Integrated Science BK

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INTRODUCTION TO INTEGRATED
SCIENCE
to pursue research simply to satisfy the

Specific Objectives thirst for knowledge.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
 Explain the various interrelated branches of
- Applied science, involves scientists
science and their importance to life. working on practical issues based on
 Apply the scientific method to arrive at scientific researches conducted.
solutions to everyday problems.
 Follow basic safety precautions in the laboratory.
Our discussions will focus mostly on the
pure science, which includes:
Physics: Deals with the fundamental

constituents of the universe, the forces they
INTRODUCTION exert on one another, and the results
produced by these forces. Branches under
Science refers to a system of acquiring Physics include Mechanics, Electricity,
knowledge through observation and Quantum Mechanics, Nuclear Physics,
experimentation to describe and explain High-Energy Physics, etc.
natural activities and phenomena. The term
science also refers to the organized body of Chemistry: The study of the composition,
knowledge people have gained using that structure, properties, and interactions of
system. Science often describes any matter.
systematic field of study or the knowledge Some branches under Chemistry are
gained from it. Biochemistry, Organic Chemistry,
inorganic Chemistry, Analytical
There are two major fields of science: Chemistry, Physical Chemistry etc.
- Pure or basic science, involves scientists
working primarily at academic institutions
1 Introduction to integrated Science Samking
Biology: This is referred to as the science For example, in controlling a malaria

of life. It is the study of living organisms epidemic, the knowledge in Biology will
(i.e. how they live and interact with each help to know the cause of the disease. The
other). In studying living organisms (which knowledge in Chemistry will be used in
are made up of plants and animals) creating a vaccine. In making the vaccine
biologists put them into groups known as presentable, the knowledge in Physics is
classification. Branches under Biology are used, and then finally, coming out with a
Genetics, Ecology, Zoology, Taxonomy, dosage involves the calculative knowledge
Entomology etc. in Mathematics.
In Integrated Science, these areas
Earth Science: The field of study collectively have been further grouped into
concerned with the planet Earth or one or five sections, namely:
more of its parts. It includes the study of
the atmosphere, biosphere (i.e. the zone at 1. Diversity of Matter
or near Earth‘s surface that supports life), 2. Cycles
hydrosphere (i.e. the ice, water, and water 3. Systems
vapour at or near Earth‘s surface), 4. Energy
lithosphere (i.e. the solid portion of Earth) 5. Interactions in Nature
and space beyond the atmosphere.
Branches under Earth Science include
GROUP ACTIVITY:
Environmental Science, Meteorology, Students to work in groups to design and
Geography, Hydrology, Oceanography, draw diagrams to show the inter-
relationship between the various
etc. branches of Science and Technology.
Groups to display their work in class for

THE CONCEPT OF INTEGRATED discussion.
SCIENCE
As the name implies, Integrated Science as
a subjects taught at the senior high school CAREERS IN SCIENCE AND
level combines the major areas of science, TECHNOLOGY
which includes biology, chemistry,
physics, mathematics and Agricultural Arguably, there are more career paths and
Science. Gaining basic knowledge in the specialties under science and technology
above areas helps one to solve some basic than there are in any other discipline. Some
problems. of the careers open to science and
technology are as follows:
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Engineering Technologist, Veterinarian, Zoologist,

Aerospace Engineer, Electrical and Wildlife Biologist, Plant Scientist, etc.
Electronic Engineer, Civil Engineer,
Environmental Engineer, Industrial Physical Science
Engineer, Marine Architect Engineer, Astronomer; Audio and Video Equipment;
Material Scientist and Engineer, Nuclear Technician; Aviation Inspector; Chemist;
Engineer, Mechanical Engineer, Petroleum Chemical Technician; Electrician; Film
Engineer, etc and Video Editor; Food Science
Technician; Pilot; Food Scientist or
Technologist; Physicist; Forensic Science
Technician; Nuclear Power Reactor
Operator; Occupational Health and Safety
Specialists; Power Distributors and
Dispatcher; Power Plant Operator; Ship
and Boat Captain; Sound Engineering
Technician
Earth & Environmental Science

Aquacultural Manager; Diver; Geographer
Fig 1.0: An engineer in a laboratory Emergency Management Specialist;
Hydrologist; Environmental Compliance
Mathematics and Computer Science Inspector; Geoscientist; Industrial Health
Computer Hardware Engineer, & Safety Engineer; Meteorologist; Park
Mathematician, Multimedia Artist, Range; Soil Scientist Soil and Water
Network Systems and Data Conservationist; Surveyor; etc.
Communications Analyst, Software
Quality Assurance Engineer, Statistician, All these and many more are the career
etc opportunities available in science.
Life Science
SOME PROMINENT SCIENTISTS
Animal Breeder, Medical Doctor, SCIENCE
Anthropologist, Biochemist, Biologist; In Ghana:
Dietitian or Nutritionist, Natural Sciences  Professor Nii Narku Quaynor: A
Epidemiologist, Health Educator, scientist and engineer who has played
Physician, Microbiologist, Pharmacist, an important role in the introduction
Physical Therapist, Nuclear Medicine
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and development of the Internet  Albert Einstein: He was responsible

throughout Africa. for the special and general theory of
relativity, and his work on the
 Professor Francis Kofi Ampenyin photoelectric effect. He also invented a
Allotey: Physicist, Mathematician. few devices like Einstein calculator.
Pioneered the introduction of computer
science in Ghana. Worked as the  Charles Babbage: He was an English
chairman of Ghana Atomic Energy mathematician, philosopher, inventor
Commission and at the International and mechanical engineer who came up
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Also with the concept of a programmable
chaired the Council of Scientific and computer and is said to have invented
Industrial Research. the first mechanical computer.
 Dr. Isaiah Blankson: Physicist;  Thomas Edison: An American inventor

engineers of jet and rocket powered who developed several devices like the
engines. Works at the National electric light bulb and the phonograph.
Aeronautic and Space Administration
(NASA).
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
SCIENCE
 Prof. Kwesi Andam: Civil and The scientific method is a step by step
Structural Engineer. Former Vice experimentation process that is used to
Chancellor of KNUST. explore observations and answer questions.
Scientists use the scientific method to
 Prof Ivan Addae-Mensah: former Vice search for cause and effect relationships in
Chancellor of the University of Ghana. nature. In other words, they design an
He chaired the National Petroleum experiment so that changes to one item
Authority. cause something else to vary in a
predictable way.
Prominent International Scientists The steps to the scientific method are:
 Sir Isaac Newton: Discovered gravity
and the law of gravitation. He also i. State the problem: You cannot solve
propounded the three famous laws of a problem until you know exactly
motion and the laws of friction. what it is. For example My Problem
is – my back-pack is too heavy.
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ii. Research the problem: What will it Did you make a poor selection?
take to solve my problem? Was your experiment flawed?
What do I know, and need to know, Form another hypothesis based on
about my problem? additional research.
To solve my problem, "I have to Test your new hypothesis.
examine the content of the bag". Continue this process until the problem is
solved.
iii. Form a hypothesis: A possible
solution to my problem.
Problem
The simplest solution is often the best
solution!
"the cause of the overweight is the Research
extra books I bought today".
iv. Test the hypothesis: Perform an Form Hypothesis

experiment to see if your hypothesis
works.
Test Hypothesis
"remove the extra books from the
bag".
Draw Conclusion
v. Draw conclusions from the data:
Fig. 1.1: The scientific method
Data are the results of an experiment.
In its simplest form, there are only two
Application of scientific method
possibilities:
 State the problem: People get sick
If your hypothesis was correct, you will
from drinking from the well.
now have a lighter bag. PROBLEM
 Research the problem: Is it really the
SOLVED!
water from the well that is making
On the other hand, if your hypothesis was
them sick? Test the water from the
incorrect, the experiment failed.
well.
DON'T GIVE UP! DO MORE
 Form a hypothesis: The cause of the
RESEARCH!
disease is the water from the well.
 Test the hypothesis: Get a sample of
What was wrong with your original
the water from the well, treat it and
hypothesis?
distribute it.
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 Draw conclusion: The disease stopped The discovery of radioactivity

after the people had drunk the treated The discovery of radioactivity was another
water. Therefore, the hypothesis is breakthrough in science. The phenomenon
correct – the water from the well is not was discovered in 1896 by the French
well treated to be drunk. physicist Antoine Henri Becquerel when he
observed that the element uranium can
If after treating the water sample and given blacken a photographic plate, although
it out to the people the disease still persists, separated from it by glass or black paper.
another hypothesis has to be drawn. He also observed that
The scientific method has been used over the rays that produce
the years by scientists in coming out with the darkening are
great inventions and discoveries. capable of discharging
an electroscope,
The discovery of penicillin indicating that the rays
The research of Alexander Fleming in possess an electric
1928 led to the discovery of penicillin, an charge.
important antibiotic derived from the Antoine Henri Becquerel
mould Penicillum notatum.

Alexander Fleming used the scientific In 1898 the French chemists Marie Curie
method in discovering penicillin. His and Pierre Curie deduced that radioactivity
observation that the mould contaminating is a phenomenon associated with atoms,
one of his culture plates had destroyed the independent of their physical or chemical
bacteria laid the basis for the development state. They also deduced that because the
of penicillin therapy. uranium-containing ore pitchblende is
more intensely radioactive than the
Penicillin is effective uranium salts that were used by Becquerel,
against a wide range of other radioactive elements must be in the
disease-causing ore. They carried through a series of
bacteria. Penicillin acts chemical treatments of the pitchblende that
by killing bacteria resulted in the
directly or by inhibiting discovery of two new
their growth. Sir Alexander Fleming radioactive elements,
polonium and radium.
Marie Curie also
discovered that the
element thorium is
Marie Curie
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radioactive, and in 1899 the radioactive

element actinium was discovered by the
PROJECT WORK
French chemist André Louis Debierne Students to form small groups to investigate
a common problem in the community e.g.
frequent flooding, and apply scientific
In that same year the discovery of the method to arrive at a solution to the problem.
radioactive gas radon was made by the Students can also select problems of interest
to them and investigate.
British physicists Ernest Rutherford and
Frederick Soddy, who observed it in
association with thorium, actinium, and
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN THE
radium.
LABORATORY
SCIENCE
The discovery of flotation For an experiment to be successful, one
Archimedes, a Greek mathematician and needs a well equipped laboratory. Even
inventor, live around 287-212 B.C. The era though they cannot be done without;
when science was not very popular. nevertheless, equipments, structures and
Archimedes is credited with important chemicals in the laboratory may be
contributions to the development of hazardous to humans. Therefore care
physics. He is known for applying science should be taken at the laboratory.
to everyday life, developing practical
inventions such as the lever and the screw. The following guidelines give some
These simple machines have found uses as precautions to be taken at the laboratory:
diverse as warfare and irrigation. 1) Wear protective clothing: laboratory
Archimedes is said to have discovered the coat, shoes and goggles are to be worn
principle of water displacement while to protect the skin, feet and eyes
taking a bath, shouting ―Eureka!‖ when he respectively.
realized why his body caused the level of
the water to rise. 2) Do not eat or drink in the laboratory:
food samples in the laboratory may be
In all the discoveries discussed above, the treated with poisonous substances
scientific method was invariably employed. which when eaten may harm the body.
It goes to show that (real) scientists cannot
do away with the scientific method. 3) Do not smell an unknown gas: some
gases are very poisonous or choking
and if smelled may cause some
discomfort to the body.
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4) Point the mouth and opening of test instructor before doing or touching
tubes and bottles away from yourself or anything.
other people: this is to prevent spilling
chemicals and other substances on
people. PROJECT WORK
Carry out demonstrations on safety
precautions in the use of the Laboratory;
5) Do not touch chemicals with bare laboratory equipment, chemicals etc.
hands: some chemicals are corrosive
and if they come in contact with the
body may burn the skin.
6) Do not touch hot substances with bare

TEST QUESTIONS
hands: a test tube holder, tong or cloth
is the best apparatus for holding hot 1. State five precautions to be taken at the
thing at the laboratory. This will laboratory.
prevent burns.
2. (a) What is the scientific method?
7) Wipe off any spilled substance: if a (b) Mention the steps in the scientific
substance spills on the floor, make sure method.
to wipe it dry in order to prevent (c) Discuss how you will use the
slippage and falling. scientific method in controlling
congestion in our streets.
8) Rinse off any chemical which comes in
contact with your skin: If a chemical is 3. Discuss the concept of integrated
accidentally spilled on you, or you science.
accidentally touch a chemical, make
sure that it is rinsed off with plenty of 4. Give one reason why each of the
water. following precautions should be taken
in the laboratory:
9) Study and read all safety signs, warning (a) Do not eat or drink in the
and precautions at the laboratory before laboratory.
using it. (b) Do not smell an unknown gas.
(c) Do not touch chemicals with bare
10) Follow every instruction to the latter: hands.
always listen to the teacher or (d) Wipe off any spilled substance.
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(e) Point the mouth and opening of test

tubes and bottles away from
yourself or other people.
(f) Rinse off any chemical which

comes in contact with your skin
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MEASUREMENT
system of units measurement known in

Specific Objectives French as the Le Systēme International
 Use the SI unit in all measurements. d’Unitēs (International System of Units),
 Use scientific measuring instruments abbreviated to SI.
accurately.
 Measure density and relative density.
SI units are described as standard units. A
standard unit is a unit that is understood
and accepted globally.
BASIC AND DERIVED UNITS

INTRODUCTION
In the S.I system, there are two main units
of measurements – the basic and the
If all the countries in the world are ever
derived units.
going to speak one language then that will
be promoted by measurement.
Basic units of the SI system
Measurement is the process of calculating

Basic units are the units from which other
the size, rate, effect etc. of something by
units can be obtained.
comparing their quantity to a fixed
quantity.
They are also known as the fundamental
units. In the SI system, there are seven
Quantities which can be measured include
basic units.
length, mass, temperature, time, etc. These
Each of the basic unit has a symbol and an
are known as physical quantities.
SI unit in which it is measured.
Knowing the correct measurements of
some quantities was a global problem until
the introduction and adoption of a new
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2 Measurement Samking
Table 1.0: Base quantities, their corresponding SI

USING MEASURING
units, and their symbols
INSTRUMENTS
Base quantity SI unit SI unit
symbol
Different quantities have different
Length metre m
mass kilogram kg
instruments with which they are measured.
time second s
Electric current ampere A The instruments used to measure length are
Thermodynamic kelvin K the metre rule, the surveyor‘s tape,
temperature measuring tape, ruler etc.
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of mole mol
substance
The vernier calliper measure short
distances, internal and external diameters
Derived units of hollow objects. It measures to the
Apart from the base units, there are other precision of 0.1 mm.
units which are derived from the base
units. These are called the derived units. The micrometer screw gauge on the other
Derived units are units which are hand is used to measure extremely short
obtained from the base units. distances to the precision of 0.01 mm. It
can therefore be used to measure the
It is a combination of two or more base thickness of paper, cloth, etc. The vernier
units or a base unit and a derived unit. calliper and the micrometer screw gauge
are known as the precision instruments.
Table 1.1: Derived quantities and their SI units
Quantity SI unit Symbol Expressed Thermometers are used to know the
in SI unit temperature of an object.
-2
Force Newton N N = kg.m.s
Hydrometers measure the densities of
Work and joule J J= N.m
energy
liquids.
1
Power watt W W = J.s-
Quantity of coulom C C = A.s Balances are used to measure the mass of
electricity b an object. Some examples of balances are
-1
Electric volt V V = W.A beam balance, top pan balance, electronic
potential
-1 balance.
Electric ohm Ω W = V. A
resistance
The volumes of liquids are measured with
Volume cubic m
3
V = m.m.m measuring cylinder, pipette, burette,
metre volumetric flask, beaker etc.
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Table 1.2: Some quantities and the instruments used to measure them
Quantity Measuring Unit Sub-unit
instruments
Length Metre rule metre (m) centimetre (cm)
surveyor’s tape millimetre (mm)
Vernier calliper
micrometer screw
gauge
Mass Beam balance kilogram (kg) gram (g)
Electronic balance
Lever balance
Time Stop clocks and second (s) millisecond (ms)
watches
Wrist watch
Wall clock
3 3
Volume Pipette cubic centimetre (cm ) cubic millimetre (mm )
burette or milliliter (ml)
Measuring cylinder
Temperature Absolute thermometer Kelvin (K)
Celsius thermometer degrees celsius (C)
Clinical thermometer
Atmospheric pressure Mercury barometer pascal (Pa)
Aneroid barometer
Electric potential voltmeter volt (V) millivolt (mV)
Electric current ammeter ampere (A) milliampere (mA)
Luminous intensity photometer Candela (cd)
Amount of substance mole (mol)
Concept of replication of results Human values that are of importance

It is very important for experiments to be to science
repeated by various scientists. This is 1. Honesty
because a mistake or miscalculation by one 2. Integrity
scientist will hardly be repeated by others. 3. Truthfulness
Therefore replication of result is necessary 4. Resourcefulness
to: 5. Patience
 Make better predictions 6. Amicability
 Add to scientific knowledge
 Ensure accurate and consistent result
 Arrive at hypothesis
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beam balance electronic balance lever balance
mercury barometer stop watch ammeter voltmeter
vernier calliper micrometer screw gauge surveyor’s tape
hydrometer
Fig. 1.3: Basic measuring instruments
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How to obtain the unit of some DENSITY

quantities
The density of a substance is it mass per
Volume of a: unit volume.
Rectangular block = l x b x h = m x m x m=m3
Density is expressed mathematically as:
Cylinder = πr2h = m x m x m = m3 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑴
Density = or ρ=
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑽
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Sphere = 3πr3h = m3
Where, ρ = density, M = mass, and
1 V = Volume.
Cone = 3πr2h = m3
Density is measured in kilogram per cubic
Work (J) =force x distance = Nm metre (kg/m3 or kgm-3).
Remember that the SI unit of mass is kg,
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝐽
Potential difference (V) =
𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
=
𝐶 and that of volume is m3. Therefore mass
per volume (mass/volume) is kg/m3.
Quantity of electricity (C) = Current x Time= As
Measuring the Density of Liquid
𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Electrical resistance (Ω) =  Measure the mass of a clean
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
= 𝐴
𝑉 measuring cylinder as M1
 Pour a known volume of liquid into the
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝐽 measuring cylinder.
Power (W) = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠  Record that as V.
 Measure the mass of both beaker and
Force (N)= mass x acceleration = kg x ms-2
liquid. Record it as M2
Area = length x breadth = l x b = m2 Hence:
Mass of liquid (M) = Mass of beaker and
Velocity =
𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
= ms-1 liquid (M2) – Mass of beaker (M1)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
i.e. M = M2 – M1
Volume of liquid = V
PROJECT WORK
Use a ruler, balances, stop watches, 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
thermometer, ammeter, measuring cylinder, Therefore, density of liquid (ρ) =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
calipers, pipettes, burette, hydrometer etc. to
measure quantities in various units. (𝑀2 – 𝑀1)
ρ =
𝑉
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Density of regular objects

A regular object is an object which has
uniform dimensions that can be
determined with a ruler.
To find the density of a regular object,

Fig. 1.4: Determining density of irregular objects
example a book,
 Find its volume by multiplying its
Alternative Method
length, breadth and height.
 Measure and record the mass of the
 With the aid of a balance, measure the
irregular object as M.
mass of the book.
 Fill a Eureka can with water till it
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑘
Hence, density = overflows.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑏𝑜 𝑜𝑘
 Place an empty measuring cylinder
Density of Irregular Objects below the sprout of the Eureka can.
Irregular objects are objects which do not  Tie a string around the irregular object
have definite dimensions. Examples are and lower it gently into the Eureka can.
stone, fragment of glass or metal, a piece  Record the volume of water that
of coal, etc. overflows into the measuring cylinder
as V.
Procedure:
Calculation
object as M Density (ρ) of the irregular object
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑀)
 Pour water into a measuring cylinder = Volume (V)
and record the volume as V1
 Tie a string around the irregular object
and lower it gently into the measuring
cylinder.
 Record the level of water as V2.
Calculation
Mass of the object = M
Volume of the object = V2 – V1
Density (ρ) of the irregular object =
Fig. 1.5: The Eureka can method
Mass (M) of the object/ Volume (V2 – V1)
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Density of a Soil Sample Alternative method

 Measure and record the mass of an  Measure and record the mass of the
empty rectangular box as M1. soil sample as M.
 Fill up the rectangular box with the soil  Pour water into a measuring cylinder.
sample.  Record the volume of water as V1.
 Measure and record the mass of the  Pour the soil sample into the water
box containing the soil sample as M2. and record the new volume as V2.
 Hence, the mass (M) of the soil sample  The volume, V, of the soil sample
= M2 – M1 = V2 –V1
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
The volume is determined by measuring Density of the soil sample = Volume
the length, breath and height of the inside 𝑀
ρ=
of the rectangular box. This is done 𝑉2− 𝑉 1
because the box is filled up with the soil
sample. Hence, the volume (V) of the soil NB: To find the mass of a substance, make
sample = Lx B x H of the inside of the mass the subject of the relation ρ = M/V by
multiplying through by V. i.e. M = ρV
rectangular box.
To make volume the subject, multiply
through the relation by V and divide
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density of soils sample = Volume through by ρ; i.e. V = M / ρ
(𝑀2 – 𝑀1 )
ρ=
𝑉
Solved questions
1. Find the density of a piece of rock
which measures 70 g, and when put into
a measuring cylinder containing 32 cm3
of water, the water level rose to 67 cm3.
Solution:
Mass of the rock = 70 g
Volume of water without rock = 32 cm3
(V1)
Volume of water with rock = 67 cm3 (V2)
Volume of stone = V2 – V1
Fig. 1.6: Determining density of soil sample
= 67 - 32 = 35 cm3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Hence, the density of the rock = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
16
Substituting: = 59.70 kg/m3

70
Density (ρ) = 35 = 2 gcm-3
4. The bulb of a simple pendulum has a
2. The mass of a ball bearing is 2.0 kg, its volume and a mass of 38 cm3 and 19 g.
volume is recorded as 1.6 m3. Calculate Find its density in gcm-3 and kgm-3.
its density.
Solution:
Solution: 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 19
Density = = = 0.5 gcm-3
Mass of the ball bearing = 2.0 kg 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 38
Volume of ball bearing = 1.6 m3

To convert gcm-3 to kgm-3, multiply by
1000.
Therefore, density of the ball berry
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀
= volume or ρ = Thus 0.5 gcm-3 to kgm-3 will be
of ball bearing 𝑉
0.5 x 1000 = 500
20
ρ = 1.6 = 1.25 kgm-3
Therefore density in kgm-3 = 500 kgm-3
3. A sphere of diameter 0.8 m, has a mass

Alternative method
of 16 kg. Determine its density.
4 22
Density in kgm-3.
(Volume of sphere = 3𝜋𝑟 3 ;, π= 7 ) 19
Mass = 19 g = 1000 = 19  10-3
Solution: 30
Volume = 38 cm3 = 1000000 = 30  10-6
Half of a diameter is a radius. Therefore, to
find the radius of the sphere, divide its 19  10−3
Density = = 500 kgm-3
diameter by 2. 38  10−6
0.8
Thus, = 0.4 m
2
5. The density of a bag of cement which
has a mass of 50 kg is 3.2 kg/m3. Find
Hence, volume of the sphere
4 22 the volume of the bag of cement.
= x x 0.43 = 0.268 m3
3 7
Solution:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density = Mass = 50 kg
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
16 Volume= ?
=
0.268 Density = 3.2 kg/m3
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𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 Relative density can be defined as ratio of
Density(ρ) =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 mass of a substance to the mass of equal
volume of water.
We have to find the volume so we make V
the subject of the relation. Mass of a body is proportional to its
weight, therefore, with that it can be said
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Volume (V) = that:
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
Relative density is the ratio of the weight
50
of a substance to the weight of equal
V = 3.2 = 15.625 m3 volume of water.
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
Relative density =
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
RELATIVE DENSITY
Relative density has no units.
Relative density is the ratio of the density
of a substance to the density of equal
Measuring relative density of an irregular
volume of water.
object
Procedure:
Relative density of a substance is the
comparison of the density of the substance
irregular object as M1.
to the density of water. Mathematically,
 Measure and record the mass of an
𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 empty beaker as M2.
Relative density =  Fill a Eureka can to overflow.
𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
 Place the empty beaker below the
Given the volume of a substance and water spout of a Eureka can.
only, relative density can be expressed as:  Tie the irregular object with a thread
and lower it gently into the Eureka can.
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆  Measure the mass of the beaker and
Relative density =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
the overflowed water as M3.
Since volume substance is the same as
volume of water, it can be expressed as: Calculation:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 Relative density = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Relative density = 𝑀1
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 RD = (𝑀3−𝑀2)
Hence,
18
Some substances, such as liquids and  Pour out the liquid from the bottle,
powdered substances, do not have definite rinse it with water, fill it with water,
shapes, therefore, the relative density bottle put the stopper on and wipe it dry.
is used to measure their relative densities.  Measure and record the mass of the
 The relative density bottle has a stopper bottle with water as M3.
with a fine hole through it which
enables excess liquids to run through it Calculation:
when the stopper is  Relative density of liquid = mass of
inserted.
liquid / mass of water
 If the density bottle is
 But, mass of empty bottle = M1
used with the same
 mass of bottle and liquid = M2
liquid level at the top
 mass of bottle and water = M3
of the hole, the volume
will be the same no Therefore, mass of liquid = M2 – M1
matter the liquid that is Mass of water = M3 – M1
(𝑀2 – 𝑀1)
put in, provided there Hence, Relative density = (M3 – M1)
is a constant
temperature. Fig. 1.7:
RD bottle Measuring the Relative Density of
Powdered Solid or Granule
NB: To ensure accurate measurements,
the relative density bottle must always be  Measure and record the mass of a
wiped clean of any liquid, and must not be empty relative density bottle as M1.
handled with warm hands to avoid the lost  Fill the bottle about 1/3 full with the
of liquid through expansion. Get rid of air powdered solid, measure and record
bubbles by shaking, tapping or rotating the mass as M2.
the bottle gently.  Add water to the content of the bottle
to the full; measure the bottle with its
Measuring Relative Density of a Liquid contents and record the mass as M3.
 Weigh and record the mass of an  Empty the bottle of its contents, rinse
empty relative density bottle as M1. with water, fill it with water, measure
 Fill the bottle with the liquid, put the and record the mass as M4.
stopper in place and wipe the bottle
dry. Measure and record the mass of Calculation:
both liquid and bottle as M2. 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
 Relative density =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
19
 Mass of powdered solid = M2 –M1 Since relative density =

 Mass of water = M4 – M1 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
 Mass of water = M3 – M2
 Mass of equal volume of water =
Density of alcohol =
(M4 – M1) – (M3 – M2)
relative density x density of water
= 1.67 x 1000
Relative density of powdered solid =
= 1670 gcm-3
(𝑀2 – 𝑀1)
(M4 – M1) – (M3 – M2)
Converting 1670 g into kilograms,
1670
= 1.67 kg
NB: Density of water is usually expressed 1000
as 1 gcm-3.
Therefore the density of alcohol
1 gcm-3 = 1000 kgm-3 = 1.0x 103 kgm-3
= 1.67 kgm-3
2. The weight of an empty relative density
Solved questions
bottle is 15 N. if the weight increases to
1. A relative density bottle which usually
32 N when filled with pure water, and
measures 2000 g was found to measure
37 N when filled with kerosene.
5000 g when filled with alcohol. It was
Determine the:
later found to measure 7000 g when
i. Volume of the bottle filled with
filled with water. Find the density of
water
alcohol in kilograms?
ii. Density of the kerosene.
(Density of water = 1000 kgm-3)
(Density of water = 1000 kgm-3; g = 10m-2)
Solution
Solution:
Relative density of alcohol
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜 𝑕𝑜𝑙 Weight of pure water = 32 – 15 = 17 N
= 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 Weight of kerosene = 37 – 15 = 22 N
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Mass of alcohol = 7000 – 2000 = 5000g 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

i. Density =
Mass of water = 5000 – 2000 = 3000g 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
5000 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
RD of alcohol = = 1.67 Volume =
3000 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
20
Since we do not know the mass of the Table 1.3: Differences between density and
liquid we will use the following relative density
formula to find it Density Relative density
Weight = mass x gravity -3
Has a unit (kgm ) Has no unit
Weight of liquid = 17 N; A measured Comparison between
gravity = 10 ms-1 quantity two measured
quantities
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔 𝑕𝑡 17 Mass per unit Mass of substance
Mass = = volume of a compared to that of
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 10
substance equal volume of water
M = 1.7 kg Involves only one Involves two
Now back to the formula: substance substances
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 Calculations may Calculations are often
Volume = contain errors accurate
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
1.7
V=
1000
V = 0.0017 m3 or 1.7 x 10 -3 TEST QUESTIONS
ii. Density of kerosene
Relative density = 1. (a) Distinguish between basic and
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 derived units.
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (b) State four basic and four derived
units with their corresponding SI
However, since we have weight instead: units.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔 𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 2. Mention the uses of the measuring

Relative density =
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔 𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 instruments in the table below
17
RD = ; RD = 0.772 Measuring Instrument Uses
22
Micrometer screw gauge
Back to the formula: Stop clock
Relative density = Metre rule
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝐷𝑆) Thermometer
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝐷𝑊) Barometer
Hydrometer
Density of substance (DS) = RD x DW Beam balance
DS = 0.772 x 1000 Ammeter
Newtonmetre
Density of the kerosene = 772. 72 kg/m3
21
Voltmeter 6. State the S.I unit and an instrument you

Photometer will use to measure the following
Measuring cylinder quantities:
Vernier caliper (a) length
(b) volume
3. (a) Mention two differences between (c) mass
density and relative density. (d) mass
(b) Describe briefly how you will (e) temperature
determine the density of a stone. (f) electric current
4. A piece of rock with mass 15 g was (g) luminous intensity
placed in a measuring cylinder (h) voltage
containing 62 cm3 of water. Supposing (i) electric resistance
the water level increased to 85cm3,
what is the density of the stone: 7. Describe how you will:
(a) In gram (a) Determine the density of an
(b) In kilogram irregular object using a eureka
bottle;
5. A clean and empty relative density (b) Calculate the relative density of an
bottle of mass 26.0 g weighs 42 g when unknown liquid.
filled with and unknown liquid of
density 6.3 g/cm3.
(a) Calculate the volume of the bottle.
(b) If another liquid of density 3.6
g/cm3 is used to fill the bottle, find
the mass of the liquid that will fill
the bottle.
22
3
DIVERSITY OF LIVING AND NON-
LIVING THINGS
Example of non-living things are: rock,

Specific Objectives table, car, shoe, etc.
 Use the SI unit in all measurements.
 Use scientific measuring instruments
accurately. LIFE PROCESSES
 Measure density and relative density.
Living things go through seven basic life
processes or activities. They are:
Respiration: The process by which living

organisms break down food substances in
INTRODUCTION the body to release energy with or without
oxygen.
Everything in the world falls under either
of the two categories – living and non- Nutrition: The process by which an
living things, based on their characteristics. organism gets and uses food.
All objects which fall into the category of
living things must have life in them. In Excretion: The process by which an
other words, they must be able to go organism removes metabolic waste
through basic life processes like products from the body.
respiration, nutrition, excretion, etc.
Examples of living thing are: man, lion, Movement: The ability of an organism to
chicken, cat, goat, dog, etc leave one place to another or to change
On the other hand, all objects which fall position of its body or parts of the body.
under the non-living things category are
referred to as inanimate (not living).
23
3 Diversity of Living and Non-living Things Samking
Irritability/ Sensitivity: The ability of Table 1.5: Differences between plants and
living organisms to react to physical animals
changes around them. Plants Animals
Take in carbon Take in oxygen, and
Growth: The irreversible increase in size dioxide during the day give out carbon
and give out oxygen dioxide at all time
and weight of living organisms.
Prepare their own Get their food from
food through plants and other
Reproduction: The ability of organisms to photosynthesis animals
give rise to young ones of the same kind. Only some parts can Can move freely from
move place to place
Table 1.4: Differences between living and non- Do not have special Have special
living things excretory organs excretory organs for
excretion
Living things Non-Living things React slowly to React quickly to
Respires to release stimuli stimuli
Do not respire
energy No uniform growth All the parts grow
Feed Do not feed
Cannot move on
Move on their own
their own CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
Get rid of metabolic
Do not excrete
waste products In general, the term classification is the
Respond to external Do not respond to
process of sorting out things and putting
stimuli. stimuli
Grow Cannot grow them into groups based on their common
Give rise to young ones characteristics.
Do not reproduce
of the same kind. Biological classification, on the other hand,
is the process of sorting out living
Differences between plants and organisms into groups based on their
animals common characteristics.
When we talk of living organisms, we are
talking mainly of plants and animals. Importance of classification
Despite their similarities, plants and 1. Allows things to be described using a
animals have differences. few words.
2. Helps to easily identify and study
organisms.
3. Brings order in naming and identifying
organisms.
24
4. Helps to differentiate one organism His system is based on natural relationship

from the other. and brought together organisms according
5. Allows new organisms to be identified. to the things they have in common.
6. Helps to know the relationship between Organisms are grouped on the basis of their
organisms both within the same or body structure.
different groups. According to Linnaeus' system, every
7. Allows easy communication among organism has got its own two-part Latin
biologists. name called the Binomial System of
8. Brings out potential uses of living and nomenclature (naming). The first part of the
non-living things. name is the genus to which the organism
belongs; and it always begins with a capital
CLASSIFICATION IN BIOLOGY letter. The second part of the name is the
species to which the organism belongs. It
There are different methods of classifying begins with a small letter. Table 1.6 gives
biological information. Modern systems of examples of the two-part Latin name.
biological classification descend from the
thought presented by the Greek philosopher Table 1.6: Examples of the binomial system
Aristotle, who was the first scientist to put Common Genus Species
organisms into groups. Name
Aristotle classified organisms based on their Man Homo sapiens
physical characteristics such as shape, size, Domestic dog Carnies familiaris
colour etc. He also grouped animals House fowl Gallus domesticus
Lion Panthera loo
according to their modes of movement. That
Mango Magnifera indica
is, he placed all land animals (such as man,
Maize Zea mays
dog, rabbit, lion etc.) in one group and Tiger Panthera tigris
flying animals (such birds, bats, insetcs etc African Loxodota cyclotis /
into another. elephant africana
The most commonly used system of Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes/
classification today is the Linnaeus' paniscus
Hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius
classification system called the natural
system of classification, which was
Under the natural system of classification,
developed by Carolus Linnaeus, a Swedish
all organisms belong to seven ranks. The
biologist.
ranks are arranged in increasing order of
similarities among organisms as it
descends. The organisms at the top level
25
(kingdom) have low resemblance whiles General characteristics in biological

the organisms at the bottom level (species) classification
have high resemblance. Another system of classification puts
organisms into five groups:
Kingdom
1. Kingdom Prokaryotae
Increasing order of resemblance

Phylum 2. Kingdom Protoctista
3. Kingdom Fungi
Class
4. Kingdom Plantae
Order 5. Kingdom Animalia
Family
Genus
Fig. 1.8: Order of
Species
classification
Fig. 1.9: Classification of organisms
26
Kingdom Prokaryotae (Monera) Kingdom Fungi

Examples are bacterial, blue-green algae. Examples are fungus, moulds, mushrooms,
rhizopus, penicillium, mucor, yeast.
Characteristics of organisms in
Kingdom Prokaryotae Characteristics of organisms in
1. They are unicellular (single celled) Kingdom Fungi
2. They are microscopic (Very tiny) 1. They are multicellular
3. Have no definite nucleus 2. They have no roots, stem or leaves
4. Cytoplasm is surrounded by membrane 3. Have no chlorophyll
5. Have no membrane around the nucleus 4. Are not photosynthetic (cannot produce
their own food).
Kingdom Protoctista (Protista) 5. Reproduce by mean of spore formation
Examples are Amoeba, Paramecium, 6. Vegetative part, called mycelium
plasmodium, Spirogyra, Euglena, green consist of hyphae.
algae, slime mould, Trypanosoma.
Fig. 2.0: Amoeba Fig. 2.1: Mushroom
Characteristics of organisms in Kingdom Plantae

Kingdom Protoctista Examples of organisms in Kingdom
1. Mostly unicellular (few are Plantae are: flowering plants, ferns, shrubs,
multicellular) mosses etc.
2. Have membrane around nucleus
(Eukaryotic) Characteristics of organisms in
3. Have normal cells, but no tissue or Kingdom Plantae
organs. 1. They are multicellular (have many
cells)
2. Have chlorophyll
27
3. Have definite nucleus Characteristics of organisms in

4. Cell wall made of cellulose Kingdom Animalia
5. They are photosynthetic (prepare their 1. They are multicellular
own food through photosynthesis) 2. Are not photosynthetic
3. Have no cell wall
Kingdom Animalia 4. Have nucleus bound by a membrane
Examples of organisms in Kingdom 5. Do not have chlorophyll
Animalia are: man, birds, fish, snakes
Fig. 1.9: Classification of organisms
28
poliomyelitis, yellow fever, ebola, foot and

VIRUSES
mouth disease in cattle, mosaic disease in
Viruses are tiny organisms that exhibit the cassava and tobacco.
characteristics of both living and non-
living things. They are so small that only Classification in chemistry
microscopes can be used to see them. In chemistry the system of classification of
Viruses do not fall into any of the elements is called the periodic system. The
kingdoms above, because they are not elements are arranged in a table called the
entirely living organisms. periodic table. The elements are arranged
A virus is made up of a strand of in order of increasing atomic number.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or Elements with similar properties are place
ribonucleic acid (RNA), contained in a in vertical columns (called groups) and
sheath of protein. horizontal rows (called periods). Elements
have been classified as metal, non-metals
and semi-metals.
Classification of social groups

A group of humans may also be classified
into social groups. Human societies can be
grouped as family, clan, ethnic group,
class, etc.
Fig. 2.0: Structure of a virus
Family: A social group which consist of a
Characteristics of viruses husband a wife and child or children.
1. They reproduce when they are within
other living cells. Clan: A number of families who believe to
2. They are made up of protein and either have come from a common ancestor.
DNA or RNA.
3. They cannot grow or reproduce on Ethnic group/Tribe: A collection of clans.
their own. Member in an ethnic group may live in the
4. They crystallize when outside a living same area, speak the same language, have
host or cell. the same culture, etc.
5. They lack definite nucleus. Class: A collection of people who have a
common characteristics like education,
All known viruses cause diseases in both wealth, job, power, etc.
plants and animals; examples include
29
Fig. 2.1: Periodic table of elements
The importance of other organisms TEST QUESTIONS

to humans
Humans rely mostly on other organisms to 1. (a) Define biological classification.
satisfy their living in the following areas:
1. Food (b) State four importance of
2. Shelter classification.
3. Fuel
4. Drugs 1. (a) Mention four similarities between
5. Clothing plants and animals.
6. Industrial raw materials (b) State seven differences between
7. Jewellery living and non-living things.
8. Furniture
2. Itemize the five kingdoms in the
natural system of classification and
give one example of organisms found
in each kingdom.
30
3. Mention two differences between 6. Itemize the following under living and
Kingdom Animalia and Kingdom non-living things:
Plantae. man, rock, mosquito, tomato, neem
tree, sock, clock, eel, fan, computer
4. State and explain the seven ranks of
living organisms. 7. Classify the following organisms under
the appropriate kingdoms:
5. (a) What are viruses? maize, octopus, mould, euglena,
(b) Mention three characteristics of centipede, sparrow, bacteria,
viruses.
31
4
MATTER
Specific Objectives STATES / TYPES OF MATTER

 Describe the different building blocks of matter. There are three states of matter. They are:
 Differentiate between elements, compounds  Solid
and mixtures.
 Describe the formation of covalent and ionic  Liquid
compound.  Gas
 Relate atomic numbers, mass numbers,
isotopes and relative atomic mass among each
other. Characteristics of Solids
 Perform calculations using the mole concept. 1. Solids have fixed shapes.
 Prepare solutions of given concentrations.
2. They have fixed volumes.
3. They are very difficult to compress.
4. They have very low rate of diffusion.
5. The molecules that make up solids
have high attraction among them.
6. The molecules are very closely packed
7. The molecules spin and vibrate
INTRODUCTION
Examples of solids are stones, wood,

Everything around us that has the attribute books, man etc.
of gravity and inertia (weight) and the
ability to occupy space (volume) is said to
Characteristics of Liquids
be matter. Therefore by way of definition,
1. Liquids do not have fixed shapes but
matter is anything that has weight and take the shape of the containing vessel
volume. 2. They have fixed volumes (this is
Some matter are visible while others such because they have enough molecular
as air can only be felt but not seen.
attraction to resist force tending to
change their volumes.)
32
4 Matter Samking
3. They have fast rate of diffusion

THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF
4. They are fairly easy to compress.
MATTER
5. Molecules are less closely packed
together. All matter, weather living things or non-
6. They flow. living things are made up of three particles
7. Molecules move fast. called the building blocks or the basic units
8. Molecules move at random. of matter.
The particles are:
Examples of liquids are water, fruit juice,  Atom
urine, petrol, kerosene  molecule
 Ion
Characteristics of Gases
1. Gases have no fixed shape.
ATOM
2. They have no fixed volume.
3. They have very high rate of diffusion. An atom is the smallest particle of an
4. They are very easy to compress. element that shows all the properties of
5. Molecules have no attraction between the element and can take part in a
them. chemical reaction.
6. Molecules move in all directions.
7. Molecules move very fast. An atom is the tiniest and the most basic
building block of all matter.
Examples of gases are oxygen, water
vapour, hydrogen, smoke.
Fig. 2.5: Intermolecular distances between the

states of matter
Fig. 2.6: Structure of an atom
33
4 Matter Samking
An atom is made up of smaller particles, the L shell which carries a maximum of 8

namely, electrons, protons, and neutrons, electrons. The third shell, the M shell
called the subatomic particles. An atom carries a maximum of 18 electrons. The N
consists of a cloud of electrons that shell carries a maximum of 32 electrons.
surrounding a small dense nucleus of The number of electrons per shell increases
protons and neutrons. The electrons and as the number of shells increases.
protons have a property called electric
charge which affects the way they interact Protons
with each other electrically charged Protons are found in the nucleus of an
particles. atom, and carry positive charges.
Properties of protons are:
Electrons and shells  They have positive charges (+1)
Electrons are tiny negatively charged  They are located in the nucleus
particle that form a cloud around the  They have a mass of 1.
nucleus of an atom. Properties of electrons
include: Table 1.7: Differences between protons and
 They have negative charges (-1) electrons
 They are found around the nucleus of Protons Electrons

an atom. Located in the Located around the
 They travel on an orbit or shell or nucleus nucleus
energy level. Have positive Have negative charge
charge
 They have mass of 1/1840
Have a mass of 1 Have a mass of
1/1840
Electrons travel on shells or orbit, and each Form mass numbers Do not form mass
electron has its own shell; therefore, they with neutrons numbers
do not crash as they move around the
nucleus. An atom can have one or more Similarities between protons and
shells depending on the number of electrons
electrons present. However, there is i. They are both charged.
maximum number of electrons that each ii. The number of protons in a neutral
shell carries. For the sake of clarity, the atom is equal to the number of
shells have been labelled (K, L, M, N). electrons. However, they have
The shell closest to the nucleus is the K different charges.
shell; and it carries not more than 2
electrons. It is filled first. The next shell is
34
4 Matter Samking
Neutrons Characteristics / Properties of Atom

Neutrons are also found in the nucleus of Atoms have special characteristic which
an atom. Unlike protons and electrons, help distinguish one atom from another and
neutrons have no charge, therefore they are determine how atoms change under certain
said to be neutral. Properties of neutrons conditions the characteristics are atomic
are: number, mass number, isotope, relative
 They are found in the nucleus of an atomic mass, radioactivity.
atom
 They have no charge (0) Atomic number (proton number)
 They have a mass of 1 It is the number of protons in the nucleus
of an atom. The number of protons is the
same as the number of electrons. The
symbol for atomic number is Z. each
element has a unique atomic number.
Mass number
Mass number is the number of protons and
neutrons in an atom. The symbol for mass
number is A. The protons and neutrons are
called the nucleons. The number of
neutrons in an atom is the neutron number.
For an element ‗W‘ there is AZ 𝐖 where A

is the mass number and Z, the atomic
number. The mass number is written at the
top left while the atomic number is written
at the bottom left of the elements as shown
above.
For example, Sodium which has anatomic
number of 11 and a mass number of 23 is
represented as:
Mass No.( A) = 23
Atomic No. (Z) = 11 Na
This means that Sodium has 11 protons and
Fig. 2.7: Electronic structure of the first twenty
elements
since atomic number (or proton number) is
35
4 Matter Samking
the same as the number electrons, it has 11 c) The number of neutrons is mass number
electrons. (A) – atomic number (Z).
Because the mass number is protons plus Substituting, we have 32 – 16 = 16.
neutron, to find the number of neutrons, Therefore, the number of neutrons is 16.
subtract the number of protons (or atomic
number) from the mass number. Therefore Isotopes
we have: Isotopes are atoms of the same atomic
23 – 11= 12. Hence the number of neutrons number but different mass numbers. The
is 12. difference in the mass numbers is due to
the difference in the number of neutrons.
Example 2 Many elements have two or more isotopes.
Potassium atom has atomic number of 19 Examples of isotopes are:
and mass number of 39. To represent that, 12 13
we have: Carbon
6
C 6
C 14
6
C
A = 39
Z = 19 K Oxygen 16
O
17
O
18
8 O
8 8
From the above, it can be deduced that O

Potassium has 19 protons, 19 electrons and Hydrogen 1 2
H 1
H 3
H
20 neutrons (A – Z = 20). 1 1
Trial Question:
Question: The element oxygen has 3 isotopes with
Find the number of (a) protons, (b) mass numbers 16, 17 and 18, with an
electrons and (c) neutrons of an element Si atomic number of 8. Find the number of
which has an atomic number of 16 and a neutrons in each mass number.
mass number of 32.
Solution:
Solution: To find the number of neutrons in each
Mass number (A) = 32; mass number, subtract the atomic number
Atomic number (Z) = 16 from the mass numbers. Therefore, it will
be 8, 9 and 10 respectively.
a) The number of protons is 16 (number of
protons is the same as atomic number). Relative atomic mass (Ar)
b) The number of electrons is 16 ( number Atoms, though very tiny and their masses
of electrons = number of protons) cannot be measured directly, however their
36
4 Matter Samking
masses can be compared. Atoms of

Sample questions with solution
different elements have different masses.
One atom is selected and atoms of different Carbon has two main isotopes, Carbon-13,
𝐴
elements are compared to it. Therefore, the 𝐶
13 and carbon-12, 𝐵𝐶12. The relative
masses of the other atoms are in relation to abundance of Carbon-13 is 1.11% and that
the mass of the selected atom, hence the of Carbon-12 is 98.89%. Find the relative
term relative atomic mass. atomic mass of carbon.
The carbon-12 isotope is currently used to Solution
determine the masses of other atoms and Relative atomic mass = mass due to
the scale of atomic masses obtained is carbon-13 + mass due to carbon-12.
called carbon-12 scale.
13 × 1.11 12 × 98.89
= + = 12.011
The relative atomic mass of an element is 100 100
the average mass of one atom of an
element compared to 1/12 of the mass of 1. Copper (Cu) which has two isotopes
63
one atom of carbon-12. Cu and 65Cu with relative abundance
of 62.9 and 64.9 respectively. Calculate
Mathematically, the percentage abundance of each
1
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 −12 isotope if the relative atomic mass of
12
Ar = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 the naturally occurring copper is 63.55.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Relative atomic mass has no unit Solution:

To illustrate, let‘s take an atom which has Cu = 63.55; 63Cu = 62.9; 65
Cu = 64.9
two isotopes X and Y with mass numbers
A and B, with relative abundance of Z and If the fractional abundance of 63Cu = p,
100-Z respectively, then their relative then that of 65Cu will be (1- p) because
atomic mass is expressed as: there are only two isotopes available.
Hence, Cu = (64.9 x p) + 62.9 (1-p)
𝐴𝑋𝑍 𝐵 𝑋 (100−𝑍) 𝐵 × (100−𝑍) 63.55 = 64.9p + 62.9 (1-p)
Ar = + AxX+
𝑍 𝑋𝑥𝑍 𝑍
0.65 = 2p
p = 0.325
Isotope X and Y can, therefore be as
The percentage abundance of 63Cu = 32.5
expressed as 𝐴𝐶X and 𝐵𝐶Y where C is
therefore, the percentage abundance of
the atomic number.
65
Cu = 100-32.5 = 67.5%
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4 Matter Samking
2. Chlorine has two isotopes 35Cl and manganese Mn 54.9

37
Cl. The relative proportions of 35Cl iron Fe 55.9
to 37Cl is 3 : 1. Calculate the relative cobalt Co 58.9
atomic mass of chlorine. nickel Ni 58.7
copper Cu 63.5
zinc Zn 65.4
Solution
The relative proportion is 3:1
Therefore, the relative atomic mass of
Molecule
chlorine:
A molecule is formed when two or more
35 × 3 37 × 1 142
= + = = 35.5 atoms are chemically combined.
4 4 4
In examinations, the relative atomic masses OR

are provided. For example, (H = 1; O = 16) A molecule is the smallest possible
amount of a particular substance that has
Table 1.9: Some elements with their relative all the characteristics of that substance.
atomic masses
Element Symbol Relative atomic
mass
Molecules are electrically neutral group of
hydrogen H 1.0 two or more atoms held together by
helium He 4.0 chemical bonds. A molecule may be homo-
lithium Li 6.9 nuclear, that is, it consists of atoms of a
beryllium Be 9.0 single chemical element, as with oxygen
boron B 10.8 (O2); or it may be a chemical compound
carbon C 12.0
composed of more than one element, as
nitrogen N 14.0
with water (H2O). Other examples of
oxygen O 16.0
fluorine F 19.0 molecules include NaCl, KOH, CaCO3,
neon Ne 20.2 CO2, etc.
sodium Na 23.0 The smallest molecule is the diatomic
magnesium Mg 24.3 hydrogen (H2), with a bond length of
aluminum Al 27.0 0.74Å whiles the largest is Mesoporous
silicon Si 28.1 silica have been produced with a diameter
phosphorus P 31.0
of 1000 Å (100 nm).
sulphur S 32.1
chlorine Cl 35.5
argon Ar 39.9
potassium K 39.1
calcium Ca 40.1
38
4 Matter Samking
consists of two or more atoms, it is a

molecular ion.
Types of ion
There are two types of ions. They are
cations and anions.
Cation
A cation is created if a neutral atom loses
one or more electrons. This gives it more
protons than electrons, hence the atom is
positively charged. Examples of cations are
Water molecule calcium (Ca), potassium (K), sodium (Na),
magnesium (mg) etc.
Characteristics of molecules
1. Molecules are composed of two or Anion
more atoms An anion is created if an atom gains
2. The atoms are chemically combined. electrons. Such an atom has more
3. They are electrically neutral. negatively charged electrons than protons,
4. Diatomic molecules have the therefore making the atom negatively
characteristics of the constituent atoms. charged. Examples of anions are chlorine
5. The constituent atoms of a molecule (Cl), carbon (C), sulphur (S), fluorine (F),
can only be separated by chemical etc.
means.
Ion THE MOLE

An ion is an atom which is either All substances are made up of tiny particles
positively or negatively charged. known as atoms, ions and molecules.
These particles are so small that they
In other words the total number of cannot be seen with the naked eye nor
electrons is not equal to the total number of counted. However, a collection of millions
protons, giving the atom a net positive or of them can be seen and counted.
negative electrical charge. Ions can be As we have a collection of objects like,
created by both chemical and physical dozen (collection of 12), cent (collection of
means. An ion consisting of a single atom 100), gross (collection of 144) etc. the
is an atomic or monatomic ion; if it collective name for millions of elementary
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4 Matter Samking
particles (atoms, molecules and ions) is the Solution:

unit called the Avogadro‘s constant which 1 mole of oxygen contains 6.02 x 1023
is made up of 602 000 000 000 000 000 atoms.
000 000 or 6.02 x 1023 of particles.  6 moles of oxygen will have 6 6.02 x
The unit of measurement for amount of 1023 = 36.02 x 1023 atoms
substance (n) is the mole.
MOLAR MASS (M)
A mole of a substance is made up of 6.02 x
1023 particles of that substance. The SI unit Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole (or 6.02
of mole is mol. x 1023 particles) of a substance. The SI unit
NB: One mole of each of the elementary of, molar mass is gram per mol (g/mol).
particles is 6.02 x 1023 particles. Numerically, the molar mass is equal to the
Now, if L = 6.02 x 1023, then relative atomic mass of an atom. For
AL = 6.02 x 1023A example, the relative atomic mass (Ar) of
Nitrogen is 14, therefore its molar mass is
6.02 𝑥10 23 14 g/mol.
½L= = 3.01 x 1023
2 The relative mass of (Ar) Helium (He) is 4;
2L = 2 x 6.02 x1023 = 12.04 x 1023  its molar mass = 4 g/mol.
Examples In the same way if you want to find the

1. Given that Avogadro‘s constant is 6.02 molar mass of a compound, you add all the
x1023, calculate the number of atoms in relative atomic masses of the constituent
0.01 mole of carbon. atoms together. For example, to calculate
the molar mass of H2O, (relative atomic
Solution masses are H = 1, O = 16)
1 mole of carbon contains 6.02 x 1023 We will have:
atoms (1 x 2) + 16 = 18 g/mol.
Therefore, 0.01 mole of carbon will
contain 0.01 x 6.02 x 1023 Questions
= 6.02 x 1021 Calculate the molar mass of the following:
Hence, 0.01 mole of carbon contains 6.02 x 1. NaCl, 2. H2SO4, 3. HCl, 4.
1023 atoms C12H22O11
(Relative atomic masses are Na = 23, O =
2. Find the number of atoms in 6 moles of 16, C = 12, H = 1, Cl =35.5, S = 32)
oxygen. (n = 6.02 x 1023)
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4 Matter Samking
Solution Solution
1. Molar mass of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 1. Amount of substance in Al =
58.5 g/mol 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚
2. Molar mass of H2SO4 = (1 x 2) + 32 + 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑀
9
(16 x 4) n= = 0.33 mol
27
= 98 g/mol
3. Molar mass of HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5
2. Number of moles (n) of CO2=
g/mol 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚)
4. Molar mass of C12H22O11 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑀)
= (12  12) + (1  12) + (16  11) 14
n= = 0.318 mol
= 342 g/mol 44
3. Amount of substance (n) =

AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE IN 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚)
MASS OF SUBSTANCES 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑀)
The following formula is used to find the
number of moles in mass of substances: Since we are supposed to find the mass,
Amount of substance (n) = we will make mass of substance (m) the
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚 ) subject of the relation.
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑀) Hence, m = n  M
m=9g
The SI unit of amount of substance is mol.
𝑚
Thus, n = 𝑀 is the mol RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS /
FORMULA MASS
Example
1. Calculate the amount of substance in 9 The relative molecular mass is the sum of
g of aluminium. the relative atomic masses of all the atoms
2. Find the number of moles of carbon in a molecule. For example, the relative
dioxide molecules in 14 g of carbon molecular mass of potassium hydroxide,
dioxide. KOH is 56. This is calculated as follows:
3. What is the mass of 0.5 mol of H2O? K = 39, O = 16, H = 1
(Molar mass of Al = 27; CO2 = 44; So by adding them together, we have
H2O = 18 g/mol) 39 +16 + 1 = 56
In the same way to calculate the relative
molecular mass of sodium chloride, NaCl,
we will have:
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4 Matter Samking
Na + Cl = 23 + 35 = 58 Compounds
To find the relative molecular mass of A compound is a substance which
CaCO3, add all the constituent atoms as contains two or more elements chemically
follows: combined together.
Ar of calcium = 40
Ar of carbon = 12 Individual elements which make up a
Ar of oxygen = 16 (for the three oxygen Ar compound are in fixed amount. E.g. carbon
= 16 x 3 = 48) dioxide (CO2) is a compound which
the relative molecular mass of CaCO3 = contains one element of carbon and two
40 + 12 + 48 = 100 elements of oxygen.
The newly formed substance has
NB: Relative molecular mass has no unit. completely different properties from the
It can be deduced from above that relative constituent elements. E.g. hydrogen and
molecular mass or formula mass is oxygen are both gases, yet, when they
numerically equal to molar mass. Thus: come together they form water (H2O)
Molar Mass = Relative Molecular Mass = which is a liquid.
Formula Mass There are two types of compounds – ionic
and covalent compounds
ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND
Table 2.0: Differences between Elements and
MIXTURES Compounds
Element Compound
Elements
Cannot be broken Can be broken down
An element is smallest form of a down
substance that cannot be broken down Made up of atoms Made up of atoms of
into smaller particle. of the same kind different kind
Has the same The constituent atoms
There are many known and unknown properties as the have different
atom properties from the
elements arranged on the periodic table compound
according to their physical and chemical
properties such as metals and non-metals. Mixtures
For easy identification, elements have A mixture is made up of two or more
unique symbols. For example oxygen (O), elements or compounds that can be
gold (Au), argon (Ar), lead (Pb) etc. separated by physical means.
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4 Matter Samking
Mixtures can be separated by physical Sugar and rice; Brass (copper and
means because the constituents are not zinc); Bronze (copper and tin)
chemically combined.
2. Solid - Liquid Mixtures: Made up of
Table 2.1: Differences between Compound and solid and liquid in which the solid is
Mixture soluble (i.e. can dissolve). Example
Compounds Mixtures are: Sugar and water; Salt and water;
Constituents cannot Constituents can be
Blood; Chalk and water
be separated by a separated by a
physical means physical means
New substances are No new substances 3. Liquid – Liquid Mixtures: Made up of
formed are formed two or more liquids which are miscible.
Constituents have Constituents do not (Miscibility is a measure of how easily
fixed amounts have fixed amounts
different liquids will dissolve when
Have different Have the same
properties from the properties as the
mixed together.). Examples are:
constituent elements constituent elements Ethanol and water; Petrol and kerosene
Constituents Constituents do not
become a single become a single 4. Liquid – Gas Mixture: Made up of
substance substance liquid and gas . examples are: Fog;
Energy is usually No energy involved
foam
involved
Table 2.2: Differences between Elements and 5. Gas – Gas mixtures: Made up of two
Mixture or more gases. An example is the
Elements Mixtures atmospheric air
Made up of the Made up of different
same kind of atom kinds of elements
6. Solid – Gas Mixtures: Made up of a
Have fixed physical Do not have fixed
properties physical properties
solid and a gas. An example is
Have definite Do not have definite harmattan.
composition composition
IONIC AND COVALENT

Types of Mixtures COMPOUNDS
1. Solid – Solid mixtures: These
mixtures are made up of two or more Ionic or electrovalent compounds are
physically combined solid substances. formed by the attraction of positive and
Examples are: Sand and iron filing; negative ions.
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4 Matter Samking
The ions are held by a strong electrostatic How atoms achieve stable electronic
bond known as ionic or electrovalent bond. configuration
Ionic compound have high melting and i. Metal atoms with one, two or three
boiling points. This is as a result of the electrons in the outermost shell lose the
strong force of attraction between the electrons to form positively charged
positive and the negative ions; therefore, ions called cations.
large amount of energy is required to break ii. Non-metal atoms with five, six or seven
this strong electrostatic force between the electrons in the outer shell gain three,
ions. Examples of ionic compounds are, two or one electrons respectively to
NaCl; MgCl; NaOH, etc form negative charged ions called
anions.
Covalent compounds are form when two iii. Two non-metallic elements with four to
or more atoms of non-metals which are seven outer electrons may gain electrons
unable to form stable ions share electrons by sharing them with each other.
in order to be stable.
Types of Chemical Bond
Covalent compounds have weak force of There are two main types of chemical
attraction between the molecules. Example bonds – ionic bond and covalent bond.
of covalent compounds are O2; H2; Cl2;;
HCl; NH3; H2O. Ionic / electrovalent bond
This is the type of bond that forms an
Chemical bonds electrostatic force of attraction between
A chemical bond is a force that holds negative and positive ions and holds them
atoms, ions or molecules together. together.
One major importance of chemical bonds

Ionic bond results in the formation of ionic
is that it allows atoms to acquire stable
compounds
electronic configuration similar to that of a
In the formation of ionic compounds, metal
noble gas.
atoms lose their outermost electron(s),
A noble gas has an outer shell filled with
thereby forming cations (positive ions).
either eight or two electrons. Examples are,
Non-metals, on the other hand, gain
helium (2), neon (2,8) and argon (2,8,8).
electrons to fill their outermost electron
An atom is only stable when it has two or
shell, thereby becoming anions (negative
eight electrons in the outer shell.
ions).
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4 Matter Samking
For example, in the formation of sodium Covalent Bond

chloride (NaCl), sodium which is a metal Covalent bond is formed when two or
atom with an electronic configuration of more atoms share a pair of electrons in
2,8,1 loses it last electron so that it will order to be stable.
become stable. Chlorine, a non-metal atom
with electronic configuration of 2,8,7, In simple covalent bonding, each of the
accepts that electron to its outer shell in two combining atoms contributes one
order to be stable. Hence, sodium will electron to the bond. Thus, the bond
become Na+ and chlorine will become Cl-. consists of two electrons shared between
the two atoms. The attraction between the
nuclei of the combining atoms and the
shared pair(s) of electrons provide the
binding force that holds the atoms together.
In a single covalent bond, the bonds are
shown as a straight line between the
symbols of the atoms involved. For
example, H-H, Cl-Cl. When the atoms
involved give two more electrons each,
double or triple covalent bonds are formed.
For example, O2 could be shown as O=O;
and N2 shown as N=N.
Fig. 2.8: Formation of sodium chloride, NaCl The following illustrates the formation of
covalent bonds.
Fig. 3.0: Single covalent bond formed by two

hydrogen atoms
Fig. 2.9: Formation of potassium chloride (KCl)
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4 Matter Samking
Fig. 3.1: Formation of water

Fig. 3.2: A covalent bond formed by three hydrogen
Characteristics or properties of atoms and one nitrogen atom (ammonia)
ionic compounds
1. They have high melting point. Characteristics of covalent
2. They have high boiling point. compounds
3. They react quickly with other 1. They have low melting point.
substances or elements. 2. They have low boiling point
4. They are formed by a strong 3. They react slowly with other
electrostatic force. substances or elements.
5. They are mostly soluble in water. 4. They are formed by a weak force of
6. When molten, they conduct electricity. attraction.
7. They conduct electricity in aqueous 5. They are mostly insoluble in water.
solution (solution with water). 6. They do not conduct electricity.
Examples of ionic compounds are sodium 7. They are usually liquid or gas at room
chloride (NaCl), calcium carbonate temperature.
(CaCO3), magnesium oxide (MgO),
potassium chloride (KCl) etc. Example of covalent compounds are
carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O),
ammonia (NH3), hydrogen chloride (HCl),
etc.
NAMING OF COMPOUNDS
The system used in naming compounds is

called IUPAC nomenclature. This is a
system adopted by the International Union
of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).
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4 Matter Samking
The oxidation number of an element means that the charge a neutral

determines its naming. compound is zero.
e. The total sum of the oxidation
The oxidation number of an element is numbers of all atoms of a radical (i.e.
the electrical charge it carries in its pure atoms that stay together as a charged
state or in its compound. unit), is equal to the charge of the
radical, e.g. the oxidation numbers of
Rules for Determining the Oxidation
NO-3, CO2, SO-24 are -1, 2 and -2,
Number of Substances
respectively.
a. The oxidation number of an element
f. Some elements such as Fe, Cu, Pb ,Zn,
in its atomic or molecular state (i.e.
etc have variable (more than one)
not combined with any other
oxidation numbers
element) is zero (0). For example, the
g. All metals show a positive oxidation
oxidation numbers of oxygen,
state, e.g. Mg2+, Mn7+, etc.
potassium, sodium etc are zero.
h. The charge of a substance is written as
The oxidation number of an ion of a
a right superscript followed by its
single atom is equal to the charge on
positive or negative sign, e.g. Cl-, Al3+,
the atom. For example, the oxidation
O2-, etc.
numbers of H+ is +1, Cl- is -1, O2- is -2,
i. In substances with oxidation number
Al3+ is +3, etc.
of +1 or -1, only the sign is written, e.g.
b. The oxidation number of an oxygen is -
H+, F-, etc
2 e.g. CO2, H2O, OH, except in
peroxides e.g. H2O2 and K2O2 where it How to Determine Oxidation
is -1, and superoxides e.g. KO2 where it Numbers
is -1/2. What are the oxidation numbers of the
c. The oxidation number of hydrogen is following ions?
+1 e.g. H20, HCl, OH, except in metal 1.C 2. Li 3. Be 4. H
hydrides where it is -1, e.g. NaH, KH,
CaH, etc. Solution:
d. The total of the oxidation numbers of 1.0 2. 0 3. 0 4. 0
atoms in a neutral compound is zero. This is according to the first rule ‗the
For example, the sum of the oxidation oxidation number of an element in its
numbers of the elements in the atomic state is zero‘.
compound NaCl is zero. This also
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4 Matter Samking
What are the oxidation numbers of the elements is more electronegative (attract
following ions? more electrons to itself) than the other.
1. Al3 2. O2- 3. F 4. Mn7+ The more electronegative element has a
negative oxidation number. Examples of
Solution: binary compounds are, NaCl, CO2, CaCl.
1. +3 2. -2 3. -1 4. +7
Rules for Naming Binary Compounds
This is according to rule two, oxidation a. The suffix ‘-ide’ is replaces the last two
number of an atom = charge. or three letters In the name of the
more electronegative element, e.g.
Find the oxidation numbers of the oxygen – oxide, chlorine – chloride,
underlined elements in the following: hydrogen – hydride, etc.
1. BrO-3 2. SO2-4 3. OH- 4. NO-3
b. The modified name of the more
electronegative element is written
Solution:
second, e.g. sodium hydride, calcium
Lets represent the oxidation numbers of the
chloride, etc.
underlined elements by x
1. Oxidation number of BrO3- c. The name of the less electronegative
x + (3 x-2) = -1  x = -1 + 6 element is not modified and is written
x=5 first. If it oxidation number is more
2. Oxidation number of SO42- than one, it is shown in capital roman
x + (4 x -2) = -2  x = -2 + 8 numerals inside a bracket after the
x=6 name of the elements, e.g. copper (II)
oxide, phosphorus (III) chloride.
3. Oxidation number of NO3-
x + (3 x -2) = -1  x = -1 + 6 Example:
x=5 Let‘s consider CO.
(This is according to rule f) The first element is carbon which has
variable oxidation number, therefore, let‘s
4. Oxidation number of OH- is represent it by x.
x + 1 = -1 x = -2 X + (1 x -2) = 0  x = 0 + 2  x = 2
Hence CO is named carbon (II) oxide
(a) Binary compounds (according to rules a and c)
Binary compounds are compounds which
consist of only two elements. One of the
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4 Matter Samking
Table 2.3: Binary compounds, their common and ii. Anions are suffixed ―-ide‖ plus the
IUPAC names word ion, e.g. sulphide ion.
Compound Common name IUPAC name

