesium in the water also need to be considered, since calcium and
magnesium form scale on metal surfaces and reduce the thermal performance.
If the facility water or tap water contains a large percent of minerals, salts, or other impurities, the
water can be purchased filtered or deionised. If the tap water is relatively pure and meets
recommended limits, a corrosion inhibitor should be added for additional protection. Phosphate
is an effective corrosion inhibitor for stainless steel and most aluminium components. It is also
effective for pH control. One disadvantage of phosphate, however, is that it precipitates with
calcium in hard water. For copper and brass, tolyltriazole is an effective corrosion inhibitor. For
aluminium, organic acids such as 2-ethyl hexanoic or sebacic acid offer protection.
 Deionised Water: Tap water meets the needs of most liquid-cooling applications. However,
deionised (DI) water has chemical and electrical properties that make it the optimal choice for
cooling when the liquid circuit contains micro-channels or when sensitive electronics are
involved. Deionised water is water that has an extremely low concentration of ions, including
sodium, calcium, iron, copper, chloride, and bromide. The lack of ions in DI water eliminates the
following problems.
First, it eliminates mineral, salts and impurities that can cause corrosion or scale formation and
block the coolant flow. This will degrade cooling efficiency and system operating performance.
Second, it eliminates the risk of electrical arcing due to static charge build up from the circulating
coolant. The arcing can damage sensitive control electronics in the equipment being cooled.
Compared to tap water and most fluids, deionised water has a high resistivity, and as an
excellent insulator, is used in the manufacturing of electrical components where parts must be
electrically isolated. However, as water’s resistivity increases, its corrosivity increases.
Deionised water has a pH of approximately 7.0 but quickly becomes acidic when exposed to air.
The carbon dioxide in air dissolves in the water, introducing ions, giving an acidic pH of around
5.0. Therefore, when using water that is virtually pure, it is necessary to use a corrosion inhibitor.
When using deionised water in a recirculating chiller, special high purity plumbing is needed.
The fittings should be nickel-plated and the evaporators should be nickel-brazed. When using
deionised water in cold plates or heat exchangers, stainless steel tubing is recommended.
The lack of ions makes this coolant unusually corrosive. Called the ‘universal solvent’, DI water
is one of the most aggressive solvents known. In fact, to a varying degree, it will dissolve
everything to which it is exposed. Therefore, all materials in the cooling loop must be
corrosion-resistant. Copper and many other common materials are not compatible with DI water
and will contaminate it.
 Ethylene Glycol (EG): Commonly used as antifreeze in automotive engine cooling, EG also
has found use in many industrial cooling applications, at lower temperatures. Ethylene glycol is
colourless and practically odourless and is completely miscible with water. Ethylene glycol has
desirable thermal properties, including a high boiling point, low freezing point, stability over a
wide range of temperatures, and high specific heat and thermal conductivity. It also has a low
viscosity and, therefore, reduced pumping requirements. When properly inhibited, it has a
relatively low corrosivity. However, this coolant is classified as toxic and should be handled and
disposed of with care. Typically, water with low chloride and sulphate ion concentration
(<25ppm) is recommended. Also, a monitoring schedule should be maintained to assure that
inhibitor depletion is avoided and the pH of the solution is consistent. Once the inhibitor has been
depleted, the old glycol should be removed from the system and a new charge installed. Even
though EG’s thermal conductivity is not as high as water’s, EG provides freeze protection that
can be beneficial during use or during shipping. Although ethylene glycol is the chemical used in
automotive antifreeze, it should not be used in a cooling system or heat exchanger because it
contains silicate-based rust inhibitors. These inhibitors can gel and foul, coating heat exchanger
surfaces, reducing their efficiency. Silicates have also been shown to reduce significantly the
lifespan of pump seals. While the wrong inhibitors can cause significant problems, the right
inhibitors can prevent corrosion and significantly prolong the life of a liquid cooling loop. Inhibited
glycols are recommended over non-inhibited glycols.
As the concentration of glycol in the solution increases, the thermal performance of the heat
transfer fluid decreases. Therefore, it is best to use the lowest possible concentration of inhibited
glycol necessary to meet corrosion and freeze protection needs. Dow Chemical recommends a
minimum concentration of 25 to 30% EGW4. At this minimum concentration, the ethylene glycol
also serves as a bactericide and fungicide. With recirculating chillers, a solution of 30% ethylene
glycol results in only a 3% drop in thermal performance over using water alone but will provide
corrosion protection as well as freeze protection down to -15°C.
The quality of the water used in the glycol solution is also important. Even with an inhibited
glycol, water ions can cause inhibitor precipitation, resulting in fouling and corrosion.
 Propylene Glycol (PG): In its inhibited form, PG has the same advantages of low corrosivity
shown by ethylene glycol. In addition, propylene glycol is considered non-toxic. Other than lack
of toxicity, it has no advantages over ethylene glycol, being higher in cost and more viscous.
Although EG has more desirable physical properties than PG, PG is used in applications where
toxicity might be a concern. PG is generally recognized as safe for use in food or food
processing applications, and can also be used in enclosed spaces.
 Methanol/Water: This is a low cost antifreeze solution, finding use in refrigeration services and
ground source heat pumps. Similar to glycols, it can be inhibited to stop corrosion. This fluid can
be used down to -40°C owing to its relatively high rate of heat transfer in this temperature range.
Its main disadvantages as a heat transfer fluid are its toxicological considerations. It is
considered more harmful than ethylene glycol and consequently has found use only for process
applications located outdoors. Also, methanol is a flammable liquid and, as such, introduces a
potential fire hazard where it is stored, handled, or used.
 Ethanol/Water: This is an aqueous solution of denatured grain alcohol. Its main advantage is
non-toxicity. Therefore, it has found application in breweries, wineries, chemical plants, food
freezing plants, and ground source heat pumps. As a flammable liquid, it requires certain
precautions for handling and storage.
 Calcium Chloride Solution: Aqueous solutions of calcium chloride are used as circulating
coolants in food plants. It is non-flammable, non-toxic and thermally more efficient than the
glycol solutions. A 29% (by weight) calcium chloride solution has a freezing point below -40°C.
The main disadvantage of this coolant is that it is highly corrosive, even in the presence of
corrosion inhibitors.
 Potassium Formate/Acetate Solution: Aqueous solutions of potassium formate and acetate
salts are non-flammable and non-toxic as well as much less corrosive and thermally more
efficient than calcium chloride solution. Therefore, even a with higher price than calcium
chloride, they have found a large number of applications, in the food, beverage,
pharmaceuticals, chemical and climatic chamber applications, and single-phase convection
cooling of microprocessors.
 Liquid Metals: Liquid metals of Ga-In-Sn chemistry are utilized with a magneto-fluid-dynamic
(MFD) pump. It utilizes the high thermal conductivity and density of the metal alloy to remove
high heat flux from the heat source.
6.7 Direct and indirect liquid cooling
Application of liquid cooling for power electronics may be categorized as either indirect or direct.
Indirect liquid cooling is one in which the liquid does not contact the power electronic chips, nor the
substrate upon which the chips are mounted. In such cases, a good thermal conduction path is
provided from the power electronic heat sources to a liquid cooled cold-plate attached to the module
surface, as shown in Figure 6.17. Since there is no contact with the electronics, water can be used as
the liquid coolant, taking advantage of its superior thermo-physical properties.
Direct liquid cooling involves the components to be cooled being immersed in and in direct contact
with the cooling fluid, as with oil-immersed transformers.
Thermal path
die
to cap
Liquid out
fins/pins
Liquid in
Liquid cooled
substrate cap
Cold-plate
Figure 6.17. Example of indirect and direct liquid immersion cooling for a disk package.
6.8 Indirect liquid cooling
6.8.1 Heat pipes – indirect cooling

Heat pipes provide an indirect and passive (no moving parts) means of applying liquid cooling. It is a
two-phase device (evaporation-condensation). A heat pipe can be used in situations when a heat source
and a heat sink need to be placed apart.
There are several common types of heat pipes, including:
 Vapor chamber: These flat heat pipes are typically used when heat fluxes and high powers are
applied to smaller evaporators, as well as for enabling heat flow through very thin devices.
 Variable conductance: Adding a non-condensable gas that mixes with working fluid vapor and a
reservoir, creates a Variable Conductance Heat Pipe, where the effective thermal conductivity
varies with the input power and heat sink conditions.
 Diode: Diode heat pipes are designed to transfer heat in one direction, and insulate it in the opposite
direction.
 Loop heat pipe: This is a passive two-phase device that is capable of transferring higher power over
longer distances.
They are vacuum pumped (evacuated) and sealed vessels that are partially filled with a liquid, usually high
purity water or alcohol in a saturated vapour form. The internal walls of the pipes are lined with a porous
medium (the wick) that acts as a passive capillary pump. When heat is applied to one end of the pipe
(evaporator), the liquid starts evaporating. A pressure gradient exists causing the vapour to flow to the
fractionally cooler regions. The vapour condenses (with the latent heat of vaporisation transferred to the
condenser) back to the liquid state at the cooler regions and is transported back by the capillary wick
structure (or gravity), thereby closing the fluid two-state thermodynamic loop
This thermodynamic cycle can be summarised, with the aid of figure 6.18, as follows:
Stage 1-2: Heat applied to the evaporator through the external source vaporizes the working fluid to a
saturated (2′) or superheated (2) vapour.
Stage 2-3: Vapour pressure drives vapour through the adiabatic section to the condenser.
Stage 3-4: Vapour condenses, releasing heat to a heat sink.
Stage 4-1: Capillary pressure created by wick menisci pumps condensed fluid into evaporator section.
Then the continuously circulating process starts over.
The thermosyphon differs from the heat pipe in having no wick. The device can therefore only operate with
the condenser above the evaporator with gravity-assist liquid flow return. The viscous and sonic limits are
the same as for wicked heat pipes.
Heat pipes provide an enhanced means of transporting heat, much better than copper, from a source to a
heat sink where it is rejected to the cooling medium by natural or forced convection. The effective thermal
conductivity of a heat pipe can range from 50kW/mK to 200kW/mK, but is often lower in practice due to
2
additional interface thermal resistances. The performance of heat pipes scales from 10 W/cm to over 300
2 2
W/cm . A simple water-copper heat pipe has an average heat transfer capacity of 100 W/cm , a thermal
conductivity that is in excess of 300 times better than that of an equivalently sized pure copper component.
A heat pipe provides efficient transport of concentrated heat. An example of a typical application of a heat
pipe for an electronics cooling application is given in Figure 6.19.
Heat in Metal wick structure Heat out
Saturation Liquid flow
curve
Adiabatic
section
Temperature
2 2 3
evaporator 2′
3
4
4 condenser Isobar shell
1
Heat in Heat out
wick 1 4
Saturated Saturated
liquid state vapour state
Entropy v J/kg.K
Figure 6.18. Heat pipe thermodynamic T-v operational vapour power cycle.
Heat pipes are an energy-efficient, flexible, light-weight, low-cost, reliable, passive, silent, high thermal
conducting, evacuated, sealed cylindrical device for quickly extracting, transporting, and remotely
dissipating heat, in any orientation.
Although there is virtually no limit to the size of a heat pipe, the effectiveness of a heat pipe decreases with
decreasing lengths. For heat pipes with a length less than about 1 cm the performance of a solid piece of
metal, copper, is comparable. They are effective as efficient heat conductors to transport heat to locations
were more area is available. 2D heat spreaders (otherwise known as vapour chambers) based on the heat
pipe principle can achieve much higher effective thermal conductivities than copper. A thin planar heat
spreader has a thermal performance greater than diamond.
Loop heat pipes (LHP) have the advantage over conventional heat pipes that the vapour and liquid paths
are separated enabling much better performance of the liquid return loop, accommodate a heat flux of
2
625W/cm .
cooling
fins
Tamb
adiabatic section
evaporator section
evaporation
Tj
condenser section
condensation
heat source
Figure 6.19. Example of heat pipes used in a notebook application.
A heat pipe is designed for a certain temperature range. Apart from the vapour temperature range, factors
like thermal stability and thermal conductivity influence the choice of working fluid. Suitable working fluids,
which desirably have a high surface tension, include (see figure 6.25):
 For ultra low temperatures: inert gases (helium), nitrogen, ammonia
 For usual temperatures to meet power electronics cooling requirements: distilled water
with various additions, organic fluids like acetone, methanol, ethanol, and toluene.
 For high temperatures: metals like mercury, sodium, silver.
The component to be cooled is mounted on the evaporator end (the hot end), where the heat boils and
expands the liquid to the vapour phase, increasing the pressure. Boiling occurs because energy, in the
form of heat, is taken from the surrounding area, which cools the heat source. This vapour rises through
the adiabatic tube section (low-pressure drop, hence low temperature change) to the remote condenser
end of the tube (the cold end), taking the heat within it. Effectively the heat is transported at the rate P:
dm
P L
dt
where L is the heat of vaporization per unit mass and dm/dt is the mass evaporation rate.
The vapour condenses back to the liquid phase, releasing its latent heat of vaporisation, and creates a
pressure gradient, which helps draw more vapour towards the condenser. The temperature difference
between the ends may only be a couple of degrees. The remotely situated condenser end is connected to
an external heatsink or a radiator type grill, for cooling. The condensed working fluid runs back to the
evaporator end due to gravity, or due to capillary pressure action, along porous capillaries that form a wick,
depending on the physical application orientation design for the heat pump.
The quality and type of wick usually determines the performance of the heat pipe.
The wick is a porous structure made of materials like steel, aluminium, nickel or copper in various ranges
of pore sizes. They are fabricated using metal foams, and more commonly, felts. By varying the pressure
on the felt during assembly, various pore sizes can be produced. By incorporating removable metal
mandrels, an arterial structure can be moulded in the felt.
The two most important properties of a wick are the pore radius and the permeability. The pore radius
determines the pumping pressure (the maximum capillary head) the wick can develop. The wick
permeability increases with increasing pore size. The permeability determines the frictional losses of the
fluid as it flows through the wick. The heat transport capability of the heat pipe is raised by increasing the
wick thickness. The overall thermal resistance at the evaporator also depends on the conductivity of the
working fluid in the wick.
There are several types of wick (capillary) structures available including (decreasing permeability and
decreasing pore radius): grooves, screen, cables/fibred, and sintered powder metal, shown in figure 6.20
and summarized in Table 6.11. Specifically:
Sintered powder: This wick provides high power handling, low temperature gradients, and high
capillary forces for anti-gravity applications. The complex sintered wick has several vapour
channels and small arteries to increase the liquid flow rate. Tight bends in the heat pipe can be
achieved with this type of structure.
Grooved tube: The small capillary driving force generated by the axial grooves is adequate for low
power heat pipes when operated horizontally, or with gravity assistance. The tube can be
readily bent. When used in conjunction with screen mesh the performance can be enhanced.
Screen mesh: This type of wick is the most common and provides readily variable characteristics in
terms of power transport and orientation sensitivity, according to the number of layers and
mesh counts used.
Fibre/spring: Fibrous materials, like ceramics, generally have smaller pores. The main disadvantage
of ceramic fibres is minimal stiffness and requires support by a metal mesh. Carbon fibre
filaments have many fine longitudinal grooves on their surface, have high capillary pressures,
are chemically stable, and show a greater heat transport capability.
Table 6.11: Wick material properties
Conductivity Overcome Thermal Conductivity lost