(c) Oxoanions
carbon (ii) Oxoanions are group of ions that contain
CO2 carbon dioxide
oxide
oxygen atoms. Oxoanions are negatively
sulphur (vi)
SO3 sulphur trioxide
oxide charged. E.g. CO32-, ClO-, etc.
hydrogen hydrochloric
HCl
chloride acid Rules for Naming Oxoanions
PbO lead monoxide lead (ii) oxide a. The suffix ‘-ate’ replaces the last two
phosphorus phosphorus or three letters in the name of the first
PCl3
trioxide (iii)oxide or the middle element , e.g. carbon
potassium
K2O potassium oxide becomes carbonate.
oxide
hydrogen potassium b. The number of oxygen atoms is placed
H2O2
peroxide peroxide before the name of the middle atom
potassium potassium as, dioxo, tetraoxo, heptaoxo, etc. for
KO2
superoxide superoxide
two, four,or seven oxygen atoms
phosphorus phosphorus
PCl5 respectively. If the oxygen atom is one,
pentachloride (v)
NH3 ammonia ammonia
it is not prefixed (mono).
c. The oxidation number of the middle
atom is written in Roman capital
(b) Ions
The following rules are used to name numerals in brackets, after its name.
simple ions d. The word ion is added to the name.
i. For cations of elements with only one
oxidation number, the name of element Examples:
is written with the word ion without the 1. Let‘s consider CO32-
oxidation number. It contains three oxygen atoms, so
For example, hydrogen ion (H+) according to rule b, the name starts with
‗trioxo‘. Followed by carbon with the
For cations of elements with viable suffix ‗–ate‘. (rule a)
oxidation numbers, the oxidation numbers Now the oxidation number of carbon is
are written in Roman capital numerals, in calculated as follows:
brackets after the name of the element, e.g. x+ (3 x-2) = -2 ; x = -2 + 6; x = +4
iron (II) ion (Fe2+), lead (II) ion (Pb2+)
49
4 Matter Samking
CO32- is named as trioxocarbonate (IV) Table 2.5: Examples of oxoacids

ion
Oxoacids Common IUPAC name
2. Let‘s consider SO42- name
It contains four oxygen atoms, HCl hydrochloric hydrochloric acid
therefore its name begins with tetra. acid
Followed by sulphate, and then the HNO2 nitrous acid dioxonitrate(iii)
acid
oxidation number which is calculated
H2SO3 sulphuric trioxosulphate(iv)
as follow: acid acid
x + (4 x -2) = -2 x = -2 + 8 x = +6
 SO42- is name as tetraoxosulphate (VI) (e) Bases
ion. There are two types of salts- oxides and
hydroxide. Oxides follow the naming
Table 2.4: Oxoanions, their common and IUPAC
sequence of common compounds. For
names
example, carbon (II) oxide CO2, potassium
Oxoanions Common IUPAC name oxide (K2O), etc.
name Hydroxide, on the other hand, is made up
ClO- hypochlorite oxochlorate (i) ion of a cation and an hydrogen ion, (OH-).
ion
NO3- nitrate ion trioxonitrate (v) ion
They also follow the same naming
MnO4- permangan tetraoxomanganate sequence of binary compounds. E.g.
ate ion (vii) ion calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2, sodium
NO2- nitrite ion dioxonitrate (iii) ion hydroxide (NaOH), etc.
HCO3- hydrogen Hydrogntrioxo-
carbonate carbonate(iv) ion Table 2.6: Examples of bases
ion
Base Common name IUPAC name
(d) Oxoacids Fe(OH)2 ferrous iron (ii)
hydroxide hydroxide
Oxoacids are compounds that contain
KOH potassium potassium
hydrogen atoms. They are named in the hydroxide hydroxide
same way as oxoanions but the word acid Zn(OH)2 zinc hydroxide zinc(ii) oxide
replaces the word ion in the name of
oxoanions. Examples are tetraoxosulphate
(VI) acid (H2SO4), trioxocarbonate (V) (f) Salts
acid (H2CO3), etc. Salt is formed when the hydrogen(s) of an
acid is replaced by ammonium or metal
cation.
50
4 Matter Samking
There are two types of salts - binary salts

SOLUTION
and oxoacid salts.
Binary compounds are named by A solution is a uniform mixture of solute
combining the names of the cations and the and solvent, where the solute dissolves in
anions. the solvent.
For example, iron (II) sulphide (FeS), For a solution to be uniform, there has to
ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), sodium be more solvent than solute.
chloride (NaCl).
Thus, solution = solute + solvent
Oxoacid salts are named by writing the
cation, followed by the name of the A solute is a (solid) substance that
oxoanion and then finally its oxidation dissolves in a given solvent.
number.
A solvent is a (liquid) substance that
For example, MgSO4 is named by fist dissolves solutes.
writing the cation, magnesium, followed
by tetraoxosulphate, and then its oxidation Water is often considered as a universal
number if its variable, which is calculated solvent because it is capable of dissolving
as follows: many solutes.
The solution in which water is the solvent
If oxidation number is x, then, is known as aqueous solution.
x + (4x -2) = 0 x = 0 + 6 x = +6 For example, sugar which is a solute when
Hence, MgSO4 is named as magnesium added to water which is a solvent
tetraoxosulphate(VI). dissolves, forming an aqueous sugar
solution.
Table 2.7: Examples of salts
Salt Common IUPAC name

name
Na2CO3 sodium sodium trioxocarbonate
carbonate (v)
CaCO3 calcium calcium
carbonate trioxocarbonate (iv)
CuSO4 cupric copper
sulphate (ii)tetraoxosulphte (vi)
Fig. 3.3: Preparing a solution with ammonium
dichromate
51
4 Matter Samking
Concentration of solutions If the mass is given, the amount of

Concentration is a measure of how much substance is first calculated in mole before
solute there is in a solution. solving for concentration. If the volume is
in cm3, convert it to dm3 (1 dm3 = 1000
A solution which has a very high amount cm3)
of solute is called a concentrated solution; When 1 mol of solute is dissolved in a
compared to a dilute solution which solvent to make 1 dm3 of solution, the
contains less solute than solvent. concentration is 1 mol/dm3 (or 1 M, a
shortened for of mol/dm3). A concentration
Calculating Concentration of of 1 M of any substance is called a molar
Solutions solution.
As we found out,
When concentration is expressed in grams
Amount of substance (n) = per cubic decimetre, g/dm3, the following
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚) formula is used:
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑀) 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚 )
Concentration (c) =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑣)
The quantities of substances in a solution

can either be expressed in mol or gram. Example:
When expressed in mol per cubic What is the concentration of a solution
decimetre (dm3) it is referred to as which contains 5 g of sugar in a 20 dm3 of
concentration (C), and is given by the solution?
formula:
𝑨𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒏) Solution:
Concentration (c) = 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒗) 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚 )
Concentration (c) =
Example: 5
c= = 0.25 g/dm3
What s the concentration of 0.60 mol of 20
sodium chloride in 0.700 dm3 of water and
Sometimes the mass of the solution would
sodium chloride solution.
be given instead of the volume. In this case
the following formula will be used:
Solution:
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑛)
Concentration (c) = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑣) Concentration (c) =
0.60 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚 )
c= = 0.857 mol/dm3  100
0.700 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚 )
52
4 Matter Samking
Example:
PREPARATION OF STANDARD
20 g of salt was dissolved in a solution of SOLUTIONS
300 g. Calculate the concentration of the
salt solution. A standard solution is a solution whose
concentration is known.
Solution:
Concentration (c) = The following are the apparatus needed to
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚 ) prepare a standard solution:
x 100
 Beaker
20
c=
300
x 100 = 6.67 %  Funnel
 Spatula
 Stirring rod
 Washing bottle
 Balance (electronic, beam, etc.)
Fig. 3.4: Laboratory apparatus
53
4 Matter Samking
To prepare a standard solution:  With the aid of a funnel, transfer the

 Calculate the mass and the molar mass solution from the beaker into a clean
of the substance you need to prepare 1000 cm3 volumetric flask.
the solution with.
 Measure out the known mass of the  Rinse the inside of the beaker with
substance into a beaker containing distilled water and add to the solution
distilled water. in the volumetric flask.
 Transfer the solution into the required
volumetric flask.  Add more water to the solution until it
 Add more water until it reaches the reaches the 1000 cm3 graduation mark.
graduation mark. Put a cork stopper on the volumetric
 Put cork stopper on flask and shake it flask and shake it to get a uniform
well to get a uniform solution. solution.
How to prepare 1 dm3 1m of an Example

aqueous sugar solution Prepare 500 cm3 of 1M solution of NaCl.
Apparatus to use include a beaker, standard
volumetric flask (250 cm3), a funnel, a Solution
stirring rod and a balance. Relative atomic mass of Na = 23; Cl = 35.5
Molar mass of NaCl = 58.5 g/mol
Procedure
 Calculate the molar mass of the sugar. Hence 58.5 g of NaCl will be used to
The formula for sugar is C12H22O11. prepare 500 cm3 of 1 M solution
The relative atomic mass of the
1 dm3 = 1000 cm3, therefore 500 cm3 of
constituent elements are C = 12; H = 1;
50
O = 16. Therefore the molar mass of 1M solution = 1000 = 0.5 mol
C12H22O11 is 342 g/mol.
Hence 1 mole of C12H22O11 = 342 g 1 mol of NaCl = 58.5g
which means 342 g of sugar will be  0.5 mol NaCl = 0.5 x 58.5 = 29.25 g.
used to prepare 1 dm3 of 1 M solution. Hence 29.25 g of NaCl will be used to
 Measure 342 g of sugar into a beaker prepare 500 cm3 1 M solution.

containing distilled water; and stir to Measure 29.25 g into a beaker containing
dissolve the sugar. distilled water.
54
4 Matter Samking
3
Fig. 3.5: Preparation of 1dm solution
This relationship can be used to determine

Transfer the solution into a 1000 cm3
the volume of water to be added to a more
volumetric flask
concentrated solution to produce solution
Top up the solution to 1000 cm3
of lower concentration.
graduation mark
Put on a cork stopper and shake to mix
Uses of Dilution
well.
Dilution is very useful in homes,
industries, hospitals, schools etc. Some of
DILUTION OF SOLUTIONS the uses of dilution include:
 Preparation of food
Dilution of a solution occurs when more
 Preparation of drugs
solvent is added to the solution.
 Production of paint
 Production of cosmetics
When a solution is diluted only the volume
of the solvent increases but the amount of
substance in the solution remains the same. TEST QUESTIONS
Thus:
1. Write a short note on the following
nconcentrated solution = ndilute solution terms:
n=cxV a. Atom
where b. Molecule
n = amount of substance; c. Ion
c = concentration; d. Atomic number
V =volume of solution e. Mass number
cconc x Vconc = cdil x (Vconc + Vwater) f. Isotope
55
4 Matter Samking
2. Mention three differences between of manganese (Mn) in potassium

compounds and mixtures. permanganate (KMnO4).
10. Magnesium ribbon of mass 4.0 g is

3. The nucleon number and the proton
placed in dilute hydrochloric acid
number of a neutral atom are 53 and contained in a beaker. Calculate the
25 respectively. Calculate the: number of moles of hydrochloric acid
a. Number of neutrons that would be required to react
b. Number of electrons completely with the ribbon.
c. Atomic number [Mg = 24, H = 1, Cl = 35.5]
d. Draw the electronic configuration
11. (a) Study the table below and answer
of the atom.
the questions that follow.
4. An atom has three isotopes with mass Atom/ Atomic Mass

number 14, 15 and 16. If the number Element number number
of protons in the atom is 7, find the V 10 18
number of neutrons and electrons W 18 39
present in each isotope. X 15 33
Y 10 20
Z 11 23
5. What is meant by the term mole?
(j) How many neutrons are there in
6. Calculate the amount of substance in atom X?
42.0 g of NaCl. (ii) Which of the atoms will readily
(Ar of Na = 23.0, Cl = 35.5) form an ion?
(iii) Which of the atoms will form an
7. Prepare 250 cm3 of 1M solution of ion with a positive charge of +3?
(iv) (α) Indicate the atoms that are
NaOH. (Ar Na =23.0; O=16.0; H= 1)
isotopes.
(β) Explain your answer in (a)
8. (a)Explain the term solution. (iv) above.
(b) An aqueous solution of volume 5.0
dm3 contains 36.4 g of sodium 12. A stock solution of 1M HCl was
chloride. Calculate the concentration prepared by dissolving 7.30 g of HCl
of the solution in mol dm-3. in 200 cm3 of distilled water. 5 cm3 of
[NaCl = 58.5] stock solution was put into each of the
four test tubes labelled C, D, E and F
9. (i) Explain the term oxidation number and diluted with distilled water to 8
of an atom. cm3, 10 cm3 and 15 cm3 respectively.
(ii) Determine the oxidation number
56
4 Matter Samking
Equal amounts (W g) of zinc (Zn) iii) hydrogen chloride

granules were gently put added to iv) copper (II) trioxonitrate (V)
each of the test tubes as illustrated in v) sulphide
figures 3.
Study the figure carefully and answer 14. Fig. 4 is an illustration of a set of
the questions that follow. glassware used in preparation of
exactly 100 cm3 of 1.0 molar solution
of sodium chloride in the laboratory.
Study the figure and the information below
carefully and answer the questions that
follow.
(a) State what would be observed in

this experiment.
(b) (i) Arrange the test tubes C, D, E
and F in order of increasing
reactivity.
(ii) Give an explanation for your
answer in (b((i).
(iii) State three other factors that
could affect the rate of The capacity of A is 100 cm3.
reaction in the test tubes B contains distilled water.
illustrated above. C contains weighed amount of sodium
(c) Calculate the concentration of the chloride (NaCl).
solution in test tube E in g/dm3. The molar mass of NaCl is 58.5.
(d) (i) What is a standard solution? a) Identify each of the glassware A, B,
(ii) A solution is made by C and D
dissolving 47.5 g of potassium b) Read and record the volume of
iodide (KI) in 300 cm3 of distilled water in B.
water. Calculate the c) Determine the mass of sodium
concentration of KI in chloride in C for the preparation of the
mole/litre. [K = 39, I = 27] 1.0 M NaCl solution.
d) Describe how 100 cm3 of the 1.0 M
13. From the following compounds solution of the sodium chloride is
indicate which are covalent or ionic prepared using the materials provided.
i) ethanol e) Determine the appropriate volume of
ii) potassium oxide
57
4 Matter Samking
distilled water that will remain in B in b) Describe briefly each of the four
C for the preparation of the after the steps.
preparation. c) i) Record the readings in step I
and step IV.
15. Fig. 2 below illustrates four steps ii) Hence determine the density of
taken to perform a simple experiment the solid A.
to determine the density of an d) State two precautions to be taken
irregular solid, A. when carrying out the experiment.
Study the figure carefully and answer

a) Name the parts of the apparatus

used in each of the steps I, II and
IV.
58
5
CELLS AND CELL DIVISIONS
made up of many cells, and they are known

Specific Objectives as multi-cellular organisms. e.g. plants
 Describe the structure and function of plant and and animals.
animal cells.
 Explain the process of cell division.
STRUCTURE OF THE PLANT
AND ANIMAL CELLS
INTRODUCTION
Every living organism is made up of units

of life called cells.
A cell can therefore be defined as the

basic unit of life.
OR Fig. 3.6: Structure of plant and animal cells
A cell is the structural or functional unit
of a living organism. Cell membrane: Also called plasma
membrane, is a thin flexible semi-
Each cell is independent of the other cells permeable membrane that encloses the
in the organism, and can undergo all the contents of the cell.
life activities such as reproduction, Functions
excretion, respiration, growth, etc.  Keeps the contents of the cell in place
Some living things are made up of one cell  Controls the movements of materials in
and are called unicellular organisms. e.g. and out of the cell.
bacterial, amoeba,. Trypanosome, etc.
Other organisms on the other hand are
59
5 Cells and Cell Divisions Samking
Cellulose cell wall: It is found only in

plant cells, and is made up of cellulose,
which is a non-living material.
Functions
 Supports and protects the cell
 Gives shape to the cell
 It is permeable, and allows materials to
pass in and out of the cell.
Centrioles: They are found only in plant

cells. They are a pair of small rod-like
structures in the cytoplasm near the
nucleus. Centrioles can only be seen under
high-power microscopes. Fig. 3.7: A typical plant cell
Functions
 Responsible for the formation of
spindle in cell division.
 Aids in the formation of cilia and
flagella.
Chloroplast: They are found only in

plant cells. They are large organelles
bounded by a double membrane and
contain a green pigment called chloroplast.
Function
 Chlorophyll absorbs sunlight for
photosynthesis
Fig. 3.8: A typical animal cell
Chromosomes: They are hereditary
materials in the form of DNA. They can be Cytoplasm: Transparent watery fluid
seen only under high-power microscopes. which contains various organelles and
Functions chemical substances.
 Determines the characteristics of the Functions
organism.  Site for most chemical reactions
 Controls inheritance  Carries the organelles in the cell
60
Endoplasmic reticulum: They are plant cells. They are visible under high-
small interconnected channels surrounded power microscopes.
by a membrane. There are two types – Functions
smooth endospermic reticulum and rough  Contain enzymes involved in digestion
endospermic reticulum. They are only of materials in the cell
visible under high-power microscopes.  Produce enzymes which destroys old
Functions and worn-out cells as part of the cell
 Connects the plasma membrane and the replacement, growth and repair of
nuclear membrane tissues
 Gives mechanical support to the  Produce enzymes which defends the
cytoplasm cell against virus, bacterial and other
 Serves as a pathway for the transport of poisonous substances.
materials in and out of the cell.
 Rough endospermic reticulum supports Mitochondrion: They are small spherical
the ribosomes and transports proteins structures surrounded by two membranes.
produced by the ribosomes. The number of mitochondria in a cell
 Provide rooms for chemical reaction in depends on the cell's energy requirement;
the cell. this is because mitochondria are the site for
the release of energy from respiration.
Golgi body: They are strands of small Functions
flattened sacs surrounded by a membrane.  Contains enzymes for respiration
They have a cluster of small bodies  Energy released is used by the cell for
containing secretory material called life activities. For this reason,
vesicle. mitochondria are referred to as the
Functions powerhouse of the cell.
 Produce and repair cell membranes
 Involved in the packaging and secretion Organelles: Small membrane bound
of proteins and complex carbohydrates. structures in the cytoplasm. Each organelle
 Synthesize complex carbohydrates performs a specific function.
Lysosome: They are small, dark, Ribosomes: They are small organelles
spherical structures filled with fluid and found in large numbers in cells. They are
surrounded by a single membrane. They made up of RNA (ribonucleic acid).
are more abundant in animal cells than Function
 Site for protein synthesis in the cell.
61
Vacuole: They are sacs filled with fluid

SPECIALIZED CELLS
and surrounded by a single membrane
called tonoplast. Vacuoles are found Different cells, both in plants and animals,
mainly in plant cells where they occupy have different structures and perform
about 80% of the cell volume. different functions. Each cell is specialized
Functions to perform a specific task.
 Responsible for the control of waste
content of the cell. A specialized cell can be defined as a cell
 provide turgidity in plant cells which is adapted to perform a particular
function.
 Temporary storage for food substances.
Examples of specialized cells are those
Table 2.8: Differences between plant and animal
listed below under types of plant and
cells
Plant Cell Animal Cell animal cell.
Cell wall present No cell wall
Contains chloroplast No chloroplast Types of plant cell
Large and permanent Small and temporary Leaf epidermal cells: Transport and allow
vacuole present vacuole light to enter the leaf to the photosynthetic
Protoplasm is less Dense protoplasm
tissue below them.
dense
Stores starch as Stores glycogen as
carbohydrate carbohydrate Root tip cells: Have the ability to divide
Has a fixed shape Has no fixed shape and give rise to different tissues.
Similarities between plant and Palisade cells: Have chloroplast with

animal cells chlorophyll to absorb sunlight for
1. Nucleus is present in both photosynthesis.
2. Both have cell membrane
3. Both have cytoplasm
4. They both possess mitochondrion
5. Vacuole is present in both
6. Both have endospermic reticulum
7. Both possess ribosome
Fig. 3.9: Palisade (Left) cell and root cell (Right)
62
Types of animal cells Lymphocyte: A group of white blood cells

Red blood cells: Carry oxygen to other which protect the body from diseases and
blood cells through the blood stream. infections
Muscle cells: Have the ability to contract CELL DIVISION

because of the thin cylindrical or spindle
shapes. Cell division is the process whereby cells
in living organisms break up to form new
Sperm cells: Possess long tail to help them cells.
swim to the female egg to fertilize it.
In cell division, the DNA of the parent cell
Nerve cells: Have long and thin to help is carried on to the newly created cells
them transmit nerve impulses from one depending on the type.
part of the body another. There are two types of cell division –
meiosis and mitosis.
Phagocyte: Kind of white blood cell, or .
leukocyte that destroys foreign substances
in the body, such as bacteria.
Fig. 4.0: Types of animal cell
solution
63
Meiosis and each with a different combination

Meiosis is the process of cell division in of genetic information.
organisms that reproduce sexually.
Mitosis
In meiosis the nucleus divides into four Mitosis is the type of cell division in which
nuclei, each of which contains half the a cell divides into two daughter cells each
usual number of chromosomes. of which has the same number of
chromosomes as the original cell.
Mitosis results in two cells that are

genetically similar. Mitosis is vital for
growth; for repair and replacement of
damaged or worn out cells; and for asexual
reproduction, or reproduction without eggs
and sperm.
Fig. 4.1: Meiosis
How meiosis occurs

 The cell now has a chromosome and a
centriole at each end.
 The cell membrane pinches inwards
and divides into two.
 Membrane forms around the two
newly created nuclei which have half
the number of chromosomes as the Fig. 4.2: Mitosis
parent cell.
How mitosis occurs
 The centrioles copy themselves again
 The membrane surrounding the nucleus
and move apart to the opposite ends
become less distinct and the
of the cells
chromosomes become more distinct
 The cell membranes pinch inwards and
 Centrioles position themselves at the
break up. opposite ends of the cell
 Meiosis ends with the creation of two  Chromatids separate from
more cells, making four, each with half chromosomes and move to either of the
the number of parent chromosomes centrioles
64
 The cell now has a chromosome and a Cell

centriole at each end.
 The cell membrane divides into two. Tissue
 New nuclei are formed in each
division. Organ
 That completes the formation of two
new cells similar to the original cell. Organ system
Table 2.8: Differences between meiosis and mitosis Organism
Meiosis Mitosis Fig. 4.2: Level of organization

Each cell has half Each cell has the
the number of same number of Table 2.9: Examples of plant and animal tissues
chromosomes as chromosomes as the
the parent cell parent cell Name of Cells forming Main
Four dissimilar Ends with he creation tissue them function
cells are created at of two similar cells Animal
tissues
the end
Nerve tissue Nerve cells Co-ordinate
Occurs in Occurs in organisms (neurons) and conduct
organisms that that reproduce nerve
reproduce sexually impulses
asexually Blood tissue Red blood Carries
Nucleus divides Nucleus divides into cells oxygen
around the
into four two
body.
No crossing over Crossing over occurs Skeletal Ostecytes Provide
No exchange or Genes are tissue support
genes exchanged Muscle tissue Muscle cells Contract to
bring about
movement
Level of organization in living
Plant tissues
organisms Epidermal Epidermal Covers the
All multicellular organisms have five tissue cells surface of
plants
levels of organization. They are:
Photosyntheti Palisade Produce
c tissue mesophyll cell food
Cell is the basic unit of life. Vascular Xylem vessels Transports
tissue and phloem water and
There are two principal types of cell – sieve tube organic food
animal cell and plant cell. elements
Strengthenin Sclerenchyma Provides
g tissue cells of the mechanical
Tissue is a group of similar cells which pericycle support
perform the same function.
65
Some organs perform one function whiles Organ system: It is a collection of two or
others perform two or more functions. more organs which work together.
Organ: A group of different tissues that Organs systems are structured to work in a
perform the same functions. co-ordinate manner that an organism can
undergo all the life activities and live
Table 3.0: Examples of organs in animals and plants independent of others.
Name of Name of tissue Main Table 3.1: Examples of organ systems

organ forming organ function
Animal Name of Main organ Main
organs system functions
Heart Papillary Pumps food In animals
muscles, around the Sensory Eyes, skin, Detects
cardiac muscle body system ear, nose, stimuli
Kidneys Cortex, medulla Excretes tongue
metabolic Digestive Stomach, Digests and
waste system liver, absorbs
substances intestines, food
Plant pancreas
organs Circulatory Heart, Carries food
Leaf Epidermis, prepares system arteries, and oxygen
palisade food, veins, around the
mesophyll, exchange capillaries body
spongy gases, Reproductive Testis, uterus, Produces
mesophyll, transpires system ovaries offspring
vascular In plants
bundles
Shoot system Stems, laves, Makes and
Root Root hair, Absorbs
buds, flowers, transports
epidermis, water and
fruits food, water,
cortex, xylem, mineral salt
and
phloem, from the soil
minerals
pericycle, and supports
Root system Roots and Absorbs
piliferous layer the plant
their water and
Stem Epidermis, Transports
branches mineral,
vascular water and
supports the
bundles, mineral,
plant
parenchyma, supports he
collenchymas flowers, fruits
and leaves
66
Organism: Two or more organ systems (ii) draw and label an animal
come together to form an organism. cell.
(iii) state three differences and
two similarities between
For example, the various systems such as
plant and animal cells.
the digestive system, respiratory system, (b) (i) What are specialized cells?
reproductive system, nervous system, (ii) Mention three plants and
excretory system etc. work together to animal cells.
form one organism, man.
In plants, the shoot and the root systems 3. (a) Define the following and explain
come together to form a particular plant. how they occur:
(i) meiosis,
(ii) mitosis.
(b) State three differences between
meiosis and mitosis.
4. (a) State and explain the level

organization in living organisms.
(b) Mention two organ systems each
in plants and animals and state
their functions.
5. (a) Explain the term cell division.

(b) What is the importance of cell
division
(c) Describe the types of cell division.
6. (a) Sate one function of each of the

Fig. 4.4: Shoot and root systems of a plant following organelles:
(i) nucleus
(ii) mitochondrion
(iii) vacuole
TEST QUESTIONS (iv) chloroplast
(v) cell wall
1. (a) (i) What is a tissue?
(vi) endoplasmic reticulum
(ii) List three types of tissues in
(vii) cytoplasm
plant and animals
(viii) Golgi body
(b) State one function of each of the
(ix) cell membrane
tissues mentioned in (a) (ii) above.
(x) chromosome
(b) Which of the organelles in 6 (a)
2. (a) (i) Define the term cell.
above are only found in plant cells?
67
6
ROCKS
Specific Objectives TYPES OF ROCKS

 Describe the major types of rocks, their Rocks are classified into three main types –
formation and characteristics. igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
 Explain the process of weathering of rocks.
 rocks, based mainly on their mode of
formation.
Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are hard, large, crystallize
INTRODUCTION
or glass-like rocks formed from a molten
Rocks are naturally occurring solid or partly molten material called magma.
material consisting of one or more
minerals. Formation of Igneous Rocks
Magma forms deep underground when
Minerals are solid chemical elements or rock that was once solid melts. Overlying
compounds that are homogenous (have a rock presses down on the magma, and the
definite chemical composition) and a very less dense magma rises through cracks in
regular arrangement of atoms. the rock. As magma moves upward, it
Rocks are everywhere, in the ground, cools and solidifies. Magma that solidifies
forming mountains, and at the bottom of underground usually cools slowly,
oceans. Earth‘s outer layer, or crust, is allowing large crystals to form. Magma
made mostly of rock. Some common rocks that reaches Earth‘s surface is called lava.
include granite and basalt. Lava loses heat to the atmosphere or ocean
very quickly and therefore solidifies very
rapidly, forming very small crystals or
glass. When lava erupts at the surface
again and again, it can form mountains
called volcanoes.
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6 Rocks Samking
Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are form when loose
sediments or fragments of other rocks
harden in layers.
Sedimentary rocks are also referred to as

stratified rocks.
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rock forms when sediments of
other weathered rocks pile up into layers.
Fig. 4.5: Molten magma As the sediments pile up, the weight of the
layers of sediment presses down and
Characteristics of Igneous Rocks
compacts the layers underneath. The
1. They are hard, large and heavy
sediments become cemented together into a
2. They contain many crystals
hard rock when minerals (most commonly
3. Mostly resistant to weathering
quartz or calcite) precipitate, or harden,
4. They do not form layers
from water in the spaces between grains of
5. They do not contain fossils
sediment, binding the grains together.
6. Igneous rocks commonly contain the
minerals feldspar, quartz, mica,
Characteristics of Sedimentary
pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine.
Rocks
1. Sedimentary rocks weather easily.
Examples of igneous rocks are granite,
2. They form in layers.
pegmatite, rhyolite, gabbro, and basalt.
3. They are relatively soft.
4. They have lines of weakness between
strata (layers).
5. They usually contain hardened remains
of prehistoric animals called fossils.
Types of Sedimentary Rocks

Geologists place sedimentary rocks into
three broad categories:
Fig. 4.6: Pegmatite a. Clastic rocks, which form from clasts,
or broken fragments, of pre-existing
69
6 Rocks Samking
rocks and minerals. Examples are: Formation of Metamorphic Rocks

sandstone and shale When igneous rocks or sedimentary rocks
are exposed to great heat and pressure, they
b. Chemical rocks, which form when change their forms; and metamorphic rock
minerals precipitate, or solidify, from a is the result. If a mineral is heated or
solution, usually seawater or lake compressed beyond its stability range, it
water. The most common types of breaks down and forms another mineral.
chemical rocks are called evaporates,
because they form by evaporation of
seawater or lake water. Examples are:
gypsum and halite
c. Organic rocks, which form from

accumulations of animal and plant
remains. Examples are limestone and
coal.
Fig. 4.8: Serpentine
Characteristics of Metamorphic
Rocks
1. They are hard.
2. They have rough appearance and
texture.
3. They are heavy.
Fig. 4.7: Sandstone 4. Mineral distribution tends to be uneven
sometimes in a process known as
Metamorphic rocks foliation (example gneiss).
Metamorphic rocks are formed when
either igneous or sedimentary rocks Examples of metamorphic rocks formed
change, (in a process called rock from igneous rocks are gneiss, and
metamorphosis). serpentine (from granite and gabbro
respectively).
Heat and pressure are the main causes. Examples of metamorphic rocks formed
from sedimentary rocks are marble, slate,
and quartzite (from limestone, shale and
sandstone respectively).
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6 Rocks Samking
WEATHERING OF ROCKS
Weathering of rocks is the gradual

breakdown of rocks into smaller particles
over a period of time.
Types of Weathering
There are three types of weathering of
rock, namely, Physical weathering
Chemical weathering and Biological
weathering.
Fig. 4.9: weathering by water
Physical (mechanical) weathering
This is the type of weathering which Wind: Wind often carry many particles.
results in the breakdown of rocks and the Since wind usually travel at a high
minerals they contain but does not change velocity, this causes the particles it carries
the chemical composition. to break off parts of larger rocks as they
moves on.
The mains causes of physical weathering
are temperature, water and wind. Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering is the process in
Temperature: Rocks expand at high which existing minerals are broken down
temperature and contract at low into new mineral components.
temperature. The continuous expansion and
contraction cause rocks to breakdown. Chemical weathering is fastest in hot,
moist climates and slowest in cold, dry
Water: Fast moving water exerts high climates. Causes of chemical weathering
pressure on rocks and causes them to are oxidation, reduction, carbonation,
breakdown. In some instances, the moving hydration, hydrolysis and solution.
water may carry some rock particles which
strike against others rocks to breakdown Oxidation: This is the reaction between
particle. These particles strike the surfaces oxygen in the atmosphere or oxygen
of exposed rocks, causing small bits to chip dissolved in rain water with some rock
off. minerals. For example the oxidation of
rocks carrying iron from iron (II) oxide to
iron (III) oxide. (Fe2O + O → Fe2O3).
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6 Rocks Samking
This results in the breakdown of the rock It involves the cracking and breaking down
along the surface where the oxidation takes of rocks under pressure, including stress
place. from the growing roots of plants and the
action of humans in activities such as
Reduction: This is the removal of oxygen farming, road construction and building.
from some rock minerals because of Plants, fungi, algae and mosses cause
oxygen shortage; the rock breakdowns as a biological weathering by growing on the
result of that. surface into the rock crevices, creating
considerable pressure. They also produce
Carbonation: This is the reaction between organic acids which dissolves rock
inorganic carbonic acid in soil water and minerals and assists in their disintegration.
some rock minerals. This reaction also
causes the breakdown of the rock involved.
Hydration: This is the process whereby

water molecules attach themselves to rock
minerals, causing them to change into new
minerals containing water of
crystallization. The rock expands, softens,
becomes porous, and as a result breaks Fig. 4.9: Surface of a weathering rock
down.
Hydrolysis: This is the breakdown of rock TEST QUESTIONS

due to the reaction of water and rock
minerals. 1. (a) State three characteristics each of
igneous, sedimentary and
Solution: Some rock minerals are soluble metamorphic rocks.
in water. Therefore in contact with water (b) Describe the formation of
they dissolve. This consequently weakens metamorphic rock.
and breaks down the rock
2. (a) What is weathering of rocks?
Biological weathering (b) Describe the following causes of
This is the breakdown of rock into smaller chemical weathering:
particle due to the actions and activities of (i) hydration
living organisms. (ii) carbonation
(iii) oxidation
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6 Rocks Samking
3. State and explain the three types of

weathering.
4. Explain how the following cause

weathering of rocks
(a) Water;
(b) Temperature;
(c) Wind.
73
7
AIR MOVEMENT
Formation of land breeze

Specific Objectives Land breeze occurs at night, when the land
 Explain the formation of land and sea breeze. cools down much quicker than the sea.
 Identify the various types of air masses and Therefore, the temperature of the air over
describe their pattern of movement.
 Describe the effect of moving air masses.
the land is lower than that of the air over
 the sea. Cooler air (convection currents)
from the land blows towards the sea, often
bringing with it clouds which usually
produce rain along the coast.
INTRODUCTION
Have you ever wondered why during the

day the temperature on the land is hotter
than that of the ocean; and why at night the
temperature on the sea become hotter than
that of the land? This happens as a result of
land and sea breeze.
LAND AND SEA BREEZE
The differences in temperature between the Fig. 5.0: Land and sea breeze
land and the sea causes land and the sea
breeze. As a result of the temperature Formation of sea breeze
differences, convection currents (air) move During the day, sea breeze forms when the
from the sea to the land or vice versa. air over the land is warmed up by the sun
causing it to become less dense. This
74
7 Air Movement Samking
warmer, less dense air rises, and is replaced equatorial region. The air that sinks at
by cooler air above the sea. latitude 30 degrees north and south causes
a zone of high-pressure call horse
AIR MASSES latitudes. As the air moves further away
from the equator, it cools and sinks,
An air mass is a body of air that extends creating high pressure at the poles. These
over a large area and has nearly uniform cool air mass at the poles flow back
temperature and humidity in any towards the pressure belt at the equator.
horizontal direction. Air currents flow outwards across the
surface of the earth from the horse
Air masses cover many hundreds or latitudes. The winds that blow toward the
thousands of square miles, and adopt the equator are called the trade winds, and
characteristics of the surface below them. those that blow towards the poles are called
Places where air masses form are called the westerly winds or westerlies. The
source regions. westerlies converge with cold air currents
called easterlies. The easterlies are very
Classification and notation of air cold and dense air moving from the poles
masses to the equator.
Air mass classification involves three set of
letters. The first set describes its moisture
properties, with c used for continental air
masses (dry) and m for maritime air masses
(moist). The second set describes the
thermal characteristic of its source region:
T for Tropical, P for Polar, A for Arctic or
Antarctic, M for monsoon, E for
Equatorial, and S for superior air (dry air
formed by significant downward motion in
the atmosphere).
Formation of air masses

The uneven heating of the earth causes air
masses to circulate. Air masses at the
equator are heated and made lighter. That Fig. 5.1: Wind movement on the Earth
causes them to move towards the poles. A
low pressure is created around the
75
Types of air masses Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes,

Storm but they are typically in the form of a
A storm is an atmospheric disturbance in visible condensation funnel, whose narrow
the form of strong winds usually end touches the earth and is often encircled
accompanied by rain, snow, or other by a cloud of debris and dust. Most
precipitation and sometimes accompanied tornadoes have wind speeds less than 177
by lightning and thunder. km/h, 76 m across, and travel several
kilometres before dissipating. The most
Cyclone extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds
Cyclone is an unstable weather conditions of more than 483 km/h, stretch more than
created at the transitional zones of the 3.2 km across, and stay on the ground for
equator. Cyclones are strong storms that more than 100 km.
whirl while moving. This is due to the
intermingling of polar and subtropical air.
The rotation of the earth deflects air to the
right of the natural direction in the northern
hemisphere and to the south to the southern
hemisphere.
Fig. 5.3: A tornado
Fig. 5.2: A shot of a hurricane taken by a satellite EFFECTS OF MOVING AIR

MASSES
Tornado 1. Destruction of landscape: Storms are
A tornado is a violently rotating column of accompanied by great winds and rains
air that is in contact with both the surface which erode lands especially in the
of the earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, coastal regions where storms are
in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. always stronger.
76
2. Flood: Torrential rains (heavy rains)

triggered by storms cause areas,
including non costal area to flood,
which is always fatal and devastating.
3. Pollution: Moving air masses sweep

out everything in their path including
pollutants. They transport pollutants
from areas where they are less harmful
to places where they are more prone to Fig. 5.4: Devastating effects of tropical storms
cause harm to ecosystems. Industrial
waste can easily be transported to PRECAUTIONS AGAINST THE
residential areas. EFFECTS OF STORMS
1. Always listen out to weather forecasts
4. Temperature regulation: One good
and reports on radio or television.
effect of moving air masses is they
2. Move to a safer areas if a storm is
regulate temperatures by transporting
forecast to strike in your area
heat and energy from the tropics to the
3. Since storms could cause closure of
temperate latitudes. This helps maintain
stores and food joints, store enough
balance in the earth‘s troposphere, and
food with you.
helps in seasonal changes.
4. Keep emergency phone numbers
handy.
5. Supply of water: Another good effect
5. Stay away from the sea and coastal
of moving air masses is they flood
area.
areas devastated by drought by
6. After the storm, makes sure everything
transporting water there.
is in order and safe. Check gas leakages
and other appliances especially
electronic appliances before using
them; make sure they are well dry.
77
TEST QUESTIONS
1. Describe the formation of land and sea

breezes.
2. State four precautions that should be

taken against storms.
3. (a) What is an air mass?

(b) Describe the formation of the
following air masses:
(i) tornado
(ii) cyclone
4. (a) Explain the term trade winds.

(b) Describe the formation of trade
winds
78
8
NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen, an essential part of the amino

Specific Objectives acids, is a basic element of life. It also
 Describe the nitrogen cycle. makes up 78 percent of the Earth‘s
 Explain the importance of nitrogen cycle to atmosphere; however gaseous nitrogen
plants and animals.
must be converted to a chemically usable
form before it can be used by living
organisms. This is accomplished through
the nitrogen cycle, in which gaseous
INTRODUCTION nitrogen is converted to ammonia or
nitrates.
Nitrogen Cycle is a natural cyclic process The high energies provided by lightning
by which atmospheric nitrogen enters the and cosmic radiation serve to combine
soil and becomes useful to living atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen into
organisms, before returning to the nitrates, which are carried to the Earth‘s
atmosphere. surface in precipitation (e.g. rain).
Fig. 5.5: Nitrogen cycle
79
8 Nitrogen Cycle Samking
NITROGEN FIXATION Industrial nitrogen fixation

The principal industrial nitrogen-fixation
Nitrogen Fixation is a process by which process today is the production of
molecular atmospheric nitrogen is ammonia by combining atmospheric
converted into a chemical compound that nitrogen and hydrogen. Ammonia is then
is essential for plant growth. oxidized to form nitric acid, which is in
turn combined with ammonia to yield
There are two major ways of nitrogen ammonium nitrate, used primarily in
fixation – biological nitrogen fixation and explosives and fertilizers. In another
industrial nitrogen fixation. method, cyanamide, which is used as a
fertilizer or in the production of cyanides,
Biological nitrogen fixation is produced by passing atmospheric
This is the most widely and useful form of nitrogen over heated calcium carbide in.
nitrogen fixation. In this method, microbes
are the agents for fixing nitrogen in the Some processes involved in
soil. Microorganisms capable of nitrogen
nitrogen fixation
fixation are symbiotic bacteria of the genus
Rhizobium, which colonize and form Nitrification
nodules on the roots of leguminous plants The conversion of ammonia into nitrate is
such as beans, groundnut and cowpeas. performed mainly by soil living bacteria.
These bacteria obtain food from the Nitrification involves two main stage:
legume, which in turn is supplied with i. conversion of ammonium ion NH4 to
abundant nitrogen compounds. nitrite ions NO2
ii. oxidation of the nitrite ions, NO2 to
nitrate ions, NO3
Denitrification
This is the reduction of nitrates back into
the largely non-reactive nitrogen gas (N2),
which completes the nitrogen cycle
process. Again, bacteria are responsible for
this process.
Fig. 5.6: Bacterial nitrogen fixation
80
8 Nitrogen Cycle Samking
Importance of nitrogen cycle to

TEST QUESTIONS
plants and animals
Lost nitrogen in the soil is replaced through 1. What is nitrogen cycle?
the nitrogen cycle process. This improves
the fertility of the soil. The availability of 2. State and explain the two major ways
nitrogen in the soil means plants can easily of nitrogen fixation.
get access to it for proper growth.
Nitrogen, which is an important source of 3. Describe the importance of nitrogen
nutrient for animals as well, is passed on to cycle to plants and animals.
animals from plants. This occurs when
animals eat the plants that have absorbed 4. With the aid of a suitable diagram,
nitrogen from the soil through their roots. describe how the nitrogen cycle occurs.
In a nutshell, nitrogen cycle is very

important because:
1. It supplies plants with needed nitrogen
(nitrate ions).
2. It improves the fertility of the soil.
3. It improves the productivity and
structure of the soil and sustains the
activities and growth of microbes.
4. It prevents the accumulation of worn-
out plant and animals tissues in the soil.
5. It releases nitrogen which is stack-up in
organisms.
6. Nitrogen is an important nutrient which
helps plants to manufacture their food
for the nourishment of other organisms.
81
9
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
Examples of animals with endoskeleton are

Specific Objectives humans, birds, fish, snakes, etc.
 Describe the structure and functions of the
mammalian skeleton. Exoskeleton: This type of skeleton is
found outside the bodies of invertebrates
(animals without backbones). Examples of
animals with exoskeleton are shrimp,
insects, prawn, crab, etc.
INTRODUCTION - THE
MAMMALIAN SKELETON STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
OF THE MAMMALIAN SKELETON
A skeleton is a large interconnected bones
that supports and protects the body of The human skeleton is divided into two
living organisms. distinct parts – the axial skeleton and the
appendicular skeleton.
The skeleton supports the soft tissues and
provides leverage for movement. An adult The axial skeleton
man has about 206 bones in the body as This consists of bones that form the axis of
opposed to 275 in a child. the body and support and protect the
organs of the head, neck, and trunk.
Types of skeletons Examples are:
There are two types of skeletons, namely,
endoskeleton and exoskeleton. The Skull: The skull is the skeleton which
is on top of the vertebral column in all
Endoskeleton: This is the type of vertebrates. The skull encases and protects
skeleton found within the bodies of the brain and provides attachment for the
vertebrate (animals with backbones).
82
9 The Skeletal System Samking
muscles of the face and mouth.
The Sternum: Also known as the

breastbone, the sternum is a rigid structure
which is found at the front of the chest to
form the thoracic cage with the ribs
The Ribs: the ribs are long, slender bones

attached to the backbone that curve around
the chest cavity, or thorax. Ribs occur in
pairs and are found in almost all
vertebrates, or animals with backbones.
The Vertebral Column: Also called

spinal column or backbone, the vertebral Fig. 5.7: The vertebral column of man
column is the structure of bone or cartilage
surrounding and protecting the spinal cord Types of vertebrae
in vertebrate There are five major vertebrae in
The spinal column forms the major part of mammals:
the skeleton. To it are attached the skull,  Cervical vertebrae: found around the
shoulder bones, ribs, and pelvis. The neck area
vertebral column consists approximately of  Thoracic vertebrae: found around the
thirty-three bones called vertebrae. chest area.
Between each pair of vertebrae is a disk-  Sacral vertebrae: found around the
shaped pad of fibrous cartilage with a jelly- lower abdomen
like core, which is called the intervertebral  Caudal vertebrae: found around the
disk. tail area.
Each pair of vertebrae is connected by a  Lumber vertebrae: found around the
joint which stabilizes the vertebral column thoracic cavity.
and allows it to move. These disks cushion
the vertebrae during movement. The entire The appendicular skeleton
spine encloses and protects the spinal cord, This is composed of bones that anchor the
which is a column of nerve tracts running appendages to the axial skeleton. Examples
from every area of the body to the brain. are: the shoulder girdle and the pelvic
girdle. (The sacrum and coccyx are
considered part of the vertebral column)
83
(examples humerus, tibia, femur, ulna,

metacarpals, etc.) are of this type.
Short bones: These bones are short, cube-

shaped, and found in the wrists and ankles.
Flat bones: These bones have broad

surfaces for protection of organs and
attachment of muscles (examples are ribs,
cranial bones, bones of shoulder girdle).
Irregular bones: These are all other bones

that do not fall into the above categories.
They have varied shapes, sizes and
surfaces features and include the bones of
the vertebrae and a few bones in the skull.
Bone composition
Bones are composed of tissue that may
take one or two forms. Compact or dense
bone, and spongy or cancellous bone. Most
bones contain both types.
Compact bone is dense, hard, and forms
the protective exterior portion of all bones.
Spongy bone is inside the compact bone

Fig. 5.8 :Superior view of the vertebrae and is very porous (full of tiny holes).
Spongy bone occurs in most bones. The
TYPES OF BONES bone tissue is composed of several types of
bone cells embedded in a web of inorganic
The bones of the body fall into four general salts (mostly calcium and phosphorus) to
categories: long bones, short bones, flat give the bone strength, and collagenous
bones, and irregular bones. fibres and ground substance to give the
Long bones: these bones are longer than bone flexibility
they are wide and work as levers. The
bones of the upper and lower extremities
84
Structure of human skeleton  It provides attachment for the

muscles of the face and mouth.
Scapula (the shoulder blade)

A flat, triangular bone that lies over the
back of the upper ribs.
Functions:
 It serves as an attachment for some of
the muscles and tendons of the arm,
neck, chest and back and
 It aids in the movements of the arm
and shoulder.
Spine, vertebra and disk

The spine is a column of bone and
cartilage that extends from the base of the
skull to the pelvis.
Functions:
 It encloses and protects the spinal cord.
 It supports the trunk of the body and
the head.
The sacrum
The sacrum, at the base of the vertebral
column, is wedged between the coaxial
bones of the pelvis and is attached to them
by fibro-cartilage at the sacroiliac joints.
Fig. 5.9: Structure of the human skeleton Function:
 The weight of the body is transmitted
Skull to the legs through the pelvic girdle at
The skull is the bony framework of the the sacrum.
head. It is comprised of the eight cranial
and fourteen facial bones. Sternum (breastbone)
Functions: A long, narrow, flat plate that forms the
 It encases the brain centre of the front of the chest.
 It protects the brain
85
Tarsal bone The ribs

The foot consists of an ankle, an instep, and Ribs are flat, curved bones that form the
five toes. The ankle is composed of seven framework of the chest and make up a cage
tarsal bones, forming a group called the to protect the heart, lungs and other upper
tarsus. organs. There are twelve pairs of ribs, each
Function: joined at the back of the cage to a vertebra
 It helps to support the weight of the in the spine. There are seven true ribs
body and provides an attachment for attached to the sternum (breastbone)
muscles that move the foot. directly by their costal cartilages. The
remaining five pairs are called false ribs,
Carpal bones because their cartilages do not reach the
The skeleton of the wrist consists of eight sternum directly. Instead, the cartilages of
small carpal bones that are firmly bound in the upper three false ribs join the cartilages
two rows of four bones each. . attached to the ribs above, while the last rib
pairs have no cartilaginous attachments to
Clavicle the sternum at all. These last two pairs are
The clavicle is the collarbone. There are sometimes called floating ribs.
two of these bones, each curved a little like Functions:
an "f," that joins the top of the breastbone  Protect some vital organs such as the
(sternum) to the shoulder blade (scapula). heart and lungs
The clavicles support the arms and transmit  Aids in breathing
force from the arms into the central
skeleton. Phalanges
The phalanges are the small bones that
The coccyx make up the skeleton of the fingers, thumb
The coccyx (or tail) is the lowest part of and toes. Each finger and smaller toe has
the vertebral column and is attached by three phalanges; the thumb and big toe
ligaments to the margins of the sacral each have two. The phalange nearest the
hiatus. body of the hand or foot is call the
When a person is sitting, pressure is proximal phalange; the one at the end of
exerted on the coccyx, and it moves each digit is the distal phalange; and when
forward, acting like a shock absorber. there are three, the middle one is called the
(Sitting down with too great a force may middle phalange.
cause the coccyx to be fractured or
dislocated).
86
Femur Pelvis (or Os Coxa)

The femur is the thigh bone, the longest The pelvis is a ring of bones in the lower
bone in the body. It lowers into a ball (or trunk of the body, which is bounded by the
head of the femur) that fits into a socket in coccyx (tail bone) and the hip bones.
the pelvis to form the hip joint. The pelvis protects abdominal organs such
as the bladder, rectum and, in women, the
Fibula uterus.
The fibula is the outer and thinner of the
two long bones of the lower leg. It is much Tibia
narrower than the other bone (the shin), to The tibia is the inner and thicker of the two
which it runs parallel and to which it is long bones in the lower leg. It is also called
attached at both ends by ligaments. The the shin bone.
upper end of the fibula does not reach the The tibia is the supporting bone of the
knee, but the lower end descends below the lower leg and runs parallel to the other,
shin and forms part of the ankle. Its main smaller bone (the fibula) to which it is
function is to provide attachment for attached by ligaments.
muscles. It doesn't give much support or
strength to the leg, which explains why the Functions of the skeleton
bone can safely be used for grafting onto 1. It gives shape to the body
other bones in the body. 2. It protects the internal organs of the
body
Humerus 3. It aids in movement.
The humerus is the bone of the upper arm. 4. The ribs aid in breathing.
The smooth, dome-shaped head of the bone 5. The skeleton provides points of
lies at an angle to the shaft and fits into a attachment for the muscles.
shallow socket of the scapula (shoulder 6. Red blood cells are produced in the
blade) to form the shoulder joint. Below bone marrow.
the head, the bone narrows to form a 7. The skeleton gives support to the body.
cylindrical shaft. It flattens and widens at
the lower end and, at its base, it joins with Ligaments
the bones of the lower arm (the ulna and A ligament is a band of tissues that
radius) to make up the elbow. connect bones or cartilages.
Ligaments are tough, fibrous, slightly
elastic tissue and white which in colour,.
87
Ligaments, especially those in the ankle i. movable joints and

joint and knee, are sometimes damaged by ii. immovable joints.
injury. A torn ligament usually results from
twisting stress when the knee is turned Movable joints
while weight is on that particular leg. Movable joints allow movement of parts of
Minor sprains are treated with ice, the body. They consist of an external layer
bandages and sometimes physical therapy, of fibrous cartilage giving rise to strong
but if the ligament is torn, the joint may be ligaments that support the separate bones.
placed in a plaster cast to allow time to The bones of movable joints are covered
heal or it may require surgical repairs. If a with smooth cartilage and are lubricated by
ligament is made up of several thick bands a thick fluid, called synovial fluid,
of fibrous branches, it is called a collateral produced between the bones in
ligament. membranous sacs, known as bursae.
Examples of ligaments in a body are: Bursitis, or inflammation of the bursae, is a
 Intertransverse Ligaments, common painful condition of movable
 Interclavicular Ligaments, joints.
 Fibular Collateral Ligament,
 Ligaments of The Foot, etc. Types of movable joints
Ball and socket joint
Functions of the ligament This is made up of a bone with a round end
1. It binds the bone ends together to which fits into another with a hollow end.
prevent dislocation and excessive This joint allows movement in more than
movement that might cause breakage. one area. Examples are the shoulder joint
2. Ligaments also support many internal and the hip joint.
organs; including the uterus, the
bladder, the liver, and the diaphragm
3. It helps in shaping and supporting the
breasts.
JOINTS
JOINTS
Joints are areas where bones or cartilages
in the skeleton meet.
There are two main types of joints in the
skeleton: Fig. 6.0: Shoulder joint
88
Hinge joint
This joint allows movement in only one TEST QUESTIONS
JOINTS
area. Examples are the elbow joint and the
knee joint. 1. What is a skeleton?
2. Enumerate five functions of the

mammalian skeleton.
3. What is a joint?
4. Mention three types of movable joints

and give one example each.
Fig. 6.1: Knee joint 5. The following are some parts of the
mammalian skeleton. Place them in
. the table below as axial or
Gliding joint appendicular skeleton.
This joint allows slide movement of bones  Skull
over each other  Ribs
 Pelvic girdle
 Sternum
 Arm
 Leg
 Shoulder girdle
Axial skeleton Appendicular skeleton

Fig. 6.2: Gliding joint
Immovable/ fixed joints

Immovable joints are held together by
actual intergrowth of bone or by strong
fibrous cartilage; this prevent movement at
all areas. Examples are the pelvic girdle
and the suture (joint in the skull).
89
10
REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH IN
PLANTS
celled organisms as far as the preservation

Specific Objectives of the species is concerned.
 Identify parts of a flower and variations in flower
structure. Types of reproduction
 Describe the process of pollination and There are two types of reproduction –
fertilization.
 Describe different type of fruits. sexual and asexual reproduction.
 Describe the structure of seeds and state the
functions of their parts.
Sexual reproduction
 Describe the mechanisms of seed and fruit
dispersal. Sexual reproduction is the type of
 Describe the process and conditions necessary reproduction where the male and the
for germination.
 Describe vegetative (asexual) reproduction in female egg cells (gametes) fuse together to
plants. give rise to a new individual.
Examples of organisms which reproduce
sexually are: humans, cats, birds, reptile,
plants, etc.
Asexual reproduction
INTRODUCTION
This type of reproduction involves the use
Reproduction is the process whereby all of a part or whole of an organism to
living organisms produce new individuals reproduce a new one. Asexual reproduction
of their own kind. is very prominent in plants.
Reproduction is one of the essential There are two types of asexual

functions of plants, animals, and single reproduction in plants – artificial
90
10 Reproduction and Growth in Plants Samking
reproduction and vegetative reproduction  Style: the stalk that connects the stigma
or vegetative propagation. to the ovary
 Stigma: receives pollen grains during
FLOWER pollination.
A flower is the sexual reproductive part of Androecium

a plant which may produce fruits and The androecium consists of the male sex
seeds. organs called stamens. Each stamen is
made up of an anther and a filament. The
Flowers bear the sex organs that produce anther produces pollen grains. The filament
male and female gametes, and therefore is a stalk that supports the anther.
carry out the multiple roles of sexual
reproduction, seed development, and fruit Corolla
production. The corolla consists of petals. Petals are
large, brightly coloured and usually
STRUCTURE OF A FLOWER scented to attract animal pollinators. Petals
may also possess nectaries which produce
Flowers typically are composed of four nectar, a sugary liquid.
parts, or whorls, arranged in concentric
rings attached to the tip of the stem. From
innermost to outermost, these whorls are
the:
 gynaecium (found at the centre of the
flower)
 androecium (surrounded by the corolla)
 corolla (collection of petals)
 calyx (collection of sepals)
Gynaecium
This is the innermost whore. It is made up
one or more carpels or pistils. The carpel
Fig. 6.2: Structure of a flower
is the female organ of the flower and
produces the female gametes. Each carpel
has three parts:
 Ovary: contains ovules
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Examples of unisexual flowers are

pawpaw, water melon, etc.
PROJECT WORK:
 Make a collection of about ten different
flower specimens.
 Open fully to locate the main parts.
 Mount each flower on a separate sheet
of paper and the parts separated out and
Fig. 6.3: Male and female reproductive parts labeled.
 Enclose each flower with a plastic sheet
Calyx and transparent tape.
 Display work by groups on a bulletin
The calyx is the outermost whorl and is board or science table for award of
made up of sepals. Sepals are mostly green marks.
in colour. The calyx supports the inner .
whorls.
POLLINATION
Types of flowers
The variations in flowers gives rise to two Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains
main types of flowers – bisexual and from the anther of a flower to the stigma
unisexual flowers. of a flower.
Bisexual /hermaphroditic flowers: These The stigma could be on the same flower or
are the type of flower which has both male another flower on the same plant
and female gamete –androecium (stamens) (autogamy) or another plant of the same
and gynaecium (carpels). In other words, species (geitogamy).
they are complete flowers. Examples of
bisexual flowers are hibiscus, flamboyant, Types of pollination
pride of Barbados, crotalaria. Pollination comes in two types –self-
pollination and cross pollination
Unisexual flowers: These flowers have
only one of the reproductive parts. - they Self-pollination: This is the transfer of
have either androecium or gynaecium. pollen grains form the anther of a flower to
They are therefore termed as incomplete. the stigma of the same flower or another
flower on the same plant.
92
Cross-pollination: It is the transfer of 4. The style of the gynaecium and the

pollen grains from the anther of a flower to filaments of androecium differ in
the stigma of another flower or another length.
plant of the same species. 5. Pollen grains of the flower cannot
fertilize their own flower
Advantages of Self Pollination

1. Does not need any agent of pollination.
2. Pollen grains are transported over a
short distance.
3. Less pollen grains are wasted or fall
off.
Advantages of Cross Pollination

1. The pollen grains are brought from
different flowers, which ensures
variety. Varied seeds are often resistant
Fig. 6.4: The pollination process to diseases.
2. Seeds produced after cross pollination
Adaptations of Plants for Self are healthier than those from one parent
Pollination (self pollination).
1. Each flower is bisexual (has both male 3. Pollination is still possible even when
and female gametes) stamen and anthers mature at different
2. Flowers have the anther and stigma times.
maturing at the same time (homogamy)
3. Flowers remain closed until self- Agents of Pollination
pollination has occurred. (cleistogamy) Agents of pollination are the factors
which are responsible for the transfer of
Adaptations of Plants for Cross pollen grains from the anther to the
Pollination stigma of flowers.
1. Flowers are unisexual.
2. Male and female flowers grow on The agents of pollination include insects,
different plants wind, man, water, birds, and bats. Insects
3. Anther and stigma mature at different and wind are the prominent agents of
times pollination.
93
rough, heavy pollen smooth, light pollen

grains grains
Stamens have Stamens have long,
short, thick filaments thin filaments
Usually scented Not scented
The characteristics above are also the

comparisons between insect and wind
pollinated flowers.
Variations in flower structure

Flowers display many variations in their
structure. Most flowers have all four
whorls—gynaecium, androecium, corolla,
and calyx. These are called complete
flowers. However, some flowers are
incomplete, meaning they lack one or more
whorls. Incomplete flowers are most
common in plants whose pollen is
Fig. 6.5: Birds and flying insects as agents of
dispersed by the wind or water. Since these
pollination
flowers do not need to attract pollinators,
Table 3.3: Characteristics of insect and wind
most have no petals, and some even lack
pollinated flowers sepals.
Insect pollinated Wind pollinated Flowers that lack either stamens or a pistil
flowers flowers are said to be imperfect. Imperfect flowers
Large and Small and can still function in sexual reproduction.
conspicuous inconspicuous
Flowers that have only stamens are termed
Brightly coloured Petals are dull in
petals colour
staminate, and flowers that have only a
Petals produce Petals do not pistil are called pistillate.
nectar produce nectar Although a single flower can be either
Small and compact Large , feathery staminate or pistillate, a plant species must
stigma found inside stigma hanging have both to reproduce sexually. In some
the flower outside the flower
species with imperfect flowers, the
Produce small Produce large
quantities of pollen quantities of pollen staminate and pistillate flowers occur on
grains grains the same plant. Such plants, known as
Produce large, Produce small, monoecious species, include maize.
94
Fig. 6.7: Some types of inflorescence
Fig. 6.6: A monoecious flower FERTILIZATION
In dioecious species such as date, willow, Fertilization is the process whereby the
and hemp, staminate and pistillate flowers male and the female gametes fuse
are found on different plants. A date tree, together to form a zygote.
for example, will develop male or female
flowers but not both. In dioecious species, Fertilization occurs in the ovule, which
at least two plants, one bearing staminate contains the female gametes known as
flowers and one bearing pistillate flowers, ovum.
are needed for pollination and fertilization.
A group of flowers with a common stalk is Mechanism of Fertilization in Plants
called an inflorescence. The stalk of an  When a mature pollen grain is deposited
inflorescence flower is called the peduncle. on a mature stigma, it absorbs water
Each flower has its own stalk called and nutrients from the stigma and
pedicel. Some flowers lack a stalk and are swells.
describe as sessile flowers.  The nucleus of the pollen grain divides
into two unequal sizes. The larger one
is called the generative nucleus and the
smaller one the vegetative nucleus or
pollen tube.
95
 The walls of the pollen grain slits and a

pollen tube protrudes from it. The
pollen tube then penetrates the stigma
and grows through its tissue into the
style.
 The nucleus of the pollen tube moves
to the tip of the pollen tube, followed
by the generative nucleus.
 The pollen tube grows through the style
toward the ovary. It gets nutrients from
the style. As the pollen tube gets closer
to the ovary, the generative nucleus
divides into two male nuclei.
 The ovary contains one or more ovules
each consist of an embryo sac and two Fig. 6.8: The fertilization process
protective coats called inner and outer
integuments. FRUITS
 A small pore called micropyle is found
at one end of the ovule. The pollen tube A fruit is a fertilized ovary which protects
enters the ovary grows to an ovule. It and disperses seeds
then grows through the micropyle, and
enters the embryo sac. The pollen tube Type of Fruits
nucleus disintegrates and disappears. There are two types of fruits: true fruits
 The two male nuclei are released into and false fruits
the embryo sac. One male nucleus
fuses with the egg nucleus to form True fruits: These are the types of fruits
zygote. which form only from the ovary of the
 The other male nucleus moves to the flower. Most fruits fall into the category of
centre of the embryo sac and fuses with true fruits. Examples are orange, tomato,
the polar nuclei to form the primary cowpea, pawpaw, sunflower, etc.
endosperm nucleus. This is known as
double penetration, and occurs only in False fruits: These are those which form
flowering plants. from the ovary and some other part of the
flower. Examples are cowpea, pineapple,
apple.
96
True fruits are further considered as Berry

simple, aggregate, and multiple fruits. A berry has a thin epicarp, fleshy mesocarp
and a thin fleshy endocarp. It also has
Simple fruits are formed from a flower many carpels and contains many seeds
with either a single carpel or many carpels attached to the placenta at the centre of the
fused together. Examples are orange, fruit. Example are guava, tomato, pepper.
pawpaw, tomato, cowpea.
Aggregate fruits are formed from one

flower which has many free carpels. Each
carpel forms a simple fruit called a fruitlet.
Examples are raspberry and strawberry.
Multiple/compound fruits are formed from

many flowers, or a whole inflorescence.
An example is pineapple.
Fig. 6.9: Berry of tomato
Further classification places simple fruits
into fleshy fruits and dry fruits. Drupe
A drupe has a thin epicarp, a thick, fleshy
Fleshy/succulent fruits are fruits with soft, or fibrous mesocarp, and a hard endocarp.
juicy pericaps. Examples are tomato, apple. Examples are mango, coconut.
Dry fruits are fruits with dry, hard and Dry fruits are described as dehiscent and
woody pericaps. Examples are beans, indehiscent fruits.
flamboyant, pride of Barbados, cotton,
okro (okra). Dry dehiscent fruits are fruits whose
pericaps split to release seeds. They are
Succulent/fleshy fruits are classed as berry classified as:
or drupe. The pericap of succulent fruits  Legume (pod), examples, cowpea,
consists of three layers: an outer epicarp, a flamboyant, pride of Barbados.
middle mesocarp and an inner endocarp.  Capsule, examples, okro, cotton,
Part or all of the pericarp is fleshy and can poppy.
be eaten.  Follicle, example, cola, cnestis.
 Schizocarp, example, Cassia,
Desmodium.
97
formed from the inner integument of the

ovule.
Functions:
 Protects the inner part of the seed
 Allows water and oxygen to enter the
seed
Embryo
The embryo consists of three parts – the
plumule (embryonic shoot), radicle
(embryonic root) and cotyledons (seed
Fig. 7.0: Longitudinal section of a drupe leave). A stalk holds each cotyledon to the
embryo.
Functions:
Dry indehiscent fruits are classified as:
 The plumule develops into the shoot
 Achene, an example is sunflower.
system.
 Cypsela an example is tridax
 The radicle develops into the shoot
 Caryopsis an example is maize grain.
system of the plant.
 Samara examples are combretum,
 The cotyledon stores food for the use
pteocarpus
and growth of the embryo. It also
 Nut an example is cashew fruit.
encloses and protects other parts of the
embryo.
SEED
Endosperm
A seed is a fertilized ovary found in a
The endosperm is a large tissue found only
fruit.
in some seeds.
Function:
The structure of a seed
 Stores food. (In most seeds the
Seed is made up of a seed coat, an embryo,
cotyledon takes the place and function
and an endosperm.
of the endosperm).
Seed coat
Cotyledon
Two layers make up the seed coat – testa
Also called seed leaf, is the part of the seed
and tegmen. The testa is formed from the
which stores food for growth of the
outer integument, while the tegmen is
embryo. A seed with one cotyledon, such
98
(maize)
Fig. 7.1: Structure of seeds
as maize, is known as monocotyledonous,

while a seed with two cotyledons, such as DISPERSAL OF FRUITS AND
beans, is known as dicotyledonous. SEEDS
Dispersal is the scattering of fruits and