Wicking Material Stability
(Straight) Gravity Resistance (bended and flatten)
Axial Groove Good Poor Low Good Low/Average
Screen Mesh Average Average Average Average Low/Average
Fine Fibre Poor Good High Poor Average
Sintering (powder) Average Excellent High Average High
Since grooved wicks have a large pore radius and a high permeability, the pressure losses are low but the
pumping head is also low. Grooved wicks can transfer high heat loads in a horizontal or gravity aided
position, but cannot transfer large loads against gravity. The powder metals have small pore radii and
relatively low permeability. Powder metal wicks are limited by pressure drops in the horizontal position but
can transfer large loads against gravity.
An advantage of the sintered powder wick is its ability to handle high heat fluxes. Since sintered powder
wicks are generally 50% porous, there is accordingly a large surface area available for evaporation.
2 2
Typical sinter powder wicks handle 50 W/cm , and up to 250 W/cm . In comparison, a groove wick
2 2
nominally handles 5 W/cm and a screen wick will nominally handle 10 W/cm . Since a sintered powder
wick is integral with the heat pipe envelope, and the fluid charge is only enough to saturate the wick, the
heat pipe can be subjected to freeze/thaw cycles with no degradation in performance.
Working fluid or coolant

A first consideration in the identification of a suitable working fluid is the operating vapour temperature
range. Within the approximate temperature band, several possible working fluids may exist, and a variety
of characteristics must be examined in order to determine the most acceptable of these fluids for the
application considered. The prime requirements are:
 compatibility with wick and wall materials
 good thermal stability
 wettability of wick and wall materials
 vapour pressure not too high or low over the operating temperature range
 high latent heat
 high thermal conductivity
 low liquid and vapour viscosities
 high surface tension
 acceptable freezing or pour point
The typical temperature operating range is within the bounds -55°C to over 200°C, depending on the
coolant, as shown in Table 6.12 (see figure 6.25). Heat pipes can be designed to operate over a broad
range of temperatures from cryogenic (< -243°C) applications utilizing titanium alloy/nitrogen heat pipes,
to high temperature applications (>2000°C) using tungsten/silver heat pipes. In power electronic cooling
applications where junction temperatures below 125°C to 150°C are desired, copper/water heat pipes are
used. Copper/methanol heat pipes are used if the application requires heat pipe operation (and
importantly, start up) below 0°C. Water heat pipes, with a temperature range from 5°C to 230°C, are less
sensitive than methanol to orientation, and are most effective for power electronics cooling applications,
plus copper vessels are compatible with water.
Table 6.12: Heat pipe fluids, in increasing operating temperature range (see Table 6.18)
Melting Boiling pt @ Measured Measured Operating

Medium Vessel material
point atm pressure axial heat flux surface heat flux range
2 2
°C °C kW/cm W/cm °C
Aℓ, Ti,
Carbon dioxide -50 to 30
stainless steel
Helium (ℓ) - 271 - 261 Stainless steel, Ti -271 to -269
0.067 1.01
Nitrogen (ℓ) - 210 - 196 Stainless steel -200 to -120
@ -163°C @ -163°C
Ni, Aℓ,
Ammonia (ℓ) - 78 - 33 0.295 2.95 -70 to 120
stainless steel
Cu, Ni, Aℓ,
Acetone - 95 57 0 to 120
stainless steel
0.45 75.5 Cu, Ni,
Methanol - 98 64 -65 to 120
@ 100°C @ 100°C stainless steel
Flutec PP2 - 50 76 10 to 160
Ethanol - 112 78 0 to 130
0.67 146
Water 0 100 Cu, Ni, Ti, Monel 5 to 230
@ 200°C @ 170°C
Toluene - 95 110 Aℓ 50 to 200
25.1 181
Mercury/Mg - 39 361 Stainless steel 190 to 600
@ 360°C @ 360°C
5.6 181 Stainless steel,
Potassium 63 759 400 to 950
@ 750°C @ 750°C Ni, Inconel
9.3 224 Stainless steel,
Sodium 98 892 500 to 1100
@ 850°C @ 760°C Ni, Nb, Haynes
2 207 W, Ti, Niobium
Lithium 179 1340 900 to 1800
@ 1250°C @ 1250°C +1% Zirconium
Tantalum
Silver 960 2212 4.1 413 1600 to 2200
+5% Tungsten
The capillary or lifting height H is given by

2 cos 
H  (6.21)
rc g f  
where γ is the surface tension, N/m, unique for each working fluid at certain temperatures,
θ is the contact angle, rad, differs for each working fluid,
rc the effective capillary radius, m, is a unique characteristic of the wick type used,
2
gf is the gravitational acceleration, m/s , assumed constant, and
3
ρℓ is the working fluid density, kg/m , dependant on the application conditions.
The heat power transfer capabilities (axial power rating, APR) of a heat pipe are related to its
cross-sectional area Ax and length ℓ according to equation 5.3
A
PD  k x (W) (6.22)

while the temperature difference ΔT between the hot and cold ends is
1 1 
T  k  PD    (K) (6.23)
 Ae Ac 
where Ae and Ac are the effective evaporator and condenser surface areas.
As a heat pipe has no moving parts, its mttf is estimated to be over 100,000 hours of use. Improper
bending and flattening of the pipe may cause leakage at the pipe seal. There are some external factors
that may also shorten the life of a heat pipe such as shock, vibration, force impact, thermal shock, and
corrosive environment.
Unlike Peltier elements (see 6.13.1):
 a heat pipe does not consume energy or produce heat itself and
 it is not possible to cool a device below ambient temperature using a heat pipe.
Axial Groove Fine Fibre Screen Mesh Sintering
Figure 6.20. Examples of heat pipes wicks.
A solid rod of copper conducts heat by diffusion, and a constant, geometry-independent thermal
conductivity can be defined for the material. A heat pipe, however, conducts heat by transport of the
vapour and therefore is more correctly thought of as a heat carrying device rather than a simple thermal
resistor. A heat pipe carries heat with a certain temperature drop ΔT, but ΔT is virtually independent of the
length of the heat pipe. Thus, heat pipes not only have low thermal resistance R (small ΔT) but also have
the property that R is roughly independent of length. The advantage of using a heat pipe, rather than a rod
of Cu metal, therefore increases with increasing length. The heat transfer or transport capacity of a heat
pipe is specified by its Axial Power Rating APR. This is the energy moving axially along the pipe. As in
equation (6.22), the larger the heat pipe diameter, the higher the APR, while the longer the heat pipe, the
lower the APR.
The fact that the heat pipe functions at all in an ‘upside-down’ orientation, as shown in figure 6.23, is due to
the wicking of the condensed fluid against gravity.
There are five primary heat-pipe heat transport limitations, summarized in Table 6.13, which are a function
of the heat pipe operating temperature, as shown in figure 6.21:
 Viscous limit – Heat pipes will not function when the pipe temperature is lower than the freezing
point (zero viscosity) of the working fluid. At low temperatures (just above freezing), the vapour
pressure difference between the condenser and the evaporator may not be enough to overcome
viscous forces. The vapour from the evaporator cannot move to the condenser and thus the
thermodynamic cycle does not occur. Freezing and thawing may destroy the sealed joint of a
heat pipe when place vertically.
 Sonic limit – The rate that vapour travels from the evaporator to the condenser. The limit occurs
when the vapour velocity reaches sonic speed at the evaporator and any increase in pressure
difference cannot speed up the flow. This usually occurs during heat pipe start-up.
 Entrainment or flooding limit – Friction between the working fluid and vapour that travel in opposite
directions. At high vapour velocities, droplets of liquid in the wick are extracted from the wick and
deposited into the vapour. This results in dry-out.
 Capillary pumping limit – the rate at which the working fluid travels from the condenser to the
evaporator through the wick. This limit occurs when the capillary pressure is too low to provide
enough liquid to the evaporator from the condenser. This leads to evaporator dry-out, which
prevents continuing the thermodynamic cycle and the heat pipe no longer functions properly.
 Nucleated boiling limit – the rate at which the working fluid vaporizes from the added heat. This
limit occurs when the radial heat flux into the heat pipe causes the liquid in the wick to boil and
evaporate causing dry-out.
Each limit has its own particular range of importance. However, in practice, the capillary and boiling limits
are the most important. Figure 6.21 illustrates the five limitation boundaries. 
QE  Av hlg v
Capillary limit x
Entrainment limit   liquid surface tension
x  2r
Q s  0.474 Av hlg  pv v 
2 Sonic
r  pore structure effective radius
Power
limit
Av =vapour passage area
Viscous w T s
D 2h p  limit Boiling Qb 
Qv  v lg v v limit x
64v Leff w  wick effective
at evaporator closed end thermal conductivity
Leff  ½l e  l a  ½l c x  wick structure thickness
Temperature
Figure 6.21. Heat transport limitation boundaries of a heat pipe.
For a heat pipe to function, the net capillary pressure difference between the evaporator (heat source) and
condenser (heat sink) must be greater than the sum of all pressure losses occurring along the liquid and
vapour flow paths. This relationship, termed the capillary limitation, and for correct operation:
Pc max  Pliquid  Pvapour  Pg (6.24)
where ΔPcmax is the maximum capillary pressure difference generated within the capillary wicking
structure between the evaporator and condenser (2σcosθ / rc),
ΔPliquid is the viscous pressure drops occurring in the liquid, to return the liquid from the condenser
to the evaporator,
ΔPvapour is the viscous pressure drops occurring in the vapour, to cause the vapour to flow from the
evaporator to the condenser,
ΔPg represents the hydrostatic pressure drop due to the gravitational head, ρℓ gℓsinφ.
Table 6.13: Heat-pipe mechanisms and limitations
Heat Transport Limit Description Cause Potential Solution

Heat pipe operating below Increase heat pipe operating
Viscous Viscous forces prevent vapour
recommended operating temperature or find alternative
(vapour pressure) flow in the heat pipe
temperature working fluid
Vapour flow reaches sonic This is typically only a problem
Power/temperature
velocity when exiting heat pipe at start-up. The heat pipe will
combination, too much
Sonic evaporator resulting in a constant carry a set power and the
power at low operating
heat pipe transport power and large ΔT will self correct as the
temperature
large temperature gradients heat pipe warms up
Heat pipe operating above
High velocity vapour flow Increase vapour space
designed power input or at
Entrainment/Flooding prevents condensate from diameter or operating
too low an operating
returning to evaporator temperature
temperature
Sum of gravitational, liquid and

Heat pipe input power
vapour flow pressure drops Modify heat pipe wick
Capillary exceeds the design heat
exceed the capillary pumping structure design or reduce
(circulation) transport capacity of the heat
head of the heat pipe wick power input
pipe
structure
Film boiling in heat pipe
High radial heat flux causes
evaporator typically initiates at Use a wick with a higher heat
2 film boiling resulting in heat
Boiling 5-10 W/cm for screen wicks and flux capacity or spread out the
2 pipe dry-out and large
20-30 W/cm for powder metal heat load
thermal resistances
wicks
When the maximum capillary pressure is equal to or greater than the sum of these pressure drops, the
capillary structure returns an adequate amount of working fluid (priming or repriming of the heat pipe) to
prevent the evaporator wicking structure from drying out. When the sum of all pressure drops exceeds the
maximum capillary pumping pressure, the working fluid is not supplied rapidly enough to the evaporator to
compensate for the liquid loss through vaporization, and the wicking structure becomes starved of liquid
and dries out (depriming of the heat pipe). This condition, referred to as capillary limitation, varies
according to the wicking structure, working fluid, evaporator heat flux, operating temperature, and body
forces.
Cu/H2O Cu/H2O
250 viscosity 1cm diameter 30.5cm long 250 1cm diameter 30.5cm long
limit Horizontal operation Horizontal operation
W
W
Powder metal wick Screen wick

sonic
200 200 limit Boiling
sonic limit
flood
150 limit 150
flood Boiling limit
limit limit
100 100
Power
Power
Capillary limit Capillary limit
50 50
0 0
10 25 50 75 100 125 150 200 250 300 10 25 50 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
Temperature °C Temperature °C
Figure 6.22. Predicted heat pipe limitations, where the capillary limit is usually the limiting factor:
(a) powder metal wick and (b) screen wick (viscosity limit on y-axis off-scale).
Note temperature scale entrainment.
Figure 6.22 shows graphs of the axial heat transport limits as a function of operating temperature for
typical powder metal and screen wicked heat pipes.
The capillary limit is usually the limiting factor in a heat pipe design, when used in its optimal temperature
range, and this limit is set by the pumping capacity of the wick structure. As shown in Figure 6.23, the
capillary limit is a function of the operating orientation and the type of wick structure.
500 Cu/H2O
W
1cm diameter 30.5cm long

Screen wick Horizontal operation at 100°C
400
300
Maximum power
200 Powder metal wick
100
0
90 45 0 -45 -90
Angle θ from horizontal degrees
Figure 6.23. Dependence of maximum stable heat flow on orientation, specifically capillary limits versus
operating angle. Arrows indicate the direction of the heat flow.
Heat pipe effective thermal resistance

A primary heat pipe design consideration is effective pipe thermal resistance or overall heat pipe ΔT at a
given design power. As the heat pipe is a two-phase heat transfer device, a constant effective thermal
resistance value cannot be assigned. The effective thermal resistance is not constant but a function of
many variables, such as heat pipe geometry, evaporator length, condenser length, wick structure, and
working fluid.
The total thermal resistance of a heat pipe is the sum of the resistances due to
 conduction through the wall,
 conduction through the wick,
 evaporation or boiling, axial vapour flow,
 condensation, and
 conduction losses back through the condenser section wick and wall.
Because heat pipes are two-phase heat transfer devices that do not have relatively constant thermal
conductivities like solid materials, an effective thermal conductivity is used. The equation used to calculate
the effective thermal conductivity for a heat pipe is:
P  Leff 1 Leff
eff  T   (6.25)
Ax  T R Ax
where: Leff = ½ Levaporator + Ladiabatic + ½ Lcondenser
λ eff = thermal conductivity
Ax = the cross-sectional area of the heat pipe
PT = power transported by the heat pipe
ΔT = the measured temperature difference across the heat pipe.
A few rules of thumb can be used for first pass design considerations. A rough guide for a copper/water
2
heat pipe with a powder metal wick structure is to use 0.2°C/W/cm for thermal resistance at the
2
evaporator and condenser, and 0.02°C/W/cm for axial resistance.
The evaporator and condenser thermal resistances are based on the outer surface area of the heat pipe.
The axial thermal resistance is based on the cross-sectional area of the vapour space. This design guide
is only useful for powers at or below the design power for the given heat pipe.
These equations for thermal performance are only rule of thumb guidelines and should only be used to
help determine if heat pipes will meet your cooling requirements, not as final design criteria.
The groove heat pipe has the lowest capillary limit among the four but functions best under
gravity-assisted conditions.
Example 6.4: Heat-pipe
To calculate the effective thermal resistance for a 1.27 cm diameter copper/water heat pipe 30.5 cm long
with a 1 cm diameter vapour space, the following assumptions are made.
The heat pipe is dissipating 75W with 5cm evaporator and 5cm condenser lengths.
Solution
The evaporator heat flux p equals the power PT divided by the heat input area
P PT 75W
pevap  T    3.8W/cm2
Aevap  Do Levap   1.27cm  5cm
PT PT 75W
pcond     3.8W/cm2
Acond  Do Lcond   1.27cm  5cm
The axial heat flux equals the power divided by the cross sectional area of the vapour space
P PT 75W
p axial  T    95.5W/cm2
Aaxial ¼ Di2 ¼  1.02
The temperature gradient equals the heat flux times the thermal resistance.
T  pevap  Revap  paxial  Raxial  pcond  Rcond

T = 3.8 W/cm2×0.2°C/W/cm2 + 95.5 W/cm2×0.02°C/W/cm2 + 3.8 W/cm2×0.2°C/W/cm2
T = 3.4°C
♣
Maximum heat transport QmaxLeff

Rθ
5 horizontal length 6 horizontal orientation
Cu/H2O, 6mm diameter Cu/H2O 6mm
4 heat transport 10W 5 groove wick

Thermal resistance
groove
4
K/W
Wm
Fibre + spira 3
2
mesh 2 4mm
powder metal
1
1 3mm
0 0
100 125 150 175 200 225 250 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
length L mm Heat pipe operational temperature °C
P
Rθ
5 vertical length 104 vertical length orientation

Cu/H2O, 6mm diameter Cu/H2O
22.2mm
4 heat transport 10W Fibre + spira groove wick
Maximum heat transport

15.9mm
Thermal resistance
103 12.7mm
K/W
3 mesh
9.5mm
powder metal
W
6.4mm
groove
2
102
1 3mm
0 101
100 125 150 175 200 225 250 0 25 40 60 80 100 120 140
length L mm Heat pipe operational temperature °C
QmaxLeff
QmaxLeff
80 4
Heat out 250mm length D4 round
Cu/H2O groove wick
60 θ 9.5mm Cu/H2O 3 working temp 50°C
groove wick
Heat in
T3 flat
Wm
Wm
40 2
6.4mm Cu/H2O
20 groove wick 1
T2 flat
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 -150 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
inclination θ degrees inclination θ degrees
Figure 6.24. Heat pipe parameter performance characteristics.
Length and diameter affect on heat pipe performance

The rate of vapour travelling from the evaporator to the condenser is governed by the difference in vapour
pressure between them. It is also affected by the diameter and the length of the heat pipe. In a large
diameter heat pipe, the large cross sectional area allows a higher vapour volume to be transported from
the evaporator to the condenser, than in a small diameter pipe. The cross sectional area of a heat pipe is
a direct function of both the sonic and entrainment limits of the heat pipe. However, the operational
temperature of the heat pipe also affects the sonic limit of the heat pipe. Figure 6.24 compares the heat
transport for heat pipes with different diameters and shows that the heat pipes transport more heat at
higher operational temperatures.
The rate at which the working fluid returns from the condenser to the evaporator is governed by the
capillary limit and is a reciprocal function of the heat pipe’s length. A longer heat pipe transports less heat
than shorter heat pipes. In figure 6.24, QmaxLeff (W.m) ,that is, Y-axis, represents the amount of heat a pipe
will carry per meter length. Therefore, if the pipe is half a meter, it can carry twice the wattage a metre long
heat pipe would carry.
Orientation affect on heat pipe performance

A wick structure with a higher capillary limit can transport more working fluid from the condenser to the
evaporator against gravity. But as mentioned, the groove heat pipe, with the lowest capillary limit, works
best under gravity-assisted conditions where the evaporator is located below the condenser. Figure 6.24
shows the effect of gravity on groove wick heat pipes.
Performance affect of heat pipe flattening or bending

If a heat pipe is flattened or bent, the sonic and entrainment limits will be reduced in relation to the flattened
thickness, the number of bends, and the angle of each bend. Therefore, any flattening or bending to a heat
pipe will reduce the amount of heat that can be transported. Figure 6.24 shows the effect of flattening on a
heat pipe.
High temperature
Heat Pipes
Intermediate temperature
Heat Pipes
Ag
Li
Low temperature Na
Heat Pipes
Hg
K
Cs
y
ilit
H2O
ab
ap
NH3
rc
sfe
Cryogenic Heat Pipes (CH3)CH
an
Tr
(CH3)CO
at
He
C6H6
g
sin
F-11
ea
F-21
cr
in
CH4
O2
N2
Ne
0°C
H2
10 50 100 500 1000 5000

Temperature T K
Figure 6.25. Operating temperature ranges for various heat pipe fluids.
Operating temperature range

The operating temperature ranges of heat pipes are referred to as Cryogenic (0 to 100K), ‘Low
Temperature’ (100K to 250K), ‘Intermediate Temperature’ (250K to 600K), and ‘High Temperature” (600K
to 3000K). Working fluids are elemental gases in the cryogenic range, mainly polar molecules or
halocarbons in the low temperature range, simple organic molecules in the intermediate temperature
range, and liquid metals in the high temperature range.
The approximate useful heat pipe fluid range of some working fluids is indicated in Figure 6.25. Also
indicated are the limits of the four defined temperature regimes. The range limits are approximate since
some of the fluids overlap into an adjacent temperature range.
W
200
150
P
ammonia
Maxim um power
100
ethane
50
0
-120 -80 -40 0 40
Operating temperature °C
Figure 6.26. Low temperature constant conductance heat pipe performance for Al/NH3 and Al/C2H6 with
slight adverse elevation, 12mm internal diameter, 60cm adiabatic section and 15cm
evaporator/condenser.
Low temperature heat pipe technology

Low order hydrocarbons are common low temperature heat pipe fluids, as specifically shown for ethane
(in stainless steel) and ammonia (in an aluminium alloy) based constant conductance heat pipes in figure
6.26. In the operating range -30°C (243K) to -60°C (213K), copper-acetone is effective.
2
W /m
107 phenol iodine 1012
TiCl4 toluene water
Dowtherm A
Pa
6 water
10 naphthalene
mercury
cesium
FoM
11
5 10
10
sulphur
Vapour pressure,
phenol
4
10
Liquid transport factor,

Dowtherm A
10
cesium 10
3 TiCl4 iodine
10
2
10 Sulphur/
9
10 iodine
1 naphthalene
10
toluene
8
100 10
400 500 600 700 800 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature, K Temperature, K
Hg
2
W /m
107 1012 Na
SiCl4 water TiCl4
Pa
TiBr4 SiI4
106 water
105 TiI4 FoM

Vapour pressure,
1011 NH3
4
10
Liquid transport factor,
cesium SnBr3
103 N2
1010 iodine
102 SnCl4
GaBr3 TiCl4
101 AlBr3 BiCl3

9
10
0 10
400 500 600 700 800 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature, K Temperature, K
Figure 6.27. Vapour pressure and figure of merit for intermediate temperature heat-pipe fluids,
at a constant latent heat and normal boiling temperature.
Intermediate temperature heat pipe technology

The intermediate temperature range extends from 450K to 750K. The alkali metals, such as caesium,
potassium, and sodium, are suitable working fluids at temperatures above this range. In the intermediate
temperature range, the alkali metal vapour density is so low that the vapour sonic velocity limits the heat
transfer, and the heat pipe vapour space becomes too large to be practical for alkali metals.
Water is commonly used at temperatures up to about 425K. Higher temperature water heat pipes can be
used with titanium or Monel envelopes at temperatures up to 500K. Their effectiveness starts to fall off
after 500K, due to the decrease in the surface tension of water. Potential intermediate temperature
working fluids including Sulphur/Iodine mixtures, Iodine, Naphthalene, Phenol, Toluene, Mercury, and
several halides. Sulphur has a temperature dependent polymerization property at 475K, which increases
its liquid viscosity to approximately three orders of magnitude higher than the maximum level for effective
heat pipe operation. The addition of 3-10% of iodine reduces the viscosity of sulphur to a level sufficient for
effective heat pipe operation. A disadvantage of iodine is its low liquid thermal conductivity.
Another set of potential working fluids is the halide salts of titanium, aluminium, boron, phosphorus, and
silicon. Salts such as TiCℓ 2F2 working fluids are polar, which increases the latent heat and the liquid
transport factor.
Vapour Pressure and Merit Number are two parameters used to screen potential working fluids. Vapour
pressures for some intermediate temperature working fluids are shown in the parts of Figure 6.27. Note
that the vapour pressure for water is too high, and the vapour pressure for caesium is too low in this
temperature range, so a vapour pressure between these two extremes is desirable. Most of the fluids
discussed have a suitable vapour pressure.
The Merit Number (liquid transport factor) Mℓ is a means of ranking heat pipe fluids, with a higher merit
number being more desirable:
 
M  (6.26)

2
where: Mℓ = Merit Number, W/m
3
ρℓ = liquid density, kg/m
σ = surface tension, N/m
λ = latent heat, J/kg
ν = liquid viscosity, Pa
Figure 6.27 shows the Merit Number as a function of temperature for a number of fluids. Whilst water and
caesium have good merit numbers, their vapour pressures eliminate them from contention.
Figure 6.28 compares the theoretical heat transfer capability (power) for heat pipes with five working
fluids: water, iodine, BiCl3, SbBr3, and caesium. Water is the best fluid at the low temperature end and
caesium at the upper end. Iodine and SbBr3 offer good performance in the mid-region. However, Iodine
has two potential problems: low liquid thermal conductivity and high corrosiveness.
There are many candidate fluids in the intermediate temperature range. While some of the fluids have
sufficient physical property data to allow their use, none of the fluids has adequate life test data at
appropriate conditions.
SbBr3 Cesium
Iodine Quad artery dual artery
W
Quad artery
2000
P
1500
Maximum power
1000
Water
hybrid
500
BiCl3
Quad artery
0
400 500 600 700 800
Operating temperature K
Figure 6.28. Theoretical heat pipe powers for different fluids.