Differences between Fruits and
seeds from the parent plants to new places
Seeds
by agents such as wind, water and
Fruits Seeds
They are fertilised They are fertilized animals.
ovary ovule
They contain seeds They contained in Agents of Dispersal
fruits Agents of dispersal are the factors which
They have two They have one scar
bring about dispersal of fruits and seeds.
scars
They are wind, water, and animals. Some
fruits disperse the seeds themselves by a
method known as explosive mechanism or
self-dispersal.
99
Wind Dispersal Animal Dispersal

For a fruit or seed to be dispersed by wind, Features of fruits dispersed by animal are:
it must have the following features: 1. Edible (eatable).
1. Dry and light in weight 2. Brightly coloured to attract animals.
2. Small in size e.g. orchids e.g. mango, guava, pawpaw and
3. Have floss (a mass of silk thread). e.g. tomato.
cotton 3. Fruits and seed with hooks to attach
4. Have wings (flattened and extended themselves to the fur of mammals and
pericarp). e.g. tecoma, dutchman‘s clothes of humans. e.g. Desmodium,
pipe, combretum Pupalia seed and bidens.
5. Have pappus (parachute-like hair).e.g. 4. Fruits with sticky hairs to attach
tridax themselves to animals and people. e.g.
boerhaavia and plumbago.
Fig. 7.2: Examples of wind dispersed fruits
Water Dispersal
Features of fruits and seeds dispersed by
water are: Fig. 7.4: Example of animal dispersed fruit
1. Thick and fibrous mesocarp with air
spaces between the fibres. e.g. coconut. Self-Dispersal (Explosive Mechanism)
2. Spongy seed coat containing several air Feature of fruits and seeds which undergo
spaces. e.g. whit mangrove. self-dispersal are:
1. Uneven drying of the seed coat. Some
parts of the fruits dry faster than other
parts creating tension which causes the
fruits to split open suddenly with an
explosion. e.g. cowpea, flamboyant,
pride of Barbados.
2. Turgidity of the seed coat. e.g. Balsam
plants.
Fig. 7.3: Water dispersed fruit
100
GROUP ACTIVITY:
 Make a collection of different seeds

from the community.
 Study the features, draw and label the
longitudinal section of two of the seeds
e.g. maize and Jatropha sp.
 List the functions of the parts.
Fig. 7.5: Examples of self-dispersed fruits  Keep information on each seed
including name of collector, date of
Advantages of Fruits and Seeds collection, differences in size, shape,
colour and uses.
Dispersal .
1. Reduces overcrowding of plants.
2. Reduces competition for light.
3. Reduces competition for nutrients.
4. Helps plants to move to new locations. GERMINATION OF SEEDS
5. Reduces epidemic diseases among
plants. Germination is the process whereby the
6. The rate of destruction of a species by embryo emerges from the seed coat as a
fire, flood, etc. is reduced. result of growth of the seed into a
seedling.
Disadvantages of Fruits and Seeds
Dispersal Seeds may germinate immediately or
1. Some of the fruits or seeds may land undergo a period of dormancy, after their
on an arid land (unproductive land) dispersal.
and die.
2. Some of them may be in a colony of Dormancy is the stage during which
herbivores and therefore be eaten. growing stops temporarily and metabolism
3. Some could land in an overcrowded is reduced to the lowest rate.
area and die from nutrients and Dormant seeds may survive adverse
sunlight starvation. conditions like drought, flood, and
irregular temperatures.
101
Fig. 7.6: The germination process
Conditions Necessary for Seed

The Germination Process Germination
 The testa which is permeable to water For a seed to germinate it must first be
and air absorbs water. viable; that is it should be ideal and well
 Digestive enzymes in the seed become suited for germination. The environment
active and break down the food were the seed is plays an important role in
substances in the seed to soluble forms. its germination. Before a seed germinates,
 The soluble food substances are it must be exposed to some environmental
transported to the plumle and radicle. conditions such as:
 The radicle grows downwards into the 1. Moisture (water)
soil to form the root system. 2. Oxygen (air)
 The plumle grows upwards through the 3. Warmth (suitable temperature)
soil to become the shoot system.
 The young plant is called a seedling. To sum it up, the condition necessary for
seed germination include moisture,
oxygen, warmth and the viability of the
seed. Though the environmental conditions
for seed germination are moisture, oxygen,
102
and warmth, some seeds, such as tobacco This shows that a viable seed needs all the
seeds require exposure to light before they conditions – water, air and warmth – in
germinate. order to germinate.
Demonstrating the conditions necessary

for germination
 Label four test tubes A, B, C and D.
 Put a piece of cotton wool and four
viable bean seeds into each test tube.
 Pour a few drops of water into test
tubes A and D.
 Leave test tube A at room temperature
Fig. 7.7
and place test tube D in ice cubes or
refrigerator to get rid of warmth.
Types of germination
 Leave the contents of test tube B as it
There are two types of germination:
is making sure that they are dry. epigeal and hypogeal germination.
 Heat water to eliminate oxygen, allow
the water to cool and pour a few drops Epigeal germination
into test tube C. Pour oil onto the This is the type of germination which
water to form a layer on the surface to occurs when the cotyledon appears above
prevent oxygen from entering. the ground.
 Leave the test tubes for seven days
and observe what happens. This is caused by the elongation of the
radicle. Examples of plants which undergo
Observation epigeal germination are mango, groundnut,
It would be observed that only the seeds cowpea, red beans, etc.
in test tube A germinate. The others will
not germinate. Hypogeal germination
This is the type of germination which
occurs when the cotyledon remains below
Conclusion
the ground.
The seeds in test tube A, which have all
the conditions for germination, germinate This is caused by the elongation of the
while the other seeds which lack one plumule.
condition appease do not germinate.
103
Table 3.4: Differences between epigeal and arranged in a concentric around the short
hypogeal germination stem. The fleshy inner scale leaves store
Epigeal Hypogeal
food and they are covered and protected by
germination germination the dry, brown outer leaves.
Cotyledons rise Cotyledons remain It has a lot of fibrous roots which rise from
from the ground in the soil the base of the short stem.
Normally has small Normally has larger
cotyledons cotyledons
Procedure
Cotyledons store Cotyledons store
less food more food Propagation of bulbs is done by planting
the entire bulb in the soil. The axilary buds
develop into daughter buds underground
VEGETATIVE (ASEXUAL)
REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS and later sprouts into young bulbs.
Examples of bulbs are onions, garlic,
Vegetative propagation or reproduction is spider lily, etc.
the use of parts or the whole of an
organism to give rise to new organisms.
Vegetative reproduction occurs only in

plants. Most of the plants which reproduce
asexually do not have flowers which
contain the sexual parts (androecium and
gynaecium) of a plant. Therefore, they
reproduce from vegetative parts such as
leaves, stems or roots. Fig. 7.8: An onion bulb
Methods of vegetative propagation Propagation by rhizome

Plants which undergo vegetative A rhizome is a thick stem which grows
propagation have modified stems horizontally in the soil.
underground, such as bulbs, rhizomes,
suckers corms, runners and stem tubers. It has a terminal and a lateral (axillary) bud
that develops into aerial shoot and stem
Propagation by bulb branch respectively. Food is stored in the
A bulb has a short vertical stem. It has a stem. Rhizomes have adventitious roots
terminal bud, which develops into an aerial which develop from the nodes.
shoot. It also has axilary buds, which
develop into daughter bulbs. The leaves are
104
Procedure Examples of suckers are plantain and

Propagation of rhizome is done by cutting banana.
the stem into pieces, with each piece
having two to three buds and planting them
in the soil. The buds sprout and grow into
an aerial shoot.
Examples of rhizomes are ginger, canna
lily.
Fig. 8.0: Propagation by sucker
Propagation by corms
A corm is a short bulging stem, which
grows vertically underground. It has a
terminal bud which gives rise to an aerial
shoot and an axillary bud which develops
Fig. 7.9: Propagation by rhizome
into the axils of the scale leaves. Internodes
Propagation by suckers with adventitious roots rising from the
Suckers are lateral underground stems nodes are also found on the stem. The stem
which bear a terminal bud, scale leaves and stores food.
adventitious leaves. The tips of the stems
which give rise to the aerial shoots emerge Procedure
above the soil level. A sucker depends on Propagation of corms is done by cutting the
the parent plant for nourishment, since it whole corm into pieces such that each
cannot store food. piece has a number of buds. Each piece is
planted in the soil. The axillary buds
Procedure develop into daughter corms.
A sucker is propagated by cutting the Examples of corm are cocoyam, Caladium
young sucker close to the parent plant and sp.
replanting it in the soil.
105
The nodes opposite the adventitious roots

develop into aerial shoots.
Examples of runners are sweet potato,
strawberry etc.
Stem tuber: A stem tuber is a bulging

underground stem which has adventitious
buds and stores food. Stem tubers do not
have adventitious roots.
Stem tubers can be propagated by cutting
the stem into pieces, with each stem having
Fig. 8.1: Propagation by corm a bud which will germinate to the shoot
system. Examples of stem tubers are yam,
Runners cassava, potato, etc.
A runner is a thin creeping stem which
grows horizontally along the surface of the
ground. The stem has long internodes and
produces adventitious roots at its nodes.
These roots go into the soil and fix the
weak stem firmly to the surface of the soil.
Fig. 8.3: Propagation by corm
Fig. 8.4: Propagation by runners
106
ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION stock and scion make contact. The scion

and stock are firmly bound together, and
The methods mentioned above are also the area is covered with a waterproof
known as the natural methods of material such as polythene sheets. The bud
propagation. Apart from these methods of on the scion develops and bears the fruits
propagation, there are other methods which of the plant from which it is removed.
are used to propagate plants. These are Examples of plants which can be
stem cutting, budding, grafting, and propagated by budding are citrus trees (e.g.
layering. orange) and roses.
Stem cutting
This can be used for plants that produce
flowers but do not form seeds. The stems
are cut from an angle just below a node.
Each cutting must have three to five nodes.
The lower end of the stem is planted in the
soil with at least one node below the
surface of the soil. Adventitious roots
develop from the node in the soil. Fig. 8.5: Propagation by budding
Examples of plants propagated by stem
cutting are sugar cane, cassava, hibiscus
Grafting
and runners (e.g. sweet potato).
Vegetative propagation by grafting
involves joining parts on one plant into
Budding
another plant of different variety of the
In budding, a dormant bud on a sliver of
same species. The scion is a short length of
stem called the scion is carefully removed
stem with at least one bud. It is joined to
from one plant using a sharp pen knife. It is
the cut-end of the stem of another plant, the
inserted into a T-shaped cut in the back of
stock. The cambia of the stock and scion
another plant called the stock. The stock
must make contact. To achieve this, the
must have a well established rooting
scion may be wedge-shaped to fit into a V-
system. The cambium of the scion must be
shaped stock, or slanted to fit a slanted
exposed by carefully scraping off the
stock. The scion and stock are then bound
woody part of the stem attached to it. The
together. The cut heals soon and the stock
scion is carefully placed in the T-shaped
and scion continue to grow as one plant
cut of the stock so that the cambia of the
107
and bear the fruit of the plant from which Layering

the scion was removed. This method of propagation is used to
Examples of plants propagated by grafting propagate plants that do not produce seeds
are citrus (e.g. orange, grape fruit, and will not always grow from stem cutting
tangerine), mango, cocoa. either. A branch of the stem close to the
ground is carefully bent over so that a part
of it having a number of nodes touches the
ground. The end of the branch is tied to a
firm support. A slit is made with a penknife
at a node that touched the ground. This part
of the branch is pushed into the soil and
held in place with two pegs. It is covered
with a heap of fertile soil and a heavy
object is placed on top.
Fig. 8.6: Propagation by grafting
Fig. 8.7: types of layering
108
The soil is irrigated regularly and dug out 4. Offspring are produced close to parent
when adventitious roots develop. The plant, therefore colonization of new
rooted twig is cut off and planted in a localities is unlikely
fertile soil. 5. Any disease of parent plant is passed
Other methods of layering include: on to the offspring.
 Air layer
 Tip layer Table 3.5: Differences between Sexual and Asexual
 Serpentine layer propagation
 Trench layer Sexual propagation Asexual

 Mound layer propagation
Requires only one
Requires two parents
Advantages of Asexual Propagation parent
1. Only one parent is needed to produce New varieties are No new variety
offspring. produce produced
2. Faster growth of plants. Involves the fusion of
3. Good qualities of parents are male and female Does not involve
gametes to form a fusion of gametes
maintained by offspring.
zygote
4. Used to propagate plants which cannot
Growth is slow Growth is fast
produce seeds.
Parent and offspring Parent and offspring
5. Parent material provides nutrients for
may not compete for always compete for
the young plants. nutrients nutrients
6. The young plants can withstand
adverse conditions.
7. Early maturity of plant is attained.
TEST QUESTIONS
Disadvantages of Vegetative
Propagation 1. (a) Draw and label a fully developed
1. Offspring and parent plant may flower.
compete for nutrients and sunlight due (b) State the functions of the parts
to overcrowding labelled
2. There is lack of variety
3. Many plants may be destroyed by 2. (a) What is pollination?
disaster in an area. (b) State four differences between
insect pollinated flower and wind
pollinated flower.
3. (a) Define reproduction.
109
(b) Distinguish between sexual Study the figure carefully and answer
reproduction and asexual the questions that follow.
reproduction
4. (a) Explain the term germination of

plants.
(b) Differentiate between epigeal and
hypogeal germination.
5. Describe three methods each of asexual

and vegetative propagations.
6. (a) What are fruit and seed dispersal?

(b) Explain three methods of fruit and
seed dispersal and give two
examples of the agents involved.
7. (a) Describe the germination process. Fig. 3

(b) State the conditions necessary for
germination. (i) Identify the structures A and B.
(ii) (α) Name each of the parts labelled I,
8. Write a short note on the following II, III, IV, V, VI, VII and VIII.
methods of vegetative propagation: (β) State one function each of the
(a) budding parts labelled II and IV.
(b) layering (iii) State the relationship between
(c) grafting structure A and structure B.
(iv) State the mode of dispersal of the part
9. (a) Explain the term vegetative labelled VIII.
propagation. (v) Name one plant which produces
(b) Distinguish between sexual structures similar to B.
reproduction and asexual
reproduction. 11. (a) Mention the method of propagation
for the following plants.
10. Fig. 3 is an illustration of structures (i) ginger
associated with plants. (ii) garlic
110
(iii) sweet potato (a) Name the parts labelled I, II, III and
(iv) potato IV.
(v) cassava (b) Identify each of the methods of
(vi) plantain propagation in A, B and C.
(vii) orange (c) Given a citrus seedling, a
(vii) hibiscus flower mature citrus plant, a knife and a
(ix) carrot wrapping tape, describe how the
(x) taro propagation method would be
performed as illustrated in set-up B
(b) Describe two natural methods of above.
vegetative propagation. (d) State three factors that influence
the success of the method of
12. (a) What is a fruit? propagation illustrated in C above.
(b) State two differences between (e) Name one ornamental plant
fruits and seeds. propagated by the method
(c)` Describe the following types of illustrated in A.
fruits: (f) State four advantages of the method
(i) true fruits of propagation illustrated above.
(ii) false fruits
14. Describe the following methods of fruit
13. Figure three illustrates three different and seed dispersal and give two
methods of crop propagation. examples each:
Study the figure carefully and answer (a) explosive mechanism
the questions that follow. (b) Water dispersal
(c) Animals dispersal
(d) Wind dispersal
111
11
FOOD AND NUTRITION
Food is any substance that living

Specific Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to: organisms consume to gain energy.
 Outline the different classes of food and
describe a balanced diet.
Nutrition is the process whereby living
 State the effects of malnutrition.
 Explain the need to fortify and enrich food. organisms get food.
 Outline the health benefits of water.
CLASSES OF FOOD
The different classes of food are:

 Carbohydrates
 Proteins
INTRODUCTION  Fats and oils (lipid)
 Minerals
All living organisms need energy to carry
 Vitamins
out basic life processes. The number one
source of energy is food. Some living
Carbohydrates
organisms (e.g. green plants) can prepare
Carbohydrates are compound of
their own food with sunlight in a process
hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen.
known as photosynthesis. These organisms
are described as autotrophic (self feeders)
The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1.
because they make their own food. Some
Carbohydrates are the major source of
other living organisms do not produce their
energy for living organisms.
own food. They are described as
There are three types of carbohydrates:
heterotrophic (other feeders). Therefore,
monosaccharides, disaccharides and
they feed on the food prepared by green
polysaccharide.
plants for energy.
112
11 Food and Nutrition Samking
Monosaccharides Examples of disaccharides are sucrose in

Monosaccharides are known as simple sugar cane, lactose (milk sugar), maltose
sugars. This is because they have a from germinating grains (e.g. maize). All
reduction action on Benedict‘s and disaccharides except sucrose (non-reducing
Fehling‘s solution. They are therefore sugar) are reducing sugar.
called reducing sugars, and their general
formula is C6H12O6. Monsaccharides are Polysaccharides
sweet and soluble in water. Polysaccharides are made up of several
Examples of monosaccharides are glucose monosaccharides chemically combined.
in fruits, galactose in milk, fructose, flower The general formula for polysaccharides is
nectar, fruits and honey. (C6H10O5)n where n is a large number,
about 300 for starch and 300 to 3000 for
cellulose. Polysaccharides are not sweet
and usually insoluble in water. Examples
are starch, cellulose, glycogen, and chitin.
Test for starch

 Put a sample of the food into a test
tube.
 Add some drops of iodine solution.
It would be observed that the colour of
the food sample changes to blue-black,
Fig. 8.8: Molecular structure of monosaccharide showing the presence of starch in the
food.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides are referred to as complex Test for reducing sugar
sugar. A disaccharide is made up of two  Put a food sample, e.g. glucose into a
monosaccharides joined together in a test tube.
chemical process known as condensation.  Add a few drops of Fehling’s solution
The general formula for disaccharides is (A and B mixed) or Benedict’s solution
C12H22O11. Disaccharides can be broken  Heat the test tube gently for a few
down into monosaccharides in a chemical minutes.
process known as hydrolysis. It would be observed that the colour of
Disaccharides are sweet and soluble in the food sample changes to orange or
water. brick-red indicating the presence of
reducing sugar.
113
brick-red
precipitate
Fig. 8.9: Test for reducing sugar
Test for non-reducing sugar Importance of Carbohydrates

 Put a piece of the food sample into a 1. It serves as a major source of energy.
test tube 2. It serves as the source for other organic
 Add a few drops of dilute hydrochloric molecules such as amino acids.
acid (HCl) 3. It maintains the structure of the cell
 Heat gently for a few minutes in a wall.
water bath.
4. It serves as food storage compound.
 Cool the mixture and solid sodium
5. Cellulose is important for the cell
hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) slowly
until the fizzing stops. walls.
 Add a few drops of Benedict’s solution
and heat for a five minutes
It would be observed that the colour of
the food sample changes to orange or
brick-red showing the presence of non-
reducing sugar.
114
brick-red
Fig. 9.0: Test for non-reducing sugar
precipitate
Proteins First class proteins: These type of proteins

Proteins are compounds which contain contain all the essential amino acids
the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen needed by the body.
and nitrogen.
Second class proteins: These are plant
Some proteins contain sulphur and proteins and lack some of the amino acids
phosphorus as well. The smallest unit of needed by the body.
protein is called an amino acid. One
protein molecule contains thousands of Sources of proteins are fish, meat, egg,
amino acids, chemically combined together beans etc.
by peptide bond and peptide linkage.
Proteins are destroyed by temperatures Test for proteins
higher than 60oC. A destroyed protein loses  Put a piece of the food e.g. mashed
it chemical structure and physical texture, meat, into a test tube
e.g. boiled egg.  Add a few drops of dilute sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) solution
Classes of protein  Add a few drops of copper sulphate
Proteins are classed into two – first class
(CuSO4) drop by drop; shake the test
proteins and second class proteins.
tube after each drop.
115
It would be observed that the colour of Lipids (fats and oils)

the food sample changes to violet Lipids are compounds containing carbon,
indication the presence of proteins. hydrogen and oxygen.
Alternative method The amount of oxygen atom in the

 Add a few drops of Millon’s reagent to structure of lipids is far lower than in
carbohydrates. Lipids, which are fat and
the food sample in a test tube
oil, are formed from the chemical
 Heat for one minute
combination of glycerol and fatty acids. Fat
 The colour changes to violet indicating
is stored by animals while oil is stored by
the presence of proteins.
plants.
Fats are solid at room temperature, while

oils are liquid. Fats and oils are soluble in
organic solvents, e.g. ethanol, but insoluble
in inorganic solvents e.g. water.
Test for lipids

a) Grease spot test
 Dip a finger in oil and place it on a
sheet of paper.
 Dip another finger in water and place it
on the same paper.
Fig. 9.1: Test for protein  Leave the paper for 10 minutes.
Afterward, hold it up against light.
Importance of Proteins  It would be observed that the water
1. Repair damaged tissues in the body. has dried out whiles the oil stain
2. Help animals to grow. remains visible on the paper.
3. Provide energy to the body.
4. Control the rate of metabolism. a) Emulsion test
5. Responsible for the formation of  Put 2 cm3 of ethanol in a test tube
hormones and enzymes.
 Add 2 cm3 of oil and shake vigorously
 Pour the mixture into another test
tube containing 2 cm3 of water.
116
 A cloudy, white emulsion develops Vitamins

showing the presence of lipids. Vitamins are organic food substances
needed by the human body in very small
Importance of Lipids quantities for growth and development.
1. Speed nerve transmission
2. Take part in the formation of Vitamins keep the body healthy and
membranes. prevent some deficiency diseases.
3. Some hormones are produced from Examples of vitamins are vitamins A, B, C,
lipids D, E and K. These names are assigned to
4. Dissolve fat-soluble vitamins. them in order of their discovery. Some
5. Provide energy to the body in the vitamins have submultiples because of
absence of carbohydrates. their chemical structures, e.g. vitamin B1,
B2 and B12.
Table 3.6: Vitamins, their source, functions and symptoms of deficiency

Vitamin Source from food Functions Symptom of deficiency
 Builds good eye sight
 Protects the surface of
Egg yolk, liver green  Night blindness
A the eye
vegetable, carrot,  Unhealthy skin
(retinol)  Maintains membrane
cocoa, red palm oil  Reduced night vision
 Necessary for cell
respiration
Beans, egg yolk, cereal,  Retarded growth
 Necessary for cell
B1 bread, lean meat,  Beriberi
respiration
(thiamine) unpolished cereal, palm  Nerve inflammation
wine  Weak paralysis
 Skin disorders,
Yeast, fish, green  Produces energy from
B2 dermatitis disease
vegetables, meat food
(riboflavin)  Sores on mouth and
cereals,  Healthy skin
eye
B12  Helps in the formation of  Anaemia
liver
(cynobalamin) red blood cells
 Forms strong skins
Raw vegetable, fresh  Gum bleeding,
C  Helps wounds to heal
fruits,  scurvy disease,
(ascorbic acid)  Good for some body
citrus fruits  immune disorders
tissues
D Fat, fish, liver, egg yolk,  Forms strong bones and  Rickets (deformed
(calciferol) sunlight teeth bones)
117
Table 3.6: Vitamins, their source, functions and symptoms of deficiency (Continued)
Vitamin Source from food Functions Symptom of deficiency

E  Prevents haemolysis of
Green vegetables, liver  Anaemia
(tocopherol) red blood cells in rats
Green vegetables, liver,  Synthesizes proteins
K
egg yolk, unpolished which help the blood to  Prolonged bleeding
(phylloquinone)
cereal clot
Minerals reaction, and blood clotting. Minerals are

Minerals are minute amounts of metallic classified as major elements (calcium,
elements that are vital for the healthy chlorine, magnesium, phosphorus,
growth of teeth and bones. potassium, sodium, and sulphur) and minor
or trace elements (chromium, copper,
They also help in such cellular activity as fluoride, iodine, iron, selenium, and zinc).
enzyme action, muscle contraction, nerve
Table 3.7: Minerals, their sources, functions and symptoms of deficiency

Symptoms of
Mineral Source in food Function
deficiency
 Formation of bones and
teeth Enhances blood
Milk, cheese, green Rickets (poor bones
Calcium (Ca) clotting
vegetable and teeth formation)
 Needed for muscle
contraction
Chlorine (Cl)  Maintenance of tissue
Table salt Muscle cramps
Sodium (Na) fluid, blood and lymph
Iodised table salt, sea  Formation of thyroxin Goitre
Iodine (I)
food, cheese  Prevents goitre Reduced body growth
Green vegetables,
 Forms haemoglobin in Anaemia
Iron (Fe) liver, yeast, eggs,
red blood cells
kidney
Fruits, liver, nuts  Essential for the
Copper (Cu) green vegetables, utilization of irons in the Anaemia
grains body
Phosphorus (P)
Fish, egg, lean meat,  For protein synthesis
Nitrogen (N) Rickets
milk  Formation of ATP
Sulphur (S)
Fluorine (F) Water, toothpastes  Promotes healthy teeth Tooth decay, toothache
118
BALANCED DIET
Diet is the variety of food and drink which a

person takes into the body.
A balanced diet is the diet which contains

all the food nutrients needed by the body in
their right proportions or amount.
The nutrients are carbohydrates, proteins,

lipids, vitamins, minerals, roughage and
water. A diet that has too little or too much
of one or more food substance is described as Fig: 9.2: Kids suffering from kwashiorkor
an unbalanced diet.
Effects of Malnutrition
Percentage of Foods in a Balanced 1. It results in slow growth.
Diet 2. Calcium deficiency causes rickets.
Carbohydrates 55% 3. Protein deficiency causes kwashiorkor.
Proteins 20% 4. The deficiency of vitamin A causes
Fats/oils 15% night blindness.
Water, vitamins and Minerals 10% 5. Malnutrition may eventual result in
death.
Importance of Balanced Diet
1. A balanced diet helps in maintaining
proper growth of the body.
2. It makes the body healthy.
3. It prevents deficiency diseases.
MALNUTRITION
Malnutrition occurs when an organism

has inadequate amounts of certain
nutrients required by the body.
Inadequate amounts of essential nutrients
leads to diseases known as deficiency
diseases. Fig: 9.3: X ray film showing legs with rickets
119
Over-Nutrition
FOOD FORTIFICATION AND
While having too little of essential
ENRICHMENT
nutrients is bad, having too much of some
nutrients is equally bad. It results in a Food fortification or enrichment is the
condition known as over-nutrition. Over- process of adding micronutrients
nutrition may also lead to some serious (essential trace elements and vitamins) to
diseases such as: food.
1. High blood pressure (hypertension),
which is caused by excess fat in the It can be purely a commercial choice to
body. provide extra nutrients in a food, or
2. Heart diseases, which normally results sometimes it is a public health policy
from hypertension which aims to reduce numbers of people
3. Stroke, caused by the bursting of with dietary deficiencies in a population.
arteries as a result of heart diseases. Diets that lack variety can be deficient in
4. Diabetes, caused by eating too much certain nutrients. Sometimes the staple
refined sugar foods of a region can lack particular
5. Obesity (overweight), caused by nutrients, due to the soil of a region, or
overeating. because of the inherent inadequacy of the
normal diet. Addition of micronutrients to
Apart from eating a well balanced diet, staples and condiments (seasonings) can
regular exercise will also keep the body fit prevent large-scale deficiency diseases in
and free from diseases. these cases.
While it is true that both fortification and
enrichment refer to the addition of
nutrients to food, the true definitions do
slightly vary.
Difference between food fortification

and food enhancement
Food fortification refers to the practice of
deliberately increasing the content of an
essential micronutrient, i.e. vitamins and
minerals in a food irrespective of whether
Fig: 9.4: An obese woman the nutrients were originally in the food
before processing or not, so as to improve
120
the nutritional quality of the food supply different values of BMI or colours for
and to provide a public health benefit with different BMI categories.
minimal risk to health.  BMI of less than 18.5 = underweight
 BMI of 18.5 – 24.9 = normal weight
Food enrichment refers to the addition of  BMI of 25 – 29.9 = overweight
micronutrients to a food which are lost  BMI of more than 30 = obesity.
during processing.
Roughage (dietary fibre)
Examples of fortified food Roughage is fibrous material that is
The most common fortified foods include: indigestible and consists mostly of
1. Cereals and cereal based products cellulose.
2. Milk and milk products
3. Fats and oils It is actually not a food substance,
4. Accessory food items nonetheless, very essential in diets.
5. Tea and other beverages Roughage can be obtained from solid fibre
6. Infant formulas parts of fruits such as oranges, pineapple,
apples, vegetables and cereals.
Body mass index
The body mass index (BMI) is a measure Importance of Roughage
of body fat based on height and weight. 1. Facilitates free bowel movement and
prevents constipation, thereby reducing
BMI does not actually measure the the risk of bowel cancer.
percentage of body fat. 2. Helps in easy movement of food
Body mass index is expressed as the through the gut.
individual's body mass divided by the 3. The cellulose in roughage is digested
square of his or her height. The formula by some gut bacteria in humans to
universally used in medicine produces a release important vitamins.
unit of measure of kg/m2.
Health benefits of water
𝐵𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔 𝑕𝑡 (𝑘𝑔 ) Water plays a major role in all organisms.
BMI =
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔 𝑕𝑡 2 (𝑚 2 ) Some of the roles water plays in humans
are:
BMI can also be determined using a BMI 1. Regulates the temperature of the body
chart, which displays BMI as a function of 2. Dissolves soluble substances in the
weight (horizontal axis) and height body
(vertical axis) using contour lines for
121
3. Transports various substances in the (c) State three effects each of

body malnutrition and over-nutrition.
4. Major component of digestive juice
5. Medium for the elimination of some 6. Food substances labelled J, K and L,
excretory products from the body were tested with various chemicals
school laboratory. The results obtained
are tabulated below.
TEST QUESTIONS
Food Test Observation/
1. Write a short note on any three classes substance Result
of food. J 2 cm 3 each of Brick-red
fehling‘s solution precipitate
2. Describe how you will test for the A and B added to formed
following food classes: J. Mixture is
a. Starch boiled for 2
mnutes in water
b. Protein
bath.
c. Lipids
K Iodine solution Blue-black
added drop by colur
3. (a) What are vitamins? drop to K obtained
(b) Mention three known vitamins and L a) two drops of Yellow
state the symptoms of the deficiency. dilute precipitate
hydrochloric acid obtained
4. The following table shows some is added to L.
minerals. State their functions and the Mixture is boiled
effects of their deficiencies. for 2 minutes.
b) 2 cm3 of No change
Mineral functions Effect of Benedicts in colour
deficiency solution added to
Calcium mixture in (a)
Fluorine above. Mixure is
boiled for 2
Iodine
minutes.
Iron
a) What inference would you make about

5. (a) What is a balanced diet?
the food substances from the results
(b) What are the importance of a
above?
balanced diet?
b) i) What changes would take place
122
when the food substance K is 7. (a) What are vitamins?

chewed for about 3 minutes? (b) Name one source of each of the
ii) What observation would be made following vitamins:
when Benedict‘s solution is added (α) vitamin A;
to the chewed substances K in a test (β) vitamin B;
tube. (γ) vitamin K.
iii) What conclusion can be drawn
from the nature of substance
Benedict‘s solution reacted with?
123
12
DENTITION, FEEDING AND
DIGESTION IN MAMMALS
The teeth play a major role in the

Specific Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to: digestion of food. They help to divide
 Identify the different types of teeth in mammals food into smaller pieces.
and relate them to their function.
 Enumerate various ways of preventing dental
problems.
 Draw and label the digestive system of TYPES OF TEETH AND THEIR
mammals. RELATION TO FOOD
 Describe the process of digestion, absorption
and assimilation in mammals. The characteristics of teeth make up
 Mention some diseases and disorders
associated with the digestive system of
dentition. In mammals, for example, the
humans. teeth vary in size, shape and function –
this is known as heterodont dentition.
Vertebrates such as fish, amphibians and
reptiles have teeth of the same size, shape
and function – this is described as
INTRODUCTION - DENTITION IN homodont dentition.
MAMMALS
Dentition of carnivores
Dentition is the number, type and Carnivores are fresh eating animals, e.g.
arrangement of teeth in an organism. lion, dog, cat. They have highly
specialized teeth.
The diet of an animal, generally The characteristics of dentition in
determines its dentition. For example, the carnivore are:
dentition of a carnivore is different from 1. Small, chisel-shaped incisors for
that of a herbivore or omnivore. seizing prey.
124
12 Dentition, Feeding and Digestion in Mammals Samking
2. Long, conical, pointed and slightly 4. No canines in the upper jaw with
inward-curved canines, used to hold poorly developed canines in the lower
and kill the prey and tear the fresh. jaw.
3. Small premolars and molars, except for
the first lower molar and third upper
molar which are very large. They are
called carnassial teeth.
4. Smooth sides and sharp cups and edges
that run along the jaw line, used for
scraping fresh off bones.
5. Molars have blunt cusps for crushing
bones.
Fig. 9.6: Skull of a herbivore
Dentition of omnivores
Omnivores are animals that feed on both
animals and plants. Their teeth are not
highly specialised.
Fig. 9.5: Skull of a carnivore THE DENTAL FORMULA
Dental formula is the summary of the

Dentition of herbivore number, type and arrangement of teeth in
Herbivores are animals that eat only plants, the half of the lower and upper jaw of an
e.g. goat, cattle, rabbit. animal.
The 32 teeth in an adult humans, for
Characteristics of carnivore dentition example, can be summarized as i 2/2, c 1/1,
1. Long, chisel shaped incisors for cutting pm 2/2, m 3/3, where the initials are
and gnawing vegetation. incisors (i), canines (c), premolars (pm),
2. File-like premolars and molars with and molars (m) respectively. The figures
flat-ridged surfaces for grinding plant on the lines represent the teeth in the upper
materials. jaw and those below the line are the teeth
3. Absence of canine but instead, a large in the lower jaw. The total number of teeth
gap called a diastema between the in an adult human can therefore be
incisors and premolars. obtained by multiplying the sum of the
125
figures indicated in the dental formula by Enamel:, This is a layer of thin, hard,
2, i.e. 2 (4+2+4+6) = 32. shiny material composed mainly of
calcium phosphate. It covers the crown.
Dentine: The dentine is located beneath

the enamel and extended into the root. It
makes up the greatest bulk of the tooth.
Dentine is a very hard bone, but is not as
hard as the enamel. Fine channels,
containing living materials, pass through
the dentine. The dentine encloses a central
pulp cavity.
The pulp cavity: The pulp is made up of

Fig. 9.7: Dental formula of man
blood vessels, tooth-forming cells and
nerve fibres with sensory nerve endings,
which penetrates the dentine, making it
STRUCTURE OF THE TOOTH sensitive to pain and temperature changes.
Teeth develop from a group of cells in the Cement: Teeth are fixed in the lower bone
skin overlying the jawbones. Humans and by the cement, which is a hard bony
other animals have different kinds of teeth. substance that covers the outside of the
Although teeth differ is size and shape and root.
perform different function, their internal
structure is similar.
Parts of the tooth

Crown: This is the part that projects above
the gum
Root: The part which is buried in a socket

in the jawbone. Some teeth have a single
root while others have two or three roots.
Fig. 9.8: Structure of a tooth (molar)
126
Periodontal fibres: Attached to the cement 2. They have cusps (pointed ridges).
are tough periodontal fibres which run into 3. They have one or two roots.
the jaw bone. These fibres hold the tooth in
its socket and permit slight tooth Molars
movements that cushion the tooth from They make the three final teeth on each
excessive jarring when it hits a hard object. half of each jaw.
Types of teeth and their functions in Features of molars

mammals 1. They have flat tops.
Teeth in mammals come in four different 2. They have four or five cusps.
types – incisors, canines, premolars and 3. They have three roots (upper molars)
molars. and two roots (lower molars).
Incisors The premolars and molars are collectively

These are the two pairs of teeth found in known as cheek teeth.
the front part of each jaw.
Features of incisors
1. They are chisel shaped.
2. They have broad, flat cutting edge for
biting and cutting food.
3. They have a single root.
Canines
There are two canines next to the incisors. Fig. 9.9: Types of teeth in humans
Features of canines Set of teeth in humans

1. They are bluntly pointed. Mammals have two sets of teeth in their
2. They are used for cutting and biting lifetime. The first set of 20 teeth is called
solid foods. milk teeth and is found in young humans.
They are made up of incisors, canines and
Premolars premolars. These teeth fall out one by one
These are found in either half of the jaws. in early life and are replaced by the
permanent teeth. The last molar teeth in
Features of premolars each jaw is called wisdom teeth because
1. They have flat tops.
127
they are the last to appear when the person recede and give off bad breath. The
is between 17 and 25 years old. recession of the gum causes the teeth to fall
out.
Care of the teeth in humans
In order to prevent and control dental Causes of periodontal disease
problems, it is important for us to take 1. Lack of vitamin A and C
good care of the teeth. Lack of proper care 2. Improper cleaning of teeth
of the teeth results in dental caries (tooth 3. Lack of massage of the gum
decay) and periodontal disease.
Ways of preventing dental problems
Dental caries (tooth decay) The following are necessary measures to
This is a dental condition caused when prevent the above diseases:
bacteria feed on sugar and starch in the 1. Cleaning the teeth regularly
mouth. Their enzymes react with the sugar 2. Regular visit to the dentist
and starch and produce acid. 3. Eating food rich in minerals and
The acid reacts with calcium in the enamel vitamins
and dentine and breaks down the enamel 4. Using the teeth properly; for example,
and dentine creating a hole in the tooth. not using the teeth to open bottles or
Bacteria move on to feed on the pulp and screws.
the sensitive nerve ending which causes
toothache. At the early stages, the tooth can DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
be repaired.
Digestive system is a network of organs
Causes of dental caries and enzymes which converts the complex
1. Lack of hard food food (i.e. carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
2. Lack of vitamin D etc) eaten into small and absorbable
3. Eating too much sugar forms for the use of the body.
4. Lack of calcium
5. Improper cleaning of teeth Or
Periodontal disease: Digestion is the breakdown of complex

This is caused by the accumulation of food food substances into simple, soluble and
debris, saliva and bacteria to form a hard absorbable forms.
thin coating on the surface of the teeth
called plaque. The plaque spreads down to
the gum causing the gum to swell, breed,
128
Structure and functions of the  hydrochloric acid (sterilizes food, ends

digestive system of mammals action of saliva amylase, provide acidic
pH for action of the enzyme
The digestive system of mammals is made  pepsin which converts proteins to
up of the gut or alimentary canal and other polypeptides,
organs and glands. The alimentary canal is  mucus which forms a protective inner
a muscular tube made up of the following lining to the animal wall and
parts:  rennin which solidifies liquid proteins
so that they will remain in the stomach
Mouth for pepsin to work on.
Digestion starts from the mouth, where The contractions of the stomach wall
food is chewed with the teeth. Chewing (or muscles churn the food into chyme (a
mastication) breaks down solid food into creamy-white mixture of food substance).
smaller particles. Salivary glands produce At this stage glucose and alcohol are
saliva which: absorbed from the food into the blood
 contains the an enzyme called saliva stream.
amylase that converts starch into
maltose.
 is slightly alkaline and keeps the pH of
the mouth approximately neutral which
help in the action of saliva amylase.
 mixes with the food during chewing,
making it soft and easier to swallow.
Oesophagus
A muscular tube that connects the mouth to
the stomach. Food passes down the
oesophagus through contraction and
relaxation of the circular muscles of the
gut. This action is called peristalsis.
The stomach
The stomach is a sac-like organ that
produces gastric juice which contains:
Fig. 10.0: Digestive system of man
129
Duodenum 8. Destruction and stopping of hormones

The chyme from the stomach passes the from unlimited action.
pyrolic sphincter into the duodenum where 9. Conversion of excess fats into glycerol
the hormone secretin is released into the and fatty acids.
bloodstream. Secretin then stimulates the 10. Excretion of excess cholesterol and old
gall bladder to release bile and the pancreas red blood cells from the body.
to release pancreatic juice into the
duodenum. Bile
Bile is alkaline and raises the pH of the
Liver chyme. It emulsifies fat by changing large
The liver is one important organ which is fat globules into small fat droplets.
responsible for most chemical activities in Emulsification increases the surface area
the body. of the fat making the digestion of fat by
enzymes more efficient.
Functions of the lever
1. Production of bile which emulsifies or Pancreas
breaks down fats, converts glucose to The pancreas secrets pancreatic juice
glycogen, produces urea (the main which is alkaline and therefore raises the
substance of urine), makes certain pH of the chyme. The pancreatic juice
amino acids (the building blocks of contains
proteins).  amylase which converts starch to
2. Filtration of harmful substances from maltose,
the blood (such as alcohol).  trypsin which converts protein to
3. Storage of vitamins and minerals peptides and polypeptides and
(vitamins A, D, K and B12)  lipase which converts fat to fatty acids
4. Maintaining the proper level or glucose and glycerol.
in the blood. All these enzymes digest food as is passes
5. Production of cholesterol; it produces though the duodenum into the ileum.
about 80% of the cholesterol in the
body Ileum (small intestines)
6. Production of heat to the body through The digestion process ends in the ileum.
chemical activities. The walls of ileum secrets:
7. Production of some proteins such as  lipase which converts all remaining fats
fibrinogen in the blood plasma. into fatty acids and glycerol;
 maltase which converts maltose to
glucose;
130
 lactase which converts lactose to The ileum contains thousands of

glucose and galactose, microscopic projections called villi
 sucrase which converts sucrose to (singular, villus), which increases the
glucose and fructose, surface area of the ileum and facilitates the
 erepsin which converts peptides to absorption process. Undigested food passes
amino acids and into the colon.
 enterokinase which converts
trypsinogen to trypsin. Colon (large intestines)
The colon is responsible for the absorption
The small molecules of glucose, amino of water from the undigested food. It
acids, fatty acids, and glycerol are the end contains some bacteria which digest the
products of digestion in mammals and are cellulose and produce vitamin B and K
absorbed into the bloodstream by a process which are absorbed into the body. The
known as diffusion. remains of the undigested food pass on to
become faeces.
Table 3.8: Organs and enzymes of digestion
Organ/ gland Secreted enzyme Enzyme action
Mouth (salivary glands)  Salivary amylase  Starch to maltose

 Passage of food to
Oesophagus
stomach
 Polypeptides
 Pepsin
 Solidifies protein
Stomach  Rennin
 sterilizes food; provide acidic pH
 Hydrochloric acid
for action of the enzyme
 Stimulates gall bladder to release
Duodenum  Secretin bile and pancreas to release
pancreatic juice
Liver  Bile  Emulsifies starch
 Starch to maltose
 Amylase
 Protein to peptides and
Pancreas (pancreatic juice)  Trypsin
polypeptides
 Lipase
 Fatty acids to glycerol
 Lipase  Fats into fatty acids and glycerol
 Maltase  Maltose to glucose
Ileum  Lactase  Lactose to glucose
 Sucrose  Sucrose to glucose
 Erepsin  Peptides to amino acids
131
Table 3.8: Organs and enzymes of digestion (continued)

 Enterokinase  Trypsinogen to trypsin
Absorption of water from
Colon
undigested food
Rectum Temporary storage for faeces
Rectum  The food is churned into liquid paste

The faeces move into the rectum, where called chyme.
they are stored and released periodically  In the duodenum, the bile secreted by
through the anus. The removal of food the liver neutralizes the chime.
from the rectum is known as egestion. Not  Pancreatic amylase secreted by the
pancreas converts starch into maltose
to be confused with ingestion, which is the
sugar.
act of putting food into the mouth?
 In the ileum, the enzyme maltase
converts maltose into glucose, which is
the end-product of starch digestion.
DIGESTION IN MAMMALS
Digestion of proteins
The term digestion refers to the breakdown  Protein digestion starts in the stomach.
of complex food into smaller form which  Pepsin converts proteins to peptones.
can be absorbed by the body. Digestion  HCl sterilizes it; it is churned to chime
occurs as a result of chemical or and sent to duodenum where the bile
mechanical processes in the body. neutralizes it.
Digestion is very important because it  In the duodenum, the typsin which is
allows the body to gain energy through secreted by the pancreas converts
ingested food. peptones into amino acids.
Different food substances have different
modes of digestion. Digestion of fats
 The digestion of fat starts in the
duodenum.
Digestion of carbohydrates
 Gall bladder releases bile into the
 Carbohydrate digestion starts in the
duodenum.
mouth.
 Bile neutralizes and emulsifies the fat.
 Saliva contains ptyalin (salivary
 The enzyme lipase secreted by the
amylase) which converts starch to
pancreas and the wall of the small
maltose.
intestines converts emulsified fat into
 In the stomach, HCl in gastric juice
fatty acids and glycerol, which is the
sterilizes the food.
end-product of fat digestion.
132
Table 3.9: End-products of digestion

DISEASES AND DISORDERS
Food End-product
ASSOCIATED WITH THE
Carbohydrates Glucose
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF
Proteins Amino acids
HUMANS
Fats Fatty acids and glycerol
Uses of Digested Food Constipation

The end-product of digestion is assimilated This is caused by not going to the toilet
(taken up) by the cells in various parts of regularly. Faeces overstay in the rectum
the body. Glucose and others move into the and more water is absorbed from them.
blood by diffusion and enter the liver This hardens and dries it making it difficult
through the hepatic portal vein. In the liver to pass out. Constipation is also caused by
excess glucose is converted to glycogen adequate chewing of food.
and stored. Some of the monosaccharides
enter body cells where they are respired. Prevention of constipation
Constipation can be prevented by including
Amino acids are also assimilated into the roughage in the diet, chewing food
liver though the hepatic portal vein. Some properly and visiting the toilet regularly.
enter the body cells where they are used to
form protein for growth, repair of damaged Indigestion
and worn-out tissues and formation of Indigestion is caused by eating too quickly.
enzymes and hormones. Excess amino This causes the gastric juice to produce
acids are excreted out of the body as urea. excess acid. The acid climbs up the
oesophagus, when a person belches. This
Fatty acids and glycerol come together gives a burning sensation in the heart
again to form fats, which enters the lymph (heartburns).
system before entering the bloodstream. Prevention of indigestion
They are stored as fat or respired to release Slowing down the rate and speed of eating
energy. can prevent indigestion.
Assimilation is the process whereby Diarrhoea

digested food substances are absorbed This occurs when faeces move through the
into the bloodstream. colon too quickly before water can be
absorbed from them. This causes the faeces
to come out in a more liquid form. It is
caused by bacteria in the gut.
133
Prevention of diarrhoea  remove bacteria and toxins from the

Staying away from food for a short period blood
will cause the bacteria to be driven away  process nutrients, hormones, and drugs
with the faeces. A lot of water should be  make proteins that regulate blood
drunk to prevent dehydration. clotting
 produce bile to help absorb fats—
Stomach ulcer including cholesterol—and fat-soluble
This is caused by an attack on the stomach vitamins
wall by excess hydrochloric acid in the
stomach; this makes is sore. A healthy liver is able to regenerate most
of its own cells when they become
Prevention of stomach ulcer damaged. With end-stage cirrhosis, the
Eating at normal intervals can prevent liver can no longer effectively replace
stomach ulcer. damaged cells. A healthy liver is necessary
for survival.
Jaundice Cirrhosis is caused by heavy alcohol
Jaundice, also known as icterus, is a consumption, obesity, hepatitis B, C and D,
yellowish discoloration of the skin, the drug and toxins
conjunctival membranes over the sclerae Many people with cirrhosis have no
(whites of the eyes), and other mucous symptoms at the early stages of the disease.
membranes caused by increased levels of However, as the disease progresses, a
bilirubin in the blood. person may experience the following
symptoms:
Treatment 1. weakness
Infected persons must seek medical 2. fatigue
attention immediately. 3. loss of appetite
4. nausea
Cirrhosis 5. vomiting
Cirrhosis is a condition in which the liver 6. weight loss
slowly deteriorates and malfunctions due to 7. abdominal pain and bloating when fluid
chronic injury. Scar tissue replaces healthy accumulates in the abdomen
liver tissue, partially blocking the flow of 8. itching
blood through the liver. Scarring also 9. spiderlike blood vessels on the skin
impairs the liver‘s ability to:
 control infections
134
Treatment and prevention Treatment and prevention

Medical attention is necessary if infected Reducing the intake of alcohol, eating
with cirrhosis. It is also advisable not to nutritious food and not doing drug may
drink or engage in drugs. Nutritious food help prevent hepatitis. If infected by
must be eaten always. hepatitis, it is advisable to seek medical
attention.
Hepatitis
Hepatitis (plural hepatitides) implies
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF
inflammation of the liver characterized by RUMINANTS
the presence of inflammatory cells in the
tissue of the organ. A group of viruses Ruminants are mammals which have a
known as the hepatitis viruses cause most stomach system consisting of four
cases of hepatitis worldwide, but it can also chambers.
be due to toxins (notably alcohol, certain
medications and plants), other infections The stomach system are rumen, reticulum,
and autoimmune diseases. omasum and abomasums.
Fig. 10.1: Digestive system of a ruminant
135
Rumen
This is the first and largest chamber.
Swallowed food enters this chamber where
it is fermented by anaerobic bacteria which
breakdown the cellulose.
Reticulum
When the food reaches the reticulum, it is
regurgitated (brought back to the mouth)
and chewed again. Food in the reticulum is
known as cud. Fig. 10.2: Digestive system of a bird
Omasum TEST QUESTIONS

Much of the water in the cud is reabsorbed 1. (a) What is dentition?
in the omasum. (b) List three characteristics of the
following types of dentition:
Abomasum i. dentition of a carnivore.
This is also known as the true stomach of a ii. dentition of a herbivore.
ruminant. Gastric secretion in the iii. dentition of an omnivore.
abomasum digests the proteins in the food.
Chyme is formed which moves on to the 2. State three causes of dental problems
duodenum and three ways of preventing them.
3. Describe the digestive system of a
Digestion in birds mammal.
The stomach of birds is divided into two – 4. The diagram below is a longitudinal
crop and gizzard. Food is stored in the crop section of through a molar tooth.
and ground up in the gizzard with the aid
of small stones, before it is passed into the E
intestines. A F
G
H
B
C I
J
D
K
136
i. Name the parts labeled A-K. (ii) two ways of preventin tooth
ii What is the function the tooth? decay.
iii. What is the function of the parts
labeled E, G and H. 8. Fig. 3 below is an illustration of the
human body.
5. Explain three diseases associated with Study the figure carefully and answer
the digestive system of humans. the questions that follow.
6. Fig. 5 is an illustration of the digestive

system of a farm animal.

(a) (i) Name the parts labelled I, II, a) Identify the part of the human body
III, IV, V and VI illustrated.
(ii) State one function each of the b) Name the parts labelled I, II, III, IV,
parts labelled I, V and VI. V, VI, VII, VIII, IX and X.
(b) (i) Name two farm animals that c) Describe the digestive process that
possess the digestive system occurs in VI.
illustrated . d) i) List two enzymes secreted by the
(ii) What is the general name part labelled II.
given to the farm animal in (i)? ii) State one function of each of the
(c) (i) Name one parasite that affect two enzymes you have listed in
the part labelled IV. (d)(i) above.
(ii) State two ways of controlling
the parasite named in (i). 9. Figure 3 is an illustration of different
types of teeth.
7. (a) State Study the figure carefully and answer
(i) two causes of tooth decay. the questions that follow.
137
Fig. 2
a) Identify each of the types of teeth
illustrated. a) Name the group of mammals which
b) Describe the structure of tooth C. possess upper jaw type A and upper
c) Give three structural differences jaw type B respectively.
between tooth A and tooth B. b) Give two examples each of mammals
d) State one function of each type of which possess upper jaw type A and
teeth. upper jaw type B.
e) i) Name the group of animals which c) Name the parts labelled I, II, III, IV, V
possess all the types of teeth and VI.
illustrated in figure 3. d) State one function of each of the parts
ii) Support your answer with reasons. labelled II, IV and VI.
e) Tabulate four differences between
10. a) State two functions of each of the upper jaw A and upper jaw B.
following organs associated with
digestion:
i) liver;
ii) pancreas.
(b) Describe the process of fat
digestion in humans.
11. Fig. 2 below is an illustration of two

types of upper jaws, A and B of two
group of mammals.
138
13
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Specific Objectives Respiration is also known as tissue, cell or

After completing this chapter, you will be able to: internal respiration.
 Define respiration and explain its importance.
 Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic
respiration. NOTE:Tissue or internal respiration is
 Identify the respiratory organs of the respiratory different from breathing (external
system of a mammal and describe their respiration), which is physical and
functions..
 Explain the mechanisms of inhalation and does not occur in the cells.
exhalation in humans
 Enumerate some problems and disorders
associated with the respiratory system of IMPORTANCE OF RESPIRATION
humans.
 Explain how respiratory gases are taken in and The chemical energy released is used in:
out of plants.
1. cell division
2. transmission of nerve impulses.
3. transportation of substances in and out
of the cells.
4. muscular contraction which aids in
INTRODUCTION movement.
5. production of heat.
Respiration is the breakdown of organic 6. production of chemical substances in
food substances in the living cells to the cells. e.g. protein synthesis.
release energy. 7. breakdown of chemical substances in
the cells (biodegradation). e.g. glucose.
The breakdown of organic food substances 8. production of energy for life processes.
is a complex process involving many 9. generation of energy for day to day
enzymes acting as catalysts. The energy activities.
released is in a form of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate).
139
13 Respiratory System Samking
It can be expressed as:

TISSUE OR CELL RESPIRATION
Tissue respiration is the breakdown of C6H12O6 → C2H5OH + 2CO2 + energy

food substances inside the cells to release glucose = alcohol + carbon dioxide + small energy
energy.
Anaerobic respiration also takes place in
some bacteria and skeletal muscles of
There are two types of tissue respiration,
mammals. Lactate (lactic acid) is produced
namely aerobic respiration and anaerobic
as a by-product. This is known as lactate
respiration.
fermentation. It can be expressed as:
Aerobic respiration C6H12O6 → 2C3H6O3 + energy

Aerobic respiration is the type of glucose = alcohol + small energy
respiration which takes place in the
presence of oxygen. Importance of Anaerobic
Respiration
A lot of energy is produced in this type of 1. Used in bread preparation.
respiration. Carbon dioxide and water are 2. Used in brewing of alcohol.
produced as by-products. 3. Used in the production of antibodies.
Aerobic respiration can be expressed as: 4. Used in food preparation.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy Table 4.0: Differences between aerobic and
glucose + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water + energy anaerobic respiration
NOTE:The importance of aerobic Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

respiration is the same as the Takes place in the Does not take place in
importance of respiration above. presence of oxygen the presence of oxygen
A lot of energy is Less amount of energy
Anaerobic respiration released is produced
Lactate, alcohol and
This is the type of respiration which Carbon dioxide and
carbon dioxide are
occurs in the absence of oxygen. water are produced
produced as by-
as by-products
products
Small amount of energy is produced. It Takes place in Takes place in
occurs in yeast, with alcohol and carbon mitochondrion cytoplasm
dioxide produced as by-products.
Anaerobic respiration is also known as
alcohol fermentation.
140
Similarities between Aerobic and

Anaerobic Respiration
1. Energy is produced in both.
2. Carbon dioxide is produced as by
product in both.
Experiment to demonstrate the release of

energy during respiration or germination
of seeds
 Wash some germinating seeds in Fig. 10.3
disinfectants to prevent growth of
microbes. NOTE: It is important to sterilize the seeds
 Put some of the seeds in a vacuum in flask A and wash the seeds in flask B in
flask and label that A. formalin. This is because decay causing
 Boil the rest of the seeds to kill them microorganisms produce heat which will
and stop germination, wash them in interfere with the reading on the
formalin to prevent decay and put thermometers.
them in vacuum flask labelled B.
The germinating seeds can be replaced
 Plug both flasks with cotton wool and
with insects when demonstrating the
insert a thermometer through the
release of heat by small animals. The
cotton wool.
insects should be released within an hour to
 Check and record the initial reading of prevent suffocation.
both thermometers.
 Recheck the reading periodically for 12
hours. THE STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTIONS OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OF
Observation MAMMAL
It would be observed that the temperature
The respiratory system consists of the
in flask A increases gradually, while the
lungs, (which is a pair of elastic organs
temperature in flask B either remains the
housed in the chest cavity), and the air
same or drops.
passages leading to them.
Conclusion
Air enters the respiratory system through
This shows that germinating seeds release the nose or mouth. It then travels through
heat energy. the larynx (voice box) and into the trachea
141
(windpipe). At about the middle of the Parts of the respiratory system

chest, the trachea divides into two tubes, Nostrils
the right and left bronchi. The right The passage for outside air into the body.
bronchus carries air to the three lobes of The nostrils contain hair which traps dust
the right lung. The left bronchus supplies particles from inhaled air. The nostrils are
air to the two lobes of the left lung. lined with mucus which traps dust particles
in inhaled air.
Nasal cavity
The nasal cavity warms inhaled air. It
contains hair and mucus which traps dust
Nostrils in inhaled air. It is also responsible for
smelling.
Larynx (voice box)

The larynx is a hollow chamber in which
the voice is produced.
The air inhaled into the lungs provides
oxygen to cells throughout the body. Air
forced out of the lungs removes carbon
dioxide from the body.
Fig. 10.4: Respiratory system of man
Trachea
Inside the lungs the bronchi divide into The trachea, commonly called windpipe, is
smaller branches called bronchioles, which made up of numerous cartilaginous half-
eventually empty into thousands of minute rings. Passage for inhaled and exhaled air
sacs called alveoli. The alveoli are in and out of the lungs
surrounded by thin-walled capillaries. The It is lined internally with a ciliated mucous
air in the alveoli passes through to the membrane.
blood cells within the capillaries. At the
same time, carbon dioxide from these Diaphragm
blood cells passes into the alveoli. From The diaphragm is a wide muscular partition
the alveoli, air containing carbon dioxide separating the thoracic, or chest cavity,
travels out of the lungs and is exhaled from the abdominal cavity. It contracts and
through the nose or mouth. relaxes to aid breathing.
142
Ribs Mechanism of Inhalation (Breathing In)

The ribs form a protective cage for the Inhalation occurs when the external
lungs. They aid in gaseous exchange. intercostal muscles contract and the
internal intercostal muscles relax. These
Lungs actions cause the ribs and sternum to move
This is the main organ for gaseous upwards and outwards. At the same time,
exchange. the diaphragm muscles contract which
causes the diaphragm (which usually has a
dome shape) to flatten. The movements
increase the volume of the thoracic cavity.
The pressure of the thoracic cavity falls
below that of external atmosphere. Air
therefore moves under pressure from the
external atmosphere into the lungs through
the respiratory tubes.
Mechanism of Exhalation (Breathing

Out)
The internal intercostal muscles contract
whiles the external intercostal muscles
Fig. 10.5: Structure of the lungs relax. The ribs and the sternum then move
downwards and inwards to the original
positions. At the same time the muscles of
BREATHING MECHANISMS
the diaphragm relax and the diaphragm
Breathing is the act of taking in oxygen returns to its original dome shape. The
and releasing carbon dioxide. volume of the thoracic cavity decreases.
It is also referred to as gaseous exchange or The air pressure in the thoracic rises above
external respiration (to distinguish it from that of the external atmosphere.
internal or cellular respiration). The
structure and mechanisms of breathing
varies from one organism to another. For
example, mammals, reptiles, amphibians
and bird have lungs for breathing, whiles
fish have gills.
Breathing involves inhalation (breathing
in) and exhalation (breathing out). Fig. 10.6:
143
Table 4.1: Differences between inhalation and Table 4.2: Comparison of inhaled and exhaled air
exhalation
Inhalation Exhalation Component Inhaled air Exhaled air
External intercostal External intercostal Carbon
muscles contract muscles relax 0.03 % 3.5 %
dioxide (CO2)
Internal intercostal Internal intercostal
muscles relax muscles contract Oxygen (O2) 21 % 17 %
Diaphragm contracts Diaphragm relaxes Water vapour variable Saturated
Diaphragm returns Atmospheric Body
Diaphragm becomes
to its usual dome Temperature temperature temperature
flat
shape o
(25 C)
o
(37 C )
Ribs and sternum Ribs and sternum
move upwards and move downwards
outwards and inwards Comparing the amount of carbon dioxide
Thoracic cavity’s Thoracic cavity’s
volume increases volume decreases
in inhaled and exhaled air
Air moves into the Air moves out of the  Arrange two test tubes with delivery
lungs lungs tubes as below.
 Put your mouth over the mouthpiece
Gas exchange in the lungs
 Breathe in and out gently
The alveoli of the lungs are the spot where
the exchange of gases takes place. Oxygen  Note which test tube the inhaled and
diffuses into the blood through the blood exhaled air bubbles through.
capillaries, surrounding the alveoli. Carbon  Repeat this for a number of times and
dioxide diffuses out of the blood capillaries record your observation.
into the alveoli. Water also evaporates
from the moist alveoli so that the alveolar Observation
air becomes saturated with vapour. The air It would be observed that the limewater in
breathed out from the lungs is therefore test tube B, which bubbles when exhaled
always moist. into the mouthpiece, turns milky, while
the limewater in the test tube A, which
bubbles during inhalation remains clear.
Conclusion
Exhaled air contains more carbon dioxide
than inhaled air.
Fig. 10.7: Gas exchange in the alveoli
144
5. Bronchitis
6. Whooping cough (pertusis)
EXCHANGE OF RESPIRATORY
GASES IN PLANTS
Gas exchange takes place on the surface of

the spongy mesophyll cells in the leaves of
plants. The gases enter and leave the leaf
A B through tiny pores called stomata in the
Fig. 10.8 lower surface of the leaf.
Table 4.3: Differences between respiration and Unlike animals, plants take in carbon
breathing dioxide during the day and oxygen at
Respiration Breathing nights (in the absence of light).
Energy is released No energy is released
Takes place inside Takes place outside
the cells the cells
During the day, carbon dioxide from the
Involves oxidation of atmosphere passes through the stomata into
Involves exchange of
glucose into carbon the leaf, and diffuses into the mesophyll
oxygen and carbon
dioxide, water and cells where it is used for photosynthesis.
dioxide
energy
A complex
Mechanical process At night, oxygen from the atmosphere
biochemical process
passes through the stomata into the
Problems and disorders associated mesophyll cells of the leaf where it is used
with the respiratory system in aerobic respiration.
The human respiratory system may be
exposed to certain disorders due to germs At the same time, carbon dioxide produced
or improper functioning of certain parts of in the mesophyll cells as a by-product of
the respiratory system. respiration diffuses out of the cells and
The problems and disorders of the passes through the stomata into the
respiratory system include: atmosphere. Other areas where gas
1. Asthma exchange takes place are the epidermal
2. Tuberculosis cells of the leaf and stem, pores on the
3. Lung cancer stems of woody plants called laticel, as
4. Pneumonia well as roots of plants.
145
ta
Fig. 10.9: Exchange of gases in plant leaf

Experiment to demonstrate the release of
Table 4.4: Differences between respiration in
mammals and that of plants (photosynthesis)
carbon dioxide during respiration by
small animals and germination of seeds
Respiration in
Photosynthesis
animals
 Set up four glass jars labelled A, B, C
Occurs only during the and D connected together by a
Occurs at all time day in the presence of
delivery tube.
sunlight
 A contains caustic soda;
Energy is released Energy is used up
 B contains limewater;
Oxygen is needed Carbon dioxide is the
as raw material raw material  C, a bell jar containing a live animal;
Carbon dioxide and the animal can be replaced with
Oxygen is the by-
water are the by- germinating seeds.
product
products  D contains limewater.
Takes place in all Takes place in plants  Caustic soda solution in A absorbs
living cells only carbon dioxide.
146
 When carbon dioxide gets to jar B, the (b) Mention three differences between
limewater turns milky. All the carbon inhaled air and exhaled air.
dioxide is absorbed by the limewater.
 When the animal respires, carbon 3. (a) Describe how respiratory gases are
dioxide passes through the delivery exchanged in plants.
tube and turns the limewater in jar D (b) State four disorders associated
with the respiratory system of
milky.
humans.
 This shows that animals release carbon
dioxide during respiration.
4. (a) Draw and label the reparatory
system of man.
(b) State the function of four of the
parts of the reparatory system of
man.
5. (a) Describe an experiment to show

that animals release carbon dioxide
during exhalation.
(b) State four differences between
respiration and photosynthesis.
6. Fig. 4 is an experimental set-up that

Fig. 11.0 illustrates respiration of a small
mammal.
TEST QUESTIONS Study the set-up carefully and answer
1. (a) (i) Explain the term respiration.
(ii) State four importance of
respiration to an organism.
(b) Differentiate between aerobic and
anaerobic respiration and write an
appropriate equation for each.
2. (a) Describe the mechanisms of

inhalation an exhalation in humans.
Fig. 4
147
(a) Name the parts labelled I, II, III Equal quantities of seeds were put in A
and IV. and B. The seeds in A were boiled for
(b) Explain the role played by the few minutes and seeds in B were
solution in A. soaked in distilled water to for few
(i) Which of the set-up serves hours. Both seeds in A and B were
as the control. sprinkled with formalin and were left
(ii) Give one reason for your for 24 hours.
answer in (c)(i).
(c) (i) What happens to the lime (a) Name the parts labelled I, II, III
water in D at the end of the and V.
experiment? (b) what would be observed in each of
(ii) Give one reason for your set-ups A and B after 24 hours?
answer in (d)(i). (c) Give reasons for the observation in
(d) State one precaution to be taken (b).
during the experiment. (d) State two precautions that would be
(e) Suggest an aim for the experiment. taken during the experiment.
7. Fig. 4 is an illustration of an
experimental set-up to show that heat is
given out during germination of bean
seeds.
148
14
TRANSPORT – DIFFUSION AND
OSMOSIS
The xylem tissue transports water and

Specific Objectives dissolved minerals.
 Explain the process of diffusion, osmosis and
The phloem tissue transports food
plasmolysis. substances through the plant.
 Sate the importance of the xylem and phloem
tissues in plan
Importance of Transport System
1. It connects different parts of the body
with one another.
2. It transports food materials to all cells,
tissues and organs.
INTRODUCTION 3. It distributes water to various parts of
the body.
Multi-cellular organisms have a very great 4. It transports waste products from
network of cells, tissues, organs and organ different parts of the body to the
systems. These structures communicate excretory organs.
with each other by exchanging materials. 5. It transports raw materials such as
The network of structures responsible for oxygen to the cells, tissues and organs
that is the transport system. that need them.
In humans there are two types of transport
systems – the blood circulatory system MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES
(made up of the heart, blood vessels and IN AND OUT OF CELLS
blood.) and the lymphatic system (carries
materials around the body). Multi-cellular organisms have cells which
allow substances in solution to pass into
Plants also have their own transport system and out of them. This happens in two major
– xylem and phloem tissues. ways – diffusion and osmosis.
149
14 Transportation – Diffusion and Osmosis Samking
Examples of diffusion in living

DIFFUSION
organisms
Diffusion is the movement of molecules 1. Diffusion of oxygen into the blood and
from a region of high molecular carbon dioxide out of the blood in the
concentration to the region of low lung of mammals.
molecular concentration until the 2. Diffusion of hormones out of the
molecules are evenly distributed. endocrine glands.
3. Absorption of end products of
The difference in concentration is called digestion, e.g. glucose, amino acids in
concentration gradient. the ileum (small intestines) of
The higher the gradient the faster the rate mammals.
of diffusion. In other words diffusion stops 4. Diffusion of carbon dioxide into the
when the concentration gradient of the two blood and oxygen out of the blood in
regions is the same. the tissue of vertebrates.
5. Diffusion of oxygen into the cells and
Heating and stirring increase the movement carbon dioxide out of the cells of
of molecules, and therefore, can speed up unicellular organisms such as amoeba.
the rate of diffusion. 6. Diffusion of carbon dioxide into the
leaves and oxygen out of the leaf
Diffusion is very prominent in gases through the stomata.
because the molecules in gases have wide 7. Diffusion of mineral salt from the soil
spaces between them. Diffusion is slower water into root hair cells.
in liquids because the molecules are 8. Diffusion of oxygen into the leaves and
closely packed together than they are in carbon dioxide out of the leaves of
gases. The molecules in solids are tightly plants at night.
packed and therefore the molecules do not
have enough rooms to move around, hence OSMOSIS
diffusion is absent in solids.
Osmosis is the movement of water
molecules from a dilute solution to a more
concentrated solution across a semi-
permeable membrane.
The higher the difference in concentration

between the two solutions, the faster the
Fig. 11.1: Diffusion in a liquid
150
rate of osmosis. A rise in temperature also Observation

speeds up the rate of osmosis. After 24 hours, it would be observed that
the level of concentrated salt solution in
A semi-permeable membrane is a yam cup A has increased in volume whiles
membrane that allows certain substances to the water in the vessel has decreased.
pass through and blocks the passage of Compared to B, the volume of water in
some other substance depending on the
both yam cup and the vessel will remain
nature and size of the substance.
the same.
Demonstrating Osmosis in a Semi-

Permeable Membrane
 Peel off the skin of a yam tuber
 Cut it into two
 Make a cavity at the centre of each
half and flatten the bottom
 Label one A and fill it with known
volume of a concentrated salt solution Fig. 11.2: Osmosis in semi-permeable membrane
 Label the other one B and fill it with
water Conclusion
 Fill the two vessel with water to about Water molecules in the vessel of setup A
1/3 full and record the volumes have moved from a low concentration to a
 Sit the yam cups into each of the high concentration (salt solution) through
vessels the yam which acts as a semi-permeable
 Leave the whole experimental setup membrane.
for 24 hours. In setup B, water molecules in both the
vessel and the yam cavity have the same
(low) concentration. Therefore, there was
no movement of molecules from one
region to the other.
151
Demonstrating Osmosis in Non-Living Examples of Osmosis

Tissue 1. Absorption of water from the soil by
 Cover the ends of two thistle funnels, roots of plant.
labelled A and B, with cellophane 2. Movement of water across the cell of
paper. plants.
 Fill funnel A with sugar solution and B 3. Movement of water from the root hair
into the cortex.
with water.
4. Absorption of water in the colon (large
 Clamp them both upside down into a
intestines) of mammals.
beaker of water.
5. Absorption of water in the nephron of
 Leave the setup for 24 hours.
the kidney of mammals.
6. Entering of water into the cells of
Observation
amoeba.
After 24 hours, it would be observed that
the level of liquid in test tube A would rise Table 4.5: Differences between diffusion and
but that of test tube B would remain the osmosis
same. Diffusion Osmosis
Occurs in both gases
Occurs in liquids only
Conclusion and liquids
Water molecules have moved from a Does not require Requires a partial
partial membrane membrane
lower concentration to a higher
Involves movement of Involves movement of
concentration through the cellophane any substance (both only solvent particles
paper which acts as a semi-permeable solvent and solute) (e.g. water molecules)
membrane.
PROJECT:
Group of student to apply the principles
of osmosis in the following activities:
i. Salting of fish for preservation e.g.
Tilapia (―koobi‖)
ii. Preservation of liquid food

products e.g. fruit juice concentrate
Fig. 11.3: Osmosis in non-living tissue
152
hypertonic solution (i.e. a solution

SOME TERMS TO NOTE
which has higher concentration than the
Hypertonic solution cell sap).
This is a solution which has higher
concentration than the one it is being Plant cells in hypertonic, isotonic
compared to. and hypotonic solutions
If a plant or animal cell is introduced to  If a plant cell is put in a hypertonic
hypotonic solution, the solution absorbs the solution (e.g. water), it swells up and
liquid content of the cell, thereby causing it becomes turgid.
to become flaccid (shrink and wrinkle). If  If the plant cell is put in a hypertonic
this continues for long, the cell will solution (e.g. sugar solution), it loses
become plasmolysed. water and shrinks with the cell content
moving away from the cell wall.
Hypotonic solution  If a plant cell in placed in an isotonic
This is a solution which has lower solution, it remains the same.
concentration than the one it is being
compared to.
If a cell is introduced to a hypotonic
solution, it absorbs the solution. This
causes it to become turgid (swell up) and
eventually burst.
Isotonic solution
This is a solution which has the same Fig. 11.4: Osmosis in plant cells
concentration as the one it is being
compared to. Animal cells in hypertonic, isotonic
If a cell is introduced to an isotonic and hypotonic solutions
solution, the level, size, and structure of  If an animal cell is placed in a
both cell and solution will remain the same hypotonic solution, it swells and bursts.
since they have the same concentration.  If it is placed in a hypertonic solution,
it loses water, shrinks and wrinkles.
Plasmolysis
Plasmolysis is the process whereby a cell
looses water by osmosis and shrinks
because of the cell being surrounded by a
153
Table 4.6: Differences between diffusion and

active transport
Diffusion Active transport
Does not require
Requires energy
energy
Involves movement Involves movement
of all substances of liquids only
Molecular movement Molecular movement
is against is along with
Fig. 11.5 concentration concentration
gradient gradient
Active transport
Active transport is the movement of TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
substances from a low concentration
region to a high concentration region In plants, the transport of various
across a living cell membrane using substances such as water and mineral salt
energy from the cell. from the soil through the roots and stems to
the leaves and the movement of food
The molecules move in an opposite produced through photosynthesis from the
direction to the direction they would go leaves to other parts such as the storage
during diffusion. Thus, the molecules move organs and growing part of the plants keep
against the concentration gradient. the plants alive.
Examples of Active Transport Absorption and transport of water

1. Absorption of digested food into the and mineral salt in plants
blood in the intestines of mammals. 1. Water enters the root hair and then the
2. Movement of glucose into the phloem cells of plants by osmosis. This is
tissues of plants. because vacuoles in the root hair
3. Re-absorption of glucose, amino acids contain higher concentration of solutes
and ions in the kidney of mammals. that the surrounding soil solution.
4. Absorption of mineral salt from the soil 2. Water then moves from the root cortex
by plant roots. from one cell to another by three
different pathways – mostly through
the cellulose cell wall, some through
the cytoplasm and the rest pass through
one vacuole to another.
3. Water finally enters the xylem vessels.
154
Transport of manufactured food

(Translocation)
Translocation is the movement of
dissolved products of photosynthesis.
Translocation occurs mostly in phloem

tissue within the sieve tubes.
Translocation is necessary because the
leaves which synthesize organic materials
are far away from other parts of the plant
Fig. 11.6: Transverse sections of a stem which need a constant supply of the
manufactured food.
The absorption of mineral salt occurs in Sugar and amino acids normally move
two major ways – diffusion and active from their manufacture sites in the leaves
transport to growing regions such as buds, or to
storage organs such as fruits, seeds or
Diffusion tubers. They may also move from storage
Diffusion occurs only when the organs to growing regions.
concentration of a particular mineral
element is higher in the soil solution than
in the root hair. Many mineral elements are
found in higher concentration in cell saps
than in the soil solution. These must be
taken up actively by the plants
Active transport
This requires the use of energy produced
during respiration, which is in the form of
ATP, to absorb mineral ions into the root
hair cells against their concentration
gradient. The minerals ions then diffuse
through the cortex cells and enter the Fig. 11.7: Translocation
xylem with the water.
155
Experiment to show that the phloem TEST QUESTIONS

tissue is responsible for translocation
(the ringing experiment)
1. (a) What do you understand by the
 Remove a ring from the bark of a
following terms:
young plant. i) Diffusion;
 Leave it for some 24 hours. ii) Osmosis;
iii) Plasmolysis.
Observation (b) Mention three differences between
osmosis and diffusion.
It would be observed that the area just
above the ring starts to bulge, because
2. (a) Define the following terms:
food substances, which have to move
(i) hypertonic solution;
down to the roots, accumulate there. The
(ii) hypotonic solution
whole plant dies of starvation after a few (iii) isotonic solution
weeks. (b) Describe what will happen to an
animal cell when placed in each of
Conclusion: the solutions in (a).
This shows that the phloem tissues are
responsible for the transport of food 3. Two containers X and Y each hold one
substances in plants. litre of air. X also contains 0.4g of a
gas and Y contains 0.6 g of the same
gas. The two containers are connected
together as shown in the diagram.
Fig. 11.8: The ring method
156
(a) Which way will the gas diffuse? (b) (i) State three examples of active
(b) After a long period of time, what will transport.
be the concentration of the gas (in (ii) Mention three differences
grams per litre) in each container? between active transport and
diffusion.
4. Describe an experiment to demonstrate
that the phloem tissue is responsible for 7. In an experiment to investigate a
translocation in plants. physiological phenomenon, a student
peeled off stripe of the epidermis of the
5. The figure below represent the leaf of Rheo discolours. The strips were
beginning of an experiment to then placed in three solutions of
demonstrate osmosis in living cell different concentration for 30 minutes
using yam tissue. after which the strips were removed
and examined under a light
microscope. The figure below shows
representative cells A, B and C of
strips from the three solutions. Study
the cells carefully.
a) Draw and label a diagram to illustrate

what would be observed if the set up is
allowed to stand for 24 hours.
b) What does the yam cup represent?
c) Explain the principle involved in the
experiment.
d) How would you set up control of the a) Name the parts labelled I, II, III
experiment above? and
e) Give one example of the osmotic IV.
process in each of the following living b) What physiological phenomenon
organisms. did the student demonstrate?
i) Flowering plant; c) Name four materials the student
ii) Humans. needed for the demonstration.
d) (i) State the three types of
6. (a) Explain the importance of solutions required for the
translocation. demonstration.
157
ii) Match the different states of

the cells A, B and C against
the solutions you have stated.
(e) What do the arrows in B imply?
(f) Explain the results that would
have been observed if red blood
cells had been used for the
experiment in place of the
epidermal cells of Rheo discolour.
158
15
FORMS OF ENERGY AND ENERGY
TRANSFORMATION
from food. When we eat food, energy is

Specific Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to: stored in our bodies for immediate and
 Distinguish between various forms of future usage. Energy is necessary for some
energy and modes of transformation. basic life activities such as keeping the
 Discuss the conservation of energy and
efficiency of energy conversion. body warm, heartbeat, making decisions,
etc.
When work is done, energy is never used

up, but is converted from one form to
another.
INTRODUCTION
The SI unit of energy is joules (J).
Energy is defined as the ability to do

FORMS / TYPES OF ENERGY
work.
Energy exists in many different forms.
In other words, for a person to do a simple Some forms of energy are:
task such as raising the hand, nodding the
head and flipping the pages of a book, they Light energy
must possess energy. This is the type of energy that makes vision
Different activities require different forms possible. E.g. the Sun, fluorescent tube,
and amounts of energy. For example, the etc.
energy required to lift a load of 50 kg
would definitely be greater than the energy Chemical energy
that would be needed to raise a 5 kg load. This is the type of energy gained when
Animals, including humans, obtain energy atoms or molecules of a substance re-
159
15 Forms of Energy and Energy Transformation Samking
arrange to form a new substance. e.g. Potential energy (P.E.): This is the energy
battery, food, fossil fuel, etc. a body has as a result of its position or
state. Examples of potential energy
Electrical energy include:
This type of energy is acquired when i. A cat lying on a mat
electrical charges move through a ii. A piece of cloth hanging on line
conductor. Electrical energy can be iii. A girl sitting on a chair
obtained from solar panel, dry cells,
generators etc. The formula for potential energy is given
as
Solar energy P.E. = mgh
This is the type of energy obtained from
the sun. The sun is the major source of where m = mass, g = acceleration due to
energy needed for most life activities. gravity and h = height of the body
Heat energy Example

This is the energy obtained as a result of A mango fruit of mass 0.06 kg hangs 4.0 m
the rise in temperature. E.g. sun, fire, above the ground. Calculate its potential
electric iron etc. energy.
[g = 10 ms-2]
Nuclear energy
This is the type of energy released during Solution
the splitting or fusing of atomic nuclei. E.g. P.E. = mgh
Hydrogen, Uranium, radium, etc. m = 0.06 kg, h = 4 m, g = 10 ms-2
P.E. = 0.06 x 10 x 4
Sound energy P.E. = 2.4 J
This is the energy produced when objects
vibrate. E.g. bell, drums, etc. Kinetic energy (K.E.)
This is the energy possessed by a body due
Mechanical energy to its motion.
This is the energy possessed by a body due Examples of K.E. include:
to its position, state or motion. There are i. A boy riding a bicycle
two types of mechanical energy: ii. A fan whirling around
 Potential energy iii. A car speeding
 Kinetic energy Kinetic energy is expressed as:
160
𝟏 Voltaic cells
K.E. = mv2 2.
𝟐
where m = mass and v = velocity CHEMICAL ENERGY
Example
A particle of mass 20 g moves with a ELECTRICAL ENERGY
velocity of 3 ms-1. What is its kinetic
energy? MECHANICAL
ENERGY
Solution
1
K.E. = 2mv2 HEAT ENERGY
20
m = 20 g = 1000 = 0.02 kg, v = 3 ms-1
1 3. Solar cells
K.E. = 2 x 0.02 x 32
K.E. = 0.09 J SOLAR ENERGY
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION ELECTRICAL

ENERGY
Energy transformation is the process of
MECHANICAL
changing energy from one form to another.
ENERGY
This process is happening all the time, both
in the world and within people. When
people consume food, the body utilizes the
chemical energy in the bonds of the food
and transforms it into mechanical energy, a
new form of chemical energy, or thermal
energy. The following show various energy
transformations.
1. Photosynthesis
SOLAR ENERGY
CHEMICAL ENERGY
Fig. 11.9: Converting solar energy into other forms
of energy
161
4. Electric bulb
CHEMICAL ENERGY
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
HEAT ENERGY
5. Fossil fuel
CHEMICAL ENERGY
THERMAL ENERGY
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Fig. 12.0: Examples of energy transformation

6. Falling object
CHEMICAL ENERGY
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
The law of conservation of energy states

ELECTRICAL ENERGY
that energy cannot be made or lost, but
can be changed from one form to another.
POTENCIAL ENERGY
How to conserve energy
1. Switch off all electrical appliances that
7. Cellular respiration are not in use.
2. Do not leave doors of fridges and
CHEMICAL ENERGY
freezers open.
3. Do not put hot food in fridges and
ELECTRICAL ENERGY freezers.
4. Turn off and remove mobile phone
chargers from the power outlets after
POTENCILA ENERGY
charging mobile phones
162
5. Iron clothes in bulk. Solution:

6. Close all doors and windows when Energy output = 75 J, energy input = 90 J
using air-conditioners. energy output
Efficiency = x 100%
7. Use energy saving lamps. energy input
75
8. Open doors and windows to allow in = x 100 = 83%
90
fresh air instead of electric fans and air-
conditioners.
9. Turn off light during the (bright and
sunny) day. TEST QUESTIONS
10. Have your electric metre earthed.
1. (a) State and explain any three forms
of energy.
EFFICIENCY OF ENERGY (b) Explain the concept of energy
transformation.
Efficiency of energy is the ratio of energy
output to the energy input.
2. State the energy transformation that
takes place in the following:
Efficiency is expressed in percentage.
a. Photosynthesis
In other words, it is the ratio of energy put
b. When an orange drops from a tree.
into a work to the energy obtained from it.
c. Cellular respiration.
Mathematically,
3. (a) (i) State the law of conservation
of energy.
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Efficiency = x 100% (ii) state five methods of conserving
energy input
energy in the house.
Efficiency of energy is never 100%. This is (b) (i) explain the term efficiency of
because parts of the energy put into work energy.
are used to overcome friction, inertia and (ii) Why is the efficiency of energy
gravity. This makes the energy output always less than 100% in
always less than the energy input. machines.
Sample question: 4. (a) Mention five ways of conserving

A machine was supplied with 90 J of energy.
energy. It could do 75 J of work. Calculate (b) With a aid of a flow chart,
its efficiency.
163
demonstrate how chemical energy

in voltaic cell is converted to heat
energy.
5. (a) Explain why efficiency is never

100%.
(b) Find the efficiency of a simple
machine that was supplied with
1800 J of energy and could do
1200 J of work.
164
16
SOLAR ENERGY
Photochemical processes
Specific Objectives Photochemical processes are those in
 Identify the uses of solar energy. which light energy causes a chemical
 Document the uses of solar energy in daily process.
activities.
Photoelectric processes
Photoelectric processes involve a direct
conversion of radiation to electrical energy.
INTRODUCTION Thermal processes

In thermal processes, the radiant energy is
Solar energy is the radiation produced (by absorbed as heat by a receiver or receiving
nuclear fusion reactions) deep in the substance, which then undergoes an
sun’s core. increase in temperature, vaporization, or
other heat-absorbing process.
The sun provides almost all the heat and
light the Earth receives and therefore The most commonly considered uses of
sustains every living being. solar energy are those which are classed as
thermal processes. They include
USES OF SOLAR ENERGY 1. house-heating,
2. distillation of seawater to produce
The possible uses of solar energy fall into potable water,
three categories: photochemical processes, 3. refrigeration and air conditioning,
photoelectric processes and thermal power production by solar-generated
processes. steam,
4. cooking,
5. water heating,
165
16 Solar Energy Samking
6. the use of solar furnaces to produce House Heating

high temperatures for experimental Solar house heating has received attention,
studies. especially in our modern era. In it
application, heat must be collected during
sunny periods and stored for use in non-
sunny periods. Solar house heating is very
common in the template zone, and is very
effective during the winter season. The
following diagram illustrates how solar
house heating is done.
Fig. 12.1: Some everyday uses of solar energy
Power/ Electricity Generation

The production of mechanical or electrical
energy from solar energy has been the
object of numerous studies. Photoelectric
cells are used in calculator, flashlight,
radios and other devices to convert solar
energy into electricity.
Photovoltaic cells are a means of directly
converting radiation from the sun into
electricity. These cells, made from thin
slices of semiconductor materials, appear Fig. 12.3: Solar-house heating
to produce significant amounts of energy at
little cost. Distillation of Salt Water
Solar distillation of sea or brackish waters
to produce potable water has been the
object of much research. The most
common type of experimental solar still
utilizes a shallow pan of water covered
with a glass roof in the form of an inverted
V. Solar energy heats the water, causing it
Fig. 12.2: Photovoltaic cells to evaporate; the vapour condenses on the
underside of the inclined glass covers and
166
run down into collecting troughs at their Solar Cookers

lower edges. One of the fascinating uses of solar energy
is solar cookers. With solar cooker, you
Solar Furnaces can cook food without lighting fire.
These devices are accurate parabolic You can construct your own solar cooker.
reflectors which are mounted so that they  Get an aluminium sheet, and shape it
precisely track the sun and focus solar into a parabola (a dome-like shape).
radiation on small areas. Thus, they  This causes the sun‘s rays to be
concentrate the usually low-energy flux as concentrated on the saucepan.
much as 50,000 times. With them, targets  The concentration of the sun‘s rays on
of appropriate design can be heated to high the saucepan causes it to heat-up,
temperatures, up to approximately 4426°C. thereby heating it contents.
Several furnaces have been used for
laboratory studies of the properties of Water Heater
metals and ceramics and of various Flat plate collectors utilize the sun‘s energy
chemical reactions. to warm a carrier fluid, which in turn
The largest of these is a paraboloid which provides usable heat to a household. The
is 34 feet in diameter and utilizing a carrier fluid, which in this case is water,
movable flat mirror to reflect radiation into flows through copper tubing in the solar
the paraboloid. It has been called a semi- collector, and in the process absorbs some
industrial tool by its designer and builder, of the sun‘s energy.
F. Trombe of the Mont-Louis Laboratory Next, the carrier fluid moves to the heat
in France. exchange, where the carrier fluid warms
water that is used by the household.
Finally, a pump moves the carrier fluid
back to the solar collector to repeat the
cycle.
Applications of solar energy in

practical daily activities
1. Drying clothes
2. Cooking food using solar cookers
3. Heating water for bathing
Fig. 12.4: Solar furnace 4. Boiling egg
5. Drying crops (for preservation)
167
8. Solar panels operate silently and do not

produce noise pollution and unbearable
smells.
9. Solar energy can be produced on or off
the grid. (i.e. either controlled by a
power company or not).
10. Because solar does not rely on
constantly mining raw materials, it
does not result in the destruction of
forests and eco-systems that occurs
with most fossil fuel operations.
Fig. 12.5: Solar-water heating system
Importance of solar energy

1. Solar energy is renewable; does not get
finished like fossil fuels.
2. It emits no or relatively small
pollutants.
3. There is absence of incessant power
outages and low shedding.
4. It saves money. After the initial cost of
the installation, there is no or little cost
for maintenance.
5. No additional fuel is needed to produce
the energy. Fig. 12.6: Percentage use of solar energy by
6. Usage of the solar energy contributes in household appliances
reducing the threats to the health costs.
7. This source is very environmentally Disadvantages of solar energy
friendly and does not aggravate the 1. Initial costs for installing a home solar
global warming as compared to fossil system or building a solar farm are
fuels. high.
2. Solar panels are bulky and may be
difficult to transport.
168
3. Requires constant sunlight and the

TEST QUESTIONS
ability to store energy for the night.
4. Areas which remains mostly cloudy
and foggy will produce electricity but 1. (a) Define the term solar energy.
at a reduced rate and may require more (b) List four daily applications of solar
panels to generate enough electricity energy.
for your home.
5. Houses which are covered by trees, 2. Describe four uses of solar energy.
landscapes or other buildings may not
be suitable enough to produce solar 3. Explain how solar energy may be used
power. for the following purposes:
(a) Solar furnaces;
(b) Electricity production;
(c) Water heating system.
4. Describe the processes into which solar

energy is categorized and harnessed.
5. (a) State five advantages of solar

energy over other forms of energy.
(b) List four short comings of solar
energy.
6. Discuss how solar energy can be made

accessible to all Ghanaians.
7. Discuss the environmental impact of

solar energy.
169
17
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Carbon dioxide + water = glucose + oxygen

Specific Objectives
OR
 Describe the process of photosynthesis. 6CO2 + 6H20 → C6H12O6 + 6O2
 Explain the process of transformation of
energy that occurs during photosynthesis Water is obtained from the soil, carbon

dioxide from the atmosphere and the
sunlight is attracted by chlorophyll which
is produced by the chloroplast in the
leaves.
INTRODUCTION – THE PROCESS CONDITIONS FOR

OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the process whereby The conditions necessary for

green plants prepare their own food with photosynthesis are:
carbon dioxide and water, in the presence
of sunlight, which is absorbed by Carbon dioxide
chlorophyll. Plants make use of the carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere. The atmosphere contains
Photosynthesis provides the basic energy only 0.04% carbon dioxide.
source for almost all organisms. An
extremely important by-product of Water
photosynthesis is oxygen, on which most The root hairs of plants absorb water,
living organisms depend. which is then transported to the stems and
The process of photosynthesis can be leaves through the xylem vessels.
expressed as:
170
17 Photosynthesis Samking
Chlorophyll Energy Transformation in

This is a green pigment that gives leaves Photosynthesis
their green colour. Chlorophyll is produce In photosynthesis, light energy (either from
by chloroplast and is responsible for the sun or artificial) is converted to
attracting sunlight onto the leaves. chemical energy in food.
Chloroplast contains other enzymes that
help produce sugar which is converted into Photosynthesis
starch.
SOLAR ENERGY
Light
Sunlight is a very essential source of CHEMICAL ENERGY
energy. Artificial light is also effective in
photosynthesis, but it is not as productive
as sunlight. Here light or solar energy is Testing for starch in a green leaf
converted to chemical energy.  Label two potted plants, A and B and
put them in the dark for a few days.
This will cause them to use all the
starch they have stored in their leaves.
 Put plant A in the light and leave plant
B in the dark for a few days.
 Take a leaf from each plant and run a
test for starch on them.
 Dip each leaf in boiling water for one
minute to kill and soften it.
 Dip each leaf in hot ethanol for one
minutes to remove the green pigment
 Wash the leaves in hot water
 Add dilute iodine solution to each leaf.
Observation
It would be observed that leaf A would
turn dark blue, which shows the presence
of starch, while leaf B would turn brown,
Fig. 12.7 which shows the absence of starch
because it was kept in the dark.
171
Fig. 12.8: Test for starch in leaf
An experiment to show the necessity of

light for photosynthesis
 Cut a shape out from a piece of
aluminium foil, making a stencil.
 Attach it to a de-starched leaf.
 After 4 to 6 hours of daylight, detach
the leaf and test for starch.
Fig. 12.9: The need for light in photosynthesis
Observation
Only areas which received sunlight turn Experiment to show that carbon dioxide
blue with iodine. is essential for photosynthesis
 Water two de-starched potted plants.
Conclusion  Enclose the shoots in polythene bags,
Since starch has not accumulated in the one of which contains soda-lime to
areas without light, it is evident that light absorb carbon dioxide from the air and
plays an important role in photosynthesis. the other sodium hydrogen-carbonate
172
(sodium trioxocarbonate (IV)) solution Experiment to show that oxygen is

to produce extra oxygen. produced during photosynthesis
 Place both plants in sunlight or  Place a short-stemmed funnel over
fluorescent light for several hours. some plant shoots (e.g. ceratophyllum)
 Detach a leaf from each plant and test in a beaker of water.
for starch.  Invert a test tube filled with water over
the funnel stem.
Observation  Raise the funnel above the bottom of
The leaf deprived of carbon dioxide will the beaker to allow for free circulation
not turn blue while that enriched with of water.
carbon dioxide will turn blue.  Place the set-up in sunlight. Bubbles of
gas appear from the cut stems and is
Conclusion collected in the test-tube.
Since no starch is made in the leaf  Remove the test-tube and introduce a
deprived of carbon dioxide suggests that glowing splint.
carbon dioxide is necessary for
photosynthesis. Observation
The glowing splint bursts into flames.
Conclusion
It could be deduced that the plant has
given off a gas which is considerably richer
in oxygen than in atmospheric air.
Fig. 13.0: Experiment showing that CO2 is

necessary for photosynthesis
Fig. 13.1: Oxygen is produced during
photosynthesis
173
A controlled experiment should be setup in

a similar manner but the plant should be
placed in a dark cupboard.
It would be observed that little or no gas
should collect.
Experiment to show that chlorophyll is

necessary for photosynthesis Fig. 13.2: Presence of chlorophyll in green leaf
 Leave a plant with variegated leaves
(leaves with diverse colours) in light for Adaptation of Leaves for
2-6 hours. Photosynthesis
 Remove one leaf and make a labelled 1. Leaves have broad and flat shapes
diagram to show the green and non- which provide them with large surface
green parts. area for absorption of carbon dioxide.
 Test the leaf for starch. 2. The thin nature of leaves enables
carbon dioxide to diffuse easily into the
Observation mesophyll cells.
When the variegated leaf is tested for 3. The presence of stomata helps in gas
exchange.
starch, the green parts (which contain
4. Chloroplast secrets chlorophyll which
chlorophyll) turn blue-black while the non-
attracts light into the leaves.
green parts (which lack chlorophyll) show
5. Phloem and xylem tissues transport
no colour change.
manufactured food from the leaves to
other parts of the plants and minerals
Conclusion salt from the roots to the leaves.
Starch is made only in areas of the leaf 6. Leaves are arranged in a regular pattern
with chlorophyll, showing that chlorophyll along the stem which prevents
is necessary for photosynthesis. overshadowing and allows each leaf to
receive light.
Factors which affect the rate of

photosynthesis
When plenty of carbon dioxide, sunlight
and water are provided to a plant,
photosynthesis will be at its maximum rate.
174
Sometimes the rate of photosynthesis is not place and when they are open, carbon
as high as expected due to inadequacy of dioxide enters and the rate of
factors that include light intensity, water, photosynthesis increases.
temperature and carbon dioxide
concentration. 5. Mineral salt: Several elements are
Providing plenty of each of these factors to known for normal plant growth and
a plant increases the rate of photosynthesis. development. Some of these elements
However, if one of these factors is not are Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen.
adequate, the rate of photosynthesis may
become low. A factor that is inadequate is 6. Other elements are Nitrogen, Sulphur,
called a limiting factor. Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium and
Factors which affect the rate of Magnesium. There are other elements
photosynthesis include: called trace elements which are needed
in small quantities. Plants obtain
1. Light intensity: In case of dim light, mineral salts from the soil. The effects
the rate of photosynthesis is low. As of these chemical elements can be
light intensity increases, the rate of discovered by growing plants in water
photosynthesis increases. solutions containing balanced amounts
of salts necessary for healthy plant
2. Carbon dioxide concentration: The growth. This solution is called a
more carbon dioxide a plant is given, culture solution.
the faster is the rate of photosynthesis,
until a maximum is reached. Importance of Photosynthesis
1. It provides food for some living
3. Temperature: Photosynthesis is an organisms such as herbivores and
enzyme-controlled reaction. Increase in omnivores (carnivores do not eat
temperature increases the rate of plants).
photosynthesis while a decrease lowers 2. Oxygen given off by green plants
it. during photosynthesis is used by
animals for respiration.
4. Stomatal opening and closing: This 3. Green plants take in carbon dioxide
regulates the amount of carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, thereby
entering a plant which it uses for reducing the amount of carbon dioxide
photosynthesis. If the stomata are in the atmosphere.
closed then photosynthesis cannot take
175
4. Photosynthesis produces materials for 4. (a) (i) Define the term photosynthesis
protein and starch formation. (ii) Give three reasons why
5. It helps to maintain the oxygen, carbon photosynthesis is important in
and water cycle in the atmosphere. all living organisms.
(b) List four structural adaptation of
leaf for photosynthesis and state
how each of them facilitate the
TEST QUESTIONS process.
1. (a) (i) What is photosynthesis? 5. (a) (i) Write the chemical equation for
(ii) describe the conditions photosynthesis.
necessary for photosynthesis. (ii) What are the conditions
(b) (i) state four adaptations of leaves necessary for photosynthesis?
for photosynthesis. (iii) List four importance of
(ii) mention four importance of photosynthesis.
photosynthesis.
2. (a) Describe how you will test for

starch in a leaf.
(b) Explain four factors which affect the
rate of photosynthesis in a leaf.
3. Describe an experiment to demonstrate

the need for the following conditions of
photosynthesis:
(a) Sunlight
(b) Carbon dioxide
(c) Chlorophyll
176
18
ELECTRONICS I
BEHAVIOR OF DISCRETE
Specific Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to: ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
 Observe the behaviour of discrete electronic
components in a d.c. and a.c. electronic Electronic components are specially
circuit.
designed electronic elements which have
leads with which they are connected to the
circuit board.
Electronic circuits consist of inter-

INTRODUCTION connections of electronic components.
Components are classified into two
Electronics is the field of engineering and categories—active or passive.
applied physics dealing with the design and
application of devices, usually electronic Passive components are components that
circuits, the operation of which depends on never supply more energy than they
the flow of electrons for the generation, absorb. Examples are resistors, capacitors
transmission, reception, and storage of and inductors.
information.
The information can consist of voice or Active components are components that
music (audio signals) in a radio receiver, a can supply more energy than they absorb.
picture on a television screen, or numbers Examples are batteries, generators, vacuum
and other data in a computer. tubes, and transistors.
Resistors
Resistors are made from carbon mixtures,
metal films, or resistance wire and have
two connecting wires attached. They are
177
18 Electronics Samking
used for current control in electronic direct current in order to connect the output
circuit. of one amplifier stage to the input of the
Variable resistors, with an adjustable next amplifier stage.
sliding contact arm, are often used to
control volume on radios and television
sets.
Fig. 13.4: Some types of capacitors
Fig. 13.3: Some types of resistors Inductors

Inductors consist of a conducting wire
wound into the form of a coil. When a
Capacitors
current passes through the coil, a magnetic
Capacitors consist of two metal plates that
field is set up around it that tends to oppose
are separated by an insulating material. If a
rapid changes in current intensity.
battery is connected to both plates, an
As a capacitor, an inductor can be used to
electric charge will flow for a short time
distinguish between rapidly and slowly
and accumulate on each plate. If the battery
changing signals. When an inductor is used
is disconnected, the capacitor retains the
in conjunction with a capacitor, the voltage
charge and the voltage associated with it.
in the inductor reaches a maximal value for
Rapidly changing voltages, such as caused
a specific frequency.
by an audio or radio signal, produce larger
This principle is used in a radio receiver,
current flows to and from the plates; the
where a specific frequency is selected by a
capacitor then functions as a conductor for
variable capacitor.
the changing current.
This effect can be used, for example, to

separate an audio or radio signal from a
178
either an abundance or a lack of free

electrons exists. In the former case, the
semiconductor is called n-type, and in the
latter case, p-type.
By combining n-type and p-type materials,
a diode can be produced. When this diode
is connected to a battery so that the p-type
material is positive and the n-type negative,
electrons are repelled from the negative
battery terminal and pass unimpeded to the
Fig. 13.5: Inductors p-region, which lacks electrons.
With the battery reversed, the electrons
Transistors arriving in the p-material can pass only
Transistors are made from semiconductors. with difficulty to the n-material, which is
These are materials, such as silicon or already filled with free electrons, and the
germanium that are doped (have minute current is almost zero.
amounts of foreign elements added) so that
Fig. 13.7: Some discrete electronics components in a circuit
179
Behaviour of Light Emitting Diode

(LED) in circuits
Needed items
 1 LED (any colour)
 1 capacitor 1uF
 1 PNP resistor
 1 NPN resistor
 5 resistors (1 M OTHER VALUES)
Fig. 13.6: Transistors  LED circuits
Transistors
To observe light emitting diode in action
Light Emitting Diode (LED) we shall build a very basic electric circuit
Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are discrete that will show the use of LEDs. First build
electronic components which convert a circuit that is shown below:
electrical signals into light.
They usually have low resistances and
easily damaged if connected to a high
voltage. A voltage of 1.5 can light an LED.
LEDs come in diverse colours and are
normally used as indicators.
An LED has two terminals – positive and
negative terminals. In a circuit, the positive
Fig. 13.8
terminal connects the positive hand of the
cell, while the negative terminal takes the Once connected, the LED emits photons
negative hand of the cell. If the terminals that can be detected by the eye.
are reversed there will be no light.
Let‘s build another circuit to explore the
ACTIVITY: properties of LED.
 Build a circuit that emits a light through To observe the properties of a diode let us
LED
connect it to 3 V battery or DC signal
 Build a circuit that flashes using just
LED and RC components generator. You will notice that only one of
 Build a circuit that produces a sound the LEDs emits light
through a buzzer (door bell)
 Build a liitle device that will make a
sound with variable frequency
180
with a frequency of FREQUENCY Hz. It

appears that LEDs is lit up constantly, but
that is not exactly correct. LED is still
flashing, just the frequency is too high for
humans eye to detect this flash.
Capacitor in LED circuit

Now we will introduce a capacitor to show
the effect of delayed flash. It is known that
capacitor can store a charge which can be
released through resistor.
Build the following circuit to observe its
Fig. 13.9 behaviour. (Tip: switch circuit on and off
and observe the behaviour of LED)
Now let us reverse the polarity of the
battery or signal generator. You probably
have noticed that now the LED that was
emitting light before is now switched off,
while the other one is on.
Fig. 14.1
From the circuit above it can be seen that

when the switch is on it charges the
Fig. 14.0 capacitor as well as emits light through the
LED. However, when the switch is off, the
The circuit above is connected to a low LED does not die straight away. It still
frequency AC signal generator. keeps emitting light after some time after
(NOTE: the battery is not suitable as it the circuit was unplugged. Now let us
produces DC voltage). If the frequency is change the resistor with the one that has
low enough LED should be flashing. If the R= OHMS Ohms. Switch circuit on for a
frequency is increased the flash rate will few seconds and then switch it off.
increase too. Now try to generate a signal
181
Notice the longer time it takes the LED to

die as compared to using resistor with
smaller resistance. The water analogy
would be straight forward. Imagine having
a tank full of water with a plug that would
have some sort of mechanical resistance. It
is quite obvious that the bigger resistance
the more time required for the tank to
empty.
Transistors in LED circuit

For the next circuit you are require to Fig. 14.2
familiarise yourself with the basic
principles of transistors. The transistors we Building a door bell
will be using are bipolar PNP and NPN and Now let‘s play with the sound. You will
the main purpose for it just to act as an require a buzzer and a push switch. Try to
electronic switch. connect the circuit below.
An example with flashing LED required

AC voltage with variable frequency in
order to observe these flashes. Using a
combination of transistor and capacitor we
can build a circuit that will make LED
flash even using a direct current (DC). Fig. 14.3
Build the circuit that is shown below.
Once this circuit is connected to a battery Combining LED and buzzer in one circuit
the LED flashes. The rate can be defined can be very fun. Try to build the following
by changing resistances as well as circuit and explore its behaviour.
capacitance of capacitor.
Fig. 14.4
182
3. (a) Describe two uses of light emitting

TEST QUESTIONS
diodes.
(b) Compare the behaviour of the
1. (a) Distinguish between active and following pairs of components in a
passive components. circuit.
(b) Describe the behaviour of an LED (i) capacitor and inductor
in circuit. (ii) transistor and resistor

discrete components: 4. Classify the following components as
(a) Resistor; either active or passive in the table
(b) Capacitor; below and state one use each:
(c) Transistor accumulator; capacitor; resistor; dry
(d) Inductor cell; vacuum tube; inductor; diode;
transistor; LED.
183
19
ECOSYSTEM
Species
Specific Objectives Species is a distinct kind of organism, with
 Define basic ecological terms. a characteristic shape, size, behaviour, and
 Classify ecosystems and identify their habitat that remains constant from year to
components.
year. Organisms of one species mate and
 Explain food chain and food web and identify
the components. produce offspring with one another, but do
not breed with other populations.
Population
This term refers to all organisms of the
INTRODUCTION same species living in a particular habitat.
E.g., a tree could house a population of
An ecosystem is made up of living and birds.
non-living organisms in a particular habitat
and their interaction with the physical Community
environment. The habitat could be a forest, A community consists of all the population
coral reef, river, etc. of all the different species in a habitat.
Thus, a community is made up of different
BASIC ECOLOGICAL TERMS species of organisms living together. For
example, the ocean could be a community
Ecology for different species of fish, crabs, coral,
Ecology is the study of the relationship etc.
among living things and to their
surroundings. Ecosphere
Ecosphere is the whole of the earth‘s
atmosphere, rivers, lakes and sea that is
inhabited by living organism. The word
184
19 Ecosystem Samking
ecosphere is interchangeable with Communalism

biosphere. Biosphere can be divided into This is a situation where one organism
biomes. lives on another but does not harm or
benefit from it.
Biomes
This is a large natural area which has a
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
particular climate. Examples are tropical
rain forest, grassland, desert, swamp etc. Ecosystem can be classified into two main
types – terrestrial and aquatic.
Habitat
A habitat is the natural environment of an Terrestrial (land) ecosystem
animal or plant. Different organisms have There are different types of terrestrial
different habitats in which they adapt. An ecosystem or habitat, according to the
organism has to have some basic features vegetation present. For example, in forests
in order to fit into a particular habitat. there are large trees whiles deserts contain
Habitats are categorized as terrestrial (land little vegetation. The type of vegetation is
and forest) and aquatic (freshwater and also dependent on physical factors such as
marine) temperature, the amount of rainfall and the
type of soil. Examples of terrestrial habitat
Niche are rain forest, desert and savannah.
A niche is an area within an ecosystem in
which a particular group of organisms live Sampling methods in terrestrial
in. A niche could provide a habitat for ecosystem
organisms of the same or different species. Small aquatic animals, such as insects, may
For example, a pond can be a home for be sampled for research. There are a
different species of fish. number of ways of sampling animals,
including the use of the following:
Parasitism
Parasitism is the relationship between two Pooter
organism in which one (called parasite) A pooter is made up of a corked-tube or
lives on and causes harm to the other cylinder. The cork has two holes on top for
(called host). For example a flee (parasite) two flexible plastic tubes. One tube leads
on a dog (host) to the mouth where suction is applied,
while the other sucks the animals into the
cylinder.
185
Sweep net and butterfly net

These nets generally used to catch flying or
winged insects. They are also used to catch
or trap clawing insect. They may also be
used to sample aquatic organisms.
Fig. 14.5: A pooter
Pitfall trap
This is simply a jar or vase dug into the
ground and partially covered with a
wooden or stone slab or slate so that small
animals can fall into the jar. A straight-
sided jar is used to prevent the animals
from clawing back out. Fig. 14.9: A sweep net and butterfly net
Mammal trap
A mammal trap is used to trap small
mammals such as rodents. It usually has a
springy door or shut, which shuts with little
agitation. A bate is put in the trap to attract
animals.
Fig. 14.6: A pitfall trap
Fig. 14.8: A mammal trap
186
Fig. 15.1: A forest ecosystem
Quadrant
A quadrant is a square or rectangular
wooden frame divided into sections with
thin wires. It is used to sample vegetation.
This is done by randomly and carefully
throwing the quadrant around in a habitat.
The plants which fall into the quadrant are
carefully studied after which the next Fig. 15.0: A quadrant
throw is done.
187
Aquatic (water) ecosystem

There are two types of aquatic ecosystem –
fresh water and marine (salt water).
Fresh water ecosystem: This is a watery

environment where there is no salt (salt
free). Examples are lakes, rivers, ponds,
etc. Fig. 15.3:
Plankton net: The plankton net is a tube

made from a fine mesh with an enclosed
end to capture plankton and other smaller
aquatic organisms.
Fig. 15.2: An aquatic habitat
Marine ecosystem: This ecosystem consist

of the sea, lagoons, oceans, and estuaries.
These habitats contain salty water.
Sampling methods in aquatic Fig. 15.4

ecosystem
Wicker work trap: This is a cylindrical Long handled net: As its name implies,
tube made from hard wire or palm the long handled net is made up of a tough
branches wove together. It has an enclosure mesh with a long handle which makes it
which carries the bait and a one-way easier to be swept through a pool, lake, etc.
opening where the aquatic animals enter.
The wicker work trap is normally used to
trap shrimps, crabs, lobsters and other
small fish. This is done by dropping and
leaving the trap in the water for a period of
time.
Fig. 15.5
188
Artificial ecosystem is ecosystem which

has been influenced by human activities.
Examples of artificial ecosystem include
farmland, man-made lakes, roads etc.
Components of ecosystem
Components of ecosystem include both
living and non-living things. Hence, we
have biotic (living) components which
Fig. 15.6: Sampling with consist of all living organisms, e.g. animals
Long handled and a sweep net and plants and abiotic (non-living)
components which include soil, air and
Grapnel: Submerged plants can be water.
sampled using a grapnel. This is thrown
into the water and pulled in again.
ECOLOGICAL FACTORS
Population densities of plants cannot be
obtained but this method is an indicator of Ecological factors are factors which
abundance. Line transects can be used for directly or indirectly affect organisms
plants on the edge of the water. within an environment. There are two types
of ecological factor – biotic and abiotic
factors.
Biotic factors
Biotic factors are factors that affect the
way living organisms interact in an
environment. Biotic factors are also
referred to as living factors.
Fig. 15.7: A grapnel
Examples of biotic factors

Classifications of ecosystems
1. Predator: A carnivorous animal that
Ecosystems can further be classified as
hunts, kills and eats other animals in
natural or artificial.
order to survive, or any other organism
that behaves in a similar manner. This
Natural ecosystem is made up of fresh
process is known as predation.
water, marine, estuaries, lake, rain forest,
savannah and desert.
189
2. Symbiosis: A situation in which two Abiotic factors

organisms live with and are dependent These are physical factors that affect non-
on each other, to the advantage of both. living organisms in an environment. They
are called no-living factors.
3. Competition: When a shared resource
is in short supply, organisms compete, Examples of abiotic factors
and those that are more successful  Climate (rainfall, temperature,
survive. humidity, etc)
 Salinity (measurement of the mass of
4. Epiphytism: This occurs when dissolved solids present in a given
epiphytes (plants that do not have roots amount of water)
in the soil) attach themselves to other  Altitude (the height of something above
plants for supports. Epiphytes do not sea level) slope of land etc.
take any food from their hosts, and do
not harm them.
Examples of useful biotic factors

1. Bacterial fixing nitrogen in the soil.
2. Birds acting as agents of pollination.
3. Fungi and bacteria decomposing Fig. 15.8
organic matter. A rain gauge
4. Animals acting as agents of fruits and

seeds dispersal.
5. Macro-organisms aerating the soil.
Table 4.7: Some abiotic factors and the
instruments used to measure them
Harmful biotic factors
1. Herbivores such as goats, sheep and Abiotic factor Instruments use
to measure them
cattle feeding on plants
Amount of rain fall Rain gauge
2. Carnivores (e.g. lions, tigers etc) Temperature Thermometer
feeding on other animals Wind speed Anemometer
3. Parasites living on their hosts. Wind direction Wind vane
Atmospheric pressure Barometer
Relative humidity Hydrometer
Light intensity on land Photometer
Acidity or alkalinity of a pH indicator
substance
190
one organism to the one which consumes

or eats it.
For example plants are eaten by butterflies
who are eaten by frogs who are in turn
eaten by snakes and then finally, snakes are
eaten by eagles. (see fig 16.0 below).
thermometer aneroid barometer
Fig. 16.0: A Food chain (plant, butterfly, frog, snake

wind vane
and eagle)
Components of Food Chain

Fig. 15.9: Instruments used to measure abiotic Plants use light, the energy from the sun to
factors
prepare their own food in a process known
as photosynthesis. In a food chain, plants
FOOD CHAIN are called producers.
The energy they get from the sun is passed
One feature of organisms within a given
on to the organism which feeds on the
habitat is their inter-dependence in their
plants. These organisms are known as
feeding habit. These inter-dependence or
primary consumers, they in turn pass it on
interaction is known as food chain.
to the secondary consumers, which pass it
on to the tertiary consumers.
A food chain is a string of organisms
The energy transfer ends with decomposers
within an ecosystem which are connected
which feed on dead plants and animals.
through their mode of feeding.
In each stage of the transfer, most of the
energy is lost. This is because only some
In a food chain, one organism feeds on the
parts of various organisms are eaten. For
one before it. Energy is transferred from
191
example, primary consumers eat only the Tertiary consumers: These consumers
leaves and sometimes soft stems, leaving feed on secondary consumers, and hence,
the roots and hard stems. Therefore the obtain energy from them. They are either
energy transfer between producers and carnivores or omnivores. Examples include
primary consumers is about 10% efficient. man, owl, lion, etc.
Depending on the number of organisms
present, a food chain can contain a few or
FOOD WEB
more organisms, with plants always being
the producers. A food web is a number of food chains
linked together.
In a food web, an organism could feed or

is fed on by more than one organism.
Fig. 16.1: A food chain
Terms to note
Producers
These are organisms which produce their
own food through photosynthesis. Only
green plants do that. Examples are tomato,
yam, maize, mango, etc.
Primary consumers
These are organisms which feed on the Fig. 16.1: A Food web
producers. They are mostly herbivores.
Examples include butterfly, grasshoppers, A food web can even grow to be more
goat, deer etc. complex with so many organisms. In fact,
food chains are less common in a given
Secondary consumer: habitat since there is always a competition
These organisms feed on and obtain for nutrients and energy among organisms,
energy from primary consumers. They are and most organism have similar feeding
mostly carnivores. Examples include habit.
snake, cat, shrew, etc
192
(i) Commensalism
(j) Symbiosis
2. (a) Explain the following types of

ecosystem and give one example
each:
(i) Terrestrial ecosystem
(ii) Aquatic ecosystem
(b) describe two sampling methods
used in both terrestrial and aquatic
habitats
Table 4.8: Difference between food chain and
food web 3. Differentiate between the following
ecological terms:
Food chain Food web (a) ecosystem and ecology
Contains fewer Contains many
organism organisms (b) ecosystem and ecosphere
Linear feeding Complex feeding (c) species and population
relationship relationship (d) population and community
Low rate of energy High rate of energy
transfer transfer
One chain or string Many chains 4. (a) Construct a food chain with
combined
microscopic plants as shown below.
Found in smaller Found in larger
communities communities I → II → III → IV→ V
I. microscopic plants.
II. ...................................
TEST QUESTIONS III. ...................................
IV. ...................................
1. Write a short note on the following V..............................................
terms: (b) Give three major advantages of an
(a) Ecosystem aquatic habitat.
(b) Habitat
(c) Ecosphere 5. (a) Distinguish between biotic factors
(d) Biosphere and abiotic factors and state three
(e) Community examples each.
(f) Population (b) Mention three useful and three
(g) Epiphitism harmful biotic factors.
(h) Species
193
6. Fig. 3 below is an illustration of three 7. Describe how to use the following

instruments used in ecological studies. sampling methods:
Study the figure carefully and answer (a) Wicker work trap
the questions that follow. (b) Grapnel
(c) Sweep net
(d) Rain gauge
(e) Pitfall trap
8. (a) Explain the following terms:

(i) food chain
(ii) food web
(b) State four differences between food
(a) Identify the instruments A, B and C. chain and food web.
(b) Name the parts labelled I, II, III, IV, V
and VI.
(c) State one use each of A, B and C.
(d) State one function each of the pats
labelled
(i) II;
(ii) III;
(iii)VI.
(e) Describe how A could be used for
measuring an abiotic factor in a field
trip.
194
20
ATMOSPHERE AND CLIMATE
CHANGE
The atmosphere is kept in place by a strong

Specific Objectives gravitational force that keeps the gases
 Describe the various regions of the
from escaping.
atmosphere. The most important attribute of the
 Outline the effects of human activities on the atmosphere is its life-sustaining property.
atmosphere.
 Describe the major pollutants of the Human and animal life would not be
atmosphere and their effects. possible without oxygen in the atmosphere.
 Explain greenhouse effect on the climate
In addition to providing life-sustaining
change.
 Explain the causes and effects of the properties, the various atmospheric gases
depletion of the ozone layer. can be isolated from air and used in
 Explain the causes and effects of acid rain.
industrial and scientific applications,
ranging from steelmaking to the
manufacture of semiconductors.
REGIONS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

INTRODUCTION
The atmosphere is made up of four main
The atmosphere of the Earth is composed layers. They are:
of a mixture of gases. These gases consist  Troposphere
primarily of the elements nitrogen (78 %),  Stratosphere
oxygen (21 %), argon, and smaller  Mesosphere
amounts of hydrogen, carbon dioxide,  Thermosphere
water vapour, helium, neon, krypton,
xenon, and others.
195
20 Atmosphere and Climate Change Samking
Fig. 16.2: Regions of the atmosphere
Troposphere
temperature increases rapidly with height
The Troposphere is the lowest layer of the
because of absorption of sunlight by ozone.
earth's atmosphere and site of all weather
The stratosphere is almost completely free
changes on the earth. The troposphere is
of clouds or other forms of weather.
bounded on the top by a layer of air called
the tropopause, which separates the
Mesosphere
troposphere from the stratosphere and on
The Mesosphere is found above the ozone-
the bottom by the surface of the earth. The
rich stratosphere, where air and
troposphere is wider at the equator (16 km)
temperature, again, decrease with height.
than at the poles (8 km). The temperature
The mesosphere is the coldest layer of the
of the troposphere is warmest at the
atmosphere and extends from an altitude of
tropical climatic zone and coldest at the
about 50 km to about 85 km. The
polar climatic zone.
mesosphere has no weather.
Stratosphere
Thermosphere
Stratosphere is the upper layer of the
Above the mesosphere lies the hot
atmosphere with a height of 8 to 16 km and
thermosphere, where air temperatures can
extending upward to about 50 km. In the
exceed 1000° C, primarily due to oxygen
lower portion of the stratosphere, the
absorbing the sun‘s energetic rays. Within
temperature remains nearly constant with
the thermosphere is a region called
height, but in the upper portion the
196
ionosphere, which is made up of ionized Transportation

air. The region beyond the thermosphere is Another sector which contributes to the
called the exosphere, which extends to release of greenhouse gases into the
about 9,600 km the outer limit of the atmosphere is transportation. Planes, trains,
atmosphere. buses and cars run on petrol, diesel,
kerosene and natural gas which produce
HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND THEIR greenhouse gases when they are used up.
EFFECTS ON THE ATMOSPHERE
Agriculture
The quest for growth and development has The use of agricultural chemicals such as
also resulted in the increased in the fertilizers, pesticides and weed-killers
concentration of greenhouse gases such as could destroy vegetative cover and pollute
carbon dioxide, water vapour, methane, water bodies. These gases also release
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), nitrous oxide nitric oxide into the atmosphere. Farm
and ozone in the atmosphere. animals also contribute to this ordeal by
releasing methane into the atmosphere.
Greenhouse gases are those gases that
contribute to the greenhouse effect. Human Industrial processes
activities such as electricity generation, Some of the industrial activities such as the
transportation, agriculture and industrial use and the manufacture of chemicals only
processes contribute greatly to the release result in further polluting our environment.
of greenhouse gases which results in global The machines and plants which help in
warming. production mostly run on fossil fuels, and
the result of that is not avoidable.
Electricity generation
Humans depend on electricity for many
things. Most of the electricity we get in our
homes, schools, work places, etc is
generated from plants which require coal,
oil or other fossil fuels to run. These fuels
when burnt release carbon dioxide, which
is a greenhouse into the atmosphere.
Fig. 16.3: Pollution by various sources
Other human activities such as defence, the

manufacture and use of heavy weapons,
197
land use and deforestation heighten the Since the atmosphere is made up of a
release of greenhouse gases. mixture of gases, most of its pollutants are
also gases.
MAJOR POLLUTANTS OF THE
ATMOSPHERE The table below gives some major
pollutants of the atmosphere, the sources
An atmospheric pollutant is a substance and effects.
in the atmosphere that can cause harm to
humans and the environment.
Table 4.9: Pollutants, their sources and effects

Pollutant Source Effect
Carbon monoxide  Motor-vehicle exhaust;  Headaches, dizziness in humans.
(CO)  Some industrial processes  Long exposure may lead to death
Sulphur dioxide  Heat and power generation  Makes breathing more difficult by
(SO2) facilities that use oil or coal causing the finer air tubes of the
containing sulphur; lung to constrict.
 sulphuric acid plants  Causes acid rain.
Lead  Motor-vehicle exhaust;  Damages nerve cells in humans,
(Pb)  lead smelters;  Causes learning disabilities in
 battery plants children
Nitrogen oxides  Motor-vehicle exhaust;  Causes acid rain, discomfort to
(NO2, NO, N2O)  heat and power generation; human eye, headaches destroys
 nitric acid; plants, Has a role in reducing
 explosives; stratospheric ozone.
 fertilizers
Ozone  Motor vehicle exhaust and  Destroys the ozone layer causing
(O3) industrial emissions, global warming.
 hydrocarbons, and sunlight
Chlorofluorocarbons  CFC-containing aerosols,  Damage the Earth's ozone layer,
(CFCs) refrigeration equipment and which protects the earth's surface
some foam. from harmful ultra-violet radiation.
 CFCs are also powerful
greenhouse gases which
contribute to global warming.
Carbon dioxide  Combustion of fossil fuels  Contributes to global warming
such as coal, oil and gas in
power plants, automobiles,
industrial facilities
Halons  Fire extinguishers,  Causes Throat, eye, and nasal
(Bromofluorocarbons refrigerants, propellants in irritation,
spray, pesticides  voice change,
 cough
 light-headedness
198
Examples of greenhouse gases by their

GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND contribution to the greenhouse effect are:
CLIMATE CHANGE Water vapour, 36 –70%
Carbon dioxide, 9 –26%
Life on earth depends on energy from the Methane, 4 –9%
sun. About 30 percent of the sunlight that Ozone, 3 –7%
beams toward Earth is deflected by the Greenhouse effect results in global
outer atmosphere and scattered back into warming.
space. The rest reaches the planet's surface
and is reflected upward again as a type of Global warming is the increase in the
slow-moving energy called infrared average temperature of the Earth.
radiation. The heat caused by infrared
radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases Effects of global warming
such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, 1. Desertification
ozone and methane, which slows its escape 2. Drought
from the atmosphere. 3. Melting of polar ice caps
4. Rise in sea level, which will intensify
Although greenhouse gases make up only the strength and increase the number of
about one percent of the Earth's hurricanes and other environmental
atmosphere, they regulate our climate by disasters.
trapping heat and holding it in a kind of 5. Extinction of plants and animal species.
warm-air blanket that surrounds the planet. 6. Destruction of fertile land resulting in
This phenomenon is known as greenhouse low crop yield leading to famine.
effect. Without it, scientists estimate that 7. Flood because of irregular atmospheric
the average temperature on Earth would be balance.
colder by approximately 30 degrees
Celsius, far too cold to sustain our current Remedies for global warming
ecosystem. 1. Avoid cutting trees which absorb
excess carbon dioxide in the
Greenhouse effect is a process by which atmosphere
radiated energy leaving the atmosphere is 2. Use energy efficient electronic
absorbed back into the atmosphere by appliances to reduce the amount of
some gases, called greenhouse gases. electricity used.
3. Develop the habit of walking, riding
bicycles, skating, etc over short
199
distances instead of doing so by cars or The depletion of the ozone layer would
buses. lead to increase in ultra-violet radiation
4. Use renewable source of energy such which may have serious negative effects on
as the solar energy (solar cells), wind plants and animals,
mills etc.
5. Avoid the use of inorganic fertilizers, Effects of the depletion of the ozone layer
pesticides and weed killers. 1. Skin problems such as skin cancer,
6. Proper disposal of refuse to reduce the wrinkled skin.
emission of methane into the 2. Depression of the immune system.
atmosphere. 3. Corneal cataracts (an eye disease that
often leads to blindness).
4. Massive die-off of phytoplankton and
CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF THE
which leads to increased global
DEPLETION OF THE OZONE
warming.
LAYER
The ozone layer is a region in the 5. Destruction of chlorophyll in green
stratosphere (i.e. the second layer of the leaves resulting in low no or low crop
atmosphere) that absorbs harmful ultra- yields.
violet radiation from the sun, thereby
protecting life on earth. ACID RAIN AND ITS EFFECTS
The ozone forms there by the action of Acid rain is a form of air pollution in
sunlight on oxygen. This action has been which air-borne acids produced by
taking place for many millions of years, electric utility plants and other sources
but increase in the concentration of some fall to Earth in distant regions.
greenhouse gases has resulted in the
gradual depletion or destruction of the The corrosive nature of acid rain causes
ozone layer. widespread damage to the environment.
The problem begins with the production of
Ozone layer depletion is the process sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from
whereby greenhouse gases mostly the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons natural gas, and oil, and from certain kinds
break up the chemical composition of the of manufacturing. Sulphur dioxide and
ozone layer causing holes to develop in it. nitrogen oxides react with water and other
chemicals in the air to form sulphuric acid,
nitric acid, and other pollutants. These acid
200
pollutants reach high into the atmosphere, nearly sterile, unable to support any
travel with the wind for hundreds of wildlife.
kilometres, and eventually return to the
ground by way of rain, snow, or fog, and as
invisible ―dry‖ forms.
Effects of acid rain
1. In soil
Acid rain dissolves and washes away
nutrients needed by plants. It can also
dissolve toxic substances, such as Fig. 16.4: Forest destroyed by acid rain
aluminium and mercury, which are
3. On buildings
naturally present in some soils, freeing
Acid rain and the dry deposition of
these toxins to pollute water or to
acidic particles damage buildings,
poison plants that absorb them.
statues, and other structures made of
stone. Acid rain has been the cause of
2. On plants and animals
the destruction of some famous historic
The effects of acid rain on wildlife can
sites such as pyramids of Giza in
be far-reaching. If a population of one
Egypt.
plant or animal is adversely affected by
acid rain, animals that feed on that
organism may also suffer. Ultimately,
an entire ecosystem may become
endangered. Some species that live in
water are very sensitive to acidity,
some less so. Freshwater clams and
mayfly young, for instance, begin
dying when the water pH reaches 6.0.
Frogs can generally survive more
acidic water, but if their supply of
mayflies is destroyed by acid rain, frog Fig.16.4 (a)
populations may also decline. Fish eggs
of most species stop hatching at a pH
of 5.0. Below a pH of 4.5, water is
201
iv. metal
4. Discuss the sources and the effects of

the following pollutants:
(a) Oxides of lead
(b) nitrogen and sulphur
(c) ozone
(d) halons/ freons
Fig. 16.4(b): Effect of acid rain on buildings and
stone structures 5. Differentiate between the
4. On metal troposphere and stratosphere in terms
Acid rain is very corrosive and easily of the following:
destroys metallic objects and structures. (a) temperature,
(b) air composition
(c) pressure
TEST QUESTIONS
1. Explain the following regions of the 6. Briefly describe how the following
atmosphere: human activities affect the atmosphere:
a. Troposphere (a) Transport
b. Stratosphere (b) Industrial processes;
c. Mesosphere (c) Agriculture
d. Thermosphere (d) Electricity production.
7. List four pollutants of the atmosphere,

2. (a) Explain three human activities their sources and effects.
that contribute to global
warming. 8. (a) What is the ozone layer?
(b) Mention four effect and four (b) Mention three effects of the
remedies for global warming. depletion of the ozone layer
3. (a) What is acid rain? 9. (a) What is global warming?

(b) Discuss the effects of acid rain on (b) State four effects of global
the following: warming.
i. Buildings (c) State four remedies of global
ii. Soil warming.
iii. Plant and animals
202
21
TECTONIC MOVEMENT
However, within the earth, there are four

Specific Objectives different layers. They are:
 Identify the layers of the earth.  Crust
 Describe the significance of plate tectonics.  Mantle
 Explain how plate tectonics cause earth  Outer core
tremors, earthquakes, volcanoes and
 Inner core
tsunamis.
 Give examples of recent land formations
and submerging lands.
INTRODUCTION
The individual continents and other
landmasses are said to have shifted a
couple of times from their original
positions. How, when and why did that
happen? Can it happen again? In this
chapter we shall consider the movement of
the Earth‘s surface and its effects. Fig. 16.5: Structure of the Earth
LAYERS OF THE EARTH Crust

The crust is the outer layer of the earth. It
The surface of the earth is made up of 70 is on the crust that we live. Compared to
percent water and 30 percent land. the other layers, the crust is much thinner.
203
21 Tectonic Movement Samking
The crust is made up of a solid material but of the elements iron and nickel. It is
this material is not the same everywhere. divided into two layers, the inner core and
There is an Oceanic crust and a Continental the outer core. The inner core is the centre
crust. The first one is about 6-11 km thick of earth. It is solid and about 1,250 km
and mainly consists of heavy rocks, like thick. The outer core is so hot that the
basalt. The Continental crust is thicker than metal is always molten, but the inner core
the Oceanic crust, about 30 km thick. It is pressures are so great that it cannot melt,
mainly made up of light material like even though temperatures there reach
granite. 3700ºC. The outer core is about 2,200 km
thick. Because the earth rotates, the outer
Mantle core spins around the inner core and that
The mantle begins about 40 km below the causes the earth's magnetism.
crust. It is about 2,900 km thick and makes
up nearly 80 percent of the Earth's total PLATE TECTONIC
volume. Science deals with the structure of
the mantle in two different ways. One way The earth's crust consists of a number of
is based on its chemical construction (the moving pieces or plates that are always
material), the other on the way layers colliding or pulling apart. The Lithosphere
stream or move. The mantle consists of consists of nine large plates and twelve
two main parts – the inner mantle and the smaller ones. The continents are imbedded
outer mantle. The inner mantle (also in continental plates; the oceanic plates
known as asthenosphere) can be found make up much of the sea floor. The study
between 300 km and 2,890 km below the of tectonic plates is called Plate Tectonics.
earth‘s surface. The average temperature is It helps to explain continental drift, the
3000ºC, nevertheless the rock is solid spreading of the sea floor, volcanic
because of the high pressures. The outer eruptions and how mountains are formed.
mantle (also called lithosphere) is a lot The force that causes the movement of the
thinner than the inner mantle. It can be tectonic plates may be the slow churning of
found between 10 km and 300 km below the mantle beneath them. Mantle rock is
the surface of the earth. constantly moved upwards to the surface
by the high temperatures below and then
Core sinks by cooling. This cycle takes millions
The inner part of the earth is the core. This of years.
part of the earth is about 2,900 km below
the earth's surface. The core is a dense ball
204
Fig. 16.6: The tectonic plates
Plate tectonics arose from an earlier theory plates slide past each other gently, but
proposed by German scientist Alfred others can cause a heavy pressure on the
Wegener in 1912. Looking at the shapes of rocks, so they finally crack and slide past
the continents, Wegener found that they fit each other. By this, vibrations or shock
together like a jigsaw puzzle. Using this waves are caused, which go through the
observation, along with geological ground. It is these vibrations or seismic
evidence he found on different continents, waves which cause an earthquake. The
he developed the theory of continental closer to the source of the earthquake (the
drift, which states that today‘s continents focus or hypocenter), the more damage
were once joined together into one large occurs. Earthquakes are classified
landmass. according to the depth of the focus.
Effects of Plate Tectonics Effects of earthquakes

Loss of lives: One of the evils of
Earth quakes earthquakes is the large number of people
An Earthquake is the shaking of the ground and animals which die or get injured as a
caused by sudden movements in the earth's result. Most of the earthquakes experienced
crust. The biggest earthquakes are set off have resulted in massive casualties.
by the movement of tectonic plates. Some
205
Destruction of structures: The shaking Effects of Tsunamis

of the earth causes buildings, bridges, Loss of lives: Tsunamis are known by the
masts, pylons etc to collapse. Roads huge number of deaths they cause. The
develop large, gaping cracks, thereby worst tsunami in history which occurred in
making them difficult to use. 24th December, 2004 in the Indian Ocean
claimed over 250,000 lives.
Destruction of properties: The waves of

tsunamis wash away everything in their
path. They break down building, wash
away roads, destroy towns etc.
Fig. 16.7: Effect of Earthquake
Destruction of towns and cities:

Beautiful towns and cities could turn to a
dump of collapsed buildings, dead people
and animals making them unsightly.
Fire outbreak: During earthquakes gas

Fig. 16.8: Tsunami waves
and petrol tanks are crushed, electric poles
are broken down, etc. All these can easily Volcanoes
cause fire which can easily spread. Volcanoes are mountains or hills formed
when molten rocks called magma flows
Tsunamis from the semi solid magma onto the
A tsunami is a very large sea wave that is surface of the land. A volcano consists of a
generated by a disturbance along the ocean magma chamber, pipes and vents. The
floor. This disturbance can be an magma chamber is where magma from
earthquake, a landslide, or a volcanic deep within the planet pools, while pipes
eruption. A tsunami is undetectable far out are channels that lead to surface vents,
in the ocean, but once it reaches shallow openings in the volcano's surface through
water, this fast-travelling wave grows very which lava is ejected during an eruption.
large.
206
Effects of volcanoes
TEST QUESTIONS
1. Volcanoes release heavy amount of
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. 1. Write a short note on the following
2. The flow of lava destroys everything in layers of the earth:
its path. a. Crust
3. Volcanic activities are often b. Mantle
accompanied by earthquakes, c. Outer core
landslides, hot springs, etc; all of which d. Inner core
pose hazard to humans.
2. (a) Explain plate tectonic.
(b) Discuss three effects of plate
tectonic.
3. (a) Draw and lable the structure of the

Earth.
(b) Describe the parts labelled
4. Decsribe the formation and effects of

the following:
(a) earthquake;
Fig. 16.9: An erupting volcano (b) volcano
NEW LAND FORMATIONS AND

SUBMERGING LANDS
Another effect of tectonic movement is the

formation of new land forms. Mountains,
deserts, islands etc are still created as a
result of the frequent movements of the
tectonic plates. Magma from volcanoes
also hardens to form solid rocks. The
accumulation of these can form mountains,
hills and islands.
207
22
INFECTIONS AND DISEASES
Specific Objectives CAUSES OF DISEASES

 Describe the causes of diseases. Diseases affect man, animals and plants.
 Describe the modes of transmission, The microorganisms that cause diseases are
symptoms and modes of control of common known as pathogens. There are different
diseases
types of pathogenic diseases. They are:
 bacterial diseases,
 viral diseases,
 fungal diseases,
 rickettsial diseases
 protozoan diseases etc.
INTRODUCTION
Bacterial diseases
Disease is any harmful change that Bacteria are one-celled organisms visible
interferes with the normal appearance, only through a microscope. Bacteria live
structure, or function of the body or any all around us and within us. The air is filled
of its parts. with bacteria, and they have even entered
outer space in spacecraft. Bacteria live in
Since time immemorial, disease has played the deepest parts of the ocean and deep
a role in the history of societies. It has within Earth. They are in the soil, in our
affected—and been affected by economic food, and on plants and animals. Even our
conditions, wars, and natural disasters. bodies are home to many different kinds of
Indeed, the impact of disease can be far bacteria. Our lives are closely intertwined
greater than better-known calamities. For with theirs, and the health of our planet
example, the epidemic of influenza that depends very much on their activities.
swept the globe in 1918 killed from 20 Though some bacteria live in our bodies
million to 50 million people.
208
21 Infections and Diseases Samking
and prevent some diseases, most bacteria

are the carriers of the diseases.
Some of the diseases caused by bacteria are
cholera, tuberculosis, whooping cough,
typhoid fever, diphtheria, tetanus, and
cerebrospinal meningitis.
Fig. 17.1: Structure of a virus
Fungal diseases
Fungus is any member of a diverse group
of organisms that, unlike plants and
animals, obtain food by absorbing nutrients
Fig. 17.0: A bacterial cell from an external source. Fungal diseases
are diseases caused by the growth of fungi
Viral diseases in or on the body. In most healthy people
A virus is an infectious agent found in fungal infections are mild, involving only
almost all life forms, including humans, the skin, hair, nails, or other superficial
animals, plants, fungi, and bacteria. sites, and they clear up spontaneously.
Viruses consist of genetic material—either They include ringworm and athlete's foot.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or In someone with an impaired immune
ribonucleic acid (RNA)—surrounded by a system, however, such infections, called
protective coating of protein, called a dermatophytoses, can persist for long
capsid. periods.
Viruses are not considered free-living,
since they cannot reproduce outside of a
living cell. Viruses often damage or kill the
cells that they infect, causing diseases in
infected organisms. Viral diseases are
difficult to control or cure.
Diseases caused by viruses include
measles, rabies, and poliomyelitis.
Fig. 17.2: Ring worm caused by fungus
209
Rickettial diseases Diagnosis, treatment and prevention of

Rickettsia are micro-organisms which are rickettsial diseases
intermediate in size between viruses and Diagnosis of most of the rickettsial
most bacteria. Like viruses, they can diseases facilitated by the development in
survive and multiply only inside cells. the blood of infected patients of specific
They are found in a great variety of antibodies that can be detected by serologic
mammals and cause several diseases in tests.
humans. They are generally carried by Prevention of rickettsial diseases involves
arthropods, such as fleas, lice, mites, and eradication of the arthropod carriers,
ticks. One exception infects domestic injection with antibiotics, such as the
animals such as cattle and sheep, and can tetracycline drugs and chloramphenicol.
be transmitted to humans through ingestion
of infected raw milk, or through inhalation Protozoan diseases
of airborne particles of the milk, urine, Protozoa is a collective name for animal-
faeces, or tissues of infected animals. like, single-celled organisms, some of
Numerous insect-infesting species of which may form colonies. Most species of
rickettsia cause no mammalian animal protozoa are found in aquatic habitats such
disease. as oceans, lakes, rivers, and ponds. Some
of the diseases caused by protozoa are
Symptoms of rickettsial diseases malaria, typanosomiasis and giardiasis.
The rickettsial diseases are commonly
characterized by sudden onset and cause
lethargy, high fever, headache, muscle
aches, skin rashes in most cases, and
damage to the lining of the blood vessels;
damage to tissues of the central nervous
system often follows. Rickettsial diseases
include epidemic typhus; endemic typhus;
Rocky Mountain spotted fever;
tsutsugamushi fever, or scrub typhus; and Fig. 17.3: Giardia lamblia (protozoa)
trench fever. Q fever and rickettsial pox are
also rickettsial diseases.
210
Table 5.0: Some pathogenic diseases, their mode of transmission, symptoms and methods of
prevention and control
Disease Mode of Symptoms Method of control

transmission
Bacterium diseases
Tuberculosis Droplet infection Loss of weight, Isolation of patient, antibiotics,
(Mycobacterium (airborne), continuous coughing vaccination with BCG vaccine
tuberculosis) contact over long resulting in chest pains,
periods breathlessness, fever.
Tetanus Causative Muscular spasms, Keep wounds covered with
(Clostridium tetani) bacteria in the nervous disorders, clean materials and dressed
blood stream lockjaw continuously, vaccination with
toxoid, antibodies
Cholera (Vibrio Contaminated Diarrhoea, dehydration, Personal hygiene, good
cholera) food and water severe vomiting and sanitation, antibiotics,
abdominal pains vaccination
Typhoid Contaminated High fever, diarrhoea, Personal hygiene, clean
(Salmonella typhi) food and water vomiting, abdominal drinking water, antibiotics,
pains good sanitation and
immunization
Cerebrospinal Airborne Headache, severe Vaccination, good ventilation
Meningitis (CSM) fever, convulsion in a room
Dysentery Contaminated diarrhoea Clean drinking water, general
(Shigella) food and water hygiene, antibiotics
Leprosy Droplet infection Ulcer, deformities, Antibiotics, vaccination
(Mycobacterium raised blotches on skin
leprae)
Viral diseases
Poliomyelitis Contaminated Fever, destruction of Vaccination, proper sanitation,
food and water, the nervous system, personal hygiene
inhalation paralysis
Measles Airborne and Rash, fever, sore Vaccination, isolation of patients.
droplet infection throat
Rabies Bite from infected Fever, headache, Vaccination (immediate),
animal, especially body pains paralysis immunization of dogs and cats.
dogs or cats vomiting Elimination of infected animals
211
Influenza Droplet infection, Fever, headache, Vaccination, antibodies

airborne body pains,
respiratory disorder
Fungal diseases
Ringworm (Tibea Contact with Ring-shaped sport Application of fungicidal

capitis) contaminated which increases in size ointment at the infected area.
objects with time Avoid sharing some basic
things such as comb or brush
with an infected person
Athlete’ s foot Contact with Development of Disinfection of contaminated
(Tibea pedis) infected person or blisters, cracking and objects, avoid sharing shoes
contaminated peeling of skin between with infected person.
objects such as the toes Fungicidal ointment
flip-flops, sandals,
etc.
Protozoan diseases
Malaria Bite from infected Heavy fever Using anti-malarial drugs
plasmodium female anopheles
mosquito
Trypanosomiasis Bite from infected Muscular spasm, Antibodies, vaccination
(trypanosoma) tsetse fly nervous and lymphatic
system disorder
Dysentery Contaminated Diarrhoea, profuse Antibodies, good sanitation,

(Entamoebia food and water bleeding personal hygiene
histolitica)
Giardiasis (Giardia Contact with Diarrhoea, nausea, Careful personal hygiene,

lamblia) infected person, poor appetite, fatigue, proper sanitation, proper
improper personal abdominal cramps filtration of water
hygiene,
contaminated
food and water
212
genetic, stress conditions, poor sanitation

NON-PATHOGENIC DISEASES
etc. These diseases are collectively called
Apart from pathogenic diseases, there are non-pathogenic diseases or non-infectious
other diseases which are caused by some diseases.
other factors such as poor nutrition,
Table 5.1: Some non-pathogenic diseases, their causes and possible controls
Disease Causes/type Prevention/ control
Hormonal: inability of the pancreas

to sufficient amount of insulin which Diet control (eating food which
Diabetes helps body cells to absorb glucose is low in sugar), exercise,
so it can be used as source of weight reduction
energy
Malnutrition: low-protein and high- Eating more protein and less
Kwashiorkor
starchy food (especially in children) starch
Eating food rich in calcium and
Rickets Malnutrition: lack of vitamin D phosphorus, having enough
sunlight
Malnutrition: Lack of iron or vitamin Eating food rich in iron and
Anaemia
B2 vitamin B2
Night blindness Malnutrition: Vitamin A deficiency More vitamin A in diet
Lung cancer Environmental: tobacco smoke Avoid smoking
Avoid drinking too much

Liver and brain damage Environmental: excessive drinking
alcohol
Repetitive strain injury Environmental/stress: working Take a break from time to time
(RSI) continuously from work
Genetic/hereditary: mutated genes
Sickle-cell anaemia
from parent(s)
Genetic: inherited from parents or
Birth defect develop when the baby is in its
mother’s womb or during delivery
Immunological: malfunctioning of the Avoid eating food which you
Allergy
immune system towards some food are allergic to
213
Water related diseases

MODES OF TRANSMISSION OF The causative organisms of water related
DISEASES
diseases are transmitted through water.
When a person is infected with a particular Drinking, swimming or walking in
disease, it means the pathogens of that contaminated water normally results in the
disease has entered his or her system contraction of the diseases.
interfering with the normal functioning Examples of water borne diseases include
of\the cells and other organs. Different bilharzias (schistosomiasis), cholera,
diseases have different modes through Guinea worm, poliomyelitis etc.
which they are transmitted.
Some of the modes of disease transmission Insect born or vector diseases
include: Most insects are carriers or vectors of
1. Air borne disease causing pathogens. These diseases
2. Water related are transmitted to people or farm animals
3. Insect borne (vectors) when they are bitten by those insects.
4. Food contaminated (food poisoning) Examples of insect borne diseases include
5. Nutrition related malaria (transmitted by mosquitoes),
6. Sexually transmitted trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness
7. Communicable
(transmitted by tsetse fly), river blindness
8. Zoonotic diseases
or onchocerchiasis (transmitted by black
Air borne diseases fly), etc.
These are diseases that are transmitted
through the air. The pathogens are in tiny Food contamination or poisoning
droplets that get mixed up in the Food contamination normally results from
surrounding air and are easily carried by food spoilage. Spoiled foods become a
moving air. Air born diseases easily engulf habitat for disease causing organisms.
the air and their rates of transmission are Another cause of food contamination is
high in over-crowded, low ventilated and eating with contaminated hand, spoon or
highly humid areas. fork.
Examples of airborne diseases include The diseases are transmitted to humans and
tuberculosis (TB), whooping cough, animals when they eat or feed on the
measles, influenza, chicken pox, contaminated food.
pneumonia, etc.
214
Prevention and control of food other means such as air or vectors.

contamination or poisoning Examples include rabies, avian flu (or bird
1. Washing hands with soap before eating flu), anthrax, salmonellosis, etc.
or handling food.
2. Cooking food properly before eating Sexually transmitted diseases (STIs)
3. Washing dishes properly before using STIs are diseases which are transmitted
them to cook or eat. through sexual intercourse in human and
4. Keeping food in hygienic conditions. mating in animals. The disease is passed on
5. Properly covering all food to prevent from an infected person to a healthy person
contact with flies. mostly as a result of the exchange of body
6. Disposing off expired or spoiled foods. fluid. Examples of STIs include AIDS,
7. Keeping left-over food in fridge and gonorrhoea, syphilis etc.
freezers.
8. Properly heating left-over food before LIFE-STYLES THAT MAKE
eating. PEOPLE PRONE TO HIV/AIDS
INFECTION
Nutrition related
Humans and animals need some essential Having unprotected sex with an
nutrients for their growth and survival; the infected person
lack of these nutrients in a person or HIV transmission occurs most commonly
animal results in a deficiency disease. during intimate sexual contact with an
Examples of deficiency diseases include infected person, including genital, anal,
night blindness, rickets, kwashiorkor, etc and oral sex. The virus is present in the
infected person‘s semen or vaginal fluids.
Communicable diseases During sexual intercourse, the virus gains
These are diseases which are easily access to the bloodstream of the uninfected
transmitted from one person to another. person by passing through openings in the
Communicable diseases can be contracted mucous membrane, the protective tissue
through direct contact or through other layer that lines the mouth, vagina, and
modes such as air, water, vectors etc. rectum, and through breaks in the skin of
the penis. The best policy to avoid HVI is
Zoonotic diseases to follow the ABC plan
Zoonotic diseases are diseases in animals  Abstinence;
that can be transmitted to humans. They  Be faithful;
can be transmitted through animal bites or  Condom use
215
Contact with infected blood.

Direct contact with HIV-infected blood TEST QUESTIONS
occurs when people who use heroin or 1. Describe the following pathogenic
other injected drugs share hypodermic diseases:
needles or syringes contaminated with (a) bacterial diseases
infected blood. (b) viral diseases
HIV infection also results when health (c) fungal diseases
professionals accidentally stick themselves (d) protozoan diseases
with needles containing HIV-infected (e) rickettial diseases
blood or expose an open cut to
contaminated blood. Transfusion of 2. (a) What are non-pathogenic diseases?
infected blood to a patient is another (b) Mention four non-pathogenic
disturbing case. diseases, their symptoms and
methods of control.
Mother to baby
HIV can be transmitted from an infected 3. Describe five modes of disease
mother to her baby while the baby is still in transmission.
the woman‘s uterus or, more commonly,
during childbirth. The virus can also be 4. Copy and complete the table on
transmitted through the mother‘s breast diseases below:
milk during breast-feeding. Mother-to- Diseases Causative One Control
child transmission accounts for 90 percent organism symptom method
Malaria
of all cases of AIDS in children. Mother-
to-child transmission is particularly Cholera
prevalent in Africa. Measles

Tuberculosis
Poliomyelitis
Ring worm
Rabies
Chicken pox
Avian flue
Cholera
5. (a) What are sexually transmitted

diseases?
216
(b) State and explain three life styles

that make people prone to HIV/
AIDS.

modes of disease transmission:
(a) airborne;
(b) water related;
(c) food poisoning;
(d) sexually transmitted
(a)
217
23
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
Specific Objectives ACIDS

 Define acids, bases and salts and state their Acids in food
properties. Acids can be found in many substances,
 Identify common chemical substances as acids,
bases or salts and classify them according to including food such as fruits. Citrus fruits
the sources. like orange, grape fruit and lemon contain
 Prepare salts an acid called citric acid. Acid contained in
 Describe the effect of acid – base indicators.
 Use universal indicators and the pH-scale to fruits is called ascorbic acid. Sour milk,
determine the pH of given solutions. palm oil and bees contain lactic acid,
palmolic acid and methanoic (or formic)
acid respectively.
Acids in animals and plants

Acids can also be found in animals.
Mammals, for example, have different
INTRODUCTION
acids in different parts of the body. The
Acids and bases are two classes acid found in the stomach is known as
of chemical compounds that display hydrochloric acid, which helps in the
generally opposite characteristics. They are digestion of food. Acids found in plants
so opposite that when they react with each and animals are known as organic acids.
other in a process known as neutralization These acids like many others are everyday
reaction, a completely new product with acids.
entirely different characteristics is formed.
This reaction is characteristically very Types of acids
rapid and generally produces salt and Most organic acids are also referred to as
water. weak acids because they partly dissolve or
218
22 Acids, Bases and Salts Samking
dissociate in water. They have low Lowry, a British chemist. This theory is
hydrogen concentration. usually known as Brønsted-Lowry concept.
With the Brønsted-Lowry concept, we
Weak acids are acids which dissolve or usually refer to a hydrogen ion as a proton.
dissociate in water. That is because a proton is all that is left
when a hydrogen atom loses an electron to
Apart from these there are also laboratory become an ion.
acids, which include hydrochloric acid,
sulphuric acid and nitric acid. These acids Brønsted-Lowry definition
are called inorganic acids and are Brønsted-Lowry concept states that an acid
normally obtained from mineral sources. is an acid because it provides or donates a
They are called laboratory acids because proton to something else.
they are commonly produced or used in
laboratories. An acid is a substance that donates or
transfers a proton.
Most inorganic acids are also referred to as
strong acids because they dissolve or When an acid reacts, the proton is
ionize completely in water. They have high transferred from one chemical to another.
hydrogen concentration. As will be noted later, the chemical which
accepts the proton is a base.
Strong acids are acids which do not When an acid dissolves or dissociates in
dissolve or ionize completely in water. water it gives a proton to the water.
Definition of acids HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl-

By definition, acids are chemical
substances that turn blue litmus paper red. The Brønsted-Lowry view is that the acid
Acids can also be defined as substances (HCl) gives a proton to water to make two
that react with some metals to produce ions, one of which is H3O+. H3O+ is called
hydrogen gas. hydronium ion.
Brønsted-Lowry theory about acids H2SO4 can also give a proton to water.
A more satisfactory theory was proposed in H2SO4 + H2O → H3O+ + HSO4-
1923 by the Danish chemist Johannes In this case, the product HSO4- still has a
Brønsted and independently by Thomas proton that can be donated to another water
molecule.
219
HSO4- + H2O → H3O+ + SO42 Table 5.2: Some acids and their sources
Acid Formula Source
Acetic acid HC2H3O2 Vinegar
HCl can also give a proton to a hydroxide
ion (OH-) rather than water. Citric acid H3C6H5O7 Lemon juice,
citrus fruits
HCl + OH- → H2O + Cl- Ascorbic acid H2C6H6O6 Vitamin C
Hydrochloric acid HCl Car battery
The first chemical in each of these Gastric juices
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 Batteries
equations is an acid because they are each
Acetylsalicylic HC9H7O4 Aspirin
giving a proton to something else. acid
Fig. 17.4: Sources of acids
220
Properties of Acids calcium and iron) to form hydrogen gas

Acids have a number of properties. These and a salt.
properties could be physical or chemical For example, hydrochloric acid reacts
and make acidic substances easy to with magnesium to form hydrogen gas
distinguish. and magnesium chloride salt.
Physical properties of acids 2HCl(aq) + Mg(s) → H2(g) + MgCl2(aq)

1. Acids are corrosive. Acid + metal hydrogen + salt
2. They have a sour taste.

Tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid reacts with
3. Acids have a pH less than 7.
iron to produce hydrogen gas and iron
4. Acids change litmus (a dye extracted
(II) tetraoxosulphate
from lichens) red.
5. Acids can conduct electricity.
H2SO4(aq) + Fe(S) → H2(g) + FeSO4(aq)
6. They are soluble in water.
Acid + metal = hydrogen + salt
Chemical properties of acids The magnesium and iron metals replace

1. Acids react with bases to form salt and the hydrogen atom of the hydrochloric
water. This process is called and tetraoxosulphate acids thereby
neutralisation. producing magnesium chloride and
For example, Hydrochloric acid reacts iron (II) tetraoxosulphate salts.
with sodium hydroxide to produce
sodium chloride (salt) and water. 3. Acids react with carbonates to
form carbon dioxide gas, water and a
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) salt.
Acid + Base Salt + Water
For example, hydrochloric acid reacts
with calcium trioxocarbonate to
Copper oxide reacts with
produce carbon (II) oxide, water and
tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid to produce
calcium chloride salt.
copper (ii) tetraoxosulphate (VI) (salt)
and water. 2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) → CO2(g)+H2O(l)+ CaCl2(aq)
Acid + calcium trioxocarbonate = carbon (II) oxide + water + salt
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Base + Acid = Salt + Water Trioxonitrate(V) acid reacts with
sodium hydrogentrioxocarbonate (IV)
2. Acids react with metals (the more
reactive metals such as magnesium,
221
to produce carbon(II) oxide, sodium

BASES
trioxonitrate(V) salt and water.
2HNO3 + NaHCO3 → CO3 + Na(NO3)2 + 2H2O Bases are the opposite of acids. Bases are
Acid +sodium trioxocarbonate = sodium (II) oxide + water + salt
basic because they take or accept protons.
Hydroxide ion, for example can accept a
Uses of acids
proton to form water.
1. Acids are normally used in industries,
household cleaning product, daily
OH- + H+ → H2 O
products, and soft drinks.
2. We can get acidic or sour taste from
Brønsted-Lowry theory about bases
most food items such as lemons,
Brønsted and Lowry realized that not all
vinegar, cream, yogurt, cottage cheese,
bases had to have a hydroxide ion. As long
etc.
as something can accept a proton it is a
3. A wasp sting, which is alkali, can be
base.
neutralized with a weak acid such as
So anything, hydroxide or not, that can
vinegar and lemon juice.
accept a proton is a base under the
4. Sulphuric acid is widely used in car
Brønsted-Lowry definition. The water
batteries as wet cell battery electrolyte.
molecules that accept protons when HCl
5. Phosphoric acid is normally used in
dissolves in water are acting as bases.
cola soft drinks.
Ammonia can accept or react with
6. Dilute hydrochloric acid in the stomach
hydrogen ion to give ammonium ion NH4+.
helps in digestion.
7. Industrial hydrochloric acid is used to
NH3 + H+ → NH4+
make glue and for cleaning steel.
8. Sulphuric acid is used to manufacture
Carbonate ion can accept a hydrogen ion,
fertilizers, paints and dyes, detergents,
or accept a proton, to become bicarbonate
plastics, paper and explosives.
ion.
9. Sulphuric acid is also used in refining
CO32- + H+ → HCO3-
petroleum.
10. Nitric acid is used in cleaning and
Also, water molecules, as mentioned
purifying gold and silver.
before, can act as a base by accepting
11. It is also used in manufacturing
protons.
fertilizers, drugs, paints and dyes.
H2O + H+ → H3O+
222
Hydroxide, ammonia, carbonate and water A base is any substance that accepts
are all Brønsted-Lowry bases. protons.
Be sure to note the distinction between Types of bases

ammonia and ammonium. NH3 is Bases can be organic or inorganic.
ammonia and NH4+ is ammonium. They
sound very much the same and their Organic bases: These are bases obtained
formulas are very similar, but their from natural source, such as ashes of plant,
chemical properties are far different. They cocoa pods etc. Most organic bases are
are different because one has one more weak bases.
proton than the other. Ammonia is a base
and ammonium is an acid. Inorganic bases: These are bases obtained
from mineral sources; examples are
Examples of bases calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), aluminium
Some bases are often found in household oxide (Al2O3), and milk of magnesia
cleaners, they help clean grease from (Mg(OH)2). Inorganic bases such as
windows and floors and are found in the NaOH, Ca(OH)2 etc. are strong bases.
soap we use everyday.
 Some other examples of basic Properties of bases
substances are toothpaste, egg whites, Like acids, bases also have properties
dishwashing liquids and household which are either physical or chemical.
ammonia.
 Bases like potassium hydroxide are Physical properties of bases
normally obtained when wood, cocoa 1. Bases taste bitter.
pod, plants etc are burned. 2. Bases feel soapy and slippery.
 Other bases, such sodium hydroxide 3. Bases have a pH over 7.
are produced industrially from salt. 4. They change litmus paper to blue.
5. They are very corrosive in concentrated
Alkalis or solid form.
Bases which are soluble in water are called
alkalis. Examples of alkalis are ammonium Chemical properties of bases
hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, potassium 1. Bases react with acids to form a salt
hydroxide and calcium hydroxide. and water. This process is called
neutralization reaction.
223
For example, calcium hydroxide reacts as a test for the presence of carbon
with hydrochloric acid to produce dioxide.
calcium chloride and water,
CaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → CaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Base + acid = salt + water
2. Bases react with ammonium salt to

release ammonia gas, salt and water.
For example, ammonium chloride
reacts with calcium hydroxide to
produce ammonia gas and salt.
2NH4Cl(s) + Ca(OH)2(s)→2NH3(g)+CaCl2(s) + 2H2O(l) Fig. 17.5: Common bases used at home

Ammonium + base = ammonia gas + salt + water
Uses of bases SALTS

3. Ammonium hydroxide, frequently
Many chemical compounds may be
called ammonia, is used in the
classified as salts. The salt most familiar to
preparation of important related
most people is table salt - sodium chloride
compounds such as nitric acid and
(NaCl). Baking soda is the salt sodium
ammonium chloride.
bicarbonate. Magnesium sulphate, also
4. Ammonia is also used as a cleaning
called Epsom salts, is often found in the
agent, refrigerant and for softening
home.
hard water.
5. Sodium hydroxide is used in the
Salts are ionic compounds that are
manufacture of soap, rayon, and paper.
composed of metallic ions and non-
Strong solutions of this base are very
metallic ions.
caustic; that is, they are extremely
harmful to the skin.
For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) is
6. Calcium hydroxide, commonly known
composed of metallic sodium ions and
as slaked lime, is used in the
non-metallic chloride ions. Some salts are
preparation of plaster and mortar.
composed of metallic polyatomic ions and
7. It is also used to neutralize acidic soil.
non-metallic polyatomic ions (ammonium
8. Water solutions of calcium hydroxide,
called limewater, can be used in the lab
224
nitrate is composed of ammonium ions and 3. Salt are electrically neutral. That is
nitrate ions). they have no charge.
Properties of Salts 4. Salts dissolve or dissociate in water.

Physical properties Salts consist of tightly bonded ions. In
1. Salts are soluble in water. water, these bonds are weakened and
2. Salts are usually odourless. the ions become mobile. In water, for
3. Molten salts conduct electricity. example, sodium chloride ionizes, or
dissociates like this:
1+ 1-
4. Normal salt (NaCl) is colourless. NaCl (s) →Na (aq) + Cl (aq)
However, different salts exist in
different colours. (For example, sodium 5. Salts react with water to form acids
chromate is yellow, potassium and bases in a process called
dichromate is orange, nickel chloride hydrolysis reaction.
hexahydrate is green, etc.). For example, when sodium carbonate
(Na2CO3) is dissolved in water, carbonic
5. Salts are crystalline in nature.
acid (H2CO3) and sodium hydroxide
That is they are like shards of broken
glasses. This is because the ions in a (2NaOH) are formed.
solid salt are usually arranged in a
definite crystalline structure; each Na2CO3 (aq) +2 H2O (l) →H2CO3 (aq) +2NaOH (aq)
positive ion is associated with a fixed
number of negative ions and vice versa. NB: Since acids and bases react to form
water and salt (neutralization reactions)
Chemical properties hydrolysis reactions are the reverse of
1. Salts are ionic compounds. neutralization reactions.
That is they are made up of ions rather
than molecules. In NaCl, for example, a A salt that includes water in it solid
fixed proportions of sodium ion (Na+) crystalline form is called a hydrate.
and Chlorine ion (Cl-) come together to
form the salt. Salt in the sea
The salty taste of sea water is due to the
2. They are composed of related number presence of salts such as sodium chloride
of cations (positively charged ions) and and magnesium bromide. There are many
anions (negatively charged ions). different salts present in sea water:
225
Table 5.3: Percentage of salts found in seawater Basic salts

Basic salts are form when there is a
Salt in seawater Formula Percentage
in seawater neutralization reaction between a strong
sodium chloride NaCl 2.72 % base and a weak acid. Examples are:
magnesium MgCl2 0.38%
chloride
1. Sodium hydroxide carbonate,
calcium sulphate CaSO4 0.13 % Na(OH)CO3
magnesium MgSO4 0.17 %
sulphate 2. Magnesium hydroxide chloride,
calcium carbonate CaCO3 0.01 %
Mg(OH)Cl
potassium chloride KCl 0.09 %
magnesium MgBr2 0.01 % 3. Calcium hydroxide carbonate,
bromide
Ca(OH)CO3
Types of salts 4. Lead hydroxide carbonate, Pb(OH)NO3
Based on the above properties of salts, we
can deduce four main types of salts: acidic Normal salts
salts, basic salts, normal (neutral) salts and Normal salts are formed when there is a
double salts. perfect neutralization. That is when the
strength of both the acids and bases
Acidic salts involved are the same and all the protons
This is the type of salt in which not all the are donated. Examples are:
protons or hydrogen ions are replaced or 1. Sodium chloride, NaCl
donated. Examples are: 2. Magnesium Chloride, MgCl
1. Potassium hydrogen tetraoxosulphate 3. Potassium carbonate, K2CO3
(VI), KHSO4 4. Potassium nitrate, KNO3
2. Sodium hydroxide trioxocarbonate 5. Ammonium chloride, NH4Cl
6. Sodium sulphate, Na2SO4
(IV), NaHCO3
3. Sodium dihydrogen tetraoxosulphate Double salts
(IV), NaH2PO4 These types of salts are formed when two
salts are mixed together. They are usually
4. Sodium hydrogen chloride, NaHCl
referred to as alums and generally assume
the properties of the constituent salts.
Examples are:
1. Calcium magnesium carbonate
CaMg(CO3)2
226
2. Potassium sodium tartrate and bromide Preparation of Salts

3. Calcium potassium alum, As you might have observed, all the
chemical properties of acid discussed
Ca(SO4)K2SO424H2O
above give rise to the formation of salt.
4. Aluminium potassium alum, You may have to take another look at those
AlSO4K2SO424H2O properties. This shows that there are at
least three methods of preparing salt:
Complex salts
Neutralization of acid and base
This type of salt contains two different
When an acid and base react, they
types of metal ions one of which does not
counteract each other; that is, they
dissociate or dissolve in water. Examples
neutralize each other. Such a reaction
include:
known as a neutralization reaction results
1. Potassium ferricyanide, K3Fe(CN)6
in the formation of water and a salt.
2. Potassium mercury iodide,K2HgI4
For example, when sodium hydroxide and
3. Chromium ammonium chloride,
hydrochloric acid react, water and the salt
Cr(NH3)6Cl3
sodium chloride are formed.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Table 5.4: Uses of Salts
Base + Acid = Salt + Water
Name of Formula Uses
salt
ammonium NH4Cl  in soldering; This occurs because the hydrochloric acid
chloride  as electrolyte in dry and the sodium hydroxide first ionize, and
cells
sodium NaHCO3  in baking powder; then react. The compounds ionize releasing
bicarbonate  in the manufacture hydrogen, chloride, sodium, and hydroxide
of glass ions.
sodium NaCl  for seasoning and
chloride preserving food; Since these are mobile in solution,
 essential in life hydrogen ions meet hydroxide ions and
processes unite to form water. At the same time,
calcium CaCl2  as a drying agent to
chloride absorb moisture; sodium ions and chloride ions remain as
 in freezing mixtures aqueous salt. This method of preparing salt
silver AgBr  in making is also called the titration method.
bromide photographic film
potassium KNO3  in the manufacture
nitrate of explosives;
 fertilizer production
sodium NaNO3  fertilizer production;
nitrate  source of nitric acid
227
chlorine gas, the salt magnesium chloride

is formed.
Mg + Cl2 → MgCl2
Salts produced by the above methods are

known as soluble salts.
Precipitation method
This method is used to produce salt which
is insoluble in water. A solutions of two
soluble salts which contain the ions of
insoluble salts, (example lead), are mixed
Fig. 17.6: Titration method of salt preparation together and the precipitate formed is
washed with distilled water and dried. For
Acid and metal example lead nitrate (PbNO3) and sodium
Acids react with metals (the more reactive carbonate (NaCO3), both of which are
metals such as magnesium, calcium and soluble salts, give rise to the insoluble salt
iron) to form hydrogen gas and a salt. lead carbonate.
2HCl(aq) + Mg(s) → H2(g) + MgCl2(aq) PbNO3(aq) + NaCO3(aq) → PbCO3(s) + NaCO3(aq)

Acid + metal = hydrogen + salt
Other examples of insoluble salts are
Metal oxide and acid calcium tetraoxosulphate (VI), CaSO4; lead
When a metal oxide reacts with an acid, a (II) chloride, PbCl2; silver chloride, AgCl;
salt is formed. For example, when calcium and lead (II) tetraoxsulphate (VI), PbSO4.
oxide reacts with nitric acid, the salt The precipitation method is usually
calcium nitrate is formed. referred to as the double decomposition.
That is:
CaO + 2HNO3  Ca(NO2)3 + H2O AB + YZ → AZ + BY
Metal oxide + acid = salt + water
Direct combination ACID-BASE INDICATORS

When a metal reacts with a non-metal, a
The concentration of hydrogen ion is a
salt is generally formed. For example,
measure of the acidity and the basicity or
when the metal magnesium is burned in
alkalinity of a solution. The concentration
228
of hydrogen ion may be expressed in terms

of the molarity, M of the acid or base
solution; however, it is frequently more
convenient to express the concentration as
a function of the hydrogen ion
concentration, pH (hydrogen potenz or
hydrogen power). Fig. 17.7: The pH scale
Table 5.5: Range of pH

pH is a measure of the acidity or
pH range Strength
alkalinity (basicity) of a solution. 1-2 Strong acid
3–4 moderate acid
The pH of a solution may be defined as the 5- 6 Weak acid
7 Neutral
exponent of the hydrogen ion 8-9 Weak base/ alkali
concentration. 10 – 11 Moderate base/ alkali
12 - 14 Strong base/ alkali
This definition may be stated
Universal indicators
mathematically as:
+ Indicators have been developed in order to
pH = - log [H ] assist in the determination of the pH of a
+
where [H ] is the molar hydrogen ion solution. These indicators are weak organic
concentration. acids or bases which have the property of
changing colour in solution when the
pH scale hydrogen ion concentration reaches a
pH scale is a range or scale used to definite value. An acid indicator may be
determine the acidity or alkalinity of a represented by the equation:
+ -
solution. HIn = H + In
-
The anion, In , represents a complex
The pH scale ranges from 1 to 14 only. The
organic group which has changed its
pH range from 1 to 6 is acidic. The lower
structure due to the loss of a hydrogen ion.
the value, the more acidic it is. That is, the
The loss of the hydrogen ion is
pH of 1 is more acidic than the pH of 6. pH
accompanied by a change in colour. Since
of 7 is neutral. The pH range from 8 to 14
an indicator reaction is an equilibrium
is basic or alkaline; the higher the value,
reaction, the addition of hydrogen ions
the stronger the alkalinity.
would force the above reaction to the left
and a colour indicating an acid solution
229
would result. The addition of hydroxide the pH of the solution is 10.0 or higher. If
ions would cause the reaction to go to the indigo carmine is added to a new sample of
right and a colour associated to a basic the same solution and a blue colour results,
solution would result. the pH will be narrowed to a range of 10.0
The pH ranges of some indicators are given to 11.4, since the lower limit of colour
in table 5.6 below. With this table, you can change for indigo carmine is blue. By
estimate the pH of a solution. Suppose using an additional indicator or indicators
phenolphthalein is introduced into a and a new sample of the solution, the pH of
solution and the colour of the solution the solution can be narrowed to a small
becomes red; this red colour indicates that range.
Fig. 17.8: acidity or alkalinity of food samples
230
Table 5.6: Universal indicators and their ranges iii) basic salt
Indicator pH range Colour iv) double salt
range b) Write a short note on acids and
Methyl violet 0.0 – 1.6 Yellow to bases, based on the Bronsted-
blue
Thymol blue 1.2 – 2.8 Red to yellow Lowry concept.
Methyl orange 3.2 – 4.4 Red to yellow c) State three physical and two
Congo red 3.0 – 5.0 Blue to red chemical properties each of acids
Methyl red 4.8 – 6.0 Red to yellow
Phenol red 6.6 – 8.0 Red to blue and bases.
Litmus 4.7 – 8.2 Red to blue
Cresol red 7.4 – 8.6 Yellow to red 4. (a) Write an equation for the reaction
Phenolphthalein 8.2–10.0 Colourless to
red that takes place and the products
Thymolphthalein 9.4– 10.6 Colourless to formed when:
blue i) acid reacts with base
Alizarin yellow R 10.1 – 12.0 Yellow to red
Indigo carmine 11.4 – 14.0 Blue to ii) acid reacts with metal
yellow iii) acid reacts with carbonate
iv) base reacts with ammonium salt.
Importance of pH (b) Write a short note on double
1. The pH of a solution can be used to decomposition.
describe the acidic or basic qualities of
food and beverages. 5. (a) Explain how neutralization reaction
2. It is used to check the pH of soil. occurs.
3. It is used to determine the pH of drugs (b) Write three equations to justify your
in the pharmaceutical industry. answer in (a) above.
4. It is used to ensure that soaps are (c) Tetraoxosulphate(VI) reacts with
neither acidic nor basic, hence neutral. calcium hydroxide to form calcium
5. It enables cosmetic manufacturers to tetraoxosulphate and water.
check the pH of their products. i) Write an equation for this reaction.
ii) Explain this reaction in terms of
TEST QUESTIONS proton donors and proton acceptors.
1. a) Define the following salts and state 7. a) Name two examples of each of the
one example of each and the following:
reaction that takes place in their i) Strong acid
formation. ii) Weak acid
i) normal salt iii) Strong base
ii) acidic salt
231
iv) Weak base i) calcium hydroxide solution;

(b) Name two common items at home ii) lemon juice.
which can be made from
i) Sodium chloride 9. Using the universal indicator, a
ii) Sodium hydroxide student measured the pH of water,
iii) Sulphuric acid ethanoic acid, dilute sodium hydroxide
solution, dilute hydrochloric acid and
8. a) What is pH scale? sodium bicarbonate solution and
b) Give the range of a pH scale and recorded the value on a vertical scale.
explain its significance The pH value P = P1, P2, P3, P4, P5
c) Compare the H+ ion concentration which were obtained are shown on the
of 0.1MCHOOH with 0.1M HCl. vertical scale below.
8. Study the reaction of liquid A with the

named substance in the table and
complete the inference column.
Experiment Observation Inference
i) liquid A + Litmus
red litmus remains red Liquid
is.............
liquid A + Litmus turns
blue litmus red
ii) liquid A Effervescence The gas
+ sodium of colourless is.............
trioxocarbo- gas. Gas turns
nate (IV) limewater
milky
iii) liquid A Bubbles of The gas
+ zinc colourless is ............
gas. (a) Read and record each of the pH
The gas burns values, P = P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5.
with ‗pop‘ (b) Match each of the pH values
sound. P = P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 against the
appropriate liquid. Present your
b) Name a compound which reacts in a answer in a tabular form.
similar way
(c) Give a brief reason in each case for
as liquid A.
c) State the colour of phenolphthalein in assigning each liquid a particular
pH value.
232
24
SOIL CONSERVATION
other natural processes. The organic

Specific Objectives materials are composed of debris from
 Explain the principles of soil and water plants and from the decomposition of the
conservation. many tiny life forms that inhabit the soil.
 Distinguish between macro and micro nutrients.
 State the functions of some soil nutrients and
their deficiencies symptoms. PRINCIPLES OF SOIL AND
 Describe methods of maintaining soil fertility.
 Classify fertilizers into organic and inorganic
WATER CONSERVATION
fertilizers.
 Outline factors which lead to the depletion of Soil actually constitutes a living system,
soil nutrients. combining with air, water, and sunlight to
sustain plant life.
The essential process of photosynthesis, in
which plants convert sunlight into energy,
depends on exchanges that take place
INTRODUCTION within the soil. Plants, in turn, serve as a
vital part of the food chain for living
Soil is the loose material that covers the things, including humans.
land surfaces of the Earth and supports Without soil there would be no vegetation:
the growth of plants. no crops for food, no forests, flowers, or
In general, soil is an unconsolidated or grasslands. To a great extent, life on Earth
loose combination of inorganic and depends on soil. In view of this, it is very
organic materials. essential for the soil to be conserved to
The inorganic components of soil are sustain life.
principally the products of rocks and To conserve the soil is to prevent the soil
minerals that have been gradually broken from being destroyed.
down by weather, chemical action, and
233
24 Soil Conservation Samking
Soil conservation is the act of protecting No-till farming

the soil and preventing it from When soil is prepared for farming by
destruction. ploughing it, the process is known as
tilling. No-till farming is a way of growing
The elements of destruction could be crops without disturbing it through tillage.
natural or man-made. There is a variety of The process of tilling is beneficial in
ways to conserve soil water and maintain mixing fertilizers in the soil, shaping it into
soil fertility. rows and preparing a surface for sowing.
However, the tilling activity can lead to
compaction of soil, loss of organic matter
CONSERVING SOIL MOISTURE
in soil and the death of the organisms in
To conserve the moisture or water content soil. No-till farming is a way to prevent the
in the soil thereby ensuring that plant get soil from being affected by these
ample supply for photosynthesis and other adversities.
activities, the following practices must be
undertaken. Contour ploughing
The practice of farming across the slopes
Afforestation takes into account the slope gradient and
Planting trees, shrubs etc. on a dry land are the elevation of soil across the slope. It is
a sure way to improve the moisture content the method of ploughing across the contour
of the soil. Plants prevent direct rays from lines of a slope. This method helps in
the sun on the soil, which minimizes the slowing the water runoff and prevents the
rate by which the soil loses water. Soil that soil from being washed away along the
is under a vegetation cover has hardly any slope. Contour ploughing also helps in the
chance of getting eroded as the vegetation percolation of water into the soil.
cover acts as a wind barrier as well.
Terraces
Terracing is one of the very good methods
of soil conservation. A terrace is a levelled
section of a hilly cultivated area. Owing to
its unique structure, it prevents the rapid
surface runoff of water. Terracing gives the
landmass a stepped appearance, thus
slowing the easy washing down of the soil. Fig. 17.9: Contour ploughing
234
Crop rotation of nutrients in plants is also governed to a

Some pathogens tend to build up in soil if certain extent, by the soil pH. The
the same crops are cultivated maintenance of the most suitable value of
consecutively. Continuous cultivation of pH is thus essential for the conservation
the same crop also leads to an imbalance in of the soil.
the fertility demands of the soil. To prevent
these adverse effects from taking place, Irrigation
crop rotation is practiced. It is a method of Irrigation is an artificial application of
growing a series of dissimilar crops in an water to the soil. Irrigation is most
area sequentially. Crop rotation also helps convenient during the dry season, when the
in the improvement of soil structure and soil loses most of it moisture to heat from
fertility. the sun. Watering the soil along with the
plants is a way to prevent soil erosion
caused by wind.
Soil organisms
Organisms like earthworms and others
benefiting the soil should be promoted.
Earthworms, through aeration of soil,
enhance the availability of macronutrients
in the soil. They also enhance the porosity
of the soil. The helpful organisms of the
soil promote its fertility and form an
element in the conservation of soil.
Indigenous Crops
Planting of native crops is known to be
Fig. 18.0: Example of crop rotation beneficial for soil conservation. If non-
native plants are grown, the fields should
Soil pH be bordered by indigenous crops to prevent
The contamination of soil by addition of soil erosion and achieve soil conservation.
acidic or basic pollutants and acid rains has
an adverse effect on the pH of the soil. Soil Mulching
pH is one of the determinants of the This is the act of covering the surface of
availability of nutrients in soil. The uptake the land with some protective materials to
235
retain moisture, reduce erosion, provide Soil nutrients are substances that are
nutrients, suppress weed growth and added to the soil to improve its fertility.
enhance seed germination.
Mulch may be manure, sawdust, leaves and Classification of soil nutrients
grass, cereal chaff, peat moss, straw, or The essential nutrients needed by the soil
even stones. Organic materials used for have been grouped into two – macro-
mulching, in addition to protecting the nutrients and micro-nutrients.
plants, decay in time and enrich the soil.
Natural mulch is formed by fallen leaves Macro/ major nutrients
and by decaying non-woody plant parts. Macro-nutrients, also known as major
nutrients are the nutrients needed by plants
Addition of organic matter in large quantities. Examples of macro
Organic matter in the soil sticks the loose nutrients are nitrogen (N), phosphorous
particles of the soil together, thereby (P), potassium (K). Calcium (Ca),
helping the soil maintain or improve its magnesium (Mg), and sulphur (S).
water holding ability. Complete fertilizers contain at least
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and
Cover cropping potassium (K). These are the most essential
Cover crops are special crops which are macro nutrients.
planted primarily to maintain the moisture Bags of complete fertilizers contain three
level of the soil, and by so doing making numbers, such as 5-3-3, for example. Each
the soil more fertile. number represents a percentage of N-P-K
in that bag, as measured by weight. In this
NB: The above soil and water case, a bag of 5-3-3 fertilizer contains 5%
conservation methods also help in nitrogen, 3% phosphorous and 3%
maintaining the fertility of the soil. potassium.
Each of these three nutrients plays a critical
role in plant growth and development.
SOIL NUTRIENTS
The crop products we are consuming today

meet our nutritional needs as a result of
nutrients applied to soils as fertilizer,
livestock manure, or crop residues.
236
Table 5.7: Soil nutrients, their functions and deficiency symptoms
Macro-nutrient Function Deficiency symptoms

nitrogen (N)  Important component of amino  Old leaves turn yellow
acids and proteins  Plant growth retarded; small leaves.
 Too much nitrogen leads to
overgrown plants which are highly
susceptible to diseases.
potassium (K)  Important in maintaining cell  K deficiency leads to susceptibility to
turgor, phloem transport, cell pests because cell walls are
growth and cell wall development weakened.
 Older leaves show first chlorotic,
later necrotic borders.
 Younger leaves remain small
phosphorus (P)  Provides energy (ATP)  Small plants with erect growth habit;
 Helps intransport of assimilates thin stems, slow growth.
during photosynthesis  Leaves appear dirty grey-green,
 Important functions in fruit ripening sometimes red.
calcium (Ca)  Stabilizes cell membranes and cell  Deficiency is often only visible in
walls retarded growth.
 Interacts with plant hormones
 Ca is extremely immobile and can
only be taken up through young,
unlignified roots.
magnesium (Mg)  Component of chlorophyll–  Old leaves become chlorotic from
photosynthesis is hindered when middle or between veins, rarely
deficient. necrotic. Leaves turn orange-yellow
 Binds ATP to enzymes.  Leaves drop prematurely.
 Important for protein synthesis.
sulphur (S)  Component of etheric oils, vitamin  Similar to N-deficiency but symptoms
B, vitamin H, amino acids show first on young leaves.
 has important functions in protein
synthesis
Micro-nutrients Function  Deficiency symptoms
iron (Fe)  Component of chloroplasts  Young leaves turn yellow and then,
 Part of the redox system in the white.
electron transport during
assimilation
 important for RNA synthesis.
manganese (Mn)  Important for enzyme activation,  When deficient, protein synthesis
photolysis. and carbohydrate formation are
hindered.
 Youngest leaves show chlorotic
spots, later they grow into
 Necrotic areas parallel to the
veins.
zinc (Zn)  Has enzyme activating function,  Small leaves and short internodes;
237
e.g. starch synthetase thin shoots

 Found in chloroplasts.
copper (Cu)  Found in chloroplasts. Important  Youngest leaves are chlorotic or
for carbohydrate synthesis and necrotic, fruit set is insufficient.
protein synthesis
Molybdenum  Important component of enzymes,  Old leaves develop necrotic borders,
(Mo) specifically nitrate reductase and often the symptoms are caused by
nitrogenase. secondary nitrogen deficiency.
 Essential element for all nitrogen-
fixing plants.
chlorine (Cl)  Important in maintaining cell tugor,  Deficiency symptoms occur only
increases sugar content in fruits.  In halophytes (salt-loving plants),
mainly as loss in turgor
boron (B)  Found in cell walls  Youngest leaves are deformed,
 Important for transport of thick, dark green to grayish
assimilates and cell growth  Root system development is
 If deficient, shoot tip dries. hindered.
SOIL FERTILITY
Soil fertility refers to the amount of

nutrients in the soil which is sufficient to
support plant life.
A fertile soil produces high plant yield.
Characteristics of a fertile soil

To be fertile soil needs:
1. macro-nutrients and micro-nutrients
2. organic matter
3. suitable ph value
4. good moisture
5. good aeration
6. micro and macro-organisms
7. to be well drained
Fig. 18.1: Movement of nutrients in a plant
238
Methods of maintaining soil fertility most plants do not grow well. This is the
The fertility of the soil can be maintained time to grow cover crops. Cover cropping
or improved. The following are some of involves growing special crops to protect
the measures to take in order to maintain and maintain the moisture of the land. If a
the fertility of the soil. leguminous crop is used, it fixes nitrogen
in the soil. Cover crops also serve as a
Application of organic and inorganic source of green manure.
manure/ fertilizer
Soil used for growing crops must have Green Manuring
plant nutrients and organic matter added in Some crops, also known as green-manure
order to maintain the fertility and quality of crops, are grown solely to be ploughed into
the soil. Soil which is well cared for will the soil to increase the organic-matter
continually produce good yields. If plant content of the soil. This is termed as green
nutrients and organic matter are not added manuring. Although no yield is expected of
the soil will become exhausted after a few a green-manure crop, it is supposed to
years and crop yields will drop. increase the yield of subsequent crops
planted on the same fields.
Crop rotation
This is the act of growing different types of Liming
crops on the same piece of land in Most plants are acidic, and as they grow in
succession. Crop rotation is important the soil, they add more acids to the soil.
because some plants add nutrients to the Acid rain also increases the acidity of the
soil; for example, leguminous plants add soil. Since a soil needs a suitable pH in
nitrogen to the soil. Other plants take more order to be fertile, it is advisable to reduce
nutrients from the soil. Different plants the acidic content of the soil. Calcium
have different regions in the soil from hydroxide (CaOH), also known as lime, is
which they acquire nutrients. Therefore, normally added or ploughed into the soil to
employing crop rotation ensures that a neutralise the excess acid. The practice of
particular group of plant does not suck all adding Calcium hydroxide or lime to the
the nutrients from the region where it gets soil is termed as liming.
its nutrients.
Other methods of maintaining the fertility
Cover cropping of the soil, such as mulching, irrigation,
There are some periods in a year, afforestation, terracing, etc. have been
explained above under ways of conserving
(especially during the dry season), when
soil.
239
Application of organic fertilizers

FERTILIZERS
As with any type of fertilizing product, the
Fertilizers are natural or artificial organic fertilizer is spread evenly across
substances or mixtures used to enrich soil the expanse of the yard. Often, the fertilizer
so as to promote plant growth. application process takes place before the
seeds are sown. Once the soil is properly
Plants require different chemical elements tilled and mixed with the organic fertilizer,
and these elements must be present in such the seeds are distributed and the area is
forms as to allow an adequate availability watered. The presence of the natural
for plant use. materials helps the seeds to sprout and take
root.
Classification of fertilizers
Fertilizers are generally classified as Examples of organic fertilizers
organic or inorganic. 1. Green manure
2. Farmyard manure
Organic fertilizers 3. Compost
Organic fertilizers are fertilizer compounds 4. Bone meal
that contain one or more kinds of organic 5. Fish meal
matter. The ingredients may be animal or 6. Guano
vegetable matter or a combination of both.
It is possible to purchase commercial Advantages of organic fertilizers
brands of organic rich fertilizer as well as 1. Organic fertilizers are not easily
prepare organic fertilizer at home by leached out by rain or irrigation.
building a compost heap. That is, the 2. They are relatively cheaper.
fertilizer is composed of elements that are 3. Nutrients stay in the soil for long.
produced in a completely natural manner, 4. They help the soil retain water.
without the aid of any artificially 5. They aerate compact soils and bind
manufactured components or additives. loose soils.
Organic fertilizers are also known as 6. They serve as a source of food for
organic manure. micro-organisms.
Organically prepared fertilizing agents can 7. Their application does not require an
be used to grow vegetables, raise flowers, expert to do.
produce a green lawn, etc. 8. Over use of organic fertilizers does not
harm the soil.
240
Disadvantages of organic fertilizers

1. Organic fertilizers are bulky and are
difficult to transport.
2. Nutrients take a long time to reach the
crop.
3. They normally contain weeds, disease
pathogens or unwanted seeds.
4. The exact amount of nutrients they
contain cannot be determined.
5. Large quantities are needed at a time. Fig. 18.2: Compost heap
Compost Importance of compost

Compost is organic matter that has been 1. It is used in gardens, landscaping,
decomposed and recycled as a fertilizer horticulture, and agriculture.
and soil amendment. Compost is a key 2. It is beneficial to the land in many
ingredient in organic farming. At the ways, including as a soil conditioner, a
simplest level, the process of composting fertilizer and addition of vital humus or
simply requires making a heap of wetted humic acids.
organic matter (leaves, "green" food waste) 3. In ecosystems, compost is useful for
and waiting for the materials to break down erosion control, land and stream
into humus after a period of weeks or reclamation, wetland construction and
months. as landfill cover.
The decomposition process is aided by 4. Organic ingredients intended for
shredding the plant matter, adding water composting can alternatively be used to
and ensuring proper aeration by regularly generate biogas through anaerobic
turning the mixture. Worms and fungi digestion.
further break up the material. Aerobic
bacteria manage the chemical process by Inorganic fertilizers
converting the inputs into heat, carbon Inorganic fertilizers, also known as
dioxide and ammonium. The ammonium is chemical fertilizers, are made with
further converted by bacteria into plant- different chemical compounds to suit
nourishing nitrites and nitrates through the specified uses.
process of nitrification. Chemical fertilizer usually comes in either
granular or powder form in bags and
boxes, or in liquid formulations in bottles.
241
The different types of chemical fertilizers Examples of compound fertilizer

are usually classified according to the three 1. NPK 15-15-15 (contain 15% nitrogen
principal elements, namely Nitrogen (N), N, 15% phosphorus P and 15%
Phosphorous (P) and Potassium (K), and potassium K)
may, therefore, be included in more than 2. NPK 10-26-26 (26% N, 26% P, 26%
one group. K)
Inorganic fertilizers come in two main 3. NPK 15-15-0 (15% N, 15% P, 0% P)
types: 4. Mono potassium phosphate
 single fertilizers 5. Urea ammonium phosphate
 compound fertilizers 6. Nitrophosphate
7. Ammonium phosphate sulphate nitrate
Single or straight fertilizers
They are also referred to as simple or Advantages of inorganic fertilizers
straight fertilizers and contain only one 1. Inorganic fertilizers are less bulky and
macro nutrient, such as nitrogen, N; are easier to transport.
phosphorus, P; or potassium, K. 2. They are available to the plant
relatively quickly.
Examples of straight fertilizer 3. They normally contain no weeds, no
1. Urea, ammonium nitrate, sodium disease pathogens or unwanted seeds.
nitrate (that contain nitrogen) 4. The exact amount of nutrients needed
2. Single, double or triple superphosphate, by the plant is calculated and given out.
rock phosphate (contain phosphorus) 5. Only a small quantity is needed at a
3. Potassium sulphate, murate of potash time
(contain potassium)
Disadvantages of inorganic fertilizers
Compound fertilizers 1. Inorganic fertilizer, particularly
They are also called mixed or complex nitrogen, is easily leached out by rain
fertilizers. While single fertilizers contain or irrigation.
only one macro-nutrient, compound 2. They are relatively expensive.
fertilizers have the advantage of containing 3. Nutrients do not stay in the soil for
either all or at least two of the macro- long.
nutrients in specific amounts. 4. Improper application and measurement
can destroy the crop and pollute the
land.
242
5. They can pollute surrounding water iv. Physical and chemical characteristics
bodies and alter the soil pH. of the fertilizer material to be applied.
v. Availability of moisture.
vi. Type of irrigation system used if
irrigation is the only or major source of
water.
vii. Frequency and rate of irrigation water
to be applied.
Methods of fertilizer application
Broadcasting
Broadcasting is among the simplest ways
to apply fertilizer to your plants in a
medium to large area. This process
involves distributing the fertilizer over the
Fig. 18.3: A bag of compound fertilizer top of the soil. This method can be used
with liquid or solid fertilizers and is
Fertilizer application typically done using a spreading machine
Fertilizer application is a necessary part of or by hand. Broadcasting is normally done
successfully growing many plants, before or immediately after the crops start
especially when the yield of the crop is germinating.
important for food production or flower
growth. Fertilizers add nutrients to the soil, Injection/ band placement
which are then absorbed by plant. In the band placement method, the
fertilizer is put directly into the soil in
Factors to consider when selecting order to make immediate contact with the
fertilizer application method root system.
i. Rooting characteristic of the crop to be
planted. Side dressing
ii. Crop demand for various nutrients at This involves injecting the fertilizer into
different stages of growth. the soil on one or both sides of the plants
iii. Physical and chemical characteristics which are growing in rows. This method
of the soil. minimizes nutrient loss by leaching.
243
FACTORS WHICH LEAD TO THE

DEPLETION OF SOIL
NUTRIENTS
1. Erosion
2. Overgrazing
3. Poor farming and tillage methods
4. Dumping of non- biodegradable waste
on land
5. Improper irrigation and drainage
practices
6. Surface mining and quarrying.
Fig. 18.4: Side dressing fertilizer application 7. Deforestation.
8. Excessive use of fertilizer
Foliar application
Also known as top dressing, entails Soil erosion
applying the fertilizer on the foliage Soil erosion is the washing away of the
(leaves) of the crops. Foliar application is nutrient-rich top soil from one place to
more effective with liquid fertilizers, which another.
can easily be sprayed or sprinkled onto the Though soil erosion is a natural process
growing crops. caused by agents such as wind, running
water, rain, ice or even gravity, man‘s
Ring method activities such as deforestation,
The fertilizer is placed in a small circular construction, etc. have increased it impacts
furrow made in the soil around each plant. on the environment.
The furrow is then covered with soil.
Types of soil erosion
There are two main types of soil erosion,
named after the two principal causes of soil
erosion - wind and water. Thus, wind
erosion and water erosion.
Wind erosion
In arid or dry climates, the main cause of
erosion is wind. There are two main effects
Fig. 18.5: A farmer using the ring method of wind erosion.
244
First, wind causes small particles to be Types of water erosion

lifted and therefore moved to another Splash erosion
region. This is called deflation. This is caused by the impact of raindrops
Second, these suspended particles may on soil. When rain drops splash on the soil,
impact on solid objects causing erosion by soil particles are detached and easily
abrasion. carried away from their original place.
Wind erosion generally occurs in areas
with little or no vegetation, often in areas Sheet erosion
where there is insufficient rainfall to This normally occurs down slope and
support vegetation. usually follows splash erosion. When
splash erosion occurs and the soil particles
Water erosion are loose, fast running water from rain or
The effects of water erosion are seen all river spanning a wider area wash the loose
around us. It is caused by fast running soil particles away. Sheet erosion generally
water overland or rain splashing upon the travel shorts distances and last only for a
earth. short time.
Based on the mode of erosion, water Rill erosion

erosion has been split into four main Rill erosion refers to the development of
groups. They are splash erosion, sheet small, gutter-like flow paths, caused as a
erosion, rill erosion and gulley erosion.
Fig. 18.6: Types of water erosion
245
result of streams of running water moving Causes of soil erosion

in different ways mostly parallel to each Natural causes of soil erosion include:
other. Rill eroded land can be worsened by 1. Water (especially rain)
gully erosion 2. Wind
3. Ice
Gully erosion 4. Gravity
This occurs when water flows in narrow 5. Nature of the land (soil type, slope)
channels caused by rill erosion during or
immediately after heavy rains or melting Human activities that cause soil
snow. This is particularly noticeable in the erosion
formation of hollow ways or large gutters. 1. Deforestation
Gully erosion normally distorts the 2. Overgrazing by farm animals
topography of the land, making the land 3. Sand winning
undulated. 4. Construction activities
5. Bush burning
6. Monoculture or over-cropping
7. Over-population
Effects of soil erosion

1. Loss of soil fertility
2. Deformation of land‘s topography
3. Eroded soil can pollute water bodies
4. Destruction of buildings, roads and
other structures
Fig. 18.7: Gully erosion 5. Roots of plant may be exposed causing
the plant to fall down or die
Apart from the two main types of erosion,
there are other types of soil erosion such as Ways to control soil erosion
 Ice erosion 1. Terracing
 Shoreline erosion 2. Mulching
 Gravity erosion 3. Crop rotation
 Water bank erosion 4. Addition of organic fertilizers to the
soil
5. Contour ploughing
6. Avoidance of bush fires
246
7. Afforestation c) State three advantages and three

8. Proper drainage system disadvantages each of organic and
inorganic fertilizers,
TEST QUESTIONS 6 a) Write on three methods of applying

fertilizers.
1. a) Define soil. b) Mention four factors to consider
b) Explain the concept of soil when selecting a fertilizer
conservation. application method.
c) Outline five activities that farmers c) Enumerate five factors that lead to
can undertake to enhance soil the depletion of soil nutrients.
productivity.
7. a) What is soil erosion?
2 a) Write a short note on four methods b) State six causes of soil erosion.
by which soil can be conserved. c) Explain the four types of water
b) Outline four ways by which soil erosion.
moisture can be conserved. 8 a) Mention four effects of soil
c) Outline four methods of erosion.
maintaining soil productivity. b) Itemize five ways of controlling
soil erosion.
3 Copy and complete the table below
Nutrient Function Deficiency 8. a) What is soil fertility?
symptom b) Mention five characteristics of a
Nitrogen fertile soil.
Potassium c) State four ways by which soil loses
Phosphorus its fertility.
Iron d) Enumerate four ways by which the
Manganese fertility of the soil can be
Boron maintained.
4 a) What are soil nutrients? 9. a) What are macronutrients?

b) Distinguish between macro and b) A farmer bought a bag of compound
micro nutrients. fertilizer labelled NPK 20–0-20.
c) List four macro and four micro Describe the nature of the fertilizer
nutrients, their functions and in the bag.
symptoms of their deficiency.
10. Describe four methods that a crop
5 a) What are fertilizers? farmer can adopt to improve the
b) Write a short note on the two fertility of his land.
classes of fertilizers.
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25
WATER
Sources of water
Specific Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to: Water can be obtained from:
 Describe the physical and chemical properties 1. The sea
of water. 2. Lakes
 Distinguish between hard and soft water.
 Demonstrate how to soften hard water. 3. Rivers
 Describe the steps involved in the treatment of 4. Lagoons
water for public consumption.
5. Rain
6. Wells
7. Pipe-borne/ taps
PROPERTIES OF WATER
INTRODUCTION
Physical properties
1. Water is colourless, tasteless,
Water is the commonest compounds
odourless.
everyone might have come across,
2. It boils at 100oC and freezes at 0oC.
covering about 70% of the earth. If you
3. It is neutral, hence has a pH of 7.
have seen, tasted, felt or smelled water
4. It has a maximum density of 1gcm-1 at
before, you may easily describe water as
4oC.
being colourless, tasteless, or odourless.
5. It expands when heated from -4oC and
Technically, water is a compound of two
0oC and contracts when melted from
atoms of hydrogen and an atom of oxygen;
0oC to 4oC. This is the reason why ice
expressed as H2O.
floats on water; ice has lower relative
density.
6. Water has a high specific heat.
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25 Water Samking
7. It conducts heat more easily than any Determining the boiling point of water
liquid except mercury. This fact causes  Pour water into a clamped boiling
large bodies of water, like lakes and tube.
oceans, to have essentially a uniform  Put a thermometer in the water.
vertical temperature profile.  Record the reading on the
thermometer.
8. Its molecules exist in liquid form over
 Heat the setup for two minutes and
an important range of temperature from
note how the reading on the
0oC - 100°C. This range allows water
thermometer rises as the water heats
molecules to exist as a liquid in most
up.
places on our planet.
 Note the temperature reading when
9. It is a universal solvent. It is able to the water begins to boil.
dissolve a large number of different
chemical compounds. This feature also Observation
enables water to carry solvent nutrients It would be observed that when the water
in runoff, infiltration, groundwater flow starts to boil the temperature reading will
and living organisms. be 100oC and remain so no matter how
long the water boils. This shows that the
10. Water has a high surface tension. In boiling point of water of water is 100oC.
other words, water is adhesive and
elastic, and tends to aggregate in drops
rather than spread out over a surface as
a thin film. This phenomenon also
causes water to stick to the sides of
vertical structures despite gravity's
downward pull. Water's high surface
tension allows for the formation of
water droplets and waves, allows plants
to move water (and dissolved nutrients)
from their roots to their leaves, and the
movement of blood through tiny
vessels in the bodies of some animals.
Fig. 18.8
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25 Water Samking
Chemical properties of water Testing whether a liquid is water

1. Water reacts with metallic oxides to  Add a drop of the liquid to white
form alkaline solutions and hydrogen anhydrous copper sulphate.
gas. For example:  The spot where the water droplet fell
CaO + 2H2O → 2CaOH + H2 turns blue immediately.
 This shows that the liquid is or contain
2. Water reacts with non-metallic oxides
water.
to form acidic solutions. For example:
H2O + SO2 → H2SO3
3. Water reacts with metals to form metal

oxides and give off hydrogen gas. For
example:
2H2O + 2K → 2KHO + H2
4. Anhydrous white copper (II) Fig. 18.9

tetraoxsulphate (VI) reacts with water
to form blue pentahydrate salt. Testing for water in a solid
 Put a sample of anhydrous copper
CuSO4+ 5H2O → CuSO4.5H2O
sulphate on the solid.
 The area turns blue.
5. Dry blue cobalt (II) chloride reacts with
 This shows that the solid contains
water to form red or pink hexahydrate
salt. water.
CoCl2 + 6H2O → CoCl2.6H2O
Test for water

Not all liquids are or contain water; and a
solid substance may contain water which is
not observable with the naked eye. A Test
for water must be used to identify water.
Fig. 19.0
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25 Water Samking
Temporal hard water

HARDNESS AND SOFTNESS OF This is the type of hardness caused by the
WATER
presence of dissolved calcium hydrogen
How does water become hard or soft? You carbonate, (Ca(HCO3)2 in the water.
might ask. Well, since water is such a good This occurs when rainwater, which
solvent, during its journey from its source contains dissolved atmospheric carbon (II)
it dissolves and picks up some compound oxide, comes in contact with limestone,
such as calcium, magnesium or iron calcium carbonate, CaCO3, as it runs
compounds and other impurities. These through rocks or soil which contains the
compound and impurities affect the compound (CaCO3). This reaction can be
properties of water and may make it be expressed as:
hard. CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca(HCO3)2
Hard water Removal of temporary hardness

Water is said to be hard if it does not
lather easily with soap. By boiling or heating
When temporary hard water is heated, the
Such water usually contains magnesium, reaction that causes it is reversed. That is
Mg+, calcium, Ca+ or iron (III), Fe+ ions. calcium hydrogen carbonate, Ca(HCO3),
Hard water does not lather because the ions reverses to form a white solid insoluble
react with the soap to form an insoluble calcium trioxocarbonate (IV), CaCO3,
scum. carbon dioxide, CO2 and water, H2O. The
reaction is given as:
Soft water
Soft water is the water which lathers Ca(HCO3) → CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
readily with soap.
By adding calcium hydroxide
Since soft water does not contain dissolved A calculated amount of lime, calcium
ions which interfere with the action of hydroxide, can be added to temporary hard
soap, it lathers easily with soap. water to cause calcium carbonate to float
on the water, which can be filtered off
Types of hard water easily. The equation is given as;
There are two types of hard water, namely:
 Temporal hard water Ca(OH)2 + Ca(HCO3)2 → 2CaCO3 + 2H2O
 Permanent hard water
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25 Water Samking
Permanent hard water 2. Addition of washing soda, Na2CO3

Permanent hardness is caused by dissolved Sodium carbonate removes soluble calcium
calcium, Ca+, magnesium mg+ or iron Fe+ and magnesium ions as insoluble calcium
ions. The above ions are contained in salts or magnesium carbonate (CaCO3 or
such as CaSO4, MgSO4 or FeSO4, which MgCO3) that float on the surface of the
are contained in rocks. When runoff water water and can easily be filtered off. The
comes into contact with these salts, the reaction is given as:
ions dissolve and flow into water sources. Na2CO3 + Ca2+ → CaCO3 + 2Na+
Permanent hardness cannot be removed by
boiling, but by chemical means. 3. Addition of caustic soda, NaOH
NaOH removes soluble calcium and
magnesium ions as insoluble hydroxides.
The equation is given as:
2NaOH + Ca2+ → Ca(OH)2 + 2Na+
4. De-ionization or ion exchange

This is the use of a special device known as
ion exchanger to remove the ions, e.g.
Ca2+, Mg+, responsible for hardness by
exchanging them for other ions that do not
Fig. 19.1: Scale formed by hard water on heating cause hardness such as sodium, Na+ ion.
element of kettle
Removing or softening permanent

hardness in water
1. Distillation
When water is boiled, it vaporizes. The
vapour can then be condensed or cooled
back into pure water in another container,
leaving the ions that cause hardness in the
original container.
Fig. 19.2: Ion exchange process
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25 Water Samking
Testing for hardness in water Table 6.0: Advantages of hard water over soft
 Fill a beaker with sample of water from water
Hard water Soft water
a river.
advantages disadvantages
 Add some drops of liquid soap to the
It has a pleasant taste Does not taste so
water and stir or shake it. good
 Check whether the water lathers. Dissolved calcium ion Does not build strong
 Boil the solution and add and a few helps build strong bones and teeth
drops of liquid soap to it. bones and teeth
 Compare the lathering ability of the Does not dissolve Dissolves lead in
water before and after boiling. lead in pipes to cause pipes and can cause
 Check the beaker for scum (white lead poisoning lead poisoning
powdery substance). Calcium ion helps in Does not help in
blood clotting blood clotting
Reduces risk of heart Increases risk f heart
Observation
diseases diseases
If the water lathers more after heating Calcium and Does not contain
then it means its hardness is temporary. If magnesium ions are essential plant
the water forms scum in the beaker and essential plant nutrients
nutrients
does not lather, then its hardness is
permanent.
TREATMENT OF WATER FOR
A control experiment can be setup with a PUBLIC CONSUMPTION
sample of distilled water.
Pure water is not found in nature.
ADVANTAGES AND Chemicals, bacteria, and suspended
DISADVANTAGES OF HARD AND sediment particles enter the water through
SOFT WATER exposure to air and runoff. Before
arriving at your tap, raw water is treated to
Table 5.9: Advantages of soft water over hard
water eliminate the presence of harmful bacteria
Soft water Hard water and unpleasant coloration, taste, and odour.
advantages disadvantages
It lathers easily with Does not lather with
soap (saves soap) soap (wastes soap) The Stages in large-scale water
Does not form scale Forms scale in taps, treatment
in taps, kettles, etc. kettles, boilers etc.
Suitable for dyeing Not suitable for dyeing
and tanning and tanning (prevents 1. Preliminary Treatment
chemicals from reacting Preliminary treatment or pre-treatment is
efficiently
any physical, chemical or mechanical
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25 Water Samking
process used on water before it undergoes Sludge, a residue of solids and water,
the main treatment process. During accumulates at the basin's bottom and is
preliminary treatment: pumped or scraped out for eventual
 screens may be used to remove rocks, disposal. Clarification is sometimes called
sticks, leaves and other debris; sedimentation.
 chemicals may be added to control the
growth of algae; 5. Softening and Stabilization
 pre-sedimentation stage can settle out When water is too hard (i.e. contains too
sand, grit and gravel from raw water. much calcium, magnesium or other
minerals), it forms scale and causes a
2. Coagulation variety of problems in pipes. Hard water
After preliminary treatment, the next step can also result in laundering and washing
is coagulation. Coagulation removes problems, because it reduces the
small particles that are made up of effectiveness of soaps and detergents.
microbes, silt and other suspended Conversely, when too many of these
materials in the water. Treatment minerals are removed, water can become
chemicals such as alum are added to the too soft. Soft water can cause corrosion in
water and mixed rapidly in a large basin. pipes.
The chemicals cause small particles to Drinking water plants attempt to maintain a
clump together (coagulate). Gentle mixing desirable balance between hardness and
brings smaller clumps of particles together softness. This is accomplished by adding
to form larger groups called floc. Some of minerals to soft water and removing them
the floc begins to settle during this stage. from hard water.
3. Flocculation 6. Filtration
During the flocculation stage, the heavy, Turbidity is a physical characteristic that
dense floc settles to the bottom of the water makes water appear cloudy when
in large tanks. As you can imagine, this can suspended matter is present. The filtration
be a slow process. Once the floc settles, the process removes suspended matter, which
water is ready for the next stage of can consist of floc, microorganisms
treatment. (including protozoan cysts such as Giardia
and Cyrptosporidium), algae, silt, iron, and
4. Clarification/ sedimentation manganese precipitates from ground-water
Clarification occurs in a large basin where sources, as well as precipitants which
water is again allowed to flow very slowly. remain after the softening process.
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25 Water Samking
These suspended materials are filtered out used because it is economical and rapid. It
when water passes through beds of is important to add the right amount of
granular material, usually composed of chlorine at the water treatment plant to
layers of sand, gravel, coal, garnet, or make sure disinfection continues while the
related substances. water is flowing through the distribution
system.
7. Chlorination & Disinfection
Chlorine is fed into the water system as 8. Storage
either a dry powder or in solution. During Finished water (the term water treatment
disinfection, disease-causing organisms are professionals use) is stored in holding
destroyed or disabled. Chlorine is normally tanks. The tanks provide a water reserve to
Fig. 19.3: Treatment of water for public consumption
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25 Water Samking
meet the changing water demands of the the cost involved if it is done on a large
communities they serve. scale to serve a town or community.
Summary large scale water treatment 2. Filtration

Suspended particles on the surface of the
Pretreatment
water can be filtered off with a water filter
or fine mesh. Filtration can be done before
Coagulation
or after boiling, and can be done a couple
of time to ensure that the water is free of
Floculation
all suspended particles.
Sedimentation
3. Sedimentation
Water which contains sediments or
Softenng
suspending particles can also be allowed to
stand for some time in order to allow all
Filteration the particles to settle at the bottom.
Disinfection 4. Distillation
Another efficient way of purifying water is
Storage distillation. Here, water is boiled, and the
vapour is condensed into another container
Fig. 19.4: Summary of public water treatment
leaving the impurities in the original
procedure
container.
Small-scale water treatment
In our homes, school etc, we can still treat
impure water for our own consumption.
The following are some methods of
purifying water on a small scale:
1. Boiling
Raw water can be boiled to kill bacteria
and other microbe in it. Boiling is a very
effective water treatment method, but can
only be done on a small scale because of
Fig. 19.5: Distillation process
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25 Water Samking
Importance or uses of water Agricultural use -- Water is used for

irrigation, spreading fertilizers, herbicides,
Domestic use – At home, school, etc. and pesticides, etc.
water is used for drinking, washing,
bathing, flushing toilet etc. Industrial use – Water is used for
cooling heavy duty machines and washing
Energy production –- Hydroelectric equipments. It is an important element in
plants capture the kinetic energy of falling many products like chemicals, drugs,
water to make electricity. This is done with lotions, shampoos, cosmetics, cleaners and
a dam. The dam forces the water level to beverages. Water is used in processing
go up so that the water will have more food and in innumerable factories and
power when falling. The force of the industrial processes including the
falling water pressing against turbines' manufacturing of paper.
blades causes them to spin. The spinning
turbines transmit the kinetic energy of the
falling water to generators. The generators TEST QUESTIONS
spin when the turbines spin generating
electricity that will be transmitted on the 2. a) What is the chemical formula for
power lines to homes, schools and water?
businesses. b) Mention five sources of water.
c) List three physical and three
chemical properties of water.
3. a) Write a short note on the following:

i) hard water
ii) soft water
b) Explain three methods for softening
permanent hard water.
c) How can boiling remove temporary
Fig. 19.6: A hydroelectric power dam hardness in water?
Plants and animals – Plants and animals 4. a) Give three advantages and three
cannot exist without water. Plants need disadvantages each of hard and soft
water to prepare their food which animals water.
depend on. b) What are the causes of permanent
257
25 Water Samking
and temporary hardness in water. 6. Explain how the following methods

c) Differentiate between hard water help in water treatment:
and soft water. (a) coagulation
(b) flocculation
5. a) Mention four pollutants of water. (c) sedimentation
b) Outline the steps involved in the (d) filtration
treatment of water for public (e) disinfection
consumption.
c) explain four ways in which water is
useful.
5. a) Perennial water shortage and

frequent disruptions in water supply
in most communities in Ghana can
be traced to erosion of human
values. Discuss.
b) Outline the role of Ghana Water
Company in the control of water
supplies in cities, towns and
villages.
258
26
WATER MOVEMENT
Tides vary on timescales ranging from

Specific Objectives hours to years due to numerous influences.
 Explain the causes of high and low tide.
 Outline the effects of tidal waves. Tidal phenomena are not limited to the
oceans, but can occur in other systems,
such as lakes whenever a gravitational field
(that varies in time and space) is present.
INTRODUCTION - TIDES
Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels

caused by the combined effects of the
gravitational forces exerted by the Moon
and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth.
Most places in the ocean usually Fig. 19.7: High and low tides
experience two high tides and two low
tides each day (semidiurnal tide), but some
CAUSES OF TIDES
locations experience only one high and one
low tide each day (diurnal tide). As the moon revolves around the earth, it
exerts a gravitational pull on the earth. The
The times and amplitude of the tides at the moon's gravitational force pulls on water
coast are influenced by the alignment of in the oceans so that there are bulges in the
the Sun and Moon, by the pattern of tides ocean on both sides of the planet. The
in the deep ocean and by the shape of the moon pulls water toward it, and this causes
coastline and near-shore bathymetry. the bulge toward the moon. The bulge on
259
24 Water Movement Samking
the side of the Earth opposite the moon is 12 hours and 25 minutes. The sea level
caused by the moon pulling the Earth rises and falls over several times.
away from the water on that side.
Flood tide or incoming tide is formed
High and low tides when the water rises up the beach. When
High tide occurs when the level of the sea the level falls, ebb tide is formed.
rises to the maximum.
If you are on the coast and the moon is Spring tides
directly overhead, you should experience a Spring tides are especially strong tides.
high tide. They occur when the Earth, the Sun, and
the Moon are in line. The gravitational
Low tide forces of the Moon and the Sun both
Low tide occurs when the sea drops to the contribute to the tides. Spring tides occur
lowest level. during the full moon and the new moon.
If the moon is directly overhead on the
opposite side of the planet, you should Neap tides
experience a low tide. Because tidal Neap tides are especially weak tides. They
currents cease it is also called slack tide. occur when the gravitational forces of the
Moon and the Sun are perpendicular to one
another (with respect to the Earth). Neap
tides occur during quarter moons.
Fig. 19.8: Low and high tides
During the day, the Earth rotates 180

degrees in 12 hours. The moon,
meanwhile, rotates 6 degrees around the
earth in 12 hours. The twin bulges and the
moon's rotation mean that any given Fig. 19.9: Spring and neep tides
coastal city experiences a high tide every
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24 Water Movement Samking
EFFECTS OF TIDAL WAVES TEST QUESTIONS
Tidal waves, also known as tsunami, can 1. a) What are tides?

be generated by an undersea earthquake, an b) Explain how tides occur.
undersea landslide, the eruption of an c) With the aid of a suitable diagram,
undersea volcano, or by the force of an explain the differences between
asteroid crashing into the ocean. spring and neap tides.
Tidal waves are known for the damage
they cause when they hit. Some effects of 2. a) What are the causes of tidal
tidal waves are: waves?
i) Loss of lives b) State three effects of tidal waves
ii) Damage to coastline c) Mention three effects of tidal waves
iii) Destruction of properties on Elmina.
iv) Pollution of water and land
3. a) Differentiate between high tide and
In Ghana, the effects of tidal waves are flood tide.
immense on coastal area such as Keta, b) What is the difference between low
Ada, Elmina, etc. tide and neap tide?
c) Describe how the moon and the
Effects of tidal waves in Ghana sun bring about low and high tides.
1. Tidal waves have eroded the coastline
and damaged most buildings and other
structures.
2. They have made the soil infertile by
depositing infertile soil and chemicals
on fertile land.
3. They have washed away most road
networks closed to the sea.
4. They have made coastal areas
inhabitable.
5. Tidal waves have destroyed the
livelihood of people, especially
fishermen who rely on the sea for their
source of food and income.
261
27
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
ice caps and glaciers. It evaporates from

the earth‘s surface, condenses in clouds,
Specific Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to: falls back to the earth as precipitation (rain,
 Explain the distribution of the earth’s water. sleet or snow), and eventually either runs
 Explain the relevance of the hydrological cycle into the seas or re-evaporates into the
to plants and animals.
 Outline the main causes of water contamination atmosphere.
and the effects on humans.
 Describe household water conservation
methods. Almost all the water on the earth has
passed through the water cycle countless
times. Very little water has been created or
lost over the past millions of years.
DISTRIBUTION OF THE
INTRODUCTION
EARTH’S WATER
Hydrologic Cycle (or water cycle), is a Water is the most widespread substance to
series of movements of water above, on, be found in the natural environment and it
and below the surface of the earth. is the source of all life on earth; it covers
70% of the earth‘s surface.
The water cycle consists of four distinct
stages:
 storage
 evaporation
 precipitation
 runoff
Water may be stored temporarily in the

ground; in oceans, lakes, and rivers; and in Fig. 20.0: Water covers 70% of Earth’s surface
262
25 Hydrological Cycle Samking
Water exists in three states: liquid, solid The greatest portion of the fresh water
and gas (vapour). It forms the oceans, seas, (68.7%) is in the form of ice and
lakes, rivers and the underground waters permanent snow cover in the Antarctic, the
found in the top layers of the earth‘s crust Arctic and in the mountainous regions.
and soil cover. In a solid state, it exists as 29.9% exists as fresh ground waters. Only
ice and snow cover in polar and alpine 0.26% of the total amount of fresh water on
regions. A certain amount of water is the earth is concentrated in lakes,
contained in the air as water vapour, water reservoirs and river system, where it is
droplets and ice crystals, as well as in the most easily accessible for our economic
biosphere. Huge amounts of water are needs and vital for water ecosystems.
bound up in the composition of the
different minerals of the earth‘s crust and RELEVANCE OF
core. HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
Current estimates are that the earth‘s i. Hydrological cycle helps regulate the
hydrosphere contains a huge amount of temperatures of animals through
water - about 1386 million cubic perspiration and evaporation.
kilometres. However, 97.5% of this ii. Through transpiration, plants lose
amount exists as saline (salty) waters and excess water to the atmosphere
only 2.5% as fresh water. thereby regulating their temperature.
Fig. 20.1: Hydrological cycle
263
iii. Without hydrological cycle, the total water supplies, leading to water
amount of water on the earth might be pollution.
used up. This means animals and
plants that depend on water would  Domestic waste
also be no more, and life on earth Another cause of contamination of
would cease. water is the improper disposal of
iv. Evaporation and precipitation cool the human and animal wastes as well as
earth‘s atmosphere preventing it from other pollutants from household wastes.
overheating.
 Agricultural waste
SOURCES OF WATER The residue of agricultural practices,
CONTAMINATION including fertilizers and pesticides, are
some of the major sources of water
Water contamination occurs when harmful pollution.
substances are discharged directly or
indirectly into water bodies without  Mining waste
adequate treatment to remove harmful Chemicals used in the mining
compounds. industries are allowed to drain to
Water pollution affects plants and nearby water bodies polluting it. Some
organisms living in these bodies of water small scale miners even wash their
and in almost all cases the effect is minerals in rivers and streams with
damaging not only to individual species chemicals.
and populations but also to the natural
biological communities.  Radioactive waste
Radioactive wastes are often
Some sources of water contamination discharged into the ocean and other
 Industrial waste water body. These wastes have serious
Dumping of industrial wastes effects on plants and animals if not
containing heavy metals, harmful properly disposed of.
chemicals, by-products, organic toxins
and oils, into nearby source of water is  Special waste
one of the visible causes of water Some other wastes such as wastes from
pollution. Effluents from factories, hospitals and clinics are some of the
refineries, injection wells and sewage major contaminants found in water
treatment plants are dumped into urban bodies. Proper disposal of these wastes
264
would save people from going to cholera and diarrhoea are often linked
hospitals and clinics in the first place. to the harmful effects of water
pollution.
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF
7. Carcinogenic pollutants found in
WATER POLLUTION
polluted water might cause cancer.
1. A number of waterborne diseases are
produced by the pathogens present in 8. Alteration in the chromosomal makeup
polluted water, inffecting humans and of the future generation is foreseen as a
animals alike. result of water pollution.
2. Pollution affects the chemistry of 9. Discharges from power stations reduce

water. The pollutants, including toxic the availability of oxygen in the water
chemicals, can alter the acidity, body in which they are dumped.
conductivity and temperature of water.
10. The flora and fauna (plants and
3. Polluted municipal water supplies are animals) of rivers, sea and oceans are
found to pose a threat to the health of adversely affected by water pollution.
people using them.
WATER CONSERVATION
4. The concentration of bacteria and
METHODS
viruses in polluted water causes
increase in solids suspended in the It is very vital to save or conserve water.
water body which in turn leads to Some water conservation methods include:
health problems.
1. Wash fruits and vegetables in a pan of
5. Marine life becomes deteriorated due to water instead of running water from the
water pollution. Killing of fish and tap.
aquatic plants in rivers, oceans and seas 2. Use a broom or brush instead of a hose
is an after effect of water to clean driveway and sidewalk and
contamination. save water every time.
3. When washing dishes by hand, do not
6. Diseases affecting the heart, poor let the water run while rinsing. Fill one
circulation of blood and the nervous sink with wash water and the other with
system and ailments like skin lesion, rinse water.
265
4. Shorten your shower by a minute or Rainwater harvesting

two and you'll save up to 150 gallons Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation
per month. and storing, of rainwater.
5. Try keeping a pitcher or bottle of water
in the refrigerator for cool drinking It has been used to provide drinking water,
water. Running tap water to cool it off water for livestock, water for irrigation or
for drinking water is wasteful. to refill aquifers in a process called
6. If you do not drink all of the water in groundwater recharge. Rainwater
your glass rather than dumping the rest collected from the roofs of houses, tents
down the drain use it to water a plant or and local institutions can make an
something useful. important contribution to the availability of
7. Repair leaks in pipes. Often taps and drinking water.
pipes can have leaks and they are not
even noticed. Even the smallest leak Water collected from the ground,
can waste up to 20 gallons of water a sometimes from areas which are especially
day. Leaks wastewater 24 hours a day, prepared for this purpose, is called Storm
seven days a week, and can often be water harvesting. In some cases rainwater
repaired with only an inexpensive may be the only available or economical,
washer. water source.
8. Put a little food colouring into your
toilet tank. If the colour begins to Rainwater harvesting systems can be
appear in the bowl, without flushing, simple to construct from inexpensive local
you have a leak that should be repaired materials, and are potentially successful in
as soon as possible. most habitable locations. Roof rainwater
9. Every time you flush a facial tissue or can be of good quality and may not require
other small bit of trash, you waste five treatment before consumption. Although
to seven gallons of water. Therefore put some rooftop materials may produce
waste in bins instead of toilet. rainwater that is harmful to human health,
10. Turn off the water while brushing your it can be useful in flushing toilets, washing
teeth. There is no need to keep water clothes, watering the garden and washing
pouring down the drain. Just wet your cars. These uses alone reduce the amount
brush and turn off the tap. You can turn of treated water used by a typical home.
the water back on when you are ready
to rinse.
266
TEST QUESTIONS
1. a) Explain the term hydrological

cycle.
b) How is the Earth‘s water
distributed?
c) State four importance of
hydrological cycle to living things.
2. a) Explain four sources of water

contamination.
b) State five harmful effects of water
contamination.
c) Mention five water conservation
methods.
3. a) Write a short note on rainwater
Fig. 20.2: Rainwater harvesting harvesting.
b) Discuss the importance of rainwater
harvesting.
c) Describe how you will construct a
simple rainwater harvesting system.
267
28
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FARM
ANIMAL PRODUCTION
Importance or benefits of animal

Specific Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to: husbandry
 Outline the main activities involved in the 1. Food (e.g. meat, milk, egg)
production cycle of farm animals. 2. Income for farmers
 Describe ruminant production.
 Describe non-ruminant production. 3. Employment
4. Clothing from skin, wool and hide
5. Transportation (e.g. horse and donkey)
6. Labour (e.g. cattle for ploughing)
7. Recreation or entertainment (e.g. horse
race)
INTRODUCTION
Farm animals are domestic animals
MAIN ACTIVITIES INVOLVED IN
raised on the farm mostly for economic
FARM ANIMAL PRODUCTION
purposes.
 Selection of suitable breeds
Farm animal production involves the  Choice of management system
breeding, feeding, and management of  Breeding systems and care of the
animals, or livestock, for the production of young
food, fibre, work, and pleasure. Farm  Feeding
animals raised on the farm include  Finishing, processing and marketing
ruminants (e.g. cattle, goat, sheep, etc.) and produce.
non- ruminants (e.g. chicken, ducks,
guinea, rabbit, pig etc.). Animals which
may also be raised on the farm are fish,
snails, grass cutters etc.
268
28 General Principles of Farm Animal Production Samking
Fig. 20.3: Farm animals
Selection of suitable breeds performance of that breed of cattle in the

The first thing the farmer takes into past), the individual performance of the
consideration is the type and breed of selected animals or cattle, their appearance
animal he wants to raise. If for example, (i.e. body conformation, absence of defects
the farmer wants to raise cattle, he should etc.) and performance of siblings and
consider the pedigree record (i.e. the offspring.
269
Choice of management system Breeding systems and care of the

How are the animals going to be housed? young ones
Will the farmer use the expensive intensive In animal production,
system which requires expensive housing Breeding is the mating or pairing of male
and feeding routine; the semi-intensive and female animals of a selected breeding
system which require some simple housing stock to produce young ones with
or the extensive system which requires desirable qualities.
little or no housing and feeding at all, and
hence inexpensive? Importance of animal breeding
1. It increases the genetic potential of the
The farmer‘s choice of the above- animals to produce more.
mentioned management systems is 2. It improves the resistance to pests and
influenced by factors such as cost of diseases.
housing and feeding, type of scale of 3. It increases the quality of products.
enterprise (large or small-scale), the skills 4. It improves the fertility of the animals.
of the farmer and the location of the farm. 5. It increases growth rate.
6. It improves tolerance to adverse
Conditions for good animal housing environmental conditions.
1. Protection from pests, parasites and 7. It improves fecundity (i.e. the ability of
predators a pregnant animal to successfully carry
2. Clean and dry floor or litter and develop an embryo to foetus).
3. Good ventilation
4. Good drainage system Some important breeding methods
5. Availability of feeding and water include:
trough i. introduction or upgrading
6. Good environmental sanitation ii. cross-breeding
7. Adequate floor space to control iii. mating
overcrowding
8. Availability of footpath at the entrance Introduction or upgrading
of the house This involves the transportation of animals
9. Availability of essential equipment to with desirable traits from one geographical
meet the production needs of the area to another where they did not exist
animals, such as wallows, egg laying previously. The animals introduced to this
nests, etc. new area are not supposed to replace the
10. Absence of sharp and pointed objects
270
animals there but to upgrade their after the other. Hand mating is practiced
performance. mainly under the intensive system. Mated
female animals are described as having
The animals for transportation are first been serviced by the males.
quarantine to determine their health status
before introducing them to their new Importance of hand mating
location. It is important to ensure that the  Hand mating allows for the
conditions in the new environment are implementation of desired breeding
similar to those of the old one. programmes.
 It also enables mating to be planned
Cross-breeding carefully so that the pregnant animal
Cross-breeding, also known as hybrid is gives birth at a suitable time.
the mating of two animals of different
breeds to produce offspring with special Artificial insemination
qualities. It is also known as heterosis. This is the use of a syringe to carefully
Animals being mated should be pure collect and deposit chemically treated
breeds or inbred lines in order to obtain sperms of proven male into the womb or
better results. vagina of a female animal.
Mating This method requires expert skills and high

There are three main methods of mating degree of organisation. It is relatively
farm animals. They are pasture mating, costly as it involves other sophisticated
hand mating and artificial insemination. equipment.
Pasture mating Advantages of artificial insemination

This is the natural mating of male and 1. The semen containing the sperm of
female animals while grazing on pasture. proven male can easily be transported
Pasture mating is common among livestock from one area to another.
kept under the extensive and semi- 2. Semen can be stored by freezing; hence
intensive systems and normally produces even if the animal gets sick or dies its
undesirable results. semen would still be useful.
3. The dilute semen can be used to service
Hand mating very large number of female animals.
This involves the use of a proven male 4. It controls the spread of diseases as the
animal to mate female animal on heat, one semen is chemically treated.
271
5. Mating is mostly successful when the 1. selecting good breeding stock and
female animal is on heat or on her breeding programmes;
oestrus cycle. 2. providing good housing;
3. controlling pests and diseases;
Signs of animals on heat 4. ensuring good environmental
1. They become restless. sanitation;
2. The vulva swells and become reddish 5. providing adequate quality and
in colour. appropriate nutrition to animals;
3. They lose appetite 6. using appropriate management
4. They make grunting noise. systems.
5. They sniff at other animals and attempt
to mount them. Feeding
6. They discharge a slimy substance from Like humans, animals need the right
the vulva. quantities of food, rich in nutrient for their
growth and development. Animals must be
Care of the young fed a well-balanced diet regularly and in a
It is very essential to care for the young sanitary environment.
animals as they are more vulnerable or
exposed to disease and pest attacks. They Importance of good feeding of
also have small and weak digestive system animals
which are sensitive to food, even though 1. It enables them to grow faster and
they require the best of nutrition for growth stronger.
and development and to resist disease and 2. It helps them to produce more quality
pest attacks. They should also be shielded products.
from adverse environmental conditions. 3. It helps them to resist diseases.
4. It helps them to work better.
Management practices 5. It helps them to reproduce better.
Management practices are the use of
production resources, techniques and Since young animals are easily prone to
methods intelligently aimed at increasing diseases and also have sensitive digestive
productivity and profit. system, they should be carefully fed.
They may be carried out periodically or

routinely. Management practices include:
272
Conditions for feeding young animals struggle, before cutting their throat with
1. They should have access to colostrums sharp knife.
(the first milk after birth which is rich
in vitamins, minerals and antibodies). Post-slaughter treatment
2. They should be provided with adequate Slaughtered animals should be bled
clean and fresh water. thoroughly by hanging them upside down.
3. They should be fed with balanced diets. This avoids the retention of blood in the
4. They should be fed in a sanitary meat which could render it less tasty or
environment. unattractive or even serve as a medium for
bacterial growth resulting in rotting of
Finishing, processing and marketing meat.
produce
Farm animals are reared because of their The carcass is then flayed (removal of skin
produce. It is very necessary to care for and hide) and eviscerated (removal of
them, particularly regarding nutrition, to intestines).
improve their product and carcass qualities It could then be cooked and eaten or
for higher market value. preserved by freezing, smoking, drying,
The animal produce and sometimes the live salting or canning for it to remain
animals are sold in the farm or market. wholesome over a period of time.
Pre-slaughter care
Before an animal is slaughtered they RUMINANT PRODUCTION
should be starved and rested for about 24 Ruminants are a class of farm animals
hours. This pre-slaughter care empties the which chew cud.
gut of faeces and undigested food which
may contaminate the meat. It also relaxes Chewing of the cud, also known as
them and reduces nervous excitement. cudding, is a more thorough chewing of
Another pre-slaughter care is veterinary partially chewed, swallowed and
inspection to avoid the slaughter of sick regurgitated herbage in a relative state of
animals. comfort and relaxation. Examples of
ruminants are cattle, sheep and goats.
Slaughtering or slaughter care These animals have cloven (divided)
Animals can be safely slaughtered by first hooves.
stunning them with electric shot or a
captive shock in the head to reduce
273
Cattle Breeds and types of cattle

There are two principal species of cattle Cattle are classified into four types
reared globally. They are Bos indicus of according to their body configuration and
Asia and Bos taurus of Europe. In West uses. They are:
Africa, the commonest species reared is the  beef cattle
Bos indicus also known as the Zebu cattle.  dairy cattle
This is because Zebu cattle can tolerate  dual-purpose cattle
warm and dry climate  work or drought cattle
Characteristics of Zebu cattle Beef cattle

1. They have a hump (enlarged muscle) Beef cattle are mainly kept for meat
on their shoulders. production. They generally mature earlier
2. They have a long face. and produce less milk. Meat from mature
3. They have short, upright horns. cattle is called beef and meet from a calf
4. They have drooping ears. less than three months old is called veal.
5. They also have thin legs.
6. They have dewlap (large fold of loose Examples of local meet cattle are N'dama
skin) hanging from the throat. and Muturu, known collectively as West
African Shorthorns.
Examples of Zebu cattle include White Examples of exotic beef cattle are
Fulani (Adamawa), Red Fulani, Red Aberdeen Angus, Charolais, Beef Friesian,
Bororo and Sokoto Gudali. Brahma and Red Devon.
Characteristics of Beef Cattle

1. They have higher growth rate
2. They produce less milk
3. They have square-shaped body
conformation.
4. They have short, strong and straight
legs.
5. They are stocky and well filled with
fresh.
Fig. 20.4: Zebu cattle
274
Characteristics of dairy cattle

1. They have slender bodies with
prominent bones.
2. They have wedge-shaped bodies.
3. They have large and well-developed
udders.
4. They have longer legs
5. They have wide space between hind
legs.
6. Their veins are well-developed.
Fig. 20.5: N’dama cattle Dual-purpose cattle

This breed of cattle produces both milk and
meet. However, they do not produce large
quantities of milk as dairy cattle neither do
they produce good meet as meet cattle.
Examples include Red Poll and dairy
Shorthorn.
Work or drought cattle

These cattle are raise to help with menial
jobs on the farm such as ploughing, and
carting of produce and equipment. They
Fig. 20.6: Muturu cattle
are mostly strong, muscular and well-built,
are usually quiet and have strong legs
Dairy Cattle
The primary purpose of keeping dairy
cattle is milk production. They have the
ability to convert food into milk rather than
fat or flesh. Milk is synthesised and stored
in the udder. With the exception of Zebu
cattle, most dairy cattle in West Africa are
exotic. Examples include Jersey, Holstein-
Friesian, Guernsey. Ayrshire and Brown
Swiss cattle. Work cattle ploughing a paddy field
275
Fig. 20.7: External features of cattle
Management practices Intensive system

The proper management practices of cattle The intensive system of managing
rearing involve effective housing, good ruminants is characterized by total
healthcare, proper feeding and accurate confinement of the livestock in housing
record-keeping. units known as sheds or pens. These
housing units have concrete floors and
Housing walls with vents near the roof.
Cattle are kept under any of the three The intensive system is the best system for
management practices – the production of high quality livestock
 intensive system because of the following advantages:
 semi-intensive system
 extensive system Advantages of intensive system
1. The animals are well fed.
2. They are protected from pests, diseases,
theft and predators.
276
3. They are also protected from rain, 2. It requires less labour.

strong wind and heat. 3. Farmyard manure can be obtained.
4. Management practices such as 4. Animals are active as they have room
vaccination, mating, de-worming etc. for movement.
can be easily done. 5. Some husbandry and management
5. Records are properly kept. practices such as dehorning, castration,
6. It ensures the production of high identification etc. can be carried out on
quality livestock. livestock.
7. Sick animals are easily detected and 6. Animals are protected against harsh
culled or treated, reducing the spread of weather conditions.
diseases.
8. Animal confinement prevents them Disadvantages of semi-intensive
from going astray and causing mayhem system
or destroying people‘s properties. 1. Since animals are kept in pens only a
9. Farmyard manure is easily obtained for part of the day there is little time to
farm crop. carry out all husbandry services.
2. Grazing on pastures can lead to
Disadvantages of intensive system overgrazing if not controlled.
1. Intensive system is expensive to run.
2. It is labour intensive. Extensive system
3. Rate of spread of diseases among The extensive system is the commonest
animals is quick if not detected quickly. system in Ghana. In this system the cattle
4. Animals have little room for are housed in an open-fenced space, called
movement, thus are less active which kraal and are exposed to all sorts of
exposes them to ill-health. whether conditions. There are no or few
facilities for drinking, feeding and other
Semi-intensive system management services. They are normally
This system requires partial confinement driven to the field to graze under the care
of animals especially at nights and during of herdsmen.
harsh weather conditions. The animals are
allowed to graze on improved pastures. Advantages of extensive system
1. It requires very little money to run.
Advantages of semi-intensive system 2. It is not labour intensive.
1. It is relatively less expensive as 3. It requires little managerial practices.
compared to the intensive system. 4. Little time and attention is needed.
277
5. Animal are more active as they move Table 6.1: Differences between intensive and
about freely. extensive systems
6. The spread of diseases among livestock Intensive system Extensive system
Animals are confined Animals are not
is minimal. confined
7. Animals have access to herbage and They are well fed They search for their
own food
hence can meet their nutritional
They are sheltered They are exposed to
requirement. from harsh weather harsh weather
conditions conditions
Expensive to run Cheap to run
Disadvantages of extensive system Requires more Requires little
1. Animals are exposed to all sorts of attention attention
danger. Records are properly Records are not
kept properly kept
2. They are easily attacked by pests and Labour intensive Not labour intensive
diseases. Management Management
3. Livestock usually go astray and cause practices are properly practices are not
observed properly observed
destruction on other people‘s
properties.
Feeding
4. They are exposed to extreme weather
Cattle are herbivores (plant-eating only)
conditions.
and normally graze on pastures.
5. It is hard to keep record of animals.
6. Animals obtain food by feeding on Pasture is a piece of grassland or a
pastures, which may lead to
mixture of grass-legume which has high
overgrazing.
nutritional values.
Feeding methods for cattle

 Under the intensive system and semi-
intensive systems, the cattle are
sometimes zero-grazed on forage or on
hay and silage, especially when there
are little or no green pastures available.
 Like all mammals, cattle need water
and should have ample supply of clean
water, especially during the dry season
when the pastures are often dry.
Fig. 20.8: Cattle in a kraal
278
 They should also be provided with salt Preparation of hay

to provide the necessary minerals they  First harvest the hay crop at the early
require. flowering stage when the crop is leafy,
 The cattle should be well fed on an more nutritious and has less water
adequate ration of a balanced diet. content.
Pregnant cows should be given  Remove foreign materials and weeds
steamed-up ration. This is rich in from the swath.
proteins and vitamins and helps the  Leave it in the sun to dry the moisture
cow and its foetus. content.
 Flushing, where cows are given extra  Gather and store the well-cured hay on
rich food before mating to increase stacks in a well ventilated room or
their pregnancy rate, should be shed.
observed.
Fig. 20.9: Cattle grazing Fig. 30.0: A hay bail
Hay Qualities of a well prepared hay

Hay is dry forage which is conserved for 1. It has slightly green colour.
use by livestock in the future. It is usually a 2. It has low water content.
mixture of grass and legumes and may 3. It is less fibrous and easily digestible.
contain cereals such as maize or sorghum. 4. It contains no dust or mould.
It is best prepared during the dry season 5. It is free from weed and other foreign
when there is sufficient sunlight to cure the materials such as stones.
collection of grass and legume (called 6. It can be stored for a very long time
swath). without deteriorating.
279
Silage Table 6.2: Differences between hay and silage

Silage is fresh green forage conserved by Hay Silage
partial fermentation. Preparation of silage Low moisture content High moisture content
is also referred to as ensiling. Ensiling (about 20%) (about 70%)
Dry, dusty and less Wet and green
involves cutting, chopping and compacting green
the silage crop for about two to three days. Does not prevent Prevents constipation
constipation
Low acid content High acid content
Preparation of silage Strong aroma Weak aroma
 Harvest the silage crop at the early Less palatable Highly palatable
flowering stage. High vitamin D Low vitamin D content
content
 Chop the swath into pieces and put it
into a pit or silo.
Husbandry practices
 Compact the material to removed air.
These are practices routinely performed to
 Cover the pit or silo with tarpaulin to
improve the quality, productivity and good
protect it from rain and sun.
health of farm animals.
Qualities of a well prepared silage The most important husbandry practices

1. It should be green in colour.
include identification, dehorning, de-
2. It should have a moisture content of worming, record keeping, castration and
about 70-80% dipping.
3. It should be leafy.
4. It should be free all foreign materials.
Identification
5. It should be free of mould.
Identification is the act of marking
livestock in order to ensure recognition and
Reasons why silage is preferred to hay
prevent loss of animals, as well as proper
1. Ensiling is cheap, less laborious and
management of breeding programmes.
quicker to prepare.
Identification methods include branding,
2. It has a high proportion of water, leaf
tattooing, ear notching etc.
and nutrient.
3. Silage has a sweet aroma.
Branding - This requires the use of a hot
4. It helps prevent constipation.
iron with a desired mark to superficially
burn off the skin of the animal leaving the
mark permanently after healing. Cold-
branding, in which liquid nitrogen is used
280
in the branding iron to kill hair follicles on Dehorning

animals, leaves hairless insignia. This is the removal of horns from
livestock. It may be done by sawing off the
Tattooing - In tattooing, a special horns or preventing the horns from
instrument with chosen letter, number or growing in young animals by burning off
symbol designed from metal pins is used to the horn in the process called disbudding.
prick and dye the letter or number Disbudding is done with hot iron dehorners
permanently on the skin. or sodium stickers.
Ear notching – In this method of Importance of dehorning

identification, the ears of the animals are 1. It prevents livestock from hurting each
notches with coded numbers. other.
2. It reduces the space required to house
the animals.
3. It makes animals easier to handle.
4. It reduces damages done to equipment
on the farm.
Castration
Castration refers to the removal of the
testes, the spermatic cord or any method
Ear notched cow which may render male animals incapable
of producing sperm for reproduction.
Female animals may also have their
An ear tag ovaries removed surgically to prevent egg
production in a practice known as
ovariectomy.
Fig. 30.1 Methods used in castration include:

Ring method, where a strong circular
Ear tagging – This involves the use of rubber band called elastrator, is mounted
plastic or metallic tag with identification on the scrotum above the testicles;
symbols and clipping them into the ears of
the animals.
281
Injection method, where chemicals are Dipping

injected into the animals to stop sperm This involves the provision of footbath
production; with disinfectant at the entrance of the pen
Burdizzo method, where a Burdizzo so that animals, as well as visitors, may dip
clamp (a plier-like instrument) is used to their feet before entering. Dipping controls
crush the spermatic cord of the animal. ectoparasites.
Common pests, parasites and

diseases of ruminants
The commonest pests of livestock include
tsetse fly and mosquitoes. A tsetse fly is a
flying insect which carries the parasites
trypanosome, the transmitter of
Fig. 30.2: Burdizzo clamps trypanosomiasis, otherwise known as
nagana in cattle and sleeping sickness in
Importance of castration humans.
1. It prevents indiscriminate mating
among livestock. Mosquitoes on the other hand are the
2. Castrated animals become gentle, carriers of plasmodium which causes
docile and easier to manage. malaria. Malaria is more prominent in
3. It prevents the spread of venerable humans, nevertheless, may render livestock
diseases. less active or less productive.
4. Castrated animals normally grow
faster.
Control of tsetse fly and mosquitoes
5. The meat of castrated animals is tender. 1. Remove bushes and undergrowth along
6. Castration removes bad smell from
streams to reduce their population.
animals. 2. Spray infested areas with
recommended insecticides.
Deworming 3. Spray livestock with insect repellents.
This is the use of suitable drugs called 4. Drench animals with recommended
dewormer to remove or kill worms in farm drugs such as prophylactics to kill
animals. Deworming ensures that animals parasites in them.
have good appetite and are not prone to 5. Use gamma rays to make male tsetse
diseases posed by the endoparasitic worms. fly sterile in order to prevent them from
reproducing.
282
6. Introduce fish in lakes to feed on tsetse Other ectoparasites (i.e. parasites which
fly and mosquito lavae. live outside the body) of livestock include
flea, tick and lice may be controlled
Table 6.3: Common diseases of cattle

Disease Transmission Symptoms Prevention
Foot and mouth  Through  High fever  Quarantine and
disease infected feed,  Blisters in and around vaccination
(viral disease) water and milk the mouth and hoofs  Killing infected animals
and burning their
bodies
Anthrax  Contaminated  High fever,  Vaccination and culling
(bacterium disease) feed and  swelling in the neck, of infected animals,
water. genitals and lower  Burning the bodies of
 Infected abdomen, infected animals,
equipment  discharge of blood from  Disinfecting farm
dead animals equipment
Rinderpest  Airborne  Ulcer in the mouth and  Quarantine and
(viral disease)  contact with tongue of animal, immunization of animal
infected animal  fever,  Isolation and
 running eyes and vaccination of infected
nostrils animals
Bloat  Accumulation  Laboured breathing,  Grazing on fresh
of gases  profuse salivation, pasture for short
produced from  staggering periods,
the  providing roughage
fermentation of such as hay, zero
starchy forage grazing
in animal
Mastitis  Wound on the  Inflamed udder which  Disinfection of
(bacterium disease) udder, produces yellowish equipment,
 exposure of milk,  use of antibodies such
udder to wet  Sores on udder as tetracycline and
surfaces and streptomycin
cold
Trypanosomiasis  Bites from  Sleepiness  Spraying infected areas
(protozoan disease) tsetse fly  dullness, with insecticides
 high body temperature
Brucellosis  Contaminated  Inflammation of testes  Periodic vaccination of
(bacterium disease) feed and and epididymis causing animals
pasture sterility in male  Killing and burying
animals, infected animals.
 Aborting in female
animals
283
dipping, hand-picking, rotational grazing 5. They are normally resistant to

and general cleaning. trypanosomiasis.
Endoparasites (i.e. parasites which live
inside the body) of livestock include
worms. Worms are best controlled by
deworming.
Sheep
Sheep are ruminants normally kept for
their meet and sometimes for their milk,
skin and wool. In Ghana, sheep are mostly
kept in rural areas and in subsistence.
Fig. 30.3: West African dwarf sheep
Because of financial constraints in those
areas, the management system used is
Yankasa
commonly the extensive system.
1. They have short neck.
2. Their hair is short.
Breeds of sheep
3. They are normally white in colour with
Common breeds of sheep include Nungua
black patches on the face.
blackhead, Yankasa, West African dwarf
4. They are generally resistant to
and Ouda.
trypanosomiasis.
These breeds are o classified based on the
5. They have non-pendulous ears.
following qualities:
 size and shape of body
Ouda
 length of leg (long or short)
1. They are generally tall
 tail size and coat
2. They possess short hair.
 function or use (meet, milk or wool)
3. Their face is convex.
4. They have long and pendulous ears.
Characteristics of some common
5. They have dewlaps (folds of loose skin
breeds of sheep
hanging from the throat)
West African dwarf
Nungua blackhead
1. They are short and small.
1. They are hybrids between the West
2. They have small, short and erect ears.
African dwarf and the black head
3. The ewes are polled (without horn).
Persian breed from South Africa.
4. The rams have curved horns.
284
2. Their body colour is white with black Characteristics of Bornu Red

head. 1. They are large in size.
2. They have large pendulous ears.
Goats 3. They have long thin legs.
Goats are some of the commonest livestock 4. Their horns are thin and pointed.
found anywhere in the world. In Ghana, the 5. They have coarse skins
popularity of goats is attributed to the fact
that they are easy to rear as they require Characteristics of Kano Brown
little attention and capital and very little 1. Their coats are red and glossy.
management practices. They can withstand 2. They have straight and horizontal ears.
pests, parasites and diseases. 3. They possess coarse skins.
Goats are mainly kept because of their
provision of meat, milk, wool and skin. Characteristics of West African Dwarf
breeds
Breeds of goat 1. They are small in size.
Common breeds of goat found in Ghana 2. They can withstand intense heat.
include the Sokoto Red, Bornu Red, Kano 3. They are resistant to trypanosomiasis.
Brown, African Dwarf breeds and Bauchi.
Characteristics of Bauchi
Characteristics of Sokoto Red 1. The coat colour is generally red and
1. They are generally small in size. white.
2. They have red glossy coats. 2. They have short, thick-set frames.
3. They have light, thin and supple skins. 3. They have coarse bones
Management of goats
Goats normally prefer the outdoors and are
generally kept in the extensive and the
semi-intensive systems. They are good
browsers and can survive harsh conditions
with little feed. However, when left on
pasture for long they often overgraze to the
point of exposing the soil to erosion.
In rural areas, unsheltered and unattended

Fig. 30.4: A Sokoto red goat goats are often found causing disturbance
285
on other peoples‘ properties. Large farms 5. Manure for vegetable garden and fish
may employ a herdsman or two to guide pond
the goats to pasture.
Billy (male) goats are generally ready for Chicken (fowl)
mating after a year or two. One billy goat Chickens belong to the family Phasianidae
can serve about 50 nanny (female) goats. and are classified as Gallus gallus.
With this other billy goats of unfavourable They originated from Southeast Asia and
traits can be castrated. are considered descendants of a single wild
species, the red jungle fowl, which is found
in the wild state of India in Southeast Asia.
NON-RUMINANT PRODUCTION
Genetic analyses have shown that every
Non-ruminants are farm animals which do breed of domestic chicken can be traced to
not chew the cud or do not possess four- the red jungle fowl.
chamber stomach. Examples of non-
ruminants are poultry, pigs and rabbits.
Production of poultry
Poultry is a collective term for all
domestic birds kept mainly for their egg
and meat.
Types of poultry include chicken (fowl),

duck, turkey, pigeon, guinea fowl and
ostrich. Our discussion will be centred on
chicken since it is the commonest and most Fig. 30.5: External features of a chicken
profitable poultry reared.
Breeds of chicken
Reasons for keeping poultry In Ghana, both local and exotic breeds are
1. For egg and meat production. kept. Local breeds are mostly kept for
2. Income for farmers subsistence while exotic breeds are found
3. Employment for people in large poultry farms.
4. Feathers for decoration, feeds for farm
animals, filling pillows and processing
into fertilizers
286
Local or indigenous breeds Types of chicken

These breeds of chicken originated in Chickens, especially the exotic breeds are
Africa and have undergone little changes classified as layers, broilers, dual purpose
over time. and breeders. This classification is based
Characteristics of local breeds on the main purpose for which they are
1. They are usually small in size. kept.
2. They have varying colours – brown,
black, white, red, multi-coloured. Layers
3. Their meat is tough. Layers are female chickens kept for their
4. They have a slow growing rate. egg production. They are not often broody,
5. They have low egg laying capacity (20 are normally small in size and difficult to
to 30 eggs per year). confine.
6. They are resistant to diseases. Examples of layers are White and Brown
7. They tend to be broody (sit on their Leghorns.
eggs).
8. They can withstand adverse weather Characteristics of good layers
conditions. 1. Each should be able to lay more than
15 eggs per month.
Exotic breeds 2. Their vents are enlarged, oval and
These are breeds of chicken that have been moist.
introduced into Africa from other 3. They have bright eyes.
countries. Exotic breeds are usually kept in 4. They have large, glossy, bright and
large quantities for commercial purposes. warm combs.
They are often the preferred choice
because of the following characteristics Broilers
they possess: Broilers are chickens raised mainly for
their meat production. Broilers could be
Characteristics of exotic breeds male or females.
1. They have large body sizes Examples of broilers are Rhode Island Red,
2. They have faster growth rate. New Hampshire, Plymouth Rock and Dark
3. They have good egg laying capacity Cornish.
(200 to 270 per year).
4. Their meat is tender. Characteristics of broilers
5. They have distinct colour depending on 1. They have tender meat.
the breed.
287
2. They have flexible breast-bone Management of chickens

cartilage. Only fertile eggs may be hatched into
3. They have dull eyes chicks. When these are required, the
breeders can be kept in a deep-litter house
Dual purpose together at a ratio of about 15 females to 1
These breed of fowl are kept for both meat male.
and egg production.
Examples of dual purpose fowls are Light Testing for egg fertility
Sussex, Rhode Island Red and Black The fertility of the eggs may be tested
Austrolop. between the ninth and fifteenth day. This
can be done by holding a candle behind the
Breeders egg in a dark room to illuminate the
Breeders are fowls (male and female) of contents. This process is known as
desired qualities raised to produce good candling. A special egg candler, which
eggs. These eggs are normally hatched into consists of a box with a strong electric light
day-old chicks through artificial shown through a small opening over which
incubation. the egg may be rotated to view the content,
may be used. Fertile eggs are called
clears.
Structure of the egg

The shell of a good egg is strong and
porous which allows the developing chick
to carry on respiration. The shell is lined
Plymouth Rock Rhode Island Red
White Leghorn Light Sussex
Fig. 30.6: Breeds of fowls Egg Candler
288
with two membranes which separate at the incubators are used to hatch large number
end and leaves an air-space. The egg white of eggs at a time, depending on the size of
(albumen) lies inside the membranes and the incubator.
make up about 60 % of the egg‘s weight.
The yolk, which carries the nucleus or
germ spot of the ovum (egg cell), is
attached to each end of the egg by a twisted
rope of thick white material called chalaza.
Fig. 30.7: Internal structure of an egg
Incubation
Incubation is the process of keeping
Fig. 30.8: A poultry egg incubator
fertile eggs under favourable conditions
for the embryo to develop into chicks Conditions necessary for incubation
within a period of time (incubation 1. Warmth of about 38oC to 39 oC
period). 2. Humidity of about 60% and 90% for
the first two weeks and the last week
Eggs for breeding are to be kept at a warm respectively
temperature of about 38oC to 39oC for 3. Adequate ventilation
about three weeks for them to develop into 4. Continuous turning of eggs
chicks. This process may be done naturally
or artificially. In natural incubation the Brooding
hen sits on her eggs to provide the needed Day-old chicks are usually left in the
conditions. In artificial incubation, which incubator without feeding for a day after
is a preferred choice in brooder houses,
289
hatching. They are then moved to a Actions of chicks in a brooder

brooder also called a brooder house. The farmer should look out for the
following actions of the chicks to
A brooder is a specially made structure determine whether they are comfortable
equipped with feeding and drinking with the temperature in the brooder house:
facilities as well as warmth for the chicks.  If the chicks cluster together under the
light (hover), it means the temperature
It could range from a complex structure is too cold.
housing a thousand chicks to a simple  If they spread out with their beaks
home-made structure containing a few open, it means the temperature is too
chicks. hot.
The chicks require much attention in the  If they spread themselves uniformly
first few weeks and therefore, brooder under the hover, it means they are
house management practices, routinely comfortable with the temperature.
taken to ensure their health, comfort and
growth, must be observed. The temperature Qualities of a good brooder house
of the brooder must be critically taken into 1. It should have a suitable temperature.
consideration. The temperature in the 2. There must have adequate ventilation.
house should be about 35oC in the first 3. It should be built with thick insulating
week and continuously lowered until the walls.
sixth week when the chick would have 4. It should contain feeding and water
developed enough feathers. The containers.
temperature is regulated with electric light 5. It should be provided with footbath.
with a hover to concentrate the heat. 6. The floor should be cemented and
littered with suitable materials such as
wood shavings or straw.
NB: Fine sawdust should not be used for

littering as it can block the nostrils of the
chicks.
Feeding
Young chicks need protein, vitamins and
minerals. They should therefore be fed well
Fig. 30.9: A simple brooder with starter mash, which contain these
290
nutrients. When they are between 12 and Culling

24 weeks old, the starter mash can be Culling is the removal of sick,
replaced with grower‘s mash and then later unproductive and poor performing birds
layer‘s or breeder‘s mash. They should be from the flock. Poor performing or
supplied with fresh water all the time. unproductive bird can be sold off or
Vaccination slaughtered for food, while sick birds may
Chicks have weak immune system and be isolated and treated or in worst cases
could be affected by many infections. disposed of. Culling of birds should
Vaccinating them against those infections normally be done at night when the birds
is a sure way to get them going. The are quiet and less frightened.
vaccines can be administered orally
through water or through injection. Importance of culling
1. It reduces the spread of disease and
Debeaking parasites.
Debeaking involves cutting off about half 2. It creates more space for the rest of the
of the upper mandible and the tip of the flock.
lower mandible of the beak of a poultry 3. It saves the cost of feeding
bird. unproductive birds.
Debeaking is done in order to control
cannibalism in the form of vent pecking Poultry management systems
and egg eating. It should be done by an Poultry is kept under three management
expert, because if the lower mandible is systems:
severely cut, the bird may not be able to eat  Intensive system
well. It is done with a hot knife or an  Semi-intensive system
electric debeaker when the birds are about  Extensive system
a week or two old.
Intensive system
Under the intensive system, the birds are
kept permanently in a poultry house. There
are two types of intensive system of
poultry keeping – the deep-litter system
and the battery-cage system.
Fig. 40.0: A debeaked fowl
291
The deep-litter system 2. Birds have no access to natural

In this system birds are confined in a well- vegetation, insect or natural light.
ventilated house with a litter of wood 3. Overstocking or overcrowding may
shavings, cut straw or sawdust. Birds are lead to cannibalism.
supplied with water and feeding troughs as 4. Dirty litter may soil the eggs.
well as egg-laying nests if layers are kept. 5. It is hard to keep record on individual
birds.
6. The birds have little exercise as they
do not move about much.
7. Sick and unproductive birds are hard
to detect.
Battery-cage system
The battery-cage system is the the most
preferred intensive system. Here, birds are
kept in wire-mesh, galvanised or wooden
Fig. 40.1: Deep-litter system cages for the whole of their productive life.
The cages are large enough to allow the
Advantages of deep-litter system birds to stand, sit or move a little. The
1. There is increase in production cages may be arranged in one, two or three
because of more efficient tiers. Each cage can house one or two bird
management. with water and food troughs. Extended
2. It requires less labour racks at the front and back of the cages
3. Birds are protected from predators and collect the eggs and droppings respectfully.
theft.
4. Birds are protected from harsh
weather conditions.
5. The eggs are kept intact.
6. Birds are comfortably fed.
7. Disease outbreak is minimized.
Disadvantages of deep-litter system

1. It requires high capital for housing and
poultry construction.
Fig. 40.2: Battery-cage system
292
Advantages of battery-cage system extensive systems, in that, birds are

1. It requires less labour. provided with some form of housing as
2. It does not take up much space. well as freedom to roam in a limited
3. There is low incidence of disease and (normally fenced) area during the day.
parasites. There are two types of semi-intensive
4. Birds have easy access to feed and system – the run unit system and the fold
water. unit system.
5. Cannibalism is controlled.
6. Eggs are clean and free from brakes. The run unit system
7. Records on each bird are easily kept. This system has fixed housing surrounded
8. Sick and unproductive birds are easily on either side by fenced grasslands known
detected. as runs. The birds are allowed on one run
9. Less noise is produced because of at a time, rotated in six to twelve month
little interaction between the birds. cycle, to feed on the vegetation, worms and
grit during the day. They are allowed into
Disadvantages of the battery-cage the house at nights and during extreme
system weather.
1. The cages are expensive to build and
maintain.
2. Battery-cages cannot be used for
brooding chicks.
3. The battery-cages easily experience
technical fault and need constant
repairs.
4. Birds have little access to natural food.
5. Birds suffer from cage fatigue due to
little exercise.
6. Birds normally experience weak legs
Run unit system
and wounds as a result of long stay in
the cage.
7. Eggs with thin shells may easily break The fold unit system
when dropped on the metal racks. Under this system, the birds are housed in a
movable house with enclosed runs attached
Semi-intensive system to it. The runs are covered from below with
The semi-intensive system is an wire net to bar off predators. The unit is
intermediary between the intensive and the
293
moved to a new and cleaner place of has a low stocking rate with a maximum of
grassland each day. about 750 to 1000 fowls per acre. Birds are
left to move about all the time in search of
their own food. In some cases, there may
be a little housing facility to shelter the
birds at night or in extreme weather. There
are two types of the extensive system – the
free running system and the free range
system.
The free running system

A fold unit In this system, birds are often found
roosting on trees and walls at night.
Advantages of the semi-intensive Occasionally, a simple coop made from
system cheap materials such as wood or bamboo,
1. It requires relatively low capital. with some supplementary food may be
2. The birds are protected from predators provided by the owner. The coop may be in
and harsh weather. two or three tiers and serves as the brooder.
3. It is good for egg production.
4. Birds have access to natural vegetation.
5. It is ideal for backyard poultry keeping.
6. It is suitable for birds of all ages
Disadvantages of semi-intensive
system
1. It requires constant labour in moving Free running system
the fold unit.
2. It is only suitable for flat land. The free range system
3. Cannibalism and feather picking may This extensive system is characterized by
occur. the fowls allowed to move about on a
large, fenced backyard. They are normally
Extensive system provided with a simple housing to shelter
This system of poultry keeping is mostly them at nights. Supplementary ration may
practiced on subsistence and is mostly used be left around the compound. It is better
with local breeds of chicken. It normally than the free running system in that the
294
fencing prevents the birds from going Post-slaughter activities

astray or being stolen. Slaughtered fowls should be allowed to
bleed fully. This improves the quality of
the meat and also reduces microbial
activities on the meat. The carcass is
dressed by:
Scalding – dipping the carcass in water at

about 65oC for three to five minutes; this
soaks the base of the feathers and makes
them easier to remove.
Plucking – removal of feathers either by

Free range system hand or with a feather plucker.
Parasites Singeing – exposing the carcass to flame

Endoparasites such as tapeworms and to burn off the hair-like filoplume feathers.
round worms can be controlled with The carcass is then washed clean.
recommended dewormers. Ectoparasites
such as tick, lice, fleas, mites and flies can Evisceration - cutting open and removing
be controlled with insecticides. Sodium the internal organs. Some organs such as
fluoride is very effective against tick and the liver, the heart and gizzard are packed
lice when dusted on birds. together as giblets and sold or inserted in
the carcass, while the other organs such as
Processing, storage and marketing the pancreas, the gall-bladder and the
of poultry products intestines are thrown away. The legs are
sometimes kept while the head is thrown
Pre-slaughter activities away. It is then cooked and eaten or sealed
Only healthy fowls should be slaughtered in a plastic bag and refrigerated or sold.
for food. Sick birds culled and killed must
be disposed of. Before healthy fowls are
slaughtered, they should not be fed for 24
hours. This is to ensure that the digestive
tracts of the birds are clean of faeces,
which may render the meat unwholesome.
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Table 6.4: Diseases and parasites of poultry

Disease Symptom Prevention and control
Newcastle disease  Infected Birds become blind.  Proper sanitation and
(viral disease)  They become paralysed. scheduled vaccination
 Their necks are often twisted.  Infected birds should be
 Discharge from the nose culled and burnt or buried
Coccidiosis  Loss of appetite  Proper sanitation
(protozoan disease)  Blood-stained dropping  Burning old litters
 Low egg production rate  Disposing of infected birds
 Eyes continuously closed
Gumboro disease  Birds are often nervous.  Good sanitation
(viral disease)  They become sleepy always.  Vaccination
 They become dehydrated.  Use of antibiotics in water
 Culling infected birds
Avian flue  Nervous breakdown  Scheduled vaccination
(viral disease)  Difficulty breathing  Culling and burning of
 Sudden death of bird infected bird
Pullorum disease  Ruffled feathers  Good sanitation
(bacterial disease)  Laboured breathing  Fumigation of incubators
 Droppings stick together  Infected birds should be
 Chicks huddle together treated with antibiotics
Storage of eggs removing yolk from the albumen and

Egg spoilage occurs mostly because of: keeping them separately in a freezer
 Microbial infections; example, 4. Sodium silicate solution – putting
 penicillin, salmonella, pseudomonas etc eggs without cracks in 10% sodium
 Loss of moisture silicate solution.
 Loss of carbon dioxide
Pig
Methods of preserving eggs Pigs are animals of the swine family,
1. Refrigeration (cold storage) – extensively raised in almost every part of
keeping eggs at a temperature of -2oC the world as a food animal. The adult pig
to 0oC in a refrigerator has a heavy, rounded body; a
2. Egg power – drying eggs and crushing comparatively long, flexible snout; short
into powder and then packing into air- legs with cloven hooves; and a short tail.
tight containers The thick but sensitive skin is partly
3. Freezing liquid eggs- breaking and covered with coarse bristles and exhibits a
wide range of colour patterns.
296
Pigs are well adapted for the production of Local breed

meat because they grow and mature The main local breed reared is the Ashanti
rapidly. They have a short gestation period Dwarf pig; which is small, black, has great
of about 114 days, and they produce large resistance to pest, diseases and harsh
numbers of young each time they give environmental conditions. They are
birth. normally kept for subsistence as they are
They are omnivorous and can scavenge a poor performers in reproduction.
wide range of foods. As food sources, they
convert cereal grains and legumes such as
soybeans into meat.
Reasons for keeping pigs

1. Meat production
2. Leather from skin
3. Hair as bristles for brushes
4. They are also primary source of edible
fat
Fig. 40.4: Ashanti dwarf
Exotic breed
Exotic breeds are preferred for commercial
purposes as they usually perform better.
Members include:
Yorkshire (Large White) – big stomach,
wide chest, muscular body, strong legs,
large and erect ears and white coat colour.
Fig. 40.3: External features of a pig
Hampshire – short and erect ears, black
Breeds of pigs coat colour with white belt around the legs
Breeds of pigs reared in Ghana include and shoulders.
both exotic and local breeds.
Landrace – long and slender body, slightly
concave back, drooping ears and white coat
colour.
297
Poland China – drooping ears, black coat

colour, sometimes with white markings.
Good for the production of meat and lard.
Duroc – medium size with almost

horizontal back, long snouts and ears, dark
red or red-brown coat.
Tamworth – straight head and long neck,

long body, snout and legs, erect ears, dark Hampshire
red and golden red coat colour.
Yorkshire
Landrace
Fig. 40.5: Breeds of pig
Management systems
Pigs are housed in a unit called sty. A sty
should have a hard concrete, slightly
slanting floor to facilitate easy drainage. It
should be well ventilated and spacious to
avoid overcrowding. There should be a
separate feeding area with feeding and
Poland China
water troughs. The sty should also be
provided with wallows (mud pool) as wells
as farrowing pen or rail to keep the piglets
in. A number of sties in an enclosed farm is
called a piggery.
298
Table 6.5: Diseases and pathogens of pigs

Disease Symptom Prevention/ control
Rabies  Paralysis,  Vaccination,
(viral)  dumbness,  quarantine of infected pigs
 profuse salivation,  in extreme cases, killing the
 dislike for water animal
African swine fever  High fever,  Good sanitation,
(viral)  diarrhoea,  culling of infected animals,
 vomiting,
 bad-smelling discharge from
nose and eyes
Foot rot  Swollen foot,  Good hygiene,
(bacterial)  sore hooves,  use of antibiotics,
 high body temperature,  quarantine of infected animal
 lameness
Tetanus (  Stiff limbs and jaws,  Immunization,
bacterial)  profuse sweating,  prevent wound infection,
 insensitive skin  use tranquilizers to relax muscles
Redwater  Red urine,  Good sanitation,
(protozoan)  loss of appetite,  use antibiotics,
 abortion in pregnant sows,  vaccination
 salivation
Heartwater  Paralysis, walking in circles,  Insecticide against tick,
(rickettsial) protruding tongue, vaccination,
 use of antibiotics
Brooder pneumonia  Difficulty in breathing,  Proper sanitation,
(fungal)  dull skin  use of antibiotics,
 culling of infected animals
Like all farm animals, pigs are kept under

three management systems - the intensive
system, the semi-intensive system and the
extensive system.
The intensive system

The intensive system is characterized by
total confinement of the pigs in a sty or
piggery, with feed and water provided.
Fig. 40.6: A piggery
299
The semi-intensive system The carcass is then washed and cut into
The semi-intensive system is characterized pieces – the head, shoulder, ham, loin and
by the pigs allowed to move around during bacon. The fresh of a pig is called pork.
the day and confined at night. The cut pork may be frozen, salted, dried,
canned, cooked or sold fresh.
The extensive system
The extensive system is normally practiced Rabbit
for non-commercial purposes and involves Rabbits are small furry herbivorous and
the animals being allowed to move about to non-ruminant mammals with long ears and
search for the own food and wallows. short tails. In the wild, rabbits live in
colonies in underground burrows.
Finishing, processing and marketing Domestically, rabbits are kept for their
After six month, pigs become mature meet, fur, skin (pelt) and sometimes
enough for slaughter. Only healthy pigs recreation and pleasure.
should be slaughtered. The slaughtered pig
should be allowed to bleed well, after Breeds of rabbits
which some post-slaughter activities such Most of the breeds of rabbits reared in
as scalding, singeing and evisceration are Ghana are exotic breeds. Common exotic
carried out. breeds kept by rabbit farmers include
California White, Chinchilla, Flemish
Giant and New Zealand White.
Fig. 40.7: External features of a rabbit
300
California White – white in colour,

medium body size, straight back, erect and
backward slanting ears.
Chinchilla – grey or greyish-blue in

colour, long body, erect and backward
slanting ears.
Flemish Giant – grey or greyish-brown in

colour, large body, raised back
New Zealand White – white in colour, Flemish giant

broad shoulders and back, pinkish eyes,
large backward slanting ears Fig. 40.8: Breeds of rabbits
Breeding
Rabbits mature sexually after six to seven
months. A doe that shows signs of heat is
taken to a buck (male rabbit) for mating. It
is always advisable to take a doe to a buck
and not the other way round as that
normally causes fighting among the does.
A buck can service about ten does.
A buck should not be allowed to mate for
California White more than four times in a week. This is to
conserve its vitality.
A doe normally becomes pregnant two
weeks after a successful mating.
Signs shown by a pregnant doe

1. refusal to mate;
2. increased body weight;
3. frequent sleeping;
4. loss of appetite.
Chinchilla
301
Caring for the young rabbits

After a gestation period of 30 days, a
pregnant doe gives birth to her bunnies in a
process known as kindling or littering.
Bunnies are born with no fur on and their
eyes closed. The mother rabbit (dam) pulls
furs from her belly and uses it to cover the
bunnies until they develop their own fur
after, 20 days after kindling. The young
rabbits suck the dam‘s breast for the first
month until they are introduced to green
feed. They are normally weaned after two Fig. 40.9: Farmers tending their rabbits
to months.
The ectoparasites can be controlled by
Housing for rabbits practices such as good sanitation and
Rabbits are housed in a structure known as hygiene as well as using recommended
a hutch. A rabbit farm or rabbitry is made insecticides. The endoparasites are
up of a number of hutches. A hutch is controlled by keeping carriers of worm
simply constructed from a wood or wire such as cats, snails, etc. away from the
gauze with a backward slanting roof. The hutch.
floor which is made of wire mesh is
covered with straw to provide warmth for Finishing, processing and marketing
the rabbits. Water and feeding troughs, as Before their average maturity period of
well as nestle boxes are provided in the five to six months, the rabbits should be
hutches. Rabbits are normally fed on fresh well fed to fatten them, thereby given them
forage such as rabbit weed, guinea glass a higher market value. Those due for
and waterleaf. Cereals, legumes, lettuce slaughter should be starved for a day in
and cabbage also serve as important order to get rid of faeces in their guts.
sources of food for rabbits. When slaughtered, the carcass should be
allowed to bleed well to improve the taste
Pests and parasites of rabbits of the meat and also reduce the activities of
Common ectoparasites of rabbits include microorganisms on it. It should further be
lice, mites and ticks; with tapeworm and washed and hanged for about an hour to
roundworm being the major endoparasites. drain it before it is stored, cured or
packaged for sale.
302
Table 6.6: Diseases of rabbits

Disease Symptom Prevention and control
Ear mange/ canker  Brown or yellow scaly crust in  Proper sanitation,
the ears.  applying a mixture of iodine
 Scratching or shaking or head and palm oil on infected ears
frequently
Coccidiosis  Diarrhoea,  Use of antibiotics,
 animals become emaciated  Culling of infected rabbits
and develops big belly
Myxomatosis  Inflammation and swelling of  Good hygiene and sanitation
the eyes, ears, nose and  Destruction of infected animals
genital organs of infected
animals,
 loss of appetite, high fever
Rabbit fever/ tularemia  Fever, chills,  Isolation of infected animals;
 enlarged gland at the elbow  Use of antibiotics
Importance of keeping rabbits

TEST QUESTIONS
1. Requires little capital to start
2. Requires little housing space 1. (a) What are farm animals?
3. They are prolific animals – each doe (b) State five importance of keeping
(adult female rabbit) produces from 30 farm animals.
to 40 bunnies (young rabbits) yearly (c) Describe four activities involved in
4. They are highly resistant to many farm animal production.
diseases.
5. Their droppings are good source of 2. (a) Define the term breeding.
organic manure. (b) State five importance of breeding in
6. Their feed is easy to acquire. animal husbandry.
7. They are easy to handle. (c) Explain the following methods of
8. They can be transported easily. breeding in animal husbandry:
(i) mating;
(ii) introduction;
(iii) cross-breeding.
3. (a) What is artificial insemination?

(b) Mention three advantages of
artificial insemination.
(c) State four signs shown by
animals on heat.
303
4. Write a short note on the following (iii) ear notching.

types of cattle:
(a) beef cattle; 9. (a) What is castration?
(b) diary cattle; (c) Explain two methods of castrating
(c) dual purpose cattle; a farm animal.
(d) work cattle.
10. Describe the following husbandry
5. Describe the following management practices:
practices in animal husbandry: (a) dehorning;
(a) intensive system; (b) deworming;
(b) semi-intensive system; (c) dipping.
(c) extensive system.
6. State four advantages and four 11. (a) Define the term poultry.
disadvantages of the following (b) State four reasons for keeping
management systems: poultry.
(a) Intensive system; (c) State three differences between
(b) Extensive system. indigenous and exotic breeds of
(c) Mention four differences between chicken.
intensive and extensive systems of
animal keeping. 12. (a) Describe the following types of
chicken:
7. (a) Define hay and silage. (i) layers;
(b) State four differences between (ii) broilers;
hay and silage. (iii) breeders.
(c) State three qualities each of a well (b) Mention two characteristic each of
prepared hay and silage. broilers and layers.
(d) Mention three reasons why silage is
preferred to hay. 13. (a) Define the term incubation in
poultry production.
8. (a) What is identification in animal (b) state the conditions necessary for
husbandry. incubation.
(b) Describe the following methods of (c) List four methods of preserving
animal husbandry: eggs.
(i) branding; 14. (a) Define the term brooding in poultry.
(ii) tattooing; (b) mention four qualities of a god
304
brooder house. platform.

d) Describe how each of the devices A
15. (a) What is culling? and B is
(b) State three importance of culling. maintained.
e) Explain a possible problem that a
16. Mention the causative organism, poultry farmer
symptom and methods of control of the may encounter due to the design of
following diseases in poultry: device B.
(a) Newcastle disease;
(b) Coccidiosis disease; 19. The diagram below is an illustration of
(c) Avian flu; the head of a fowl on which a
(d) Gumboro disease management practice has been carried
out.
17. Explain three management practices Study the diagram carefully and
that are used to control and prevent answer the questions that follow.
diseases and pests in farm animals.
18. Fig. 3 below is an illustration of two

devices A and B, used in the pen for
fowls. Examine the diagram carefully
and answer the questions that follow.
a) State the management practice that has

been carried out on the fowl.
b) Name the parts labelled I, II, III and IV.
c) i) Give three reasons for carrying out
the management practice.
ii) Name three tools used for
carrying out the management
practice.
a) Identify each of the devices A and B. d) State three precautions to be taken
b) State the function of each of the when carrying out the management
devices. practice.
c) Explain why device A is placed on a e) i) Name one disease that affects the
305
part labelled III. breeds A and B.

ii) State one method of preventing (ii) State two ways of controlling the
the disease you have named in(e) ectoparasite you have named in (f)
(i). (i).
20. Fig. 1 is an illustration of to breeds of 21. (a) mention four breeds of pigs and
cattle A and B. two characteristics each.
Study the diagram carefully and answer (b) describe the management systems
the questions that follow. of pigs.
22. The following are diseases that affect

pigs.
Copy and complete the table.
Disease Symptom Control

Rabies
African
swine fever
Brooder
pneumonia
(a) Name the parts labelled I, II, III and Red water
IV. disease
(b) State three uses of the part labelled I
to the animal. 23. (a) State five advantages of keeping
(c) State three differences in the body rabbits.
conformation between cattle breeds A (b) List three breeds of rabbits.
and B. (c) Describe how you will prepare a
(d) Name the major product for which rabbit for the market.
each breed is reared.
(e) (i) What is the most appropriate 24. A farmer brought n 500 day-old chicks
system of keeping cattle breed A? to be reared on his farm. During
(ii) State three advantages of the brooding, the variation of mortality of
system named in the chicks with temperature was
(e)(i) above. determined over a five-week period.
(f) (i) Name one ectoparasite of cattle
306
The farm record available over the 25. The table below illustrates a farm
period is shown in the table below. record kept by a backyard farmer
Study the table carefully and answer the rearing local sheep.
questions that follow.
Study the table carefully and answer
Number of chicks the questions that follow.
Week Temperature that died
(Mortality) Pen name 4
Name of sheep (ewe) Nungua 4
2 34.0 28 Source: Nungua Farms, Accra
2 31.2 10 Year of Birth July, 2000
Date of Date of Number Number Number
3 28.4 6 service birth of lams of of
per lambs lambs
4 25.6 2
litter per per born
5 22.8 2 born dead
dead before
weaning
(a) (i) How many chickens died during 5/9/2001 5/9/2001 3 2 1
the five-week period? 20/8/2002 20/1.2003 3 3 0
(ii) Calculate the percentage mortality
at the end of the fifth week. a) Name the type of record displayed
(b) Explain why the temperature in the in the table above.
brooder house was reduced in each b) State five ways in which having such
successive week. a record is beneficial to the farmer.
(c) (i) Suggest three factors responsible c) From the table, determine the
for the high chicken mortality duration of pregnancy of the ewe.
during the first week. d) i) State four possible reasons for the
(ii) State two ways of reducing result obtained in the table above.
mortality among the chicks during ii) What conclusion can you draw
the first week. from the result?
(d) (i) Name three sources of heat for a
brooder house.
(ii) State two behaviours of chicks in a
brooder house when the
temperature is too high.
307
29
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Some of the harmful products are

Specific Objectives poisonous, and their presence in the cells
 Explain the meaning of excretion could cause some disturbance. It is
 Identify organs of the excretory system. therefore very important that they are
 Mention some disorders of the urinary system
in humans and their remedies.
removed. The harmful products are
 State excretory products of flowering plants and referred to as metabolic waste products and
explain how they are excreted. the process by which they are removed or
eliminated from the body is called
excretion.
EXCRETION IN MAMMALS
INTRODUCTION Excretion is the removal of metabolic
waste products from the body or cells of
All living things are made up of cells.
living organisms.
Within each cell are two basic chemical
processes – respiration, where food is
Excretion is normally confused with
broken down to releases energy. The other
egestion.
chemical process is known as metabolism,
where substances are built up (anabolism)
Egestion is the removal of waste products
and broken down (catabolism).
of digestion as faeces.
During metabolism, both useful and
harmful products are produced. The useful
products are used in the body while the
harmful ones are removed from the cells.
308
29 Excretory System Samking
Table 6.7: Differences between excretion and removed from the body when the mammal
egestion
exhales.
Excretion Egestion
Removal of metabolic Removal of waste
waste from the body products of digestion
Waste products are Undigested food
removed from the cells substances are
removed from the
alimentary canal.
Excretory products are Products or egestion
removed through are removed through
special excretory the anus.
organs eg. lungs, skin,
kidney and liver.
Excretory products Egested products are
include carbon dioxide, faeces and water.
urea, bile pigment,
water etc.
ORGANS OF EXCRETORY
Fig. 50.0: Excretory System
SYSTEM AND PRODUCTS
In mammals, metabolic waste products are

produced in many forms. This requires THE SKIN
different organs to keep the process going. Excess water, mineral salt, urea and carbon
The organs with their associated structures dioxide are excreted from the body by the
form the excretory system. There are four skin, mostly in a form of sweat.
main excretory organs in mammals. They
are the lungs, liver, skin and kidneys. Structure of the skin
The skin is made up of two layers, the
THE LUNGS epidermis and the dermis.
The lungs are responsible for the excretion
of carbon dioxide (which is a waste Epidermis
product of cellular respiration) from the The epidermis is the upper or outer layer of
body. Carbon dioxide travels form the cells the skin. It is a tough, waterproof,
to the lungs through the blood stream, protective layer. It is made up of three
diffuses into the alveolar and is finally distinct layers or regions:
309
Cornified or horny layer, which is the Malpighian layer, which is a one or two-
thin upper layer, made up of flat, dead cell cell thick continuous layer. These cells
which flake off continuously. produce new epidermis as they divide
repeatedly. The Malpighian layer contains
Granular layer, which lies below the the pigment melanin which determines the
cornified layer and consists of cells skin colour.
produced by Malpighian layer below. The
cells are slowly pushed outwards as new Dermis
cells accumulate underneath them. They The dermis, or inner layer, is thicker than
replace the cornified layer as they become the epidermis and gives the skin its
flat when they lose their nuclei and die. strength and elasticity. The dermis contains
nerve endings, blood capillaries and
Fig. 50.1: Structure of skin
310
lymphatic vessels. It also houses hair b) Thermoregulatory

follicles and sweat glands produced by the The blood vessels of the dermis
epidermis. supplement temperature regulation by
contracting to preserve body heat and
Subcutaneous layer expanding to dissipate it. The
Below the dermis is the subcutaneous epidermis also contains pores that
layer, a layer of tissue composed of protein allow sweat to be evaporated from the
fibres and adipose tissue (fat). Although body
not part of the skin itself, the subcutaneous
layer contains glands and other skin c) Sensory organ
structures, as well as sensory receptors The skin has sensory nerve endings and
involved in the sense of touch. separate kinds of receptors which
convey pressure, temperature, and pain.
The two layers of the skin (i.e. epidermis This enables a person to detect and free
and dermis) are anchored to one another by from danger when subjected to it.
a thin but complex layer of tissue, known
as the basement membrane. This tissue is d) Excretion
composed of a series of elaborately Urea, mineral salt and excess water are
interconnecting molecules that act as ropes removed from the body by the sweat
and grappling hooks to hold the skin gland in the form of sweat. Carbon
together. dioxide is also excreted from the body
through the skin.
Functions of the skin
The primary functions of the skin are: THE KIDNEYS
a) Protection The kidneys excrete water and urea. Urea
The skin is an organ of double-layered is produced mostly in the liver as the end-
tissue stretched over the surface of the product of protein metabolism. The
body and protecting it from drying or nitrogen in urea, which constitutes most of
losing fluid, from harmful external the nitrogen in the urine, is produced
substances, and from extremes of mainly from food protein, but parts come
temperature. Fat cells in the dermis from the breakdown of body cells.
insulate the body, and oil glands
lubricate the epidermis. The structure of the kidney
The outermost layer of the kidney is called
the cortex. Beneath the cortex lies the
311
medulla, an area that contains between 8

and 18 cone-shaped sections known as
pyramids, which are formed almost
entirely of bundles of microscopic tubules.
The tips of these pyramids point toward the
centre of the kidney.
The cortex extends into the spaces between
the pyramids, forming structures called
renal columns. At the centre of the kidney
is a cavity called the renal pelvis.
Fig. 50.3: Structure of nephron
Structure of the nephron

The primary structure in this filtering
system is the glomerulus, a network of
extremely thin blood vessels called
capillaries.
Fig. 50.2: Internal structure of the kidney
The glomerulus is contained in a cuplike
Nephron structure called Bowman’s capsule, from
The task of cleaning or filtering, the blood which extends a narrow vessel, called the
is performed by millions of nephrons. The renal tubule. This tube twists and turns
nephrons are remarkable structures that until it drains into a collecting tubule that
extend between the cortex and the medulla. carries urine toward the renal pelvis.
Under magnification, nephrons look like
tangles of tiny vessels or tubules, but each Part of the renal tubule, called the loop of
nephron actually has an orderly Henle, becomes extremely narrow,
arrangement that makes filtration of wastes extending down away from Bowman‘s
from the blood possible. capsule and then back up again in a U
shape.
312
Surrounding the loop of Henle and the secretes erythropoietin. This hormone
other parts of the renal tubule is a network travels in the bloodstream to the bone
of capillaries which are formed from a marrow, stimulating the production and
small blood vessel that branches out from release of more red cells.
the glomerulus.
Urine production
Functions of the kidneys Urine production occurs as a result of three
1. The kidneys regulate the amount of precise processes in the kidneys involving
water contained in the blood. This millions of nephrons. The processes are:
process is influenced by antidiuretic  filtration
hormone (ADH).  reabsorption
 secretion
2. The kidneys interact with the
hormone aldosterone to regulate the Filtration
blood‘s sodium and potassium content. Urine formation begins with the process of
filtration, which goes on continually in the
3. The kidneys adjust the body's acid-base renal corpuscles.
balance to prevent blood disorders such As blood passes through the glomeruli,
as acidosis and alkalosis, both of which much of its fluid, containing both useful
impair the functioning of the central chemicals and dissolved waste materials,
nervous system. If the blood is too soaks out of the blood through the
acidic, meaning that there is an excess membranes (by osmosis and diffusion)
of hydrogen ions, the kidney moves where it is filtered and then flows into the
these ions to the urine through the Bowman's capsule. This process is called
process of tubular secretion. glomerular filtration.
The water, waste products, salt, glucose,
4. The kidneys process vitamin D and and other chemicals that have been filtered
convert it to an active form that out of the blood are known collectively as
stimulates bone development. glomerular filtrate.
The glomerular filtrate consists primarily
5. The kidneys produce several hormones of water, excess salts, glucose, and a waste
such as erythropoietin. Erythropoietin product of the body called urea.
influences the production of red blood Urea is formed in the body to eliminate the
cells in the bone marrow. When the very toxic ammonia products that are
kidney detects that the number of red formed in the liver from amino acids. Since
blood cells in the body is declining, it
313
humans cannot excrete ammonia, it is the blood and into the tubules where they
converted to the less dangerous urea and mix with water and other wastes and are
then filtered out of the blood. converted into urine.
These substances are secreted through
Reabsorption either an active transport mechanism or as
Reabsorption is the movement of a result of diffusion across the membrane.
substances out of the renal tubules back Substances secreted are hydrogen ions
into the blood capillaries located around (H+), potassium ions (K+), ammonia (NH3),
the tubules. and certain drugs.
Substances reabsorbed are water, glucose Kidney tubule secretion plays a crucial role
and other nutrients, sodium and other ions. in maintaining the body's acid-base
Reabsorption begins in the proximal balance.
convoluted tubules and continues in the
loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubules,
and collecting tubules.
Large amounts of substances are
reabsorbed back into the bloodstream from
the proximal tubules. Glucose is entirely
reabsorbed back into the blood from the
proximal tubules. Sodium ions (Na+) and
other ions are only partially reabsorbed
from the renal tubules back into the blood.
For the most part, however, sodium ions
are actively transported back into the blood
from the tubular fluid.
Secretion
Secretion is the process by which Fig. 50.4: Urine production in the nephron
substances move into the distal and
collecting tubules from blood in the Summary of urine production
capillaries around these tubules.  Filtration of water and dissolved
In this respect, secretion is reabsorption in substances out of the blood in the
reverse. Whereas reabsorption moves glomeruli and into Bowman's capsule;
substances out of the tubules and into the
blood, secretion moves substances out of
314
 Reabsorption of water and dissolved DISORDERS OF THE URINAL

substances out of the kidney tubules SYSTEM IN HUMANS
back into the blood (note that this
process prevents substances needed by Bed wetting
the body from being lost in the urine). Bed wetting is common in children, and
mostly attributed to over eating at night
 Secretion of hydrogen ions (H+), and laziness to get out of bet to urinate. In
potassium ions (K+), ammonia (NH3), some cases, bed wetting can be traced to
and certain drugs out of the blood and some medical factors. These factors can be
into the kidney tubules, where they are treated surgically or with antibiotics. In
eventually eliminated in the urine. some situations, muscular exercises are
required to relax sphincter muscles
LIVER surrounding the entrance of the bladder.
The liver is a large, multipurpose gland in
mammals. It plays a vital role in excretion Urine retention
of many substances. The main causes of urine retention are
The liver changes the decomposed enlarged prostate gland in males, kidney
haemoglobin of the worn out red blood stones and sexually transmitted diseases
corpuscles into bile pigments (bilirubin and (STIs) such as gonorrhea. These causes
biliverdin). These pigments are passed into may be treated either by drugs or surgical
the alimentary canal with the bile for operation.
elimination in the faeces.
Kidney stones
The liver also excretes cholesterol, steroid A kidney stone is a solid mass made up of
hormones, certain vitamins and drugs tiny crystals of protein. One or more stones
through the bile. can be in the kidney or ureter at the same
time and obstruct the flow of urine. The
Urea is formed in the liver by a cyclic stones cause spasms of pain which are
process called as urea cycle. The amino normally felt from the lower back of the
acids that are not needed in the body are groin. Smaller stones may pass down the
deaminated by an enzyme oxidase, ureter and out through the bladder. Larger
producing ammonia NH3. Ammonia, hung stones may either require a surgical
toxic, is quickly changed to urea. operation or be shattered in fragment by
laser treatments which are then passed out
through the urine.
315
Cystitis inflammation and prevents the glomeruli

Cystitis is an inflammation of the urinary from working properly.
bladder caused by bacteria infection of the Symptoms may include blood in the urine,
bladder. Cystitis is accompanied by swelling of body tissues, and the presence
frequent and painful urination and cloudy of protein in the urine, as determined by
urine. Later symptoms include bloody laboratory tests. Glomerulonephritis often
urine, fever and backache. Cystitis can be clears up without treatment.
treated with antibiotics. Drinking plenty of When treatment is necessary, it may
fluid speeds recovery and relieves include a special diet, immunosuppressant
symptoms. It also prevents people with drugs, or plasmapheresis, a procedure that
bladder infection from contracting cystitis. removes the portion of the blood that
contains antibodies.
Pyelonephritis
Pyelonephritis is an inflammation caused Table 6.8: Summary of excretory organs in
by a bacterial infection that starts in the mammals with corresponding products
bladder and spreads to the kidney.
Organ Excretory product
Sometimes an obstruction that interferes
Lungs Carbon dioxide and water
with the flow of urine in the urinary tract
Water, mineral salt, carbon
can cause the disease. Symptoms of Skin
dioxide and urea
pyelonephritis include fever, chills, and Kidney Urea, mineral salt, water
back pain. Antibiotic drugs are usually Urea , cholesterol and bile
Liver
pigment
given to fight the infection, which can scar
the kidneys and impair their function if left
untreated.
EXCRETION IN FLOWERING
PLANTS
Glomerulonephritis
Glomerulonephritis is another common
In plants, breakdown of substances is much
kidney disease characterized by
slower than in animals. Hence,
inflammation of some of the kidney's
accumulation of waste is much slower.
glomeruli. This condition may occur when
Plants do not possess any specialized
the body‘s immune system is impaired.
excretory organs for the removal of
Antibodies and other substances form large
metabolic waste products. Nonetheless,
particles in the bloodstream that become
plants excrete some waste products such as
trapped in the glomeruli. This causes
oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour, etc.
316
Oxygen from the interior of the plant by hydrostatic

In the presence of sunlight, plants use pressures inside the plant and by absorptive
carbon dioxide to prepare their food. At forces of plant cells. Plants also excrete
this time, oxygen is given out as a waste some waste substances into the soil around
product. The oxygen diffuses out through them.
the leaf cells to the leaf air spaces and then Other metabolic waste products may be
out to the atmosphere through the stomata. deposited as harmless insoluble crystals in
the plant body. For example, calcium
Carbon dioxide oxalate is deposited in the form of crystals
Carbon dioxide, a by-product of in the leaves and stems of many plants. In
respiration, is an excretory product when trees which shed their leaves yearly the
liberated at night. It is removed from the excretory products are removed from the
tissue cells by diffusion through the system trees during leaf fall.
of intercellular spaces in the leaves, stems
and roots. In leaves and young stems the
carbon dioxide escapes through the
stomata. In young roots carbon dioxide
diffuses through the general root surface,
especially the root hairs.
Water
Plants can get rid of excess water by
transpiration. Excess water in the cells of
the leaf diffuses into the air spaces in the
leaf. The water molecules then diffuse
through the stomata into the atmosphere as
water vapour. Water is also excreted out of
the plant through the lenticels of stems as Fig. 50.5: Excretion in a plant
water vapour.
Other waste products

Waste products may be stored in leaves
that fall off. Other waste materials that are
exuded or produced by some plants such as
resins, saps, latexes, gums etc. are forced
317
(b) Explain why excretion in more

TEST QUESTIONS
important in animals than in plants.
1. a) i. Write a short note on excretion.
ii. Distinguish between excretion 4. (a) Briefly describe the functions of the
and egestion. mammalian skin as a:
b) Tabulate the main excretory organs (i) an excretory organ;
of mammals with the respective (ii) a thermoregulator;
excretory product (iii) A protective organ;
(iv) A sensory organ.
2. a) Describe briefly how plants excrete (b) Explain four functions of the
each of the following substances. kidney.
i) Excess water
ii) Oxygen 5. (a) Describe the following processes of
b) Describe the formation of urine in urine formation:
humans. (i) filtration
(ii) reabsorption
3. a) Mention four disorders of the urinary (iii) secretion
system of humans and their (b) Mention three excretory products of
remedies. mammal and explain how they are
b) State two functions each of the excreted.
following organs:
i) lungs
ii) kidney
iii) skin
iv) liver
4. a) Describe the functions of the

dermis and the epidermis of the
mammalian skin
d) Briefly describe how a flowering
plant eliminate it waste products.
3. a) Explain the following terms:

i) Deamination;
ii) Ultra-filtration;
iii) Selective re-absorption
318
30
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM AND
GROWTH IN MAMMALS
The group of plant or animal organs that

Specific Objectives are necessary for the reproductive
 Identify the reproductive organs of a mammal processes is term as the reproductive
and their functions. system.
 State the advantages and disadvantages of
male and female circumcision. In this chapter we shall consider the
 Outline the processes leading to fertilization, reproductive system of mammals with
zygote development and birth in humans. emphasis on humans.
 Describe the process of birth in mammals and
ways to care for the young ones.
 Identify problems associated with reproduction
in humans. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
 Mention types of STIs including HIV/AIDS, how OF THE MAMMALIAN
they are transmitted and their effects.
 Identify the phases of growth and development
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
in humans and the associated changes.
The mammalian reproductive system is
made up of male and female reproductive
systems or parts.
Male reproductive system

INTRODUCTION The reproductive system of male consists
of a pair of testes (situated in the scrotal
Reproduction is the process by which sac), epididymis, vas deferens, seminal
organisms make more organisms like vesicles, ejaculatory ducts, prostate, bulbo-
themselves. urethral glands and penis.
It is one of the things that sets living things Testes

apart from non-living matter. The two testes (singular, testis) develop
319
30 Reproductive System and Growth in Mammals Samking
inside the abdominal cavity and descend from the seminal vesicle of that side to
into the scrotum. form the ejaculatory duct which joins that
Each testis is about one and a half inch part of the urethra which is inside the
long and one inch wide. It is made up of prostate.
coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules.
The sperms develop inside the tubules. In The seminal vesicles
between the seminiferous tubules are the The seminal vesicles are a pair of glandular
cells of Leydig which secrete the male sex structures situated behind the urinary
hormone, testosterone. Luteinizing bladder. They secrete a fluid which
hormone secreted by the pituitary gland becomes part of the semen. It is rich in
stimulates these cells to secrete fructose which provides the energy for the
testosterone. sperms as they have to travel up the cervix
and uterus to reach the ovum.
The seminiferous tubules join together to
form the epididymis. It is a tube about 20 Ejaculatory ducts
feet long coiled on the back of the testis. There are two ejaculatory ducts; each is
The sperms mature in the epididymis. The formed by the union of the vas deferens
testes produce millions of sperms. Each and the tube from the seminal vesicle. The
milliliter of semen contains more than two ejaculatory ducts open into the urethra.
twenty million sperms.
The prostate gland
The prostate gland secretes and stores a
clear fluid which is slightly alkaline in
nature. This fluid along with sperms and
the fluid from the seminal vesicles
constitute the semen. The alkalinity of
semen neutralizes the acidity of the vagina
and prolongs the life of sperms. The
prostate gland also contains smooth
Fig. 50.6: Male reproductive system muscles which help expel semen during
ejaculation.
The vas deferens
The vas deferens is the continuation of the
epididymis. It starts at the lower pole of the Penis
testis and enters the abdominal cavity The penis contains three cylinders of tissue
through the inguinal canal. It joins the tube that run parallel to the urethra. During
320
sexual arousal, these tissues become Female reproductive system

engorged with blood and expand, causing The female reproductive organs are the
the penis to enlarge and become erect. Men vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, cervix and
do not have a penis bone or a muscle that ovary.
causes erection, as do some other animals.
Structure of the sperm

Each sperm cell consists of a head and tail.
The tail with its whipping movements
helps to propel the sperm forwards to meet
the ovum in the fallopian tube.
Fig. 50.9: Female reproductive system
Vagina
Fig. 50.7: Structure of a sperm
The vagina is a fibro muscular tubular tract
leading from the uterus to the exterior of
the body in female mammals. The vagina
is the place where semen from the male is
deposited into the female's body at the
climax of sexual intercourse, commonly
known as ejaculation. Around the vagina,
pubic hair protects the vagina from
infection and is a sign of puberty. The
vagina has a thick layer outside and it is the
opening where the baby comes out during
delivery.
Cervix
The cervix is the lower, narrow portion of
Fig. 50.8: Reproductive system of a male rabbit the uterus where it joins with the top end of
321
the vagina. It is cylindrical or conical in Ovaries

shape and protrudes through the upper The ovaries are small, paired organs that
anterior vaginal wall. Approximately half are located near the lateral walls of the
its length is visible, the remainder lies pelvic cavity. These organs are responsible
above the vagina beyond view. The cervix for the production of the ova and the
is also called the neck of the uterus. secretion of hormones. The process by
which the ovum is released is called
Uterus ovulation. The speed of ovulation is
The uterus or womb is a pear-shaped periodic and impacts directly to the length
muscular organ. Its major function is to of a menstrual cycle.
accept a fertilized ovum which becomes After ovulation the ovum is captured by the
implanted into the endometrium, and oviduct, after travelling down the oviduct
derives nourishment from blood vessels to the uterus, occasionally being fertilized
which develop exclusively for this purpose. on its way by an incoming sperm, leading
The fertilized ovum becomes an embryo, to pregnancy and the eventual birth of a
develops into a foetus and gestates until new human being.
childbirth. If the egg does not embed in the
wall of the uterus, a woman begins
menstruation and the egg is flushed away.
Fallopian tubes
The Fallopian tubes or oviducts are two
tubes leading from the ovaries of female
mammals into the uterus. On maturity of
an ovum, the follicle and the ovary's wall
rupture, allowing the ovum to escape and
enter the Fallopian tube. There it travels
toward the uterus, pushed along by
movements of cilia on the inner lining of
the tubes. This trip takes hours or days. If
the ovum is fertilized while in the
Fallopian tube, then it normally implants in
the endometrium when it reaches the Fig. 60.0: Reproductive system of a female rabbit
uterus, which signals the beginning of
pregnancy.
322
4. Research findings reported in 2006

MALE AND FEMALE
indicate that circumcision could lower
CIRCUMCISION
by more than half the risk of
Circumcision is the surgical removal of contracting HIV/AIDS among men
all or part of the foreskin of the human who engaged in heterosexual
male penis. intercourse. This does not suggest that
circumcised men could safely engage
In females, it is the removal of the skin in unprotected sex.
prepuce covering the clitoris or the clitoris
itself and sometimes the lip of the vagina. Disadvantages of male circumcision
1. The wound inflicted may be easily
In some cases the labia manora and labia infected by germs and cause serious
majora are stitched together. Female infections.
circumcision is illegal in Ghana, though 2. It may result in excessive haemorrhage
some communities secretly practice it. (bleeding) from the wound, which can
lead to death.
Circumcision, although done for various 3. If unsterilized instruments are used for
reasons, (including medical, cultural and the operations, they may carry disease
religious reasons), has its positive and causing pathogens that can infect the
negative impacts. person circumcised.
4. The operation is normally performed
Advantages of male circumcision without any anaesthetic, thus, very
1. Smegma, a sebaceous gland which painful.
collects under the foreskin of the penis 5. Unsterilized instruments used may be
is believed to cause diseases such as infected with HIV/AIDS or other blood
cancer. Therefore, removing the related diseases.
foreskin eliminates smegma.
2. Circumcision is believed to reduce Advantages of female circumcision
penile cancer. This is because germs The advantages presented in favour of
that cause penile cancer are eliminated female circumcision have no scientific
during circumcision. basis, but proponents believe that the
3. The foreskin is very soft and may removal of the clitoris:
easily get irritated or swollen with little  allows free outflow of urine;
pressure.  allows direct dilation of the vagina
during birth, making delivery easier;
323
 makes penetration of the vagina by the Fertilization begins when the sperm
penis during sexual intercourse easier. contacts the outer surface of the egg and it
ends when the sperm's nucleus fuses with
Disadvantages of female the egg's nucleus. Fertilization is not
circumcision instantaneous, it takes about 2 to 3 days to
1. The vaginal wall, the vulva and the complete. This is because of the stages
bladder can be damaged. involved.
2. Sexual intercourse becomes painful and
not enjoyable. Stages in fertilization
3. Childbirth may become difficult
because of the stitched labia minora Approach of sperm
and labia majora. The first step is the sperm approaching the
4. The wound inflicted may be easily egg. In humans it is evident that sperm are
infected by germs and lead to attracted to the fluid surrounding the egg so
infections. the sperm just swim randomly toward the
5. It may result in excessive haemorrhage egg
from the wound.
6. If unsterilized instruments are used for Attachment of sperm
the operations, they may carry disease The second step of fertilization is the
causing pathogens that can infect the attachment of several sperm to the egg's
person circumcised. surface coat. This attachment step may last
7. The operation is normally performed for just a few seconds or for several
without any anaesthetics, thus, very minutes.
painful.
8. Unsterilized instruments used may be
infected with HIV/AIDS.
FERTILIZATION, DEVELOPMENT
OF THE ZYGOTE AND BIRTH IN
HUMANS
Fertilization is the process in which the
male and female gametes fuse together,
producing a single cell that develops into Fig. 60.1: Attachment of sperm to the egg
an organism.
324
Penetration of sperm gamete‘s nuclei are pushed toward the

The third step is a complex process in female gamete‘s centre.
which the sperm penetrate the egg‘s Finally, both gametes nuclear envelopes
surface coat. The head, or front end, of the (outer membranes) fuse, permitting their
sperm contains an acrosome, a membrane- chromosomes to mix within a common
enclosed compartment. The acrosome space.
releases proteins that dissolve the surface After nuclear fusion, the fertilized egg is
coat of the egg of the same species. called a zygote. When the zygote divides to
In mammals, a molecule of the egg‘s a two-cell stage, it is called an embryo.
surface coat triggers the sperm's acrosome
to explosively release its contents onto the Pregnancy and childbirth
surface coat, where the proteins dissolve a Implantation
tiny hole. After fertilization, the egg undergoes cell
A single sperm is then able to make a slit- division, or cleavage. Thus, one cell
like channel in the surface coat, through divides into two; the daughter cells, called
which it swims to reach the egg's cell blastomeres, and then cleave into four;
membrane. When more than one sperm these cleave into eight, and so on. When
enters the egg, the resulting zygote the embryo consists of a hundred or more
typically develops abnormally. cells it may form a solid mass, called a
blastocyst. The blastocyst enters the uterus
Fusion of sex cells through the Fallopian tube and implants
The next step in fertilization is the fusion itself in the lining of the uterus (uterine
of sex cells. When the membranes fuse, a wall) and continues development into an
single sperm and the egg become one cell. embryo.
This process takes only seconds. A specific
protein on the surface of the sperm induces
this fusion process.
After fusion the male sex cell becomes
motionless. The female gamete pulls the
male gamete into itself. Filaments called
microtubules begin to grow from the inner
surface of the female gamete inward
toward the centre. As the microtubules
grow, the male gamete and the female
implantation
325
Pregnancy which the body lies curled up on one side

Pregnancy starts right after implantation. with the head bowed and the legs and arms
The pregnancy period is divided into three drawn in toward the chest. By week 20 the
stages known as trimesters. mother can feel the foetus moving. At the
end of the second trimester, the foetus has
First trimester: During the first three reached about 19 cm in length.
months or trimester of pregnancy the
embryo develops with recognizable human
features, measuring about 9 cm from crown
to rump. The placenta develops in the
uterus to pass nutrients and oxygen from
the mother to the foetus through the
umbilical cord; it also removes waste
products from the foetus. In the fourth
week the heart begins to beat, and by the
eighth week the cardiovascular system
(heart and blood vessels) becomes fully Fig. 60.3
functional. By the end of the first trimester
all internal organs are functional, the Third trimester: In the third trimester the
genital organs may be visible, and blood- foetus prepares for survival outside of the
cell formation begins in the bone marrow. mother's uterus. The internal organs
The unborn baby is called a foetus. mature, temperature regulation develops,
and the lungs begin to produce surfactant,
a foamy fluid that prevents the lungs from
collapsing when the infant exhales. Some
of the mother's antibodies pass through the
placenta to the foetus, establishing a
primitive immune system that protects the
foetus from disease. Nails form on the
fingers and toes. Toward the last weeks of
Fig. 60.2 pregnancy, the baby may assume a head-
down position as it prepares for birth.
Second trimester: In the second trimester Newborns normally range from 2.5 to 4.5
the foetus's eyes start to blink and the lips kg in weight and from 46 to 56 cm in
perform sucking motions. By week 17 the length from crown to toe.
foetus moves into a foetal position in
326
After the third trimester or 9 months, the contraction the baby continues its descent
baby is ready to be born. through the birth canal.
If a baby's position is head first during

delivery, the mother's vagina fits like a
crown around the baby's head, making the
head visible as it emerges from the birth
canal.
As the head emerges, the neck flexes and

the baby rotates to the side. This enables
the shoulders to manoeuvre around the
pubic bone. One shoulder emerges, quickly
Fig. 60.4 followed by the other shoulder and the rest
of the body.
The process of birth
The mother undergoes labour. Labour
involves rhythmic uterine contractions
which grow progressively stronger. Each
contraction shortens the muscle fibres in
the uterus, pulling the cervix (uterine
opening) wider. In this early stage of
labour the cervix dilates (opens) to about 4
cm. Fig. 60.5
As the first stage of labour ends, the In the final stage of labour, the uterus
labour pattern changes. Contractions continues to contract and the placenta
become more painful and occur closer detaches from the uterus and is expelled.
together. As labour progresses the cervix
opens to its full width of 10 cm. The baby's
head begins to rotate to fit through the birth
canal.
After the cervix becomes fully dilated,

contractions become very intense and
usually last a minute or longer. With each Fig. 60.6
327
Formation of twins a fertilized egg starts to split into two parts

Twins or multiple birth is a birth of more during its early development. Normally the
than one offspring at a time. Multiple splitting process is completed and each part
births in human arise either from the develops into a separate embryo, resulting
simultaneous impregnation of more than in identical twins. On very rare occasions,
one ovum or from the impregnation of a however, the splitting is not completed
single ovum that divides into two or more properly and the embryos remain linked,
parts, each of which develops into a resulting in conjoined twins.
distinct embryo. Conjoined twins may be attached only by a
cord of tissue, or they may be fused at
Identical twins some part of the body, such as the head,
Identical twins are formed when plural chest, or leg. Sometimes they share one or
offspring develop from a single egg. They more internal organs, such as the heart or
are always of the same sex, resemble one liver, or they may have a common
another very closely, and have similar circulatory system. Surgical separation of
fingerprints and blood types. conjoined twins has been successful,
although if the twins share important
Fraternal twins organs, surgery may be risky for one or
Fraternal twins are offspring produced both twins.
from separate ova. They are not necessarily
of the same sex and may have the usual
family resemblance of brothers and sisters.
Multiple births may be achieved artificially
by implanting in the uterus several
fertilized ova.
The prenatal and infant mortality rate in
multiple pregnancies is higher than that in
single gestations. The danger of premature
birth increases progressively with the
number of offspring involved.
Siamese twins
Siamese twins, also known as conjoined
twins, are a set of identical twins that are
joined together. Identical twins form when
Fig. 60.7: Siamese twins
328
Parental care (Care for the young) 2. It reduces complications during

Caring for the young has three main stages: labour.
 Ante-natal or pre-natal care 3. It improves the general health of both
 Post-natal care mother and child.
 Child care 4. It helps the mother to have a safe
delivery.
Ante-natal care 5. It diagnoses abnormalities for early
During pregnancy the mother undergoes a treatment.
lot of changes, such as a missed menstrual
period, breast tenderness and swelling, Post-natal care
fatigue, nausea or sensitivity to smells, It is recommended that the mother after
increased frequency of urination, mood birth undertakes regular exercises
swings, and weight gains. Some women prescribed by the doctor or midwife. This
also experience cravings for unusual is to ensure that her muscles which were
substances such as ice, clay, or cornstarch; over-stretched during childbirth are
this condition, called pica, can indicate a restored. The mother must also bath
dietary deficiency in iron or other nutrients. regularly with soap and use antiseptics and
The first few months of pregnancy are the disinfectants to help the wound left by the
most critical for the developing infant, placenta‘s attachment on the uterine wall to
because during this period the infant‘s heal. The mother must also eat a well
brain, arms, legs, and internal organs are balanced diet to enable her get the
formed. For this reason a pregnant woman necessary nutrients she needs.
should be especially careful about taking
any kind of medication except on the Importance of post-natal care
advice of a physician who knows that she 1. Post-natal care helps restore the
is pregnant. This means that it is advisable mother to her usual form.
for a pregnant woman to visit the doctor 2. It helps prevent post-delivery
regularly. X-rays should also be avoided complications.
(as it can cause miscarriage), and pregnant 3. It helps the mother to get healed from
women should avoid smoking and alcohol the wound left by the placenta‘s
consumption. attachment on the uterus.
Importance of pre-natal care Child care (parental care)

1. Pre-natal care reduces the number of Humans are the only group of mammals
maternal and foetal death. who keep their young ones with them for a
329
longer time. The baby needs much care 5. Systemic diseases such as nephritis
during the early stages of its life. At these (kidney disease) and diabetes, and
stages, breast feeding is very essential, severe trauma.
especially during the first six months. 6. Uterine malformations, including
Bottle feeding can be introduced as time tumours, are responsible in some
goes on. The baby should also be bathed instances.
regularly to keep it clean, insulated from 7. Extreme anxiety and other
cold by properly wrapping it up, psychological disturbances.
immunized, vaccinated etc.
Prevention of miscarriage
Importance of parental care 1. Treatment for threatened miscarriage
1. It enables the baby to adapt itself to usually consists of bed rest. Almost
the outside conditions. continuous bed rest throughout
2. It prevents the baby from contracting pregnancy is required in some cases of
diseases. repeated miscarriage.
3. It keeps the bond between the mother 2. Vitamin and hormone therapy also
and the baby. may be given.
3. Surgical correction of uterine
abnormalities may be needed in
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH
certain cases.
REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
Miscarriage Ectopic pregnancy

Miscarriage is the term for spontaneous This is the development of a fertilized egg
abortion; the unintentional termination of a outside the womb.
pregnancy before the foetus is capable of
independent life. Causes of ectopic pregnancy
1. Cervical abnormalities: If the cervical
Causes of miscarriage mucus thickens it may cause the
1. Abnormal development of the embryo fertilized egg to get stuck in the
or of the placental tissue, which links fallopian tube and not get to the
the embryo to the mother. womb.
2. Severe vitamin deficiencies. 2. Abdominal pregnancy: This is the
3. Hormone deficiencies. condition where the zygote is expelled
4. Acute infectious diseases into the abdominal cavity through the
ovarian end of the fallopian tube.
330
3. Abnormal egg development: If the The quality of sperm may affect male
morula (a ball of divided zygote) fertility. Physicians determine sperm
develops rapidly than normal, it will quality according to its motility (ability to
implant itself in the fallopian tube. move) and its physical structure. Poor
4. Ovarian pregnancy: This problem motility will prevent sperm from
arises when fertilization occurs in the swimming the long distance from the
Graafian follicle (a small fluid-filled woman‘s vagina to the fallopian tubes to
sac in the ovary). This may cause the fertilize an egg. Sperm that have structural
ovary to rupture. problems will also have problems
penetrating an egg.
Effects of ectopic pregnancy
1. Infection of dead foetus may be Other causes of infertility in men include:
poisonous and have severe  Premature ejaculation
complications.  Impotence
2. The growth of a foetus in the fallopian  Absence of vas deferens (sperm duct)
tube may weaken it and cause it to due to diseases or infection.
move out of place.
3. Ectopic pregnancy can also result in Causes of infertility in women
infertility on the part of the mother Hormonal deficiency: Normally one egg
will be released each month about midway
Infertility through the menstrual cycle, under the
Infertility is the inability to conceive or direction of several hormones. If any of
carry a child to term. People who suffer these hormones are not functioning,
from infertility can seek medical advice to ovulation will occur irregularly or perhaps
identify the cause of infertility and undergo not at all. Disorders of the endocrine
treatment. system, including thyroid disease, diabetes
mellitus, and polycystic ovarian syndrome
Causes of infertility in men may cause infertility in women.
Low sperm count is the most frequent

Harmful chemicals can affect hormonal
cause of male infertility. Although
levels and adversely affect fertility. For
ultimately only one sperm is required for
instance, marijuana use can shorten the
fertilization, men whose semen contains
menstrual cycle. Cigarette smoking reduces
less than 20 million sperm per millilitre
some types of hormone production and
frequently have infertility problems.
may deplete egg supply.
331
Cervical problems: Once inside the Treatment of infertility

female‘s cervix, sperm may encounter Once the cause or causes of infertility are
obstacles. The cervical mucus (thick fluid determined, doctors devise a strategy for
that protects the cervix and uterus from the couple to increase their fertility.
infection) may be too thick for the sperm to Structural problems, such as varicoceles or
penetrate, or it may be chemically hostile blocked ejaculatory ducts in men and
to the sperm. A fertilized egg may become fallopian tube obstruction in women, can
stuck in the fallopian tube and result in an be treated by surgery. When no structural
ectopic pregnancy. problems are identified, infertility
treatments usually begin with non-invasive
Infertility in women is also caused by measures. Sometimes only small
being born with a malformed cervical adjustments in the frequency and timing of
canal. An impaired cervical canal can sexual intercourse are required to bring
prevent passage of sperm from the vagina about pregnancy. Couples are instructed on
to the uterus as the sperm travel toward the how to identify when a woman is ovulating
fallopian tubes. If a woman is able to so that they can plan sexual intercourse
conceive, problems with the cervical canal around her most fertile time. Practices that
can lead to miscarriage. temporarily result in lowered sperm counts
or damaged sperm can be curtailed, such as
Other causes of infertility in women the use of certain medications, alcohol,
include: marijuana, and hot tubs. If these non-
 Blockage in the fallopian tube. invasive measures are unsuccessful, a
 Constantly working near fire. doctor may recommend fertility drugs or
 Exposure to x-rays. assisted reproductive technologies.
 Excessive hard work – prevents
ovulation. Impotence
 Dietary deficiency – not getting the This is the inability of the penis to erect.
needed vitamins, protein or minerals. Since the penis cannot erect it cannot
 Sexually transmitted diseases – STDs penetrate the vagina, thus no sexual
such as syphilis and gonorrhoea lead intercourse.
to the infection of the reproductive
organs. Causes of impotence
 Damage to the part of the spinal cord
where impulses which help in sexual
act play
332
 Damage to parasympathetic nerve space for the foetus. This may result in
supplies to the penis. miscarriage.
 Damage to the sensory nerve supply to
the penis, epithelium or scrotum which Fibroids can be removed with a special
leads to loss of sensory sensation. surgical operation known as myomectomy.
The woman may then regain her fertility.
Fibroid
A seemingly harmless growth or tumour Ovarian cyst
composed of fibrous muscle tissue, Ovarian cyst is a benign (non-cancerous)
especially one that develops in the walls of or harmless growth or tumour in a fluid-
the uterus and is associated with painful filled sac called a cyst. Many women,
and excessive menstrual flow. especially younger women, develop
ovarian cysts. They do not usually display
Causes of fibroid any symptoms unless they grow so large as
 Artificial hormones: Some women to cause a visible swelling of the abdomen.
with an intact uterus who take Ovarian cysts sometimes disappear without
oestrogen are more likely to develop treatment; in other cases, they must be
fibroids. Other side effects from taking removed surgically.
oestrogen, include headaches, and
swelling and tenderness of the breasts Causes of ovarian cyst
 Hereditary: Fibroid can be passed on  Infected follicle: Sometimes when the
from mother to daughter. If a woman‘s follicle becomes infected, it develops
mother has or was diagnosed with into an ovarian cyst.
fibroid, she also has a good chance of  Hormonal imbalance: An imbalance in
contracting it. the hormones produced by the pituitary
gland can cause ovarian cyst.
Effects of fibroid
 Fibroid located in the uterine cavity SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED
may prevent fertilization by blocking INFECTIONS STIs
the entrance of the fallopian tube.
 It may prevent implantation, causing Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) are
infertility in some women. infections passed from one person to
 It may grow and occupy much of the another primarily during sexual contact.
space in the uterus, leaving a little Despite the prevalence of STIs, studies
show that many people are unaware of
333
Table 6.9: Sexually transmitted diseases
Disease and Mode of transmission Symptom Prevention and control

pathogen
Acquired Immune  Sexual intercourse  Weakened immune  Have protected sexual
Deficiency with infected person system resulting in intercourse,
Syndrome-AIDS  Mother to baby in the high susceptibility to  Avoid using sharp,
(virus – HIV) womb diseases such as unsterilized
 Mothers to babies diarrhoea, instruments such as
through breast milk pneumonia, skin syringes, hair clippers
 Prick or cut by sharp cancer etc. etc.
infected instruments;  Loss of weight and  Infected mothers
 Transfusion with emaciated body should not breastfeed
infected blood.  Blood should be
 Transplant with tested and certified
infected organ before transfusion.
 Transfer of infected  Organ donors should
body fluids, for be tested for HIV.
example, bone  No immediate cure;
marrow transplant anti-retroviral drugs
can be used to
minimize impact of
virus.
Gonorrhoea  Sexual intercourse  Burning sensation in  Avoid casual and

(Coccus bacterium with an infected the genitals during unprotected sexual
– Neisseriae person urination intercourse
gorrnohoea)  Discharge of white  Treatable with several
fluid from the genitals antibiotics
 Untreated gonorrhea
can cause pelvic
inflammatory disease
(PID) in women.
 Babies born to
mothers with
gonorrhea are at risk
of infection during
childbirth; such
infections can cause
eye disease in the
newborn.
Syphilis  Sexual intercourse  In the early stage of  Avoiding casual sex

(spiroghaete with an infected syphilis, a genital  Using protection
bacterium – person sore develops shortly during sexual
Treponema after infection and intercourse
pallidum) eventually disappears  Syphilis is easily
on its own. treated with penicillin.
334
 If the disease is not

treated, the infection
can progress over
years, affecting the
vertebrae, brain, and
heart, and resulting in
such varied disorders
as lack of
coordination,
meningitis, and
stroke. Syphilis during
pregnancy can be
devastating to the
foetus, causing
deformity and death.
Hepatitis B  Unprotected sexual  Hepatitis B attacks  Practicing safe sex

(virus) intercourse with an liver cells,  Arduous
infected person, sometimes leading chemotherapy can
 Sharing of infected to cirrhosis and eliminate the virus in
needles or other cancer of the liver. some patients.
sharp instruments that  In most cases  There is a safe,
break the skin. hepatitis B is effective vaccination
 Hepatitis B can also incurable for hepatitis B.
spread during
childbirth.
Genital warts  Having unprotected  Genital warts grow on  Practice safe sex.
(virus - virginal and anal sex. the penis and in and  Genital warts are
papillomavirus around the entrance treatable with topical
(HPV) to the vagina and medications and can
anu. be removed with
 Certain types of HPV minor surgical
that cause genital procedures.
infections can also  Regular Pap test
cause cervical screenings can detect
cancer. s abnormalities at an
early stage, when
they can more easily
be treated to prevent
cancer developing.
Trichomoniasis  Unprotected sex with  Burning, itching, and  Avoid unprotected

(protozoa - infected person discomfort in the sex.
Trichomonas vagina in women and  Trichomoniasis is
vaginalis) the urethra in men. easily treated with a
single dose of
antibiotics.
335
Genital herpes  Sexual intercourse  Genital herpes  Have protected sex.

(Herpes simplex with an infected causes recurrent  HSV can be treated
virus (HSV). person outbreaks of painful with antiviral drugs,
sores on the genitals, such as acyclovir, but
although the disease HSV cannot be
often remains eradicated from the
dormant with no body—it is incurable.
symptoms for long
periods.
their risks for contracting an STI or the PHASES OF GROWTH AND

serious, and sometimes deadly, health DEVELOPMENT IN HUMANS
consequences that may result from an
untreated infection. Table 6.9 gives some All living things increase in size and
sexually transmitted disease, the mode of weight due to the addition of new
transmission, symptoms and preventive or protoplasm (content of cell). This increase
control measures, in size is referred to as growth and is
normally irreversible.
Prevention of STIs In humans, growth is accompanied by
1. Since STIs are generally contracted development, which is the continuous
through sex, the primary way to change from one stage of life to another.
prevent it is abstinence from sex. The stages or phases of growth and
2. Having protected sex. development in humans are:
3. Maintain one sex partner, preferably  Infancy
wife or husband.  Childhood
4. Thorough sex education, especially for  Adolescence
boys and girls.  Adulthood
5. Avoid sharing hypodermic syringes or  Old-age
blade.
6. Seek medical advice in all cases of Infancy
STIs. Infancy is the period from birth to about 2
years of age. This first stage of life is an
important time, characterized by physical
CASE STUDY: and emotional growth and development.
A childless couple thinks their problem is due Sensory acuity develops rapidly during the
to witchcraft. Use scientific method and first three months of life. By two days after
reasoning to explain the possible causes of
the infertility. birth infants can discriminate odours.
336
Within three months they can distinguish Early childhood

colour and form. Also known as the pre-school age, is the
Newborns perform motor movements, period from age two to age six (2 -.6
many of which are reflexive. Soon after years). At this stage the child‘s physical
birth they gain voluntary control of and mental abilities develop. The child
movements. The major stages of would have a better control over the
locomotion are crawling, creeping and language and could express itself more
walking. The average infant walks between clearly with a stock of words. It would also
13 and 15 months of age. engage in more physical activities such as
Normal infants possess neurological running, jumping and climbing.
systems that detect and store speech
sounds, permit reproduction of these Later childhood
sounds, and eventually produce language. This stage is from age six to ten (6 – 10
Infants utter all known speech sounds, but years). During this stage, the child‘s mental
retain only those heard regularly. Word- capacity increases considerably. They can
like sounds occur at 12 months and have solve simple problems and influence or be
meaning at about 18 months. Early words influenced by their peers.
generally include naming objects and Girls at this stage grow much faster than
describing actions, for example, ―fall boys. Boys and girls recognize their gender
floor.‖ Acquisition of complex language difference and therefore do not play
after 18 months is very rapid. together as often as they used to.
During the first 24 months the average
child makes considerable gains in height
and weight, begins teething, develops
sensory discrimination, and begins to walk
and talk.
Childhood
The childhood stage is the period from age
two to ten; but due to some distinct
changes that occur, the childhood stage can
be divided into early childhood and later
childhood.
Fig. 60.8: Phases of growth
337
Adolescence 6. Production of sperms starts. Boys at

Adolescence is the stage of maturation this stage normally have wet dreams.
between childhood and adulthood. The
term denotes the period from the beginning Secondary sexual characteristic in
of puberty to maturity. It usually starts at females
about age 12 in males and age 10 in 1. Development and enlargement of
females. The transition to adulthood varies breasts
among cultures, but it is generally defined 2. Growth of pubic hair
as the time when individuals begin to 3. Broadening of hips
function independently of their parents. 4. Ovulation and menstruation start.
Dramatic changes in physical stature and
features are associated with the onset of Adulthood
pubescence. The activity of the pituitary From the age of 20 upward marks the
gland at this time results in the increased adulthood stage in a person‘s life. At this
secretion of hormones, with widespread stage, physical growth begins to cease.
physiological effects. Growth hormone Increase in size in most people is due to
produces a rapid growth spurt, which presence of extra fats deposited under the
brings the body close to its adult height and skin. There is a strong sense of maturity
weight in about two years. The growth and independence as the person ventures
spurt occurs earlier among females than out to try new things.
males, also indicating that females mature
sexually earlier than males. During Old age
adolescence, the individuals develop some The final stage of growth and development
characteristics known as secondary sexual in humans is old age, otherwise known as
characteristics. the senescence. During this stage
several general changes take place in the
Secondary sexual characteristics in human body: hearing and vision decline,
males muscle strength lessens, soft tissues such as
1. Growth of facial, bodily, and pubic skin and blood vessels become less
hair. flexible, and there is an overall decline in
2. Deepening of voice body tone.
3. Enlargement of penis Most of the body's organs perform less
4. Body becomes muscular efficiently with advancing age.
5. Chest broadens The immune system also changes with age.
A healthy immune system protects the
338
body against bacteria, viruses, and other

TEST QUESTIONS
harmful agents by producing disease-
fighting proteins known as antibodies. A
healthy immune system also prevents the 1. a) i. What is reproduction?
growth of abnormal cells, which can ii. List three reproductive structures
become cancerous. With advancing age, each of male and female and
the ability of the immune system to carry state their functions.
out these protective functions is b) i. What are male and female
diminished. circumcision?
ii. Mention three advantages and
Menopause three disadvantages each of male
From about age 45 to age 55 women and female circumcision.
undergo a stage known as menopause. This
is the stage where menstruation stops. At 2. a) i. Explain the term fertilization.
this stage, women develop many bodily as ii. Briefly describe the process of
well as psychological changes. Some of zygote development and birth
these changes are rather problematic. in humans.
a) Describe the formation of:
Problems associated with menopause i. Identical twins
1. Women become depressed. ii. Fraternal twins
2. They become restless. iii. Siamese twins
3. They experience hot flashes.
4. They normally have night sweats. 3. a) Explain the following stages of
5. They experience disturbed sleep. childcare and state two importance
6. Their mood changes. of each stage:
i. ante-natal
ii. post-natal
iii. childcare
b) Mention five problems associated
with reproduction in humans, their
causes and remedies.
4. a) Describe the phases of growth and

development in humans.
b) i. Write a short note on four sexually
339
transmitted diseases.
ii. Mention four ways by which
sexually transmitted diseases can
be prevented.
5. (a) i. What is menopause?

ii. State three signs shown by
women in their menopause.
(b) State three secondary sexual
characteristics shown by both boys
and girls in their adolescence.
340
31
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Specific Objectives 2. It regulates body temperature.

 Describe the structure and functions of the 3. When foreign substances or organisms
circulatory system. invade the body, the circulatory
 Describe the composition and functions of blood
and lymph.
system swiftly conveys disease-
 Identify disorders associated with blood and the fighting elements of the immune
blood circulatory system. system, such as white blood cells and
antibodies, to regions under attack.
4. In case of injury or bleeding, the
circulatory system sends clotting cells
and proteins to the affected site, which
quickly stop the bleeding and promote
INTRODUCTION
healing.
The circulatory system, also called the
cardiovascular system in humans, is the
combined function of the heart, blood, and
blood vessels to transport oxygen and
nutrients to organs and tissues throughout
the body and carry away waste products to
the various excretory organs.
Functions of the circulatory system

Among its vital functions,
1. the circulatory system increases the
flow of blood to meet increasing
energy demands during exercise and
hard work. Fig. 60.9: The circulatory system
341
31 The Circulatory System Samking
Circulation in the heart

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM  De-oxygenated blood from the body
enters the heart from two large blood
The circulatory system is divided into three
vessels, the inferior vena cava and
major parts:
the superior vena cava, and collects
 The Heart
 The Blood in the right atrium.
 The Blood Vessels  When the atrium fills, it contracts,
and blood passes through the
The Heart tricuspid valve into the right
The heart is the engine of the circulatory ventricle.
system. It is a muscle about the size of  When the ventricle becomes full, it
your fist. The heart is located in the centre starts to contract, and the tricuspid
of your chest slightly to the left. Its job is valve closes to prevent blood from
to pump blood and keep the blood moving moving back into the atrium.
throughout the body.  As the right ventricle contracts, it
forces blood into the pulmonary
Structure, working and functions of artery, which carries blood to the
the heart
lungs to pick up fresh oxygen.
The heart is divided into four chambers:
 When blood exits the right ventricle,
the right atrium, the right ventricle, the
the ventricle relaxes and the
left atrium, and the left ventricle.
pulmonary valve shuts, preventing
blood from passing back into the
ventricle.
 Blood returning from the lungs to the
heart collects in the left atrium.
When this chamber contracts, blood
flows through the mitral valve into
the left ventricle. The left ventricle
fills and begins to contract, and the
mitral valve between the two
chambers closes. In the final phase of
blood flow through the heart, the left
Fig. 70.0: Structure of mammalian heart
342
ventricle contracts and forces blood pressure to all parts of the body through the
into the aorta. aorta.
 After the blood in the left ventricle
has been forced out, the ventricle Right ventricle – relaxes and expands to
begins to relax, and the aortic valve receive blood from the left auricle; contract
at the opening of the aorta closes. to pump blood into the lungs through the
pulmonary artery.
Functions of the parts of the heart
Bicuspid valve – prevents blood from
Pulmonary vein – transports oxygenated flowing back from the left ventricle into
blood from the lungs to the heart. the left auricle.
Pulmonary artery – transports de- Tricuspid valve – prevents blood from

oxygenated blood from the heart to the flowing back from the right ventricle into
lungs. the right auricle.
Aorta – transports oxygenated blood from

Blood
the heart to all parts of the body.
About 55 percent of the blood is composed
of a liquid known as plasma. The rest of
Vena cava (plural; venae cavae) –
the blood is made of three major types of
transports de-oxygenated blood from the
cells: red blood cells (also known as
body to the heart.
erythrocytes), white blood cells
(leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes).
Left auricle / atrium – relaxes and expands
to receive oxygenated blood from the lungs
Plasma
through the pulmonary vein.
Plasma consists predominantly of water
and salts. It also contains small molecules
Right auricle/ atrium – relaxes and
of vitamins, minerals, nutrients, and waste
expands to receive blood from the vena
products. The plasma is made in the liver.
cava; contracts to pump blood under
Due to proteins dissolved in it, such as
pressure into the right ventricle.
albumin, gamma globulin, and clotting
factors, the plasma is usually yellowish in
Left ventricle – relaxes and expands to
colour.
receive blood from the left auricle;
Plasma that has had the clotting factors
contracts to pump oxygen-rich blood under
removed is called serum.
343
Functions of the plasma which usually involves identifying the

1. Albumin helps regulate the water invading organism as foreign, attaching to
content of tissues and blood. it, and then destroying it. This process is
2. Gamma globulin is composed of referred to as phagocytosis.
antibodies which neutralize or help When you have an infection your body will
destroy infectious organisms. produce more white blood cells to help
3. Clotting factors, such as fibrinogen, fight an infection.
are involved in forming blood clots There are several varieties of white blood
that seal leaks after an injury. cells, including neutrophils, monocytes,
and lymphocytes, all of which interact with
Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes) one another and with plasma proteins and
Red blood cells are responsible for other cell types to form the complex and
carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide. They highly effective immune system.
are composed of protein and iron
compounds called haemoglobin that Platelets
captures oxygen molecules as the blood The smallest cells in the blood are the
moves through the lungs, giving blood its platelets, which are designed for a single
red colour. purpose; to begin the process of
The haemoglobin picks up oxygen from coagulation, or forming a clot, whenever a
the lungs and as blood passes through body blood vessel is broken.
tissues, then releases the oxygen to cells As soon as an artery or vein is injured, the
throughout the body. platelets in the area of the injury begin to
After delivering the oxygen to the cells it clump together and stick to the edges of the
gathers up the carbon dioxide and cut. They also release messengers into the
transports it back to the lungs where it is blood that perform a variety of functions
removed from the body when we exhale such as constricting the blood vessels to
(breath out). There are about 5,000,000 red reduce bleeding, attracting more platelets
blood cells in one drop of blood. to the area to enlarge the platelet plug, and
initiating the work of plasma-based clotting
White Blood Cells (leukocytes) factors, such as fibrinogen. Through a
White blood cells help the body fight off complex mechanism involving many steps
germs. They are the primary defence and many clotting factors, the plasma
mechanism against invading bacteria, protein fibrinogen is transformed into long,
viruses, fungi, and parasites. They often sticky threads of fibrin. Together, the
accomplish this goal through direct attack, platelets and the fibrin create an
344
intertwined meshwork that forms a stable 4. It carries digested food substances to

clot. This self-sealing aspect of the blood is the tissues.
crucial to survival. 5. It carries waste substances to their
respective excretory organs.
NB: The red blood cells, white blood cells 6. The blood transports hormones from
and platelets are made by the bone marrow. the endocrine gland to other organs.
Bone marrow is a soft tissue inside of our
bones that produces blood cells. Protection or defence
1. White blood cells engulf and destroy
foreign organisms which enter the
body.
2. Blood clotting reduces blood loss and
prevents foreign germs or poisonous
substances from entering the body.
3. It also helps wound to heal fast.
Reproduction
The blood causes the penis to erect in
Fig. 70.1: Blood cells and platelets
mammal, so that sexual intercourse can
take place.
Importance of the blood
The primary functions of the blood could Blood clotting
be summarized into three categories – Blood clotting is the normal physiological
transport, protection or defence and response that prevents significant blood
reproduction. loss following an injury. This process is
called haemostasis.
Transport
1. The blood carries oxygen from the How blood clotting occurs
lung to the other parts of the body 1. The vessel constricts to reduce blood
2. It carries carbon dioxide to the lungs flow.
to be excreted. 2. Circulating platelets adhere to the
3. It maintains the temperature of vessel wall at the site of the injury.
mammals by carrying heat or fluid 3. Platelets are activated and aggregate
through the body when the coupled with an intricate series of
temperature is cold or warm. enzymatic reactions involving
coagulation proteins.
345
4. This produces fibrin which forms a The Blood Vessels

stable haemostatic plug that covers the Three types of blood vessels form a
surface of the cut, hence preventing complex network of tubes throughout the
loss of blood. body - arteries, capillaries and veins.
Arteries
Arteries are blood vessels that carry
oxygen rich or oxygenated blood away
from the heart. Arteries have thick walls to
withstand the pressure of blood being
pumped from the heart.
Veins
Veins carry de-oxygenated blood back to
the heart. Blood in the veins is at a lower
pressure, so veins have one-way valves to
prevent blood from flowing backwards
away from the heart.
Fig. 70.2: Blood clotting
Important of blood clotting

1. Blood clotting prevent excessive loss
of blood.
2. It enables the body tissues to heal Fig. 70.3: Section through vein showing valves
quickly.
3. It prevents disease-causing pathogens Capillaries
from entering the body. Capillaries are tiny blood vessels; as thin as
4. It also prevents toxic substances from or thinner than the hairs on your head.
entering the body. Capillaries connect arteries to veins. Food
substances or nutrients, oxygen and wastes
346
pass in and out of the blood through the The systemic circulation carries
capillary walls. oxygenated blood from the heart to all the
The inner layer of blood vessels is lined tissues in the body except the lungs and
with endothelial cells that create a smooth returns deoxygenated blood carrying waste
passage for the transit of blood. This inner products, such as carbon dioxide, back to
layer is surrounded by connecting tissue the heart.
and smooth muscle that enable the blood
vessels to expand or contract. The pulmonary circulation carries spent
blood from the heart to the lungs. In the
Blood vessels expand during exercise to lungs, the blood releases its carbon dioxide
meet the increased demand for blood and and absorbs oxygen. The oxygenated blood
to cool the body. Blood vessels contract then returns to the heart before transferring
after an injury to reduce bleeding and also to the systemic circulation.
to conserve body heat.
The arteries, veins, and capillaries are The systemic and pulmonary circulation
divided into two systems of circulation: are known as double circulation.
systemic and pulmonary.
Fig. 70.4: Structure of blood vessels
347
Table 7.0: Comparison of the blood vessels

Arteries Veins Capillaries
Carry oxygenated blood Carry de-oxygenated blood Carry oxygenated blood at arteriole
and de-oxygenated blood at venule
end
Carry blood away from the Carry blood to the heart Carry blood between the arteries
heart and veins
Valves present Valves absent Valves absent
Have smaller lumen Have larger lumen Have smaller lumen
Carry blood under high Carry blood under low Blood under relatively low pressure
pressure pressure
Possess thick walls Have thin walls Have very thin walls
Have more elastic and Have less elastic and Have one cell-thin layer
muscle tissues muscle tissues
Deeply seated in the body Found on the surface of Microscopic and in close contact
the body with the cells and tissue fluid
and empty their contents into the large

LYMPH
veins entering the atrium.
Lymph is diluted blood plasma containing
large numbers of white blood cells, The lymph flow takes place in only one
especially lymphocytes, and occasionally a direction from the tissue to the heart with
few red blood cells with less protein. no special pump. The flow is brought about
Because of the number of living cells it by the pressure of the lymph that
contains, lymph is classified as a fluid accumulates in the tissues.
tissue. Lymph diffuses into and is absorbed by the
The capillaries are not the only routes by lymphatic capillaries. The lymphatic
which the lymph returns to the circulatory capillaries run together to form larger ducts
system. Some of it returns through the that intertwine about the arteries and veins.
lymphatic system.
The proteins in the fluid tissue are not able Functions of the lymph
to re-enter the capillaries but can drain into 1. It transports waste from cells.
blindly-ending, thin-walled vessels which 2. It transports blood cells through the
are found between the cells. These body.
lymphatics join up to form larger vessels 3. It makes white blood cells available in
which eventually unite into two main ducts all the parts of the body
348
4. It helps the red blood cells carry supplemental iron to the diet is often
oxygen to the body tissues. sufficient to cure iron-deficiency anaemia.
5. Its fluid nature regulates the
temperature of the body. Sickle-cell anaemia
Sickle-cell anaemia is a genetic disease
DISORDERS OF THE BLOOD that occurs as a result of increased
AND THE CIRCULATORY destruction of red blood cells. The red
SYSTEM blood cells of sickle-cell patients assume
an unusual crescent shape, causing them to
Disorders of the blood become trapped in some blood vessels,
Many diseases are caused by abnormalities blocking the flow of other blood cells to
in the blood. Some diseases which affect tissues and depriving them of oxygen.
the blood are:
Leukaemia (blood cancer)
Anaemia Any disease in which excess white blood
One of the most common blood diseases cells are produced, particularly immature
worldwide is anaemia, which is white blood cells, is called leukaemia, or
characterized by an abnormally low blood cancer.
number of red blood cells or low levels of Many cases of leukaemia are linked to
haemoglobin. gene abnormalities, resulting in unchecked
One of the major symptoms of anaemia is growth of immature white blood cells. If
fatigue, due to the failure of the blood to this growth is not halted, it often results in
carry enough oxygen to all of the tissues. the death of the patient. These genetic
abnormalities are not inherited in the vast
The most common type of anaemia is iron- majority of cases, but rather occur after
deficiency anaemia which occurs because birth. Although some causes of these
the marrow fails to produce sufficient red abnormalities are known, for example
blood cells. When insufficient iron is exposures to high doses of radiation or the
available to the bone marrow, it slows chemical benzene, most remain poorly
down its production of haemoglobin and understood.
red blood cells.
The most common causes of iron- Treatment for leukaemia typically involves
deficiency anaemia are certain infections the use of chemotherapy, in which strong
that result in gastrointestinal blood loss and drugs are used to target and kill leukemic
the consequent chronic loss of iron. Adding cells, permitting normal cells to regenerate.
349
In some cases, bone marrow transplants are Hypertension

effective. Hypertension or high blood pressure,
develops when the body‘s blood vessels
Haemophilia narrow, causing the heart to pump harder
Haemophilia is a genetic bleeding disorder than normal to push blood through the
in which one of the plasma clotting factors narrowed openings.
is produced in abnormally low quantities, Hypertension that remains untreated may
resulting in uncontrolled bleeding from cause heart enlargement and thickening of
minor injuries. the heart muscle. Eventually the heart
Although individuals with haemophilia are needs more oxygen to function, which can
able to form a good initial platelet plug lead to heart failure, brain stroke, or kidney
when blood vessels are damaged, they are impairment.
not easily able to form the meshwork that Some cases of hypertension can be treated
holds the clot firmly intact. As a result, by lifestyle changes such as a low-salt diet,
bleeding may occur for some time after the maintenance of ideal weight, aerobic
initial traumatic event. exercise, and a diet rich in fruits,
Treatment for haemophilia relies on giving vegetables, plant fibre, and the mineral
transfusions of the plasma clotting factor. potassium. If blood pressure remains high
despite these lifestyle adjustments,
Other disorders of the blood include medications may be effective in lowering
myeloproliferative disorders - a group of the pressure by relaxing blood vessels and
disorders caused by abnormal increase in reducing the output of blood.
the number of bone marrow cells;
hypocalcaemia - an unusually low level of Hypotension or low blood pressure
calcium in the blood and hypercalcemia – Hypotension is a condition that reduces the
too much calcium in the blood. amount of blood pumped by the heart. It is
caused by slow heart rate, the weakening
Disorders of the circulatory system of the heart muscle with age, serious
Disorders of the circulatory system include injuries or illness, diabetes mellitus or
any injury or disease that damages the some medications
heart, the blood, or the blood vessels. The Low blood pressure is characterized by
commonest circulatory diseases include blurred vision, light-headedness, nausea,
hypertension, hypotension, arteriosclerosis, palpitations, temporary loss of
septal effect and atherosclerosis. consciousness, confusion and general
350
weakness. Hypotension can result in heart smoking, diet high in fat, high blood
failure or heart attack. pressure, and diabetes.
Arteriosclerosis Some cases of atherosclerosis can be

In arteriosclerosis, commonly known as corrected with healthy lifestyle changes,
hardening of the arteries, the walls of the aspirin to reduce blood clotting and
arteries thicken, harden, and lose their inflammation, or drugs to lower the blood
elasticity. The heart must work harder than cholesterol concentration. For more serious
normal to deliver blood, and in advanced cases, surgery to dilate narrowed blood
cases, it becomes impossible for the heart vessels with a balloon, known as
to supply sufficient blood to all parts of the angioplasty, or to remove plaque with a
body. high-speed cutting drill, known as
The causes of arteriosclerosis are not atherectomy, may be effective. Surgical
known, but heredity, obesity, smoking, and bypass, in which spare arteries are used to
a high-fat diet all appear to play roles. construct a new path for blood flow, is also
an option.
Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis, a form of arteriosclerosis, Hole-in–heart (septal defect)
is the reduction in blood flow through the Hole-in-heart is a defect which affects the
arteries caused by greasy deposits called septum (partition) which separates the two
plaque that forms on the insides of arteries sides of the heart.
and partially restricts the flow of blood. Septal defect causes oxygenated blood to
move from the left to the right of the heart
Plaque deposits are associated with high through a hole in the septum or septal hole,
concentrations of cholesterol in the blood. so that too much blood passes into the
Reduction in blood flow can cause organ lungs with little going into the tissues.
damage. When brain arteries become Open-heart surgery can be used to correct
blocked and brain function is impaired, the septal defect.
result is a stroke. A heart attack occurs
when a coronary artery becomes blocked
and heart muscle is destroyed.
Risk factors that contribute to

atherosclerosis include physical inactivity,
351
6. (a) Describe the structure and

TEST QUESTIONS functions of the following blood
vessels:
1. (a) What is the circulatory system?
i. arteries;
(b) Describe the functions of the
ii. veins
following organs as components of
iii. capillaries
the circulatory system:
(b) List three differences between the
i. heart;
veins and the arteries.
ii. blood;
iv. blood vessels
7. (a) What is the lymph?
2. (a) Draw and label the mammalian (b) State four functions of the lymph.
heart.
(b) Briefly describe blood circulation 8. (a) Mention three diseases that affect
in the heart. the blood and the circulatory
system.
3. State the functions of the following (b) Describe the effects and remedies
parts of the heart: of two of the diseases mentioned in
i. pulmonary vein; (a).
ii. pulmonary artery;
iii. aorta
iv. vena cava;
v. left ventricle;
vi. right ventricle;
vii. bicuspid valve;
viii. tricuspid valve
4. (a) State five importance of the blood.

(b) How does the blood carry out its
function in protecting the body.
5. (a) What is blood clotting?

(b) Describe how blood clotting
occurs.
(c) Mention three importance of blood
clotting.
352
32
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
as by devices built by people.

Specific Objectives
 Describe static and current electricity. Electrical energy is an extremely versatile
 Name the various component of electric circuit form of energy; it can be generated in
and state the functions.
 Calculate resistance, current, potential
many ways and from many different
difference and power. sources. It can be sent almost
 Identify the sources of electric power instantaneously over long distances.
generation.
● Describe the stages of electric power Electrical energy can also be converted
transmission. efficiently into other forms of energy, and
it can be stored.
Because of this versatility, electrical

INTRODUCTION energy plays a part in nearly every aspect
of modern technology. It provides light,
Electrical energy is a form of energy heat, and mechanical power. It makes
associated with electric charges (protons telephones, computers, televisions, and
and electrons). countless other necessities and luxuries
possible.
Electrical activity takes place constantly
everywhere in the universe. Electrical Electric charges can be stationary, as in
forces hold molecules together. The static electricity, or moving, as in electric
nervous systems of animals work by means current or current electricity.
of weak electric signals transmitted
between neurons (nerve cells). Electricity
is generated, transmitted, and converted
into heat, light, motion, and other forms of
energy through natural processes, as well
353
32 Electrical Energy Samking
NATURE OF STATIC AND

CURRENT ELECTRICITY ACTIVITY
1. Run a plastic comb several time through
Static electricity your hair on a dry day. Bring it close to
pieces of paper. What happens between
Static electricity is produced as a result of the comb and the pieces of paper?
attraction between oppositely charged
2. Rub a glass rod with silk or synthetic
particles. fibres of a paint brush. Electrons will be
It can be produced by rubbing together two transferred from glass rod to the
objects made of different materials. synthetic paint brush. This makes the
glass rod positively charged. Bring it
Electrons move from the surface of one close to bit of papers
object to the surface of the other if the
second material holds onto its electrons
more strongly than the first does. The
object that gains electrons becomes
negatively charged, since it now has more
electrons than protons. The object that
gives up electrons becomes positively
charged.
For example, if a plastic comb is run
through clean, dry hair, some of the
electrons on the hair are transferred to the
comb. The comb becomes negatively
charged and the hair becomes positively
charged.
The following materials are named in

decreasing order of their ability to hold
electrons: rubber, silk, glass, flannel, and
fur (or hair). If any two of these materials
are rubbed together, the material earlier in
the list becomes negative, and the material Fig. 70.4: (A) Charged comb and (B) rod attracting
later in the list becomes positive. The pieces of paper
materials should be clean and dry.
354
Lightening roof. These rods form a low-resistance path

Lightening is caused by charges between for the lightning discharge and prevent it
clouds or between a cloud and the ground, from travelling through the structure itself.
resulting in atmospheric electrical Power lines and radio sets with external
discharges. aerials are protected against lightning by
Clouds normally become charged as they lightning arresters that consist of a small
rub against each other. The charges give gas-filled gap between the line and ground
rise to relative potential difference between wire.
the clouds and the earth. Since the clouds This gap offers a high resistance to
and the earth are of different charges, they ordinary voltages.
attract each other, which is seen as
lightening. This explains the fact that
lightening is caused by electrostatics.
The flow of electricity from one discharge
point to another also produces a sound
wave heard as thunder. Lightening is seen
before thunder is heard. This is because
light travels faster than sound.
Fig. 70.6: Lightning conductor
Current electricity
An electric current is the movement of
electrons through a conductor.
Fig. 70.5: Lightening

When two objects with different charges
touch and redistribute their charges, an
Protection from lightening
electric current flows from one object to
Lightening could be dangerous; for this
the other until the charge is distributed
reason tall buildings are protected from
according to the capacitances of the
lightning by providing them with metallic
objects.
lightning rods, extending to the ground
from a point above the highest part of the
355
If two objects are connected by a conductor

such as a copper wire, then an electric
current flows from one object to the other
through the wire.
Electric current can be demonstrated by
connecting a small light bulb to an electric
battery by two copper wires. When the
connections are properly made, current
flows through the wires and the bulb. Solar cell
causing the bulb to glow.
Electric current in measured in ampere Fig. 70.7: Sources of electric current
(Amp or A). And the instrument used to
measure it is an ammeter. Types of electric current
(Direct and alternating currents)
Sources of electric current
 Cells – dry and wet cells Direct current
 Generators Direct current is the current that flows in
 Solar cells one direction only.
 Electrolytic cells
 Hydroelectric power Direct current is used in most battery-
powered devices. An example of direct is
the current in a battery-powered torchlight.
Alternating current
This is the current that flows back and
forth, reversing direction again and
again.
Alternating current is used in most devices

Generator dry cell that are plugged in to electrical outlets in
buildings.
Properties of electric current

Other properties that are used to quantify
and compare electric currents are the
Electrolytic cell electromotive force and resistance.
356
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
Electric circuit is the path of an electric
current.
The term is usually taken to mean a
continuous path composed of conductors
direct current alternating current and conducting devices and including a
source of electromotive force that drives
Table 7.1: Differences between direct and
the current around the circuit.
alternating currents
Direct current Alternating current
Closed and open circuits
Flows in one direction Alternates – flows in
forwards and
A circuit in which the current flows freely
backwards. is called a closed circuit. This circuit has a
Does not induce emf Induces emf in other load (resistor), a source of emf and a turned
in other materials in a materials with a on switch or key.
magnetic field magnetic field
Produces a magnetic Produces a magnetic
Open circuit
field with constant field with alternating
size and polarity size and polarity A circuit in which the current path is not
continuous is called an open circuit. This
Electromotive force (emf) circuit either has a break or the switch is
Electromotive force is the force that drives turned off.
current through a conductor. It is
commonly referred to as voltage. Emf is A short circuit is a closed circuit in which
measured with a voltmeter, in voltage (V). a direct connection is made, with no
appreciable load (resistance, inductance, or
Resistance capacitance) between the terminals of the
Resistance is the opposition to the flow of source of electromotive force.
current in a circuit. Electric resistance is
measured in Ohm (Ω). In an electrical or
electronic system, resistance is dependent
on the number of resistors in the system.
The type of resistor that varies or
continuously changes the resistance or
current in a circuit is called a rheostat (or
variable or adjustable resistor). Fig. 70.8: A simple electric circuit
357
Circuit symbols Resistors in series

When two or more resistors are in series in
a circuit, the total resistance may be
calculated by adding the values of such
resistances as below.
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 etc
where R1, R2 and R3 are the number of

resistors in the circuit.
Fig. 70.9 For example, calculate the total resistance

of the circuit below.
Series and parallel arrangement of
components in circuits
Series arrangement
A series circuit is one in which the devices
or elements of the circuit are arranged in
such a way that the entire current passes
through each element without division. Solution:
In other words the components are RT = R 1 + R2 + R3
arranged in a straight line with the same 2+4+5
current flowing through each component in RT = 11 
sequence.
Parallel arrangement
In a parallel circuit, electrical devices, such
as incandescent lamps or the cells of a
battery, are arranged to allow all positive
(+) poles, electrodes, and terminals to be
joined to one conductor, and all negative
(-) ones to another conductor, so that each
Fig. 80.0: Series arrangement unit is on a parallel branch.
The value of two equal resistances in

parallel is equal to half the value of the
358
component resistances, and in every case 1 1 1 1

= + +
the value of resistances in parallel is less 𝑅𝑇 3 4 1
than the value of the smallest of the
1 4+3+12 19
individual resistances involved. = =
𝑅𝑇 12 12
𝑅𝑇 12
= = 0.632 
1 19
Series-parallel arrangement
Many electrical circuits are both series and
Fig. 80.1: Parallel arrangement
parallel providing a complete path from the
power supply.
Resistors in parallel
To determine the total resistance of
If the resistors are in parallel, the total
resistors in a series-parallel circuit, first
value of the resistance in the circuit is
calculate those in series using the series
given by the formula
formula, then calculate those in parallel
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 using the parallel formula and then finally
= + + etc add the two answers together to get your
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
total resistance.
where R1, R2 and R3 equals the number of
resistors in the circuit.
Example
What is the total resistance of the circuit
below?
Fig. 80.2: Series-parallel arrangement
NB: In a circuit containing a voltmeter and

an ammeter, the ammeter is connected is
Solution series while the voltmeter is connected in
1 1 1 1 parallel.
= + +
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
359
V = 3V, R = 10
CALCULATING CURRENT 3
(OHM’S LAW)  I= = 0.3 A
10
2. Josh wished to find the resistance of an

Current flows in an electric circuit in
electric bulb and set up a circuit as
accordance with several definite laws. The
shown below.
basic law of current flow is Ohm's law,
named for its discoverer, the German
physicist Georg Ohm.
Ohm's law states that the amount of

current flowing in a circuit is directly
proportional to the potential difference
and inversely proportional to the total
The voltmeter reading was 9V. The
resistance of the circuit.
resistance of the bulb was 6Ω.
(a) What would be the reading on the
Expressed by the formula:
ammeter?
𝑽 (b) He then added a 4Ω resistor in series.
I= Find the reading on the ammeter now.
𝑹
(c) If the 4Ω resistor was added in parallel
Where I is the current in amperes (A), V is to the lamp. What would be the reading
the electromotive force in volts (V), and R on the ammeter?
is the resistance in ohms ().
Ohm's law applies to all electric circuits; Solution

𝑉
for both direct current (DC) and alternating (a) I = V = 9V, R = 6Ω
𝑅
current (AC). 9
I= = 1.5A
6
Example
(b) When a 4Ω resistor is added in series,
1. An electric circuit has a cell of 3V with
total resistance
three resistors of total resistance 10Ω. RT = R1 + R 2
What is the current in the circuit? = 6 + 4 = 10Ω
9
I= = 0.9A
Solution 10
𝑉
I=
𝑅
360
(c) If the 4Ω resistor is added in parallel, 2

I = = 0.25A
the total resistance 8
1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2
Electric power
1 1 1
= + For an electrical device to work or
𝑅𝑇 6 4
produce, it must get power.
1 2+3 5
= =
𝑅𝑇 12 12 Power is the energy used or produced per
𝑅𝑇 12 unit time (second).
= = 2.4  𝑬
1 5 P= 𝒕
9 The unit of power is watt (W).
I= = 3.75A
2.4
In relation to current, voltage and
3. Three cells of emf 2V and negligible
resistance, power is expressed as:
internal resistance are connected in
 P = VI
series with an ammeter, two resistors of
 P = I2R
resistance 2Ω and Ω and a key.
𝑉2
(a) Draw a circuit diagram for the  P=
𝑅
connection above.
(b) Calculate the current that flows where P = power in watt (W)
through the circuit. V = voltage in volt (V)
I = current in ampere (A or Amp)
Solution R = resistance in ohm ()
(a)
Example
1. A mobile phone has a 4V battery. If the
current passing through the phone is
1.2A, what is its power?
Solution
P = VI V = 4V, I = 1.2A
𝑉
(b) I = P = 4 X 1.2
𝑅
V = 2V P = 4.8W
R = 2 + 6 = 8Ω
361
2. An electric iron is rated 240V, 1000W. are using and consequently the amount you
Calculate: have to pay the power company.
(a) the current
(b) the resistance Cost of electricity supply
Energy is power used over a length of time.
Solution It is measured in joules. One joule is the
𝑃
(a) P = VI  I=𝑉 equivalent of one watt of power, used for
one second of time.
P = 1000W, V = 240V In electricity, energy is measured in watt
1000
I= = 4.167A hour (Wh) or the kilowatt hour (kWh).
240
That is the power used over one hour.
For example, a 60-watt bulb will burn 60
𝑉2 𝑉2
(b) P = R= Wh in an hour, or 1 Wh per minute. A
𝑅 𝑃 1000W electric cooker would burn 1 Wh in
240 2 1/1000 hour.
R= = 57.6Ω
1000 The power company has a fixed charge for
every kWh of electricity used. To calculate
Alternative method the cost of electricity used by an appliance,
𝑃 multiply its wattage by the total time it was
P = I2R  R =
𝐼2 used and the fixed charged.
P = 1000W, I = 4.167A
1000 For example, if the cost of every kWh =
R = = 57.6 Ω Gh¢ 0.1, then the cost of electricity = the
4.167 2
power (kW) X time (in hour) X Gh¢0.1.
Power rating of electrical appliances
Examples
Electrical appliances have ratings based on 1. An electric pressing iron of 750 W is
the amount of power they operate on. For used for 10 minutes, calculate the cost
example an electric light bulb and electric of usage if 1 kWh costs Gh¢ 0.2.
stove rated 20W and 750W respectively,
use 20 and 750 watts of power. Solution
750
Power = 750 W = 1000 = 0.75 kW
It is essential to know how much power an
appliance consumes when using it, since it 10
will determine the amount of energy you Time = 10 minutes = 60 = 0.167 hour
362
Charge per kWh = Gh¢ 0.2. Power rationing methods

 Cost of electricity = 0.75  0.167  0.2 1. Use energy saving appliances.
= Gh¢ 0.0251 2. Switch off appliances that are not being
used.
2. Calculate the total amount a user of a 3. Use appliances when necessary.
television set rated at 60 W is 4. Try opening the windows to let in fresh
supposed to pay if it is user for 8 hours air instead of air conditioning or fan.
a day for two weeks, assuming 1kWh 5. Turn off electric lights during the day.
is equal to Gh¢ 0.2. 6. Do ironing and washing (with machine)
in bulk.
Solution 7. Make sure the refrigerator doors are
Power = 60 W = 0.06 kW well closed.
Time = 8 x 14 (two weeks) = 112 hours
Charge per kWh = Gh¢ 0.2. SOURCES OF ELECTRIC
POWER GENERATION
Cost of electricity = 0.06  112  0.2
= Gh¢ 1.344 There are several different devices,
systems and principles by which electrical
Power rationing energy can be generated. Some methods or
The introduction of energy saving sources of electric power generation are:
appliances (such as energy saving bulbs) to
replace the traditional power wasting Hydro-electric power
appliances (e.g. Incandescent bulbs), is a In many countries, hydroelectric power is
step in the right direction. Power rationing the dominant source of electric power
enables minimum power to be used at a which comes from dammed water. A dam
time. If electrical energy is misused, there generates electricity by releasing a
will come a time when there will be no controlled flow of high-pressure water
more. Imagine a world without electrical from a reservoir through a channel called
energy; everything will be at a standstill, the penstock, where it spins turbines that
and that will send our world back to the turn the generators, producing an electric
prehistoric era. current. The current then passes through a
step up transformer, which changes it
from a large current at a low voltage to a
small current at a high voltage. This
current then goes over transmission lines to
363
a substation, where the voltage is reduced accidents nuclear energy is inexpensive

for customers. The water exits the dam and creates no air pollution.
through a draft tube.
Solar energy
Energy from the sun can be harnessed to
produce electricity. Specially designed
panels collect energy from sunlight and
convert it directly into electricity. The solar
panels contain semiconducting materials.
When light strikes the material, electrons
move from one layer of the material to
A hydroelectric dam another, forming an electric current.
Geothermal energy Wind energy

Geothermal energy plants generate Another environmentally friendly source of
electricity and heat by harnessing the heat electrical energy is the wind energy.
energy contained within the earth. The Wind turbine generators are used to
earth transfers its energy to deep-lying convert wind power into electrical energy.
circulating water, which the plants access They consist of a variety of components;
with wells and pumps. Geothermal energy the rotor converts the power of the wind to
is attractive because it creates almost no the rotating power of the shaft; a gearbox
environmental pollution. However, the increases speed and a generator converts
number of sites where geothermal energy the shaft power into electrical power.
can be economically extracted is limited.
Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy is the
energy released during the splitting or
fusing of atomic nuclei. Nuclear power is a
controversial energy source. This is
because radioactive substances released
during accidents at nuclear power plants
has caused deaths and environmental
damage. However, in the absence of Fig. 80.3: A windmill farm
364
Tidal energy How the transformer works

Another form of waterpower in electric Transformers have the ability to transform
power generation is tidal energy. The or change voltage and current to higher or
incoming tide of the river flows through a lower levels. Transformers do not create
dam, driving turbines, and then is trapped power from nothing. If a transformer
behind the dam. When the tide recedes, the increases the voltage of a signal it reduces
trapped water is released and flows back its current, and if it cuts the voltage of a
through the dam, again driving the signal it raises its current. In other words,
turbines. Such tidal power plants are most the power flowing from a transformer
efficient if the difference between high and cannot exceed the incoming power.
low tides is great
Biogas
Biogas is a mixture of methane and carbon
dioxide produced by decomposing organic
matter such as human or agricultural waste.
The energy generated from biogas is
mostly used for domestic purposes.
Thermal energy
Thermal energy is generated by burning
petroleum products such as oil, natural gas,
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and other Fig. 80.4: A Transformer
highly flammables substances.
Types of transformers
POWER TRANSMISSION Transformers are categorized based on
their turns ratio; that is the ratio of the
Transformers
number of windings of the primary and
A transformer is a device that consists of
secondary coils. This is expressed as:
two coils wound around a common 𝐼𝑠 𝑛𝑝
magnetic or laminated core. When the =
𝐼𝑝 𝑛𝑠
current through one coil (the primary
winding) changes, a voltage is induced in where Ip and Is are the current in the
the other winding (the secondary winding). primary and secondary coils and
365
np and ns are the number of turns in the into high voltage. They have more turns on
primary and secondary coils. the secondary coil than on the primary coil.
Current is proportional to voltage, Step-down transformers – These type

therefore when the voltage is given it can of transformers convert high voltage into
be written as low voltage. Step-down transformers have
𝑉𝑠 𝑛𝑠 more turns on the primary coils than on the
=
𝑉𝑝 𝑛𝑝 secondary coils.
where V is the voltage or potential Power distribution

difference. In Ghana, Volta River Authority (VRA)
generates and initiates the transmission of
Example power to various homes; but they do not do
The primary coil of a step-up transformer that directly.
has 80 turns. What is the total number of
turns needed in the secondary coil if the The power coming from VRA is as high as
transformer is needed to turn a 12V to 400 kV or 400,000 V. This large amount of
240V? energy is transmitted to Ghana Grid
Company Limited, who has a series of
Solution transformers which step down the voltage
𝑉𝑠 𝑛𝑠 to about 30 kV, and then passes it on to
=
𝑉𝑝 𝑛𝑝 Electricity Company of Ghana.
240 𝑛𝑠
= Heavy industries which have huge
9 80
240  80 = 9ns machineries may use the 30kV energy,

while smaller industries may go in for
ns = 2133.3 turns
about half or less. The maximum voltage
used by household appliances is 240V,
The ratio of primary to secondary therefore ECG, with their numerous inter-
determines a transformers voltage ratio. city transformers bring the voltage way
down for use at homes, offices, schools etc.
The types of transformers are
Step-up transformers – The type of
transformers used to convert low voltage
366
Fig. 80.5: An electrical network
Home wiring contain fuses. An additional cable, called

The electricity which gets to our houses is the earth, accompanies the two cables to
carries by a thick overhead or underground the individual sockets in the house.
cable. This cable called live, though
contains all the needed energy, however Wiring of a plug
cannot work alone. A supporting cable The mains supply is at 240V A.C. Three
called neutral, which is earthed at the connections are made at the usual domestic
transformer, and thus has no potential, supply socket, labelled live (L), neutral (N)
accompanies the live wire to the individual and earth (E)
houses. Connection to domestic supplies is made
In the house, both cables pass through a by a three-pin plug; either the British
meter (provided by ECG), get through the Standard (BS) type or the International
main switch and then the fuse box, which
367
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) type of it conforms to modern requirements for

connector shown opened in fig. 80.6 insulation).
below.
The BS plug is designed so that shutters Table 7.2: Wire colour codes
within the socket are raised only when the Live Neutral Earth
plug is correctly inserted. In some cases the Modern Brown Blue Green/
yellow
earth wire is ignored, especially when the Old colours Red black Green
appliance the plug connects to has a plastic
casing. In this case there can be no
How to correctly wire a plug
connection with the outer body of the  The cable is firmly held and clamped
appliance and the main circuitry. without damaging the insulation or the
conductors
 All connections are tight with no loose

strands of wire; the ends of the cable
can be coated with solder to prevent
loose strands from separating, but the
soldered end should not be used for
clamping because the wire is more
brittle and will loosen off after some
time.
 The wires should be cut to length so

that the live lead will break and pull
free before the earth lead if there is
Fig. 80.6: The wiring of a plug
excessive force on the cable. The
design of some plugs can make this
Wire colour code
very difficult, and you should select
Each of the wires used in the connection
plugs that permit the use of a live lead
are colour coded. Table 7.2 below lists the
that will pull out before the earth lead
colour coding of the wire connections to
becomes strained.
the plug. Although it is many years since
the coding colours were changed, older
equipment can still be found bearing the
older colours (and any such equipment
should be checked carefully to ensure that
368
PROTECTIVE DEVICES IN
HOUSEHOLD WIRING
Fuse
One important component in household
and plug wirings is the fuse.
A fuse is a piece of soft wire that melts,
breaking a circuit if the current exceeds a C D
certain level.
Fuses are placed in series with the live wire

or transformer primary (in the case of
transformers). Any component failure,
short circuit, or overload that might cause
catastrophic damage (or fire) will burn the
fuse out. Fuses are easy to replace.
If a fuse blows, it must be replaced with

another of the same rating. If the E
replacement fuse is rated too low in Fig. 80.7: Different Types of fuses (A and D–
ceramic fuses; B-glass fuse; C and E plug fuses)
current, it will probably blow out right
away, or soon after it has been installed. If
the replacement fuse is rated too high in Circuit breakers
current, it might not protect the equipment. The circuit breaker does the same job as
fuses, except that a breaker can be reset by
The standard fuse ratings for domestic turning off the power supply, waiting a
equipment are 3 A, colour coded red and moment, and then pressing a button or
13 A, colour coded brown. flipping a switch. Some breakers reset
automatically when the equipment has
been shut off for a certain length of time.
A B
Fig. 80.8: Air circuit breaker
369
Stabilizers
The voltage from the power company can
sometimes surge or become more than
normal. In situations like that appliances
which require minimum or regular voltage
can breakdown. Voltage (or power) surge
can hardly be prevented, but it destructive
impact on electrical appliances can be
avoided. This can be achieved through the
use of voltage stabilizers.
Voltage stabilizers are devices used to Fig. 80.9: A voltage stabilizer

maintain constant voltage through an
electric system.
TEST QUESTIONS
Earthing 1. (a) Explain in terms of electron

Another protective measure in household movement what happens when a
wiring and the wiring of appliances with plastic comb is used to rub the hair.
metal casing is earthing. The earth wire is (b) Describe how lightening occurs.
a special wire, so named because it
connects to the earth or ground. 2. (a) State the functions of the following
components of an electric circuit;
When using devices with metal casing, i. battery
sometimes the live wire might accidentally ii. switch
touch the casing sending current to the case iii. resistor
which can harm the user. (b) Distinguish between current
The earth wire is thus connected to the electricity and static electricity.
metallic casing so that in case there is a
malfunction in the circuit and the casing of 3. (a) Resistors 2Ω and 6Ω are connected
the appliance is earthed or becomes live, in (i) parallel and (ii) series to a 1.5
that current in the casing will be sent to the V cell. Calculate the current
earth or ground-ward, thereby preventing flowing in each arrangement
the user from injury or harm. (b) An electric appliance is rated 240V,
750W. Calculate
(i) the current
(ii) the resistance
370
4. (a) Discuss how electric power reaches done in parallel.

your home from a hydro-electric
power station. 9. (a) State the Ohm‘s law.
(b) An ammeter, a cell of 8 V and two (b) Calculate the current that passes
resistors of resistances 4  and 5 through an electric light bulb, a
are connected in series. A television set and a fan connected
voltmeter, V, is then connected in parallel with resistances 3Ω, 10Ω
across the 4 resistor. and 6Ω, respectively, given that the
(i) draw a circuit diagram to voltage from the mains is 240V.
illustrate the arrangement.
(ii) calculate the current in the 10. (a) Define the term electric power.
circuit. (b) List five ways of conserving
electric power.
5. (a) What is a direct current as used in
electricity? 11. Describe the following sources of
(b) An electric furnace operating on electric power:
200 V, uses 3 kW of power . ` (a) hydroelectric power;
calculate the current that flows. (b) solar energy;
(c) thermal energy;
6. (a) What is an electric current? (d) wind energy;
(b) State four source s of electric
current. 12. (a) Describe how a transformer works.
(c) Mention three differences between (b) differentiate between a step-up and
direct current and alternating a step-down transformer.
current. (c) The primary coil of a step-down
transformer has 200 turns. calculate
7. (a) What is an electric circuit? the total number of turns needed in
(b) Distinguish between an open circuit the secondary coil if the
and a closed circuit. transformer is needed to turn a 240
V to 24 V in a laptop adapter?
8. (a) Explain the following arrangements
of electric components: 13. Describe the importance of the
(i) series arrangement; following devices:
(ii) parallel arrangement. (a) fuse;
(b) Explain why household wiring is (b) stabilizer
371
(c) earthing. iv) Z.
14. An electric kettle is rated 1000 W, 17. Fig. 2a is an illustration of an electrical

240V circuit used to investigate the
a) Explain the above statement. relationship between the potential
b) Calculate the maximum current difference, v, and length, L, of a wire.
the kettle can draw.
15. (a) Draw and label a diagram of a step-

up transformer.
(b) How do step-up and step-down
transformers differ.
16. Fig. 3 below is an illustrated of a part
of the human body.
The potential difference V = V1 across

the corresponding length, L = L1, of the
wire was determined. The experiment
was repeated for various lengths, L2, L3,
a) i) Identify the components labelled L4 and L5 of wire and their
Y, Z, X1, P, Q and RH. corresponding potential difference V2,
ii) State the unit of measurement of V3, V4 and V5 were read.
readings on Y and Z. Fig. 2b represents the potential
b) Describe briefly the arrangements of difference V = V1, V2, V3, V4 and V5 and
all the components in the circuit. Fig 2c represents the length L = L1, L2.
c) Give the direction of the conventional L3, L4 and L5 of the wire.
current when the circuit is closed.
d) State one function each of
i) RH;
ii) Q;
iii) Y;
372
(a) (i) Measure and record the length,

L = L1, L2, L3, L4 and L5
(ii) Read and record the
corresponding potential difference ,
V = V1, V2, V3, V4 and V5.
(iii) Tabulate results obtained in (i) and
(ii) as shown below.
V/V Fig. 3(a): ammeter sowing actual reading
L/cm in amperes
(b) Plot a graph with potential

difference, V, on the vertical axis and
the length, L, of wire on the horizontal
axis.
(c) (i) Determine the slope of the graph.
(ii) State the relationship between the
potential difference, V, and Fig. 3(b); Voltmeter showing actual
length, L, of the wire. reading in volts
a) Read and record the ammeter readings

18. I = I1, I2, I3, I4 and I5 and their
corresponding voltmeter readings V =
V1, V2, V3, V4 and V5 in the table
below.
b) i) Plot a graph with V as ordinate and

I as abscissa.
The diagram above is an identical
ii) Draw the best line through your
circuit used to investigate a certain
points. From your graph, state your
scientific law. Fig. 3 (a) shows five
relationship between V and I.
ammeter readings, while fig. 3(b)
shows the corresponding voltmeter
readings take during an investigation of
a law.
373
33
ELECTRONICS II
Specific Objectives CONDUCTOR, INSULATOR AND

After completing this chapter, you will be able to: SEMI-CONDUCTORS
 Classify solid materials into conductors,
insulator and semi-conductors.
 Explain the formation of P-type and N-type Conductors
semi conductors.
 Describe the formation of a P-N junction diode.
An electrical conductor is a substance
 Explain the behaviour of a P-N junction diode in that allows electricity to flow through it
a d.c. and a.c. electronic circuits. easily.
In such substances, the electrons are

mobile and can move freely from one atom
to another. In a circuit conductors are used
to connect various components together.
INTRODUCTION
The best conductor at room temperature is
A simple electronic circuit consists of three silver. Copper and aluminium are also
classes of solid materials – conductors, excellent electrical conductors. Iron, steel,
insulators and semi-conductors. In some and various other metals are fair to good
materials, electrons move easily from atom conductors of electricity.
to atom. In others, the electrons move with In most electrical circuits and systems,
difficulty and in some materials, it is copper or aluminium wire is used. Silver is
almost impossible to get them to move. All impractical because of its high cost.
these three materials are essential in Some liquids are good electrical
building circuits – whether simple or conductors. Mercury is one example. Salt
complex. water is a fair conductor.
Gases are, in general, poor conductors of
electricity. This is because the atoms or
molecules are usually too far apart to allow
374
a free exchange of electrons. But if a gas components such as capacitors, where it is

becomes ionized, it is a fair conductor of important that electrons not flow.
electricity. Porcelain or glass can be used in electrical
Electrons in a conductor do not move in a systems to keep short circuits from
steady stream, like molecules of water occurring.
through a tap. Instead, they are passed from These devices come in various shapes and
one atom to another right next to it. This sizes for different applications. You can
happens to countless atoms all the time. As see them on high-voltage utility poles and
a result, literally trillions of electrons pass towers. They hold the wires up without
a given point each second in a typical running the risk of a short circuit with the
electrical circuit. tower or a slow discharge through a wet
wooden pole.
Semi-conductors
These materials have the property of a
conductor and an insulator. They allow
some electrons to move through them
Fig. 90.0: Movement of electrons in a conductor while preventing the movement of others.
Examples of such materials are silicon,
Insulators selenium, germanium, gallium arsenide,
Insulators are substances that prevent silicon carbide and metal oxide.
electrical currents from flowing.
A pure semiconductor is often called an
Most gases are good electrical insulators. intrinsic semiconductor. The electronic
Glass, dry wood, paper, and plastics are properties and the conductivity of a
other examples. Pure water is a good semiconductor can be changed in a
electrical insulator, although it conducts controlled manner by adding very small
some current with even the slightest quantities of other elements, called
impurity. Metal oxides can be good dopants, to the intrinsic material. In
insulators, even though the metal in pure crystalline silicon typically, this is
form is a good conductor. achieved by adding impurities of boron or
Insulators keep electrical charges apart, phosphorus to the melt and then allowing
preventing the flow of electrons that would the melt to solidify into the crystal.
equalize a charge difference between two This process is called doping. Semi-
places. Excellent insulating materials can conductors are used in making diodes,
be used to advantage in certain electrical
375
transistors, integrated circuits (ICs),

P-N JUNCTION DIODE
resistors etc.
FORMATION
When a P-type and N-type semiconductor

P-TYPE AND N-TYPE SEMI-
regions are adjacent to each other, they
CONDUCTORS
form a semiconductor diode, and the region
P-type semi-conductors of contact is called a P-N junction.
These are semiconductors which has most
of the charge carriers being protons. A diode is a two-terminal device that has a
This means that there are more positively high resistance to electric current in one
charged particles in P-type semiconductors direction but a low resistance in the other
than negatively charged electrons. direction.
A P-N junction diode will only allow
N-type semi-conductors current to flow in one direction. The
These are semiconductors possessing more electrons from the n-type material can pass
negatively charged electrons as charge to the right through the p-type material, but
carriers that the positively charged protons. the lack of excess electrons in the p-type
material will prevent any flow of electrons
In a semiconductor, the more abundant to the left.
type of charge carrier is called the majority The conductance properties of the P-N
carrier. The less abundant kind is known junction depend on the direction of the
as the minority carrier. Hence in P-type voltage, which can in turn be used to
semiconductors, the majority carrier is control the electrical nature of the device.
protons and the minority carrier is Series of such junctions are used to make
electrons whereas the inverse is true for N- transistors and other semiconductor
type semiconductor. devices such as solar cells, P-N junction
lasers, rectifiers, and many others.
Fig. 90.1: P-N Semi-conductor Fig. 90.2: A P-N junction diode
376
By doping the same silicon semiconductor

DOPING
with boron, an electron is donated in order
Doping refers to the addition of impurities to fit neatly into the structure. The site
to a semiconductor. which is now missing an electron
represents a positive charge, and therefore
The addition of impurities adds charge the doping is p-type.
carrying elements to the semiconductor.
Types of doping
The two classes of doping are p-type and
n-type doping.
N-type doping: This is the type of doping

in which negative charged carriers
(electrons) are introduced to the
semiconductor.
For example, in silicon, each atom has four Fig. 90.4: P-type doping
valence electrons; two are required to form
a covalent bond. In n- type silicon, atoms Doping becomes important when p-doped
such as phosphorus (P) with five valence and n-doped materials are connected to
electrons replace some silicon and provide form a diode.
extra negative electrons.
BEHAVIOUR OF A P-N
JUNCTION DIODE
The most important property of a junction

diode is its ability to pass an electric
current in one direction only. If the diode is
connected to a simple circuit consisting of
a battery and a resistor, the battery can be
connected in either of two ways.
Fig. 90.3: N-type doping
Forward bias
P-type doping: This is the type of doping When the p-type region of the p-n junction
in which positive charge carriers called is connected to the positive terminal of the
holes are introduced to the semiconductor. battery, current will flow. The diode is said
377
to be on or under forward bias. As the

RECTIFICATION
forward bias voltage is increased, the
current through the junction becomes Rectification is the process of converting
greater. an alternating current to direct current.
A device known as a rectifier, which

permits current to pass in only one
direction effectively blocking its flow in
the other direction, is inserted into the
circuit for the purpose.
Fig. 90.5: Forward biased p-n junction diode
Reverse bias
When the battery terminals are reversed,
the p-n junction almost completely blocks
the current flow. This is called reverse
bias.
As the reverse voltage is increased, the
current is reduced to almost zero. Fig. 90.7: A rectifier diode
However, a very small reverse current does
flow. Half-wave rectification
This is the type of rectification where only
half of the alternating current signal is
rectified or converted to direct current
signal.
The other half is blocked off or lost. A
half-wave rectifier is used to achieve half-
wave rectification. In contrast to half-wave
Fig. 90.6: Reverse biased p-n junction diode rectification is full wave rectification
where all the signal or current in the circuit
If the diode is not connected at all, it is said is converted or rectified.
to be open-circuited and no current can
flow through the diode.
378
TEST QUESTIONS
1. Describe the properties of the

following materials:
(a) conductor
(b) insulator
(c) semi-conductor
2. (a) Differentiate between p-type and

n-type semi-conductors.
(b) Describe the formation of p-n
junction diode.
3. (a) Define the term doping.

(b) Describe how p-type and n-type
doping are achieved.
379
34
SOUND ENERGY
Sound energy is instead measured in

Specific Objectives decibels (dB). The measurement of sound
 Explain the sources and nature of sound. energy is related to its pressure; hence it
 Describe musical notes and distinguish can also be measured in pascal (Pa)
musical notes from noise.
 Identify the parts of the human ear and
describe their functions.
SOURCES OF SOUND
Humans and animals hear different sounds

because as the sound (vibrations) enters the
ear, the ear also vibrates.
INTRODUCTION All sounds come from something that
vibrates. If you bang on a drum, the top of
Sound energy is a form of energy that is
the drum vibrates. When you talk, the
associated with vibration of matter.
vocal chords in your throat vibrate.
Sound originates from the vibrations that

Sources of sound
result after an object applies a force to
The sources of sound are categorised based
another object. It is a physical phenomenon
on the mode of production of a particular
that stimulates the sense of hearing.
sound. It is perceived that every object that
Although sound is a form of energy, it is
produces sound is an instrument.
not measured in joule like the other forms
Hence the sources of sound are categorized
of energy. This is because the amount of
as:
energy in a sound wave is far smaller and
1. stringed instruments
cannot be transformed into other energy
2. percussion instruments
forms.
3. wind instruments
380
34 Sound Energy Samking
Stringed instruments
These are instruments which use the
vibration of strings in air to produce sound.
Examples of stringed instruments are harp,
guitar, banjo and violin, etc.
Percussion instruments
These are instruments which produce
sound as a result of the vibration of the
skin or surface when struck.
Examples are drums, xylophone, gong, bell
etc.
90.9: A drummer
Wind instruments
These are instruments which vibrate the air
around them to produce sound. NATURE OF SOUND
Examples are flute, trumpet, organ, Sound waves require a medium such as air
accordion etc. or water in order to be heard. Therefore
sound waves are classed as mechanical
waves.
Mechanical waves
Mechanical waves are waves which need
Guitar Talking drum
material medium for their transmission.
They are in two types – transverse waves

and longitudinal waves. In both cases, only
the energy of wave motion is propagated
through the medium; no portion of the
medium itself actually moves very far.
Gong Trumpet
Transverse waves
Fig. 90.8: Musical instruments
In transverse waves, the material through
which the wave is transmitted vibrates
381
perpendicular to the wave’s forward Since sound is a mechanical (longitudinal)

movement. wave, it needs a material medium for its
As a simple example, if a rock is thrown transmission. That is sound cannot travel
into a pool of water, a series of transverse through a vacuum (a completely empty
waves (ripples) moves out from the point space).
of impact. A cork floating near the point of
impact will bob up and down. That is, Experiment to show that sound needs a
move transversely with respect to the material medium for its transmission
direction of the wave motion.  Enclose an electric bell in a bell jar.
 Connect the bell jar to a vacuum
Longitudinal waves pump.
These are waves propagated in the same  Switch on the electric bell.
direction in which the particles of the  While the bell is ringing, use the
medium vibrate.
vacuum pump to suck the air from the
A sound wave is a longitudinal wave. As
bell jar.
the energy of wave motion is propagated
 This causes the sound of the bell to die
outward from the centre of disturbance, the
down.
individual air molecules that carry the
sound move back and forth, parallel to the  An observer may see the bell ringing,
direction of wave motion. Thus, a sound yet will not hear any sound.
wave is a series of alternate increases and
decreases of air pressure. Each individual Conclusion
molecule passes the energy on to This shows that sound needs a material
neighbouring molecules, but after the medium for its transmission.
sound wave has passed, each molecule
remains in about the same location.
Fig. 90.9: Sound waves in different instruments Fig. 100.0
382
Table: Differences between electromagnetic Amplitude

waves and mechanical waves Amplitude is the maximum displacement
Electromagnetic Mechanical waves of vibrating or distorted particle from it
waves
Travel in a vacuum Travel through
mean or equilibrium position.
material media
Travel in straight lines May travel in straight It is the characteristic of sound waves that
lines or branch off
Have high velocities Have low velocities
humans perceive as volume. The amplitude
Have high Have low frequencies corresponds to the distance that air
frequencies molecules move back and forth as a sound
Always transverse May be transverse or
longitudinal wave passes through them. As the amount
of motion in the molecules is increased,
Similarities between electromagnetic they strike the ear drum with progressively
waves and mechanical waves greater force. This causes the ear to
1. They can both be polarised. perceive a louder sound.
2. They can both be interfered and
diffracted. Wavelength
3. They can both be reflected and Wavelength is defined as the distance
refracted. between two successive crests or troughs.
Characteristics of sound It can also be defined as the distance

The characteristics of sound are: between any two refractions or
1. Frequency compressions.
2. Amplitude The distance at which a sound can be heard
3. Wavelength depends on its wavelength. The
wavelength of sound is the average rate of
Frequency flow of energy per unit area perpendicular
Frequency is the number of cycles or to the direction of propagation.
oscillations a sound wave makes per Wavelength is measured in metre (m).
second.
We perceive frequency as low or high

sounds. Frequency is measured in hertz
(Hz). One hertz is equal to one cycle per
second. Fig. 100.1
383
Speed of sound in gases

VELOCITY OF SOUND
The speed of sound in dry, sea level air at a
Velocity of a sound wave is the product of temperature of 0 °C is 332 m/s. The speed
frequency and wavelength. of sound in air varies under different
This is expressed mathematically as: conditions. If the temperature is increased,
for example, the speed of sound increases;
velocity = frequency  wavelength thus, at 20 °C, the speed of sound is 344
Or m/s.
v=f
The speed of sound is different in other
The unit of velocity is metre per second gases of greater or lesser density than air.
(ms-1). The molecules of some gases, such as
The velocity or speed of sound varies from carbon dioxide, are heavier and move less
one medium to another. The velocity of readily than molecules of air. Sound
sound in a medium depends mostly on its progresses through such gases more
density and elasticity. slowly. Conversely, sound travels through
helium and hydrogen faster than through
Speed of sound in solids air because the molecules of helium and
Solids, which have greater density and hydrogen are lighter than the molecules of
elasticity, allow sound waves to travel air.
through them much faster than liquids,
which also provide relatively faster speed Comparison of velocity of light and sound
for sound waves than gases. In comparison to light, sound waves travel
For example, the speed of sound in copper slower than light, this is the reason why if
is about 3,350 m/s at normal temperatures. you watch an action at a distance, you see
In steel, which is even more elastic, sound that action before hearing the
moves at a speed of about 4,880 m/s. accompanying sound.
Sound is propagated very efficiently in
steel. Examples
1. In a medium, a wave of sound has a
Speed of sound in liquids frequency of 32 Hz and a wavelength
The speed of sound in water is slightly less of 40 m. Find the velocity of the wave.
than 1,525 m/s at ordinary temperatures,
almost five times as fast as in air. Solution
v=f
384
f = 32 Hz,  = 40 m In polar (cold) regions, where the air close

v = 32 x 40 = 1,280 ms-1 to the ground is colder than air that is
higher, a rising sound wave entering the
2. What is the wavelength of sound which warmer less dense region, (in which sound
has a frequency of 95 Hz and a speed moves with greater speed), is bent
of 1800 ms-1? downward by refraction. The excellent
reception of sound downwind and the poor
Solution reception upwind are also due to refraction.
v=f
f = 95Hz, v = 1800 ms-1
𝑣 1800
=𝑓= 95
= 19.94 m
3. A sound wave travelling at a velocity

of 3,000 ms-1 has a wavelength of 20m.
Calculate its frequency.
Solution
v=f
v = 3000ms-1,  = 20m
𝑣 3000 Fig. 100.2: Refraction of sound during the day and
f=𝜆= = 60Hz
20 at night
Refraction of sound waves Reflection of sound waves

Refraction of sound is the bending of a This is the bouncing back of a sound
sound wave from its original path when it wave when it hits a hard surface.
travels from one medium into another.
This means that sound waves obey the
When sound travels from hot air to cold air fundamental law that the angle of
or from cold air to hot air it will refract. On incidence equals the angle of reflection. An
a hot day the air near the ground is hot so echo is the result of reflection of sound.
the sound wave bends upwards from the A megaphone is a funnel-like tube that
hot air into the cold air forms a beam of sound waves by reflecting
some of the diverging rays from the sides
of the tube. A similar tube can gather
385
sound waves if the large end is pointed at 5. Bats use echoes to find their way
the source of the sound; an ear trumpet is around in the dark.
such a device. 6. Dolphins communicate with each other
through echoes.
7. It is used to find lost objects at sea.
8. It is also used in medical procedures to
assess for blockages in the heart.
9. Ultra-sonic echoes are used to
determine the size of a baby in the
womb
Disadvantage of echo
In a big hall or auditorium, echoes interfere
with the original sound making it difficult
to hear.
Fig. 100.3: Reflection of sound
Echo MUSICAL NOTE AND NOISE

An echo is the continuous sound heard Musical note is produced by sound waves
after the original sound is reflected by a of regular frequencies.
hard smooth surface.
The shorter the time-lapse between the At its simplest, music consists of a short,
original sound and the echo, the smaller the unaccompanied melody, known as
distance. monophony.
Uses of echo Properties of music

1. An echo can be used to estimate the
1. Pitch
distance of an object, its size, shape and
Pitch is the highness or lowness of a
velocity, as well as the velocity of
musical tone as determined by the speed
sound itself.
of the vibrations producing it.
2. It is used to determine the depth of sea
Changes in pitch are as a result of
bed.
difference in frequency at which the sound
3. It helps in oil and gas exploration.
wave vibrates.
4. Echoes are used to estimate the
thickness of polar icecap.
386
2. Quality or timbre The Doppler Effect

The quality of a musical note Doppler Effect is the apparent variation
distinguishes one musical note from in frequency of any emitted wave as the
others of the same pitch or loudness. source of the wave approaches or moves
It is referred to as the colour or texture of away, relative to an observer.
the note.
Doppler Effect explains why, if a source of
3. Loudness or volume sound of a constant pitch is moving
Loudness is the strength with which an towards an observer, the sound seems
instrument or a musical note is played. higher in pitch, whereas if the source is
If one strikes a drum gently, it produces a moving away it seems lower. This change
sound with a specific loudness and pitch. If in pitch can be heard by an observer
the same drum is struck harder, it will listening to the whistle of an express train
produce a louder sound but same pitch. from a station platform or another train.
Noise Applications of Doppler Effect

Noise is produced by sound waves of 1. It is used in radar speed detector used
irregular frequencies or different pitches. by traffic police for checking speed.
2. It is used to calculate the relative
Unlike music, noise produces no harmony, motion of the earth and stars.
and is often very unpleasant to listen to. 3. It is used to determine approaching or
The production of noise is mostly receding sounds.
unintended and may come from different 4. It is used in weather forecasting
sources such as moving vehicles, aircrafts, 5. It helps bats find their way around
machines, rainfall on roofing sheet etc. when flying in the dark.
Table Differences between musical note and noise

Musical note Noise
THE HUMAN EAR
Produces by sound of Produced by sound of The human ear contains receptors which
regular frequency irregular frequency
Produces harmony Produces no harmony are sensitive to sound vibrations in the air.
Its production is It production is It consists of three sections: the outer,
intentional unintended
middle, and inner ear.
Pleasant to listen to Unpleasant to listen to
Produced from Produced from
specific sources diverse sources
387
Fig. 100.4: The human ear
The outer ear which connects to the mouth cavity. The

The outer ear is a tube opening on the side ear-drum is linked to the oval window, (a
of the head and leading inwards to the ear- small opening in the skull), of the middle
drum. At the outside end is an extension of ear by ossicles (three small bones –
skin and cartilages called pinna, which malleus, stapes and incus or anvil) which
helps to concentrate and direct the lead to the inner ear.
vibration into the ear and assists in judging
the direction from which the sound came. The inner ear
In the innermost end of the outer layer is The inner ear is filled with fluid and
the ear-drum, a membrane of skin and fine contains a coiled tube known as the
fibre which stretches across and closes the cochlea, with sensory endings in it. Sound
outer ear. vibrations are converted to nervous
impulses in the inner ear.
The middle ear
This part of the ear is an air-filled cavity in
the skull. It contains the Eustachian tube,
388
How humans hear pitched sound stimulates the cochlea

 Vibrations in the air are made up of hairs close to the oval window, while
sound waves entering the outer ear low-pitched sounds stimulate hair
and cause the ear-drum to vibrate. further up the spiral.
 The vibration is transmitted through
the three ossicles, which act as levers d) The tiny hairs in the cochlea may be
damaged by very loud sound, resulting
and cause the staples to vibrate
in partial deafness.
against the oval window, increasing
the vibration by about 22 times.
e) Another characteristic of sound
 The movement of the staples set the
detected by the human ear is tone. The
fluids in the inner ear to vibrate,
ability to recognize tone enables
particularly in the cochlea.
 Nerve impulses are transmitted from humans to distinguish