Heat pipe dimensions: 2.54mm diameter, 220mm length.
Evaporator cooling
Heat removal at the heat pipe remote evaporator can be affected with conventional aluminium finned
heatsinks, with fan assistance if necessary. Any alternative cooling method in this chapter may be
applicable.
e se e at
vic ca ratur r te he nger t
de ction pe a de pla a ien
p re h b
jun tem s c old exc am
H 2O
Si
H 2O
Al
exchanger
ambient
heat
air
H 2O
Al
pump fan
Cu
Figure 6.29. Improved cooling with compact indirect cold-plate spreader water-cooling.
6.8.2 Cold plates – indirect cooling
Liquid-cooled cold plates perform a function analogous to air-cooled heat sinks by providing an effective
means to transfer heat from a component to a liquid coolant. Unlike heat pipes, they are active devices in
that liquid is usually forced through them by the action of a mechanical fluid pump. Vacuum-brazed
fin-stock cold-plates and copper-based superalloy structures are used and a liquid-cooled microchannel
2
heat sink can remove 790W/cm with a temperature increase of 71°C for a 600ml/min flow rate with a
pressure drop of 207kPa.
Liquid cooling can reduce effective thermal resistance to as low as 0.01K/W and may provide a much
more compact clamp cold-plate spreader heat-sink arrangement, as shown in figure 6.29. Equipment
compact form factors require efficient yet cost-effective modes of removing excess heat.
Liquid cooling via cold-plate technology combines a high capacity for heat rejection with an ability to move
heat remote from the power electronics to the ambient room air or facility water.
Single piece,
bent copper tube
Fluid inlet/outlet
Stainless steel or
copper tubing for
fluid compatibility
Tin
Tout
Larger diameter for

low fluid pressure drop
Machinable
mounting surface
Metal to metal pressed interface for optimal

thermal performance and reliability
Figure 6.30. Compact indirect cold-plate spreader water-cooler.
Cold plates are used in closed systems where pumped coolants continuously cycle, conveying excess
heat away from the devices being cooled. This heat is then dumped into the ambient air via a radiator heat
exchanger or recirculating chiller, or to facility water via a liquid-to-liquid heat exchanger or liquid-cooled
recirculating chiller, as shown in figure 6.29.
Depending on the specific cold-plate design, the components may be mounted on one or both sides of the
plate, which is usually aluminium, as shown in figure 6.30.
In transferring the conducted (dissipated) heat PD to the coolant, a cold plate in steady-state must satisfy
Qflow  PD
  G T out  T in    mc p T out  T in   PD  hA T s  T m 
where T m  ½ T out  T in 
The heat transfer coefficient, from the heated surface, area A, at temperature Ts, is
T Nu  k
h  (6.27)
PD DH
where the Nusselt number is Nu = 4.44 for fully developed flow conditions.
fL V 2
pressure drop : P  ½ Pa
DH
pump power : Pw  P  G W
mf c p T (6.28)
heat exchanger length : L    n out m 
 hDH T in
1

outlet temperature :T out  T s  T s  T in  e K 
mf c p Rt
where L = length of the cold plate

mf = mass flow rate
f = friction factor
cp = specific heat, ρ = fluid density
DH = diameter (hydraulic)
Rt = thermal resistance of one channel
3
G = volumetric flow rate, m /s
See section 6.10 on microchannels.
A number of cold plate technologies are available. Generally, the cold plate's cost increases with
improving performance. The technologies to follow are listed in order of what is typically increasing cold
plate efficiency and cost.
 Tubed cold plates
Tubed cold plates are the most common designs, giving dependable high performance at a
comparatively low cost. A typical device is a flat metal plate, 15 to 30 mm long, with a series of
channels on one or both sides. Into these channels is secured a length of serpentine metal tubing
through which the liquid coolant flows. Fittings at the inlet and outlet of the coolant tubing connect
to the user's coolant source.
Usually aluminium, a tubed cold plate may either be cut to size (with channels for coolant tubing
later machined into it), or extruded to size (with the channels formed at the same time the plate is
extruded). Some manufacturers use a channel geometry that holds the coolant tubing in place,
ensuring good metal-to-metal contact and optimizing thermal transfer. Others secure the tubing to
the channels with a performance-limiting thermal epoxy.
Tubing material is predominantly either 5 mm or 10 mm out-side diameter copper or stainless
steel. The larger diameter offers a lower pressure-drop. Smaller tubing increases fluid turbulence
and can be formed into tighter radii for tighter tube packing and more-compact lower-profile cold
plates. If the coolant is tap water, copper will suffice. If the coolant is deionised water or another
corrosive fluid, stainless steel is preferable because it is non-reactive.
 Gun-drilled cold plates
A gun-drilled cold plate is usually fabricated by drilling a series of holes through the length of an
aluminium plate, inserting copper or stainless-steel tubing, and then expanding the tubing to
ensure a secure metal-to-metal contact with efficient thermal transfer properties. If aluminium
corrosion is not a risk, it is possible to flow coolant with an ethylene glycol additive directly through
the gun-drilled holes without inserting the tubing.
For the return fluid path, the holes are drilled perpendicular to the main fluid path and then partially
plugged to create a continuous coolant path. Before the development of two-sided tubed cold
plates, gun drilling was the preferred approach for two-sided applications. Tubed cold plates are
preferred because the inserted copper tubing eliminates the concern of aluminium corrosion. One
additional benefit of gun-drilled cold plates is that they can have tighter tolerances than tubed cold
plates, specifically in meeting flatness requirements.
 Vacuum-brazed inner finned cold plates
Vacuum-brazed aluminium cold plates are reserved predominantly for high-performance custom
designs that provide low thermal resistance, and superior leak-free reliability. They afford the
greatest flexibility in specifying thermal resistance, thermal flow, pressure drop, fluid path, size,
shape, material hardness, surface geometry, and dual-sided component mounting.
To build these cold plates, high-performance corrugated aluminium-fin material is brazed into the
liquid cavity below the mounting surface, which is also made of aluminium. The internal fins add
heat transfer surface area and create turbulence in the coolant to minimize the fluid boundary
layer and reduce thermal resistance.
Depending on requirements, these cold plates can be surface machined to optimize heat-load
2
and/or cold-plate contact. The size range of vacuum-brazed cold plates is from about 20 cm to
2
about 4000 cm .
 Extruded cold plates
Extruded cold plates represent the highest performance designs with the best thermal
performance characteristics. A dimensionally compact structure (typically 5 cm wide x 4 mm.
thick), this design features an aluminium or copper extrusion with many internal, discrete, parallel
microchannels.
The open ends of the extrusion are welded to connector tubes. The microchannel design provides
a large internal surface area and a thin mounting surface that minimizes thermal resistance (see
section 6.10).
The channels create turbulence, which minimizes the fluid boundary layer and reduces thermal
resistance. This approach also yields excellent thermal uniformity because coolant flows below
the entire cold-plate surface. Depending on the direction the header manifolds are mounted, the
extruded cold plates may have a ‘U’ or ‘Z’ fluid inlet/outlet configuration. Multiple extruded cold
plates can be assembled into a single unit or pressed into an aluminium plate.
Cold-plate performance comparison
Cold-plate performance is normally expressed as thermal resistance, in °C/W. The lower the thermal
resistance, the better the cold plate performance and the cooler the surface. Figure 6.31 compares
normalized results with respect to area, allowing the various cold-plate technologies to be compared
independent of individual part geometries.
Fluid pressure drop increases exponentially with fluid flow rate and viscosity.
10
2 pass, 9.5mm Cu tube,
K.cm / W
Plate (thick) side single side,

2
13mm thick Aℓ plate

5 Tube (thin) side
Vacuum 6.4mm tube (thick) 4 pass, 9.5mm Cu tube,

brazed both sides single side
Normalise thermal resistance
8mm thick 13mm thick Aℓ plate
6.4mm tube (thin) both sides

1 8mm thick
Aℓ, extruded μ-channel
(flat tube) 3.3mm thick Fin technologies
0.5
Cu, extruded μ-channel

(flat tube) 3mm thick
0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Water flow rate ℓpm
Fig. 6.31. Performance comparison of various types of cold plates.
Heat transfer fluids for cold plate liquid cooling

One of the most important factors when choosing a liquid cooling technology for an application is the
compatibility of the heat transfer fluid with the wetted surfaces of the cooling components or system and
the application. Heat transfer fluid compatibility is critical in ensuring long-term system reliability. Some
other requirements for a heat transfer fluid may include high thermal conductivity and specific heat, low
viscosity, low freezing point, high flash point, low corrosivity, low toxicity, and thermal stability. Based on
these criteria, the most commonly used coolants for indirect liquid cooling applications are:
 water
 deionised water
 inhibited glycol and water solutions
 dielectric fluids
By selecting a compatible pairing of heat transfer fluid and wetted materials, the risk of corrosion as well as
the thermal performance are optimised. Copper is compatible with water and glycol/water solutions and
aluminium is compatible with glycol/water solutions, dielectric fluids, and oils. When using deionised water
or other corrosive fluids, however, stainless steel is used since it is more corrosion resistant than other
metals. (See Tables 6.10 and 6.14.) Most cooling systems are compatible with water or glycol/water
solutions but require special plumbing for compatibility with deionised water or a dielectric fluid such as
polyalphaolefin, PAO.
Table 6.14: Cold plate metals and compatible fluids

Materials and Transfer Glycols Deionised Dielectric Fluids Polyalphaolefin,
Water Oil
Fluid Compatibility EGW Water (Fluorinert) (PAO)
Copper and Copper-Nickel tubing X X
Stainless steel tubing X X X
Aluminium flat tube or plate fin X X X X
Copper flat tubing, copper etched
X X X X X
or copper brazed
Nickel brazed X
Selecting a cold plate

To determine the maximum allowable thermal resistance of the cold plate hence to specify a cold plate, it
is necessary to know the cooling fluid flow rate, the fluid inlet temperature, the heat load of the devices
attached to the cold plate, and the maximum desired cold plate surface temperature, Tmax.
First, calculate the maximum temperature of the fluid when it leaves the cold plate, Tout. This is important
because if Tout is greater than Tmax, there is no solution to the problem.
Pd Pd
T out  T in   T in  (6.29)
m cp  G  c p
where Tout = temperature of fluid leaving cold plate, K
Tin = inlet temperature of fluid, K
Pd = heat load of power devices, W
3
ρℓ = density of the fluid, kg/m
3
G = cooling fluid flow rate, m /s
cp = specific heat of the cooling fluid, J/kgK
Alternatively, heat capacity graphs describe the change in temperature, ΔT, that occurs along the fluid
path. To find Tout, add ΔT to the inlet temperature, Tin.
Assuming Tout is less than Tmax, the next step is to determine the required normalized thermal resistance
Rθ for the cold plate using:
A
R  T max  T out  (6.30)
Pd
where Rθ = thermal resistance, K/W per unit area
Tmax = maximum desired cold plate surface temperature, K
2
A = area being cooled, m
Any cold plate technology that provides a normalized thermal resistance less than or equal to the
calculated value will be a suitable solution.
2
The graph in figure 6.31 compares normalized thermal resistance expressed in °C.cm / W of cold plate
technologies. Normalization of the data allows thermal performance comparison across technologies
without regard to physical size. Technologies with lower thermal resistance values offer the highest
performance in the application.
Example 6.5: Cold plate design

A cold plate is used to cool a 5cm x 10cm copper base IGBT that generates 500W of heat. It is cooled with
20°C water at a 2 ℓpm flow rate. The surface of the cold plate must not exceed 55°C. Calculate the plate
outlet header temperature, thence necessary plate thermal resistance.
3
Use cp = 4,184 J/kgK and ρℓ = 998 kg/m
Solution
2
Given: Tin: 20°C, Tmax: 55°C, P: 500 W, Area: 5x10=50 cm
First calculate Tout. Using the heat capacity equation (6.29), the temperature change for 500W at a 2 ℓpm
flow rate is less than 4°C. That is
P
T out  T in 
v  c p
500W
 20°C   20°C  3.6°C = 23.6°C
2
998kg/m3   /s  10-3m3 /  4,184J/kgK
60
Tout is less than Tmax so the required thermal resistance is determined by equation (6.30):
A
R  T max  T out 
P
50cm2
=  55°C - 23.6°C  
500W
= 3.14°C.cm2 /W at 2 lpm
This point is plotted on the normalized thermal resistance graph in figure 6.31 where any technology below
this point will meet the thermal requirement. But because the cooling fluid is water, aluminium tube or plate
fin, or nickel-brazed technologies should not be employed.
♣
Al extruded μ-channel
0.08 flat tube, 3.3 mm thick 0.4
°C/W
Rθ = 0.063 °C/W
bar
0.06 0.3
30%
Rθ
EGW
Δp
Thermal resistance
0.04 0.2
pressure drop
water
0.02 0.1
0 1 2 3 4
flow rate ℓpm
Figure 6.32. Effects of flow rate and coolant variation on thermal resistance.
2 2
In example 6.5 the cold plate thermal resistance requirement is 3.14 Kcm /W / 50cm = 0.063K/W. This
requirement can be met by an aluminium μ-channel cold plate with the characteristics shown in figure
6.32. This cold plate readily fulfils the thermal resistance requirements with de-ionised water. The
aggressive nature of deionised water can be avoided by the using 30% ethylene glycol - water but at the
expense of a decreased thermal conductivity, as seen in Table 6.10. From figure 6.32, the necessary flow
rate is 1.5 ℓpm, with a cold plate input to output fluid pressure drop of 0.08 bar. (0.6 ℓpm and 0.024 bar if
de-ionised water could be used).
6.9 Direct liquid cooling

6.9.1 Immersion cooling – direct cooling
Direct liquid or immersion cooling is a well-established method for accommodating high heat flux. With
natural convection two-phase flow, generally termed nucleate pool boiling, the critical heat flux using
2 2
FC-72 is in the range of 5 to 20W/cm . However, much higher heat fluxes up to 100W/cm can be
accommodated with surface enhancement of the heat source. With a device submerged in a pool of
dielectric liquid (electrical non-conducting), the heat dissipated in the device produces vapour bubbles that
are driven by buoyancy forces into the upper region of the container, where the vapour condenses and
drips back into the liquid pool. A disadvantage of this technique is the need for a liquid compatible with the
device. Often, water cannot be used because of its chemical and electrical characteristics.
Direct liquid cooling may also be termed direct liquid immersion cooling, since there are no physical walls
separating devices and its substrate surface from the liquid coolant. This form of cooling offers the
opportunity to remove heat directly from the package with no intervening thermal conduction resistance,
other than that between the device heat sources and the package surfaces in contact with the liquid.
Direct liquid immersion cooling offers a high heat transfer coefficient which reduces the temperature rise of
the package surface above the liquid coolant temperature. As shown in Figure 6.33, the relative
magnitude of a heat transfer coefficient is affected by both the coolant and the mode of convective heat
transfer (that is, natural convection, forced convection, or boiling). Water is the most effective coolant and
the boiling mode offers the highest heat transfer coefficient. Direct liquid immersion cooling also offers
greater uniformity of package temperatures than is provided by air-cooling.
Air 1 to 3 atm
Air compressed
Fluoro vapour
Silicone oil
natural
Transformer oil convection
Fluoro liquids
Air 1 to 3 atm
Fluoro vapour
Transformer oil forced
Fluoro liquids convection
single-phase
Water
GaInSn
Fluoro liquids pool
Water boiling
Fluorochemical spray
Water cooling
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

2
Heat transfer coefficient h W/m K
Figure 6.33. Relative magnitude of heat transfer coefficients

for various coolants and modes of convection. (see figure 6.1)
Coolant considerations
Immersion cooling involves more than just the selection of a direct immersion liquid based on heat transfer
characteristics alone. Chemical compatibility of the coolant with the mounting and packaging materials
exposed to the liquid are the primary consideration.
There may be several coolants which can provide adequate cooling, but a limited few will be chemically
compatible. Water is an example of a liquid which has desirable heat transfer characteristics, high thermal
conductivity for example, but is generally unsuitable for direct immersion cooling because of other
chemical characteristics, such dielectric constant. The fluorocarbon liquids listed in Table 6.15 are
generally considered the most suitable liquids for direct immersion cooling, despite their poorer
thermo-physical properties.
As shown in Table 6.15, the thermal conductivity, specific heat, and heat of vaporization of fluorocarbon
coolants are lower than water. These coolants are clear, colourless per-fluorinated liquids with a relatively
high density and low viscosity. They also exhibit a high dielectric strength and a high volume resistivity.
The liquid therefore serves to both cool and insulate the components. The boiling points for available
‘fluorinert’ liquids range from 30°C to 253°C.
All high power and high voltage power electronics can be immersed in the fluorinert. As a component
heats up, the fluorinert in contact with it vaporizes and it is this liquid to vapour phase transition which
effectively removes the excess heat from the components (heat of vaporization). The fluorinert vapour is
cooled by a heat exchanger located in the area above the fluid. This cooling technique allows high-power
electronics to operate continuously and reliably in a small volume.
Why use a dielectric liquid, specifically FC-72 instead of water?

 Same weight of water will extract more than three times the heat for the same temperature
rise (higher specific heat).
 Water is eleven times more conductive.
 Same weight of water upon evaporating will extract 27 times more heat (higher heat of
vaporization).
 However, FC-72 has a dielectric constant that is 2% that of water, that is, much less
unwanted dielectric current will flow.
Table 6.15: Comparison of thermo-physical properties of some fluorocarbon coolants and water
Property units FC-87 FC-72 FC-77 H2O

Boiling Point @ 1 Atm, °C 30 56 97 100
3 3
Density ρℓ ×10 kg/m 1.633 1.680 1.780 0.997
3
Specific Heat ×10 W.s/kg.K 1.088 1.088 1.172 4.179
Thermal Conductivity λ W/m.K 0.0551 0.0545 0.057 0.613
Dynamic Viscosity ν ×10
-4
kg/m.s 4.20 4.50 4.50 8.55
4
Heat of Vaporization L ×10 W.s/kg 8.79 8.79 8.37 243.8
-3
Surface Tension ×10 N/m 8.90 8.50 8.00 58.9
-3 -1
Thermal Coefficient of Expansion ×10 K 1.60 1.60 1.40 0.20
Dielectric Constant =1 for a vacuum 1.71 1.72 1.75 78.0
These liquids should not be confused with the ‘Freon’ coolants which are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
Although some of the ‘Freons’ exhibit similar cooling characteristics, concern over their environmental
effect preclude their use.
Modes of heat transfer

The convective heat transfer processes upon which liquid immersion cooling depends may be classified
as natural convection, forced convection, or boiling modes. The relative magnitude of heat fluxes which
can be accommodated by each mode is shown in Figure 6.34, as a function of ‘wall superheat’ or
surface-to-liquid temperature difference for a typical fluorocarbon coolant.
Natural convection: As in the case of air-cooling, natural convection is a heat transfer process in which
mixing and fluid motion is induced by coolant density differences caused by the heat transferred to the
coolant. As depicted in Figure 6.34, this mode of heat transfer offers the lowest heat flux or cooling
capability for a given ‘wall superheat’. Nonetheless, the heat transfer rates attainable with liquid natural
convection can exceed those attainable with forced convection of air. Natural convection would typically
be employed within a closed container to transfer heat from die or modules to liquid, and then from the
liquid to the walls of the container. Heat could then be transferred from the walls to outside air ambient by
natural or forced convection.
Nucleate C
10 E
boiling
2
W / cm
D
F
G
Film
1 velocity boiling
Forced
convection
Thermal hysteresis
temperature overshoot
Heat flux
0.1 Natural
B convection
Typical forced air
A convection
0.01
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Temperature difference ΔT = Twall - Tsat °C
Figure 6.34: Typical heat transfer regimes for immersion cooling with a fluorocarbon liquid.
Forced convection: Higher heat transfer rates may be attained by utilizing a pump to provide forced
circulation of the liquid coolant over the die or module surfaces. This process is termed forced convection;
and as with air-cooling, the allowable heat flux for a given surface-to-liquid temperature difference can be
increased by increasing the velocity of the liquid over the heated surface. Depending upon the surface
geometry and the nature of the flow (that is, laminar or turbulent), the heat transfer coefficient will be
proportional to the velocity to a power between 0.5 and 0.8. The penalty for increasing cooling
performance in this way, is a higher-pressure drop. This can mean a larger pump and higher system
operating pressures. Although forced convection requires the use of a pump and the associated piping, it
allows removal of heat from high power modules in a confined space; and then transports the heat via the
liquid coolant to a remote heat exchanger to reject the heat to air or water.
Boiling: Boiling is a complex convective heat transfer process depending upon liquid-to-vapour phase
change with the formation of vapour bubbles at the heated surface. It is commonly characterized as either
pool boiling (occurring in a stagnant liquid) or flow boiling. The pool boiling heat transfer rate Q usually
follows a relationship of the form
Q  C sf'  A  (Twall -T sat )n (6.31)
where C sf' is a constant depending on each fluid-surface combination,

A is the heat transfer surface area,
Twall is the temperature of the heated surface,
Tsat is the saturation temperature (that is, boiling point) of the liquid, and
n is an exponent, typically about 3.
The boiling curve for a particular surface and fluid of interest (for example, silicon and FC-72) is usually
obtained experimentally. An example of a boiling curve depicting the cooling path from natural convection
to film boiling is shown in Figure 6.34. If die power is gradually increased in small steps, cooling occurs first
by natural convection (A - B). Eventually a power level is reached at which sufficient superheat is available
to initiate the growth of vapour bubbles on the surface and boiling starts (B). As power is increased, more
nucleation sites become active and the frequency of bubble departure increases. The region between B
and C is termed the nucleate boiling regime. Vigorous agitation of the hot boundary along the heated
surface, and gross fluid circulation caused by the motion of the vapour bubbles, provide the ability to
accommodate substantial increases in heat flux with minimal increases in surface temperature. As power
is increased to point C, the critical heat flux condition is reached. So many bubbles are generated at this
point that they begin to form a vapour blanket inhibiting fresh liquid from reaching the surface. Further
increases in power will result in a transition to film boiling (D - E). In this regime, heat transfer from the
surface to the liquid is dependent on thermal conduction through the vapour, which is poor. In most power
electronic cooling applications, transition to film boiling will result in failure due to high junction
temperatures. To take advantage of boiling to cool electronic devices, it is desirable to operate in the
nucleate boiling regime (B - C).
A problem often associated with pool boiling of fluorocarbon liquids is that of temperature overshoot. This
behaviour is characterized by a delay in the inception of nucleate boiling (that is, beyond point B), such
that the heated surface continues to be cooled by natural convection; with increased surface temperatures
unless a sufficient superheat is reached for boiling to occur. This behaviour is a result of the good wetting
characteristics of the fluorocarbon liquids and the smooth nature of silicon die and their metallisation.
There is minimal temperature overshoot associated with flow boiling cooling applications.
The typical critical heat fluxes encountered in saturated (that is, liquid temperature saturation temperature)
2
pool boiling of fluorocarbon liquids range from about 10 to 15 W/cm , depending upon the nature of the
surface (that is, material, finish, geometry). The allowable critical heat flux may be extended by subcooling
the liquid below its saturation temperature. For example, the critical heat flux can be increased to as much
2
as 25 W/cm by reducing the liquid temperature to -25°C.
Higher critical heat fluxes may be achieved using flow boiling. For example, heat fluxes from 25 to over 30
2
W/cm have been reported for liquid velocities of 0.5 to 2.5 m/s over the heated surface. Heat fluxes in
2
excess of 100 W/cm have been obtained with a FC-72 liquid jet impinging upon a 6.5 mm x 6.5 mm chip
3
at a flow rate of 2.2 cm /s.
Other considerations
Since fluorocarbon liquids are expensive, they should only be used in closed systems. Whether the
application is in a self-contained module or a forced flow scheme, the seal materials must be compatible
with the liquid. If boiling is to take place, then the design must incorporate a means to condense the
resulting vapours. A finned surface may be designed for this purpose, or a remote finned condenser
surface cooled by air or water might be used. In flow systems, care must be taken in selecting a pump. The
relatively high vapour pressure of the low boiling point fluorocarbons generally require that a higher
suction head be provided to prevent cavitation in the pump. In forced circulating liquid systems, it may be
desirable to add a particulate and a chemical filter to ensure the long-term purity of the coolant.
6.9.2 Liquid jet impingement – direct cooling

Jet impingement cooling, as shown in figure 6.35, is similar to spray cooling but is performed with a lower
nozzle pressure drop and a higher fluid flow rate. This lower pressure requirement, in conjunction with a
2
high flow volume, reduces nozzle clogging and reduces noise levels. Cooling of 90W/cm with a 100°C
temperature rise using a flow rate of only 8mℓ/min is possible. A closed loop impingement jet gives cooling
2
of 180W/cm using water and a flow of 0.3 l/min at 300kPa. The micropump used 7W to drive the fluid flow.
Pressurised
cooling water
Returned
heated water
Figure 6.35. Available multiple jet impingement liquid cooling.
Jet stream
Bubbles
Heat area Heat area

h
(a) Heat transfer coefficient (b)
Jet
Spray
(c)
x
o
Figure 6.36. Illustration of:

(a) spray cooling; (b) jet impingement cooling; and (c) resultant heat transfer coefficient, h.
6.9.3 Spray Cooling – direct cooling
Spray cooling breaks up the liquid into fine droplets that impinge individually on the heated wall surface.
Cooling of the surface is achieved through a combination of thermal conduction through the liquid in
contact with the surface and evaporation at the liquid-vapour interface (latent heat of vaporization). The
droplet impingement both enhances the spatial uniformity of heat removal and delays the liquid separation
on the wall during vigorous boiling. The hot vapour is recovered by removing the waste heat to the
ambient in a heat exchanger where the vapour condenses back to a liquid. The fluid is continually recycled
within a closed system. Using vapour for heat transport eliminates all resistance between the heat source
and the ultimate heat destination.
Spray cooling technology enables all surfaces exposed to the liquid-vapour environment to remain close
to the saturation temperature of the fluid. The result is an isothermal environment around the power
devices which effectively reduces hot spots and thermal cycling – the primary cause of power device
failure. Spraying reduces the flow rate requirements but requires a high nozzle pressure drop than jet
impingement. Spray pattern types include an array of swirling turbulent hollow-cone sprays, with a wide
range of droplet sizes. Drawbacks include likelihood of nozzle clogging, repeatability of impact patterns,
high sensitivity to nozzle to surface distance, and the need for filters and pumps.
Spray cooling and jet impingement (as shown in Figure 6.36) are often considered competing options for
electronic cooling. Spray evaporative cooling with a Fluorinert coolant can maintain junction temperatures
2
between 70°C and 85°C for heat fluxes from 15 to 55 W/cm . Spray cooling improves thermal
management, increases system-packaging density, and reduces weight. Die-level spray cooling allows a
2
maximum heat flux of over 160 W/cm .
6.10 Microchannels and minichannels
The concept of microchannels applied to the thermal management of high heat-flux power electronics is
simple. Because heat-transfer coefficients generally increase with decreasing size, the passage size
(microchannels) should be made as small as possible. This results in a dense package with higher heat
transfer and a larger surface area-to-volume ratio than a conventional cooling device.
The term 'micro' is applied to devices having hydraulic diameters of ten to several hundred micro-metres,
while 'mini' refers to diameters of the order of one to a few millimetres. A low flow rate within
micro-channels produces laminar flow resulting in a heat transfer coefficient inversely proportional to the
hydraulic diameter. In other words, the smaller the channel, the higher the heat transfer coefficient.
Unfortunately, the pressure drop increases with the inverse squared of the channel width, whilst
maintaining the mass flow constant. Stacking of microchannel layers is used to decrease the pressure
drop, but flow non-uniformity across the channel remains a problem, producing non-uniform cooling.
A 50μm wide, 300μm deep, 1cm long microchannel passage, experiences a 30-psi drop with a 0.66 ℓpm
2
water flow, and can dissipate 790 W/cm with a 71°C temperature rise. With 5 to100um channel sizes, the
2
heat transfer coefficient can reach 80kW/m K.
Thermal resistance of layer
Thermal resistance of layer
heatsink heatsink
5 5
grease
4 4
K cm / W
K cm / W
Cu
2
3 Cu AMB AMB 3 AMB AMB

base Cu Cu
base Cu Cu
2 2
grease ceramic die ceramic die
1 solder solder 1 solder solder
0 0
layer layer
(a) (b)
Figure 6.37. Thermal resistivities of a typical power module with:

(a) a conventional heatsink and (b) a microchannel heatsink, indicate that layers other than the
heatsink can dominate the performance of microchannel designs.
Integrated microchannel heatsink

Figure 6.37 displays the fractions of the thermal resistivity attributed to different individual layers for a
typical power module. In the case of microchannel cooling, the largest contributor to the thermal resistivity
is the thermal grease layer between the base-plate and the heatsink.
Because of the increased importance of the conductive resistance of the stack, a better solution would be
to eliminate some of the layers from the structure. An integrated heatsink with a series of microchannels
fabricated directly into the bottom copper layer of the active metal braze (AMB) substrate is shown
schematically in figure 6.38, and has advantages in reducing both the convective and conductive
resistances of the module.
By using substrate level microchannels, the convective thermal resistivity is reduced dramatically. In
addition, this stack removes the base-plate solder, the copper base-plate and, most importantly, the
thermal grease from the conductive path. As seen in figure 6.37, this results in the elimination of the two
largest resistances in the structure. A thermal grease or epoxy layer for attachment, is a thin 75μm layer
with a relatively high thermal conductivity of 9 W/m/K. The overall result is a reduction of the total stack
resistivity by a factor of two when compared to a microchannel heatsink.
Power die
AMB
substrate
Copper base
plate
Si
Cu
ceramic
microchannels Si
(b) (a)
Figure 6.38. Integrated microchannel heatsink design, where microchannels are:

(a) fabricated directly into the bottom copper layer of the AMB substrate or
(b) created between at least two thin (0.3mm) copper etched mesh layers, bonded by a melting
process.
Analytical optimization
First-order heat transfer is governed by the thermal resistivity Rθ, which is defined as the temperature rise
divided by the heat flux. For convective heat transfer in channels having hydraulic diameter DH, the
thermal resistivity is calculated as:
T DH
R   (6.32)
Pd k  Nu
where k is the working fluid thermal conductivity and
Nu is the Nusselt number for the appropriate flow condition ( Nu  A  Re mPr n ).
h L
Nu 
k
2
where h is the convective heat transfer coefficient, W/m K
L is the characteristic passage length of the microchannel
Pr is the Prandtl number (= vxcp / k)
For example, for laminar, fully developed flow in a circular passage with constant heat flux, Nu DH = 4.36.
[NuDH = 3.66 for convection with a constant uniform surface temperature.]
In addition, the pressure loss ΔP is calculated using the friction factor f as:
L
P  ½ v 2f (6.33)
DH
with
64
f 
Re
where ρℓ is the fluid density and
f is the friction factor (loss coefficient), in laminar, fully developed flow in a circular passage
Re is the Reynolds number

   v  DH
Re  (6.34)

where v is the fluid velocity (volumetric flow rate) and
 is the fluid kinematic viscosity.
These basic expressions for Rθ and ΔP are used to select the optimal channel sizing. The passage
dimensions are chosen to minimize the thermal resistivity Rθ subject to pumping constraints on maximum
pressure loss and flow rate. Typical performance characteristic are as shown in figure 6.32.
The primary variables to be optimized are the channel width and pitch. These values vary beneath a heat
source of 2×2 cm size between 10 to 200 cooling passages and a ratio of wall thickness to channel width
of 0.1 to 2. These dimensions result in a range of flow conditions, including laminar, turbulent, developing
and fully developed regimes. In addition, the channel height in the AMB substrate is varied from 0.05mm to
0.3mm, which is the maximum depth allowed due to the thickness of the bottom copper layer. The typical
coolant is water at room temperature. The pump constraints are specified as 4 ℓpm maximum flow rate and
25 psi maximum pressure loss, which are representative values for power electronics cooling applications.
The channel width is at least 100μm, due to the difficulty of manufacturing narrower passages in copper.
For the integrated microchannel heatsink, the preferred channel shape has a width of 100μm, a depth of
300μm and a wall thickness between channels of 100μm. The narrow channel width and small pitch
results in a high surface area-to-volume ratio, while the tall channel height abates the pressure loss
2
through the passage. The calculated thermal resistivity for this design is 0.042K.cm /W.
The performance is effective and superior to existing heatsinks since no thermal grease layer is needed.
2
The overall thermal resistivity of a power module equipped with this heatsink is less than 0.15K.cm /W,
2
resulting in less than a 75°C junction-to-coolant temperature rise for a heat flux of 500W/cm . This thermal
performance is better than any existing heatsink using a comparable material stack.
Microchannel cooling is more effective for areas smaller than 7 x 7 cm. Integrated single and two-phase
2
micro heat sinks are able to cool about 450 W/cm using both single and two-phase heat transfer. For
two-phase flow, the pumping power is about ten times lower and the required flow rate is considerably
2
lower. By using off-set strip fins and a split-flow arrangement, cooling of over 300 W/cm at 24 kPa is
possible with a flow of 1.5 ℓpm. A silicon microchannel cooler can be used for high-power chips. A
separate microchannel cold plate is bonded to the back of the chip. This requires a low interface thermal
resistance. If the microcooler is based on silicon, a rigid bonding means that silver-filled epoxies or solder
2
should be used, giving power densities in excess of 400W/cm , for a flow of 1.2 ℓpm at 30kPa.
It is possible to push microchannel heat transfer even further by utilizing boiling. In addition to offering
higher heat transfer coefficients, boiling convection in microchannels requires less pumping power than
single-phase liquid convection to achieve a given heat sink thermal resistance. For the same heat flux, the
2
pressure drops by a factor of 20. A 1000W/cm cooling system based on boiling heat transfer in
microchannel heat sinks using a flow rate of ½ ℓpm is possible. Local heat transfer coefficients may
change appreciably over time leading to local temperature changes of 10 to 15°C. Also backflow of
already heated flow due to expansion of bubbles is observed.
2
If fluid impinges on the surface to be cooled, performance can reach 1000 W/cm K, 14 to 21kPa and
2
0.05K/W/cm . Pumped liquid (both single and two-phase) cooling technologies in addition to loop heat
pipes for space applications, in a single-phase solution, incorporates an oscillating flow heat transfer
2
mechanism, are capable of cooling over 1300W/cm .
A different way of making microchannels is to use metal foams or metal made porous, which
2
accommodated a heat flux of 500W/cm for a 50K difference at a pressure drop of 115kPa, using water.
6.11 Electrohydrodynamic and electrowetting cooling
As an alternative to a continuous flow created either by temperature differences or by mechanical means,

liquid can be formed and moved in droplets of nano-to-millilitre size by means of electric fields.
Electrowetting on a dielectric film, in which the surface property of a dielectric film can be modified
between hydrophobic and hydrophilic states using an electric field, can be used to provide the basis for a
direct micropumping system. Electrowetting involves control of the surface tension of a liquid and can
cause a droplet of liquid to bead or spread out on the surface depending upon its surface state.
2
With 0.4 mℓpm it is theoretically possible to cool 90 W/cm . The application of electrowetting to liquid
metals has the advantage, besides a better heat transfer capability, of necessity a much lower voltage, 2V
instead of 50V, to produce the electric field.
6.12 Liquid metal cooling
Table 6.9 shows properties for various liquid metals, where the viscosity is given at room temperature and
water is included for comparison. Advantages of liquid metals are lower thermal expansion coefficient
compared to water and freezing introduces fewer problems. Ideally, the metal should be non-poisonous,
non-caustic, low viscosity, high thermal conductivity, and high heat capacity.
Pure Bismuth, Bi, melts at 271°C but some of it alloys have considerable lower melting points. Woods
metal (Lipowitz's alloy, eutectic alloy 50% Bi, 26.7% Pb, 13.3% Sn, and 10% Cd by weight) is probably the
most well-known, melting at 70°C. By alloying with metals such as lead, tin, cadmium and indium, it is
possible to get a lower limit of 47°C. Such alloys have the disadvantage of high melting points.
Pure gallium, Ga, melts at 29.7°C and has a latent heat of 80.1 J/g, but several of its alloys have much
lower melting points. Although non-toxic and relatively cheap, the main drawback is its aggressiveness
towards most metals. All gallium alloys must therefore be enclosed within ceramic walls, which is difficult
to realise. Because its surface tension is much higher than water, liquid Gallium is immune to the presence
of small cracks or channels in imperfect seals that would cause leaks if water were the coolant.
Table 6.16: Approximate thermal properties for liquid metals. Water is included for comparison
Melting Boiling Specific Conductivity Viscosity Kinematic Prandtl

Metal Density
point point heat λ ν viscosity number
2
3 Ns/m m/s
°C °C kg/m J/kgK W/mK -3 -8 cp μ / k
×10 ×10
bi-alloys 47-271 9,800 142 8.4
Ga 29.7 2205 5,900 334 28 2.04 32 0.0261
Hg -38.8 356.8 13,546 140 7.8 0.15 11.4 0.0278
FC-72 56 1680 1088 0.0545 0.45
H2O 0 100 998 4184 0.613 0.86 85.5 6.62

NaK alloy
-11.1 783.8 892 1058 25.3 0.94 53.8 0.0213
(22/78%)
The heat transfer coefficient h is the rate that thermal energy is removed from a surface per unit surface
area per temperature differential, and is related to Nusselt number Nu, by
Nu  
h
kD
where kD is the characteristics dimension of the geometry and
λ is thermal conductivity, shown in tables 6.15 and 6.16.
In a circular tube characterised by convection with a uniform surface temperature and laminar fully
developed conditions, Nusselt number is constant, Nu = 4.36, and 3.66 for a uniform heat flux condition.
Apart from heat pipes based on liquid metals, mainly for the high-temperature range, Ga-Sn-In eutectics
that remain liquid down to minus 19°C are possible. The thermal heat transfer coefficient h is ten times
larger than for water. High-performance liquid metal cooling loops use magnetofluiddynamic MFD pumps,
2
with over 200 W/cm cooling capacity, using a flow of 0.3 ℓpm at 15 kPa.
Mercury, Hg, has attractive thermal properties and has been used as a working fluid for power generating
purposes. It has environmental drawbacks.
The best liquid metal candidate is an eutectic solution of sodium and potassium, NaK. The melting point is
as low as -12°C. Its density and viscosity are similar to water but has a lower specific heat and a much
higher thermal conductivity. It can be used with nickel, chrome and steel but is aggressive to cadmium,
antimony, bismuth, copper, lead, silicon, tin, and magnesium. It also reacts violently with air and water.
This alloy is associated with material and handling problems. Liquid sodium has nevertheless been used
as a coolant for nuclear reactors, which shows that these drawbacks can be managed.
Any form of liquid cooling is associated with leakage hence reliability problems. Consideration of emersion
cooling, etc., should be restricted to applications requiring precise temperature control and heat
dissipation rates that are too high for effective removal by conduction and air cooling.
6.13 Solid state cooling
6.13.1 Thermoelectric coolers
A thermoelectric module is a highly reliable, small, light, solid-state, active device that can operate as a
heat pump or as an electrical power generator. When used to generate electricity, the module is called a
thermoelectric generator (TEG). When used as a heat pump, a refrigerator, the module utilizes the Peltier
effect to move heat and is called a thermoelectric cooler (TEC).
When current passes through the junction of two different types of conductors, a temperature change
results at the junction. However, the practical application of this concept requires semiconductors that are
good conductors of electricity but poor conductors of heat. Anisotropic orientated polycrystalline bismuth
telluride is mainly used as the semiconductor material, heavily doped to create either an excess (n-type) or
a deficient (p-type) of electrons, as shown in figure 6.39a.
If the current is reversed, the heat is moved in the opposite direction. In other words, what was the hot face
will become the cold face and vice-versa.
A thermoelectric device consists of a number of p and n type pairs (couples) connected electrically in
series and sandwiched between two ceramic plates, as shown in figure 6.39. When connected to a DC
power source, dc current causes heat to move from one side of the TEC to the other. This creates a hot
side and a cold side on the TEC. The device to be cooled is mounted on the cold side of the TEC and the
hot side is thermally connected to another TEC or a heatsink which dissipates the heat into the
environment. A heat exchanger with forced air or liquid may be required. A thermoelectric cooler does not
absorb heat, it only transfers or moves it.
Heat absorbed
Pcold
cold side
ceramic
- +
electrons holes
ceramic
n-type copper p-type
substrate
- conductors +
Ite negative (-)

heatsink
+
Vte positive (+)
Heat rejected
Phot
(a) (b)
Figure 6.39. The thermoelectric cooler: (a) principle and (b) module.
Design for power electronic cooling involves the initial specification of three parameters, the hot and cold
side temperatures, Thot and Tcold, (or Th and Tc) hence the temperature gradient or difference ΔT = Th - Tc,
(ΔT > 0) and the amount of heat, or the thermal load, in Watts, to be absorbed or removed at the cold
surface of the TEC, Pcold.
The cold surface temperature is the desired temperature of the power electronic component to be cooled,
directly in contact with the TEC.
The hot surface temperature is defined by two major parameters:
 The temperature of the ambient environment to which the heat is being rejected.
 The efficiency of the heat exchanger that is between the hot surface of the TEC and the ambient.
The thermal load includes the active I R type losses of the device to be cooled, as well as parasitic loads
2
such as conduction through any mechanical object in contact with both the cold surface and any warmer
environment, like conduction through mounting bolts and plates (and the radiation from the plates). Figure
6.40 shows the thermal resistance components and system model.
The coefficient of performance, CoP, is useful in selecting a module (the larger CoP the better), and is
defined by
heat absorbed at the cold junction Pcold P
CoP    cold (6.35)
electrical dc input power Vte  I te Ptec
where Ite is the current drawn by the TE module
Vte is the voltage applied to the TE module
A maximum CoP represents the minimum input dc power Ptec, therefore minimum total heat to be rejected
by the heat exchanger on the hot side Phot, that is Phot = Pcold + Pe.
Performance characteristic charts, as in figure 6.41, are usually provided. These allow the terminal dc
voltage and dc current requirements to be determined from the temperature difference ΔT and heat to be
absorbed on the cold side, Pcold. The maximum ΔT is about 67°C for a single TEC, higher than this
requires cascading (stacking) of TECs. The negative quadratic shape in the lower plot, represents the
optimal operating curve. Further TE effect and module technical details can be found in Chapter 28.10.
Tobject
Pactive + Ppassive
R1 R1 cold-sink thermal resistance
Ploss
R2 R2 cold-sink spreading resistance

Pcold = Pactive + Ppassive + Ploss
R3 R3 module substrate and interface
-
Tcold thermal resistance
Ptec = Vte x Ite Σ R6 R6 bolts, gasket, internal air and
radiation thermal resistance
Thot
R3 R3 module substrate and interface
Phot = Pactive + Ppassive + Ploss + Pe + thermal resistance
R4 R4 heat-sink spreading resistance
Th/s
R5 R5 heat-sink thermal resistance
Pactive + Ppassive + Pe
Tjunction
Tambient
Rθ j-TEC
Tcold
PTEC
TEC
model
-
ΔT
+
Thot Pload
Ptotal Rθ TEC-amb
°C
Tambient
Heat transfer without TEC
0K
T
Heat transfer with TEC

Tem perature
Tj TTIM1 Tspreader Tcase Theat sink Tambient
Rθj-TIM1 RθTIM1-spreader Rθspreader-case Rθcase-sink Rθsink-ambient
Power dissipated PD + Pe
PD TEC Power dissipated Ptec
Figure 6.40. The thermal resistance TEC cooling model.
Example 6.6: Thermoelectric cooler design
A semiconductor junction dissipating 100W has a steady-state thermal resistance to its case mounting of
Rθ = 0.15 K/W. If the TEC cold-side temperature is not to exceed 5°C in a 25°C external ambient,
determine the heatsink requirement to dissipate the transferred TEC heat, if the TEC has the
characteristics shown in figure 6.41, where Th = 35°C. Assuming Ploss = 0W, determine:
i. the semiconductor junction temperature;
ii. the coefficient of performance CoP for the TE module; and
iii. heatsink requirement.
Solution
i. The junction temperature is Tcold + Power dissipated × Rθ j-c = 5°C + 100W×0.15K/W = 20°C.
ii. The temperature differential across the TE module is

T  T hot -T cold = 35°C - 5°C = 30°C
Only one stage (no TEC cascading is required) should be necessary since the maximum ΔT < 62°C.
Since thermal leakage losses are assumed zero, the cold-side power losses to be transferred are 100W,
which is shown as the horizontal plotted line in the performance graph in figure 6.41.
The vertical intersection of the 100W horizontal line and the ΔT = 30°C curve gives the necessary TE
module input current 18.2A, and associated terminal voltage, 9.6V, from the upper curve intersection. The
TE module electrical input power Pe is therefore 9.6V×18.A = 74.7W
From equation (6.35), the TE module coefficient of performance is
P P 100
CoP  cold  cold   1.39
Vte  I te Ptec 74.7
16
Ptotal = 174.7W
Volts
12 60
Tamb=25°C
50
40
8 30 Rθfins=0.036°CW 10°C
20
10 Thot=35°C
Ve
0
4 °C
ΔT
Ptec = 74.7W +
0 0 TEC -30°C
250 CoP=1.39
10
-
Watts
200
20 Tcold=5°C
150
30 Rθcase=0.15°CW 15°C
100
40
Tj=20°C
Pcold
50 50
Pload = 100W
0 60
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Ite Amperes
Figure 6.41. Thermoelectric module characteristics,

Pmax = 270W, with 127 couples for a 35°C hot-side temperature Thot, ΔT = 62°C, and Imax = 30A.
iii. The heatsink thermal resistance requirement is

T  T amb
R hs  hot
Power
35°C  25°C 10°C
   0.036°C/W
100W  18.2A  9.6V 100W  18.2A  9.6V
♣
Example 6.7: Thermoelectrically enhanced heat sink
A switching semiconductor device dissipates 120W. Figure 6.42 shows the thermal resistor equivalent
network and associated resistances for cooling system designs based on:
Tamb = 40°C
Rθhs-a = 0.18 K/W
Rθs-hs = 0.08 K/W
2
RθTIM2 = R θTIM3= R θTIM4= 0.2 cm K/W
2
ATE = 64cm , representing the area of four TECs, each 4x4 cm
2
Aswitch = 9cm
i. Using the TEC characteristics in figure 6.43, calculate the switch case temperature with and without a
TEC, and the effective thermal resistance in each case.
ii. What is the maximum heatsink thermal resistance which when exceeded does not justify using
TECs.
Solution
i. For the no-TEC case, the switch heat load is 120W from a 30 x 30 mm package. The package is
2
mounted to a heat sink using thermal grease with a TIM2 thermal resistance of 0.2 m .°C/W. The sink to
ambient thermal resistance comprises two components; a spreading component due to the small heat
input area, and the fin to ambient component as shown in Figure 6.42.
From an equivalent Ohms law calculation, the case temperature without a TEC is
 
T c  T amb  PD  R fins  R spread  R'TIM 2 / Aswitch
T c =40°C  120W  (0.18K/W + 0.08K/W  0.2cm2K/W / 9cm2 ) = 73.9°C.
This equates to a case to ambient thermal resistance of
T -T   73.9°C - 40°C  = 0.283°C/W.
Rc -amb  case amb
P 120W
No TEC with TEC, CoP=3
Tamb 40°C Tamb 40°C
Rθfins 21.6°C Rθfins 28.8°C

21.6°C+7.2°C
Tfins 61.6°C Tfins 68.8°C
Rθspread 9.6°C RθTIM4 0.5°C

Tsink Thot
71.2°C
+ 69.3°C
RθTIM2 2.7°C Ptec = 40W TEC -14.5°C
Tcase Tcold 54.8°C
73.9°C
- RθTIM3 0.4°C
120W
55.2°C
Rθspread 9.6°C
Effective case-to-ambient
T thermal resistance, RθC-A
case
Tspreader 64.8°C
73.9  40
No TEC  0.283°C/W
120 RθTIM2 2.7°C
67.5  40 Tcase 67.5°C
With TEC  0.229°C/W
120
120W
Figure 6.42. Typical thermal resistor equivalent networks with and without a TEC.
Although a TEC adds additional thermal interfaces, it interposes a negative ΔT in the thermal path. Also a
TEC allows a simpler heat sink, one designed for a uniform heat input where spreading in the heat sink is
not necessary.
With TECs, assume the four TECs operate with a CoP of 3. For practical applications of switch cooling,
the CoP will likely be between 2 and 3.5, as shown in figure 6.43a, corresponding to TEC ΔT 's between 10
and 20°C.
 For a CoP greater than 3.5, sufficient ΔT is not generated by the TEC to offset the additional
interface and heat sink rise and still provide measurable performance improvement.
 For a CoP less than 2, considerable additional input electrical power must be supplied and
consequently dissipated by the heat sink.
For the 120W switch heat dissipation, from equation (6.35), a CoP of 3 equates to a TEC input power of
40W and a optimal TEC ΔT of about -14.5°C from figure 6.43. This 40W must be dissipated by the heat
sink in addition to the switch 120W heat load, thus raising the heat sink temperature by
2
40Wx0.18°C/W=7.2°C. Multiple TECs cover the heat sink area (total TEC area of 64cm ). Thus the heat
sink has a much larger heat input area compared to the no-TEC case thereby eliminating the need for a
thick copper base plate (0.08°C/W assumed) or embedded multiple heat pipes to spread the heat. The
need for spreading is moved from the heat sink to the cold side of the TEC. This cold side spreader could
be a heat pipe assembly, vapour chamber, or solid copper spreader, with are cost, performance, and
weight tradeoffs for each case.
Tc  T amb  Pd  RTIM 2  R spread  RTIM 3   TTEC  PD  PTEC   RTIM 4  R fins 

 40°C  120W   0.2 / 9  0.08  0.2 / 64   14.5°C  120W  40W   0.2 / 64  0.18 
 40°C  12.7°C  14.5°C+29.3°C
Tc  67.5°C
With the TEC, the case temperature decreases from 73.9°C to 67.5°C, a reduction of approximately
6.4°C, resulting in a 19% reduction in Rθc-amb for the 120W case. Note that the TEC actually operated with
a 14.5°C negative ΔT, yet the case temperature was reduced by only 6.4°C. More than half of the negative
ΔT from the TEC must be used to offset the additional interface losses and additional rise in heat sink
temperature due to the TEC 40W input power.
T net  TTE  T interfaces  T heatsink
 14.5  0.5  0.4  7.2  6.4°C
Also, it should be noted that for the baseline system without the TEC, the 0.283°C/W thermal resistance is
a constant with respect to heat load. For the TEC, the 0.229°C/W is not a constant with respect to heat
load and accurately represents the thermal resistance for the 120W heat load only.
No gain in using a TEC approach results when the TEC thermal drop of 14.5°C is the same as the
temperature rise – when the junction operating temperature is the same by both cooling methods.
ii. With a poor heat sink with a fin to ambient thermal resistance of 0.362°C/W instead of 0.18°C/W (with all
other parameters maintained), the additional heat sink temperature rise due to the 40W TEC power
increases from 7.2 to 14.5°C (0.362°C/W x 40W). The TEC gains become null and void.
♣
Q / Qmax
1 0 5
ΔT / ΔTmax
10
CoP
ΔT=0°C 0.1
CoP
0.8 0.2 4
8 10°C
um
Coefficient of performance
0.3
tim
Coefficient of performance
6 0.6 op 3
Normalised temperature
0.4
range of 15°C
optimal performance 0.5
4
0.4 2
0.6
20°C
2 0.7
0.2 1
30°C 0.8
0
40°C
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 50°C 0.9
60°C
0 0
TEC element °C ΔT = Thot - Tcold
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
(a) (b)
TEC element normalised current Ite / Imax
Figure 6.43. Generic Bi2Te3 thermoelectric characteristics:

(a) theoretical optimum (maximum) CoP versus ΔT and
(b) CoP as a function of current and generic thermoelectric performance curves.
Using examples 6.6 and 6.7 as a benchmark cases, when considering utilising a TEC:
 The TEC should operate near its maximum (optimum) CoP for the ΔT chosen. As shown in Figure
6.43b, off-optimum operation results in significantly higher TEC power consumption (lower CoP).
This results in a larger ΔT across the hot side thermal interface and a larger additional rise in heat
sink temperature, thus reducing the net gain from the TEC negative ΔT. In addition, for the same
CoP and thus the same input power, an off optimum TEC will not achieve the same ΔT, thus
further reducing the ΔTnet.
 Analysis of Figure 6.42 shows there will be cases when a TEC should not be used - even if it is
optimally designed. Even for an optimally designed TEC that behaves according to Figure 6.43a,
if the heat sink performance is poor, the additional rise in heat sink temperature, ΔThs-amb will offset
more of the negative ΔT from the TEC..
 The calculations in Example 6.6 were performed at the design power heat dissipation at the
maximum ambient conditions 40°C. Typically, the switch may not operate for prolonged periods at
these extreme conditions. When the switch heat dissipation is less than 120W or when the
ambient is less than the maximum, the realized TEC CoP can be significantly greater, rising
exponentially as the required TEC ΔT is decreased (see Figure 6.43a). CoPs higher than 5 would
be likely under typical operating conditions when only small ΔT would be required by the TEC in
order to maintain the maximum junction temperature below its specification. Likewise, operating
the TEC at a constant input power under these non-peak conditions offers the opportunity for
significant reductions in fan speed with favourable acoustic benefits.
TEC requirements
In the TE enhanced heat sink example 6.7, four TECs and a large spreader were utilized, where each TEC
pumped 30W giving the required total of 120W. The generalized thermoelectric performance curve given
in Figure 6.43b gives an indication of the type of TEC required. For a CoP of 3 operation, the optimum ΔT
is 14.5°C (figure 6.43a). For a typical TEC with a ΔTmax of about 67°C, the ratio of ΔT/ ΔTmax is about 0.21.
From Figure 6.43b, the curve for optimum (lowest power) operation, P/Pmax is approximately 0.17.
Therefore, for a 30W TEC heat load, the Pmax for each TEC should be approximately 30W/0.17 = 176W.
The four TECs and a large cold side spreader add cost and weight to the system. A single TEC with partial
spreading of the heat prior to the TEC and additional spreading between the TEC and heat sink could offer
some performance/cost tradeoffs. However, if the entire heat from the switch were pumped by a single
TEC, the Pmax of that single TEC would need to be 120W/0.17=700W, which exceeds available limits of
about 550W (for ΔT=0).
6.13.2 Superlattice and heterostructure cooling
The strategy to improve thermoelectric cooling has turned to the nano scale level, where coherent and
incoherent transport plays an important role in electron and phonon diffusion. ZT values (a figure of merit
parameter, see Chapter 28) between 2 and 3 at room temperature are obtained with Bi2Te3/Se2Te3
2 2
superlattices. Cooling power density is as high as 700W/cm at 353 K compared to 1.9W/cm in the bulk
material, figure 6.44.
2
Thin-film, based on SiGe/Si, gives a cooling power density of almost 600 W/cm for a temperature
difference of 4K below ambient for a 40 x 40 micrometer area. A superlattice approach produces a ZT
larger than 1.4.
2
W cm
800
600 Superlattice
Cooling power density
Thot-side = 353 K
400
Superlattice
200 Thot-side = 298 K
0
0 1 2 3 4
Current I (A)
Figure 6.44. Estimated power density for superlattice devices as a function of current.
6.13.3 Thermionic and thermotunnelling cooling

Thermionic cooling is based on the principle that a high-work-function cathode preferentially emits hot
electrons. Materials available have a work function of 0.7eV or higher, which limits the use to the higher
temperature ranges (>500K). Vacuum thermionic devices based on resonant tunnelling have cooling
2
capabilities of 20 to 30°C with kW/cm cooling power densities achievable. However, since the operating
2 2
currents for the device are as high as 105A/cm , effects such as Joule heating (I R) at the
metal-semiconductor contact resistance and reverse heat conduction limit cooling to <1°C.
Devices based on quantum tunnelling through a small gap, with the spacing between the cathode and the
anode of the order of 10 nm provide much larger cooling power than thermoelectric superlattice coolers,
2
specifically 10kW/cm for 50K cooling at room temperature.
6.14 Cooling by phase change
Phase change materials and heat accumulators

Phase change materials for electronics thermal management are limited to applications where
time-dependent phenomena play a role.
In the case of heat accumulators, the use of composite materials based on a granulated open-porous
matrix filled with a hygroscopic substance is an approach to accumulate heat. The advantage is a
significant increase in the heat that can be stored as compared to sensible heat (surrounding heat,
potential energy) and latent heat. For example, for a 100°C temperature rise, copper absorbs 40kJ/kg.
Evaporation of water is associated with an absorption of 2260kJ/kg. The enthalpy of a reversible chemical
reaction can reach a value of 7000kJ/kg. A principal advantage of reversible chemical reactions for heat
accumulation is their ability to store the accumulated energy for a long time, if the reaction is controlled by
the presence of either a catalyst or a reagent.
Phase change material thermal properties

When power electronics is operated under transient conditions, increasing the thermal capacitance is a
useful technique for limiting temperature increases and/or minimizing the performance requirements of a
heat sink. An effective method of increasing thermal capacitance is to utilise a material that undergoes a
change of phase at a desirable temperature – at which temperature there is thermal energy transfer
associated with the change of phase. Utilizing phase change for temporary thermal energy storage has
the benefit of allowing heat rejection to occur over a longer time interval, which in turn allows a smaller
heat sink. Examples of phase change that have been used in power electronics cooling include
solid-liquid, liquid-vapour, and solid-solid (for example, crystalline structure to amorphous). A solid-liquid
phase change is most common for systems that require reuse of the phase change material (PCM). The
thermal energy required to melt the PCM is described as the latent heat of fusion and latent heat of
vaporisation is applicable to a liquid to gas phase change. Directing the waste heat from the power
electronics into the PCM can result in a near isothermal heat sink while the PCM is changing state -
melting or vaporising.
Selecting a PCM requires knowing the range of expected temperatures (the melt or vapour temperature of
the PCM must be high enough such that state change does not occur until needed). Another specification
is duration index, DI, which is a comparison of time of the PCM at constant temperature during the phase
change.
h 
DI  f (6.36)
T
The list of candidates is restricted when issues such as material compatibility, electrical conductivity,
toxicity, availability of thermal property data, and cost are considered.
Heat of fusion (solid to liquid)
Desirable characteristics of a solid-liquid PCM include high heat of fusion per volume (DI), congruent
melting and freezing characteristics, high thermal conductivity, minimal supercooling, and low thermal
expansion. Table 6.17 lists four categories of solid-liquid PCMs with melting temperatures in the range of
40° to 120°C, with water characteristics provide as a reference.
The main drawback of metal eutectic PCMs is high density, resulting in heavy package solutions. Salt
hydrates have handling and safety issues. Two salt hydrates with high volumetric heat of fusion are
6 3 6 3
Lithium Nitrate Trihydrate (679×10 J/m ) and Barium Hydroxide Octahydrate (656×10 J/m ). The first is a
severe oxidizer with a moderate health rating and the second carries a severe health warning. The organic
non-paraffin category has the largest variability. Acetamide is an example of a non-paraffin organic PCM
that melts at 81°C and has only moderate handling and material compatibility issues.
The organic paraffins represent a reasonable compromise between handling and performance and are
available in a wide range of melt temperatures. In general, higher melt temperature paraffins are more
expensive, especially for high purity levels. The low thermal conductivity of these materials usually
requires the use of an imbedded matrix material to help conduct heat into the PCM. The volume change
between solid and liquid states limits their packaging density.
Table 6.17: General solid-liquid PCM thermo-physical characteristics
Inorganic Organic Organic Inorganic Inorganic

property
water paraffin non-paraffin salt hydrate metal eutectic
Phase change temperature °C 0 37 2 - 164 7 - 117 <0
Latent heat of fusion hf kJ / kg 334 230 - 290 120 - 240 170 - 340 30 - 90
3
kJ / m
Latent heat of vap hfv 2 22.7 190 - 240 140 - 430 250 - 660 300 - 800
x 10
3
Density ρℓ kg / m 1000 ≈ 810 900 -1800 900 - 2200 ≈ 8000
Thermal conductivity λ W / mK 0.6 ≈ 0.25 ≈ 0.2 0.6 - 1.2 ≈ 20
3
Duration Index DI J/ m K 13.32 2.96 5.44
Thermal expansion low high moderate low low
Congruent melt yes yes some do most do not yes
Supercool yes no no most do no
Corrosion low low some are highly some are
Toxicity no no some are highly some are
Simple to use Cheap
Advantages
No nucleating agent Non-flammable
Careful preparation
More expensive
Disadvantages Need stabilising
Some combustible
additives
Table 6.18: Heat of vaporization at standard temperature and pressure (see Table 6.12)
Substance Boiling Point Heat of Vaporization

°C kJ / kg
Helium -268.9 21
Hydrogen -252.8 461
Nitrogen -195.8 199
Propane -42.1 427
R12 -38.8 165
Ammonia -33 1369
R134a -26 178
Fluoroketone 49 88
Acetone 56 518
FC-72 56 88
Methanol 64.7 1100
Ethanol 78.4 846
Water 100 2256
Ethylene glycol 197 800
Glycerine 290 974
Mercury 347 295
Heat of vaporization (liquid to vapour)
The energy required to change a substance from a liquid state to a vapour state is termed the heat of
vaporization, and is directly related to overcoming the intermolecular bonding forces in the liquid state. The
energy released when a vapour is condensed to a liquid is equal to the heat of vaporization but has an
opposite sign and is commonly termed the heat of condensation. The most common applications of this
thermodynamic property in power electronics cooling are associated with boiling heat transfer.
Compared to a solid to liquid phase change, the volume change associated with a liquid to vapour phase
change is significantly larger, often greater than two orders of magnitude. Even though heats of
vaporization are typically larger than heats of fusion for a particular material, the large volume change
limits the ability to take advantage of this property for simple thermal energy storage. When it is not
required to contain and reuse the vapour, such as in a single use application, expendable coolants that
undergo a liquid-vapour phase change as they absorb heat are a consideration.
More common in power electronics cooling, the use of heat of vaporization occurs in closed systems
where heat removal is augmented by the vaporization property and then released elsewhere in the system
when the vapour is condensed. Examples for cooling hardware using this property include heat pipes,
pumped refrigerant, and spray cooling. The operating pressure of these systems can be adjusted to
provide an attractive boiling point for the coolant. Desirable qualities for a coolant that will operate in a
two-phase mode include a high heat of vaporization, acceptable boiling temperature and pressure, low
corrosion potential, low toxicity, environmentally friendly, and low cost. The heat of vaporization and
melting temperature for several common substances at standard temperature and pressure are listed in
Table 6.18.
Reading list
Fishenden, M. and Saunders, 0. A., An Introduction to Heat Transfer,

Oxford University Press, 1982.
http://www.electronics-cooling.com
http://www.qats.com/qpedia.asp
http://www.lytron.com/
http://www.aavidthermalloy.com/
http://www.1-act.com/
http://pcmproducts.net/
6.15 Appendix: Properties of substrate and module materials

Zn Ag
pure metals
liquids
Ni Al
liquids
alloys
liquids
plastics ice oxides
liquids
nonmetallic solids
liquids
Foams fibres
liquids
insulation systems
Oils H2 O Hg
liquids
liquids
CO2 H2
liquids
gases
liquids
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

Thermal conductivity W /mK
Table 6.19: Coolant properties
Specific Heat Density Thermal Conductivity

Material cp ρℓ λ
3
J/kgK kg/m W/mK
Coolanol 25 1,838 903 0.12
Diala-X 1,840 870 0.14
20/80 EGW Solution 3,817 1023 0.57
50/50 EGW Solution 3,283 1064 0.39
Fluorinert®, FC-77 1,028 1771 0.063
Hydraulic Oil 1,842 868 0.12
Polyalphaolefin 2,180 794 0.14
SAE 10W Oil 1,901 875 0.12
SAE 30W Oil 1,901 875 0.12
Stainless Steel, 316 500 8025 16.20
Water, H2O 4,184 998 0.59
Air 1,008 1.1 0.27
Mercury 137 13,800 137
CONVERSIONS
STATIC PRESSURE
1 mmH2O = 0.0394 inch H2O
1 mmH2O = 9.8 Pa
1 mmH2O = 25.4 mm H2O
1 Pa = 0.102 mm H2O
1 inch H2O = 249 Pa
2 -5 -6 2 2 -5 −6
1 Pa ≡ 1 N/m = 10 bar = 10 N/mm = 0.102 kp/m = 0.987×10 atm = 0.0075 Torr = 145.04×10 psi
AIRFLOW
3 3
1 m /min = 35.31 ft /min (cfm)
3
1 cfm = 0.0283 m /min
3
1 m /min = 16.67 litre /s
1 cfm = 0.472 litre /s
3
1 litre /s = 0.06 m /min
1 cfm = 1.7m³/h
1 litre/s = 3.6 m³/h
1 m³/s = 3600 m³/h
Table 6.20 Heat pipe working fluids
Boiling point @
medium Melting point Useful range
atmospheric pressure
°C °C °C
Helium -271 -261 -271 to -269
Nitrogen -210 -196 -203 to -160
Ammonia -78 -33 -60 to 100
Pentane -130 28 -20 to 120
Acetone -95 57 0 to 120
Methanol -98 64 10 to 130
Flutec PP” -50 76 10 to 160
Ethanol -112 78 0 to 120
Heptane -90 98 0 to 130
Water 0 100 0 to 150
Toluene -95 110 30 to 200
Flutec PP9 -70 160 50 to 200
Thermex 12 257 0 to 225
Mercury -39 361 150 to 350
Caesium 29 670 250 to 650
Potassium 62 774 500 to 1000
Sodium 98 892 600 to 1200
Lithium 179 1340 1000 to 1800
Silver 960 2212 1800 to 2300
Problems
1 Explain the difference between fans, blowers, and compressors.

Which fan is used for moving flows against relatively low pressures?
2
(a) radial fan (b) backward inclined fan (c) forward curved fan (d) axial fan
If efficiency is the main consideration, which fan is selected?
3
Which fan is ideally suited for dusty conditions?
4
System resistance refers to
5
(a) static pressure (b) velocity pressure (c) total pressure (d) differential pressure
System resistance varies as
6
(a) square of flow rate (b) cube of flow rate (c) proportional to the square root (d) directly with flow rate
The intersection of the system characteristic curve and the fan operating curve is called
7
(a) design point (b) operating point (c) free flow point (d) shut off point
Varying the rpm of a fan by 10% varies the pressure by
8
(a) 19% (b) 29% (c) 10% (d) no change
Varying the RPM of a fan by 10% varies the flow by
9
(a) 27% (b) 20% (c) 30% (d) no change
Varying the rpm of a fan by 10% varies the power by
10
(a) 27% (b) 37% (c) 10% (d) no change
11 Explain the factors which change the system resistance.
12 What are the affinity laws as applied to centrifugal fans?

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CHAPTER 6

High Performance Cooling

forced convection jet water boiling

6.1 Conduction and heat spreading

50 6x6 800 2500

6.2.1 Required heat-sink thermal resistance

6.2.2 Heat-sink selection

Table 6.1: Range of volumetric thermal resistance

flow condition volumetric resistance

6.2.3 Heat sink types

Heat sinks separate into three broad categories:

Modified die-casted fins:

Table 6.2: Feature of different types of heatsinks

6.2.4 Heatsink fin geometry

Figure 6.4. Geometry of the plate fin heat sink analysed.

4.6 2.8 2.2 1.9 1.75 1.6

5.4 2.2 1.1 0.6 0.25 0.04

Figure 6.5. Typical thermal characteristic plot for a heat sink:

Table 6.3: Process capabilities for different manufacturing techniques

Conventional Processes Modern Processes

min t, mm 1 1.75 0.75 0.25 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.5

min s, mm 6.6 8.3 0.8 1.25 0.2 1 2 1

Figure 6.6. Cost versus required thermal resistance.

Table 6.4: Range of heat transfer efficiencies

Heat sink type

6.2.5 Thermal performance graph

Figure 6.7. Typical finned heatsink thermal performance graphs.

6.3 Heatsink cooling enhancements

6.4 Heatsink fan and blower air-cooling

 More efficient and develops higher capabilities

 Cylindrical tube with downstream is not critical

velocity pressure to static of wide open volume. This volume

 HVAC, as for airfoil types

configuration as airfoil where airfoil blade may

backward curved fans. Curve dips

VOLUME FLOW RATE

Axial flow Radial flow Cross flow

The fan curve

Pa Normal operating range

flow rate/ air volume

6.4.1 Fan selection

Estimate the required airflow

The basic heat transfer equation is:

Estimate the actual system airflow

Determining system impedance

Impact of varying system impedance

Multiple fans - series and parallel operation

6.4.2 The fan (affinity) laws

where CR = correction factor

Table 6.6: Basic fan laws, scaling

Variable Constants Fan Laws

Example 6.1: Fan laws

The new flow rate, from equation (6.9), is

The equation for determining mechanical efficiency is:

Table 6.7 Fan peak efficiencies

Fan type Peak efficiency range, %

Airfoil backward curved/inclined 79-83

Modified radial 72-79

Pressure blower 58-68

Forward curved 60-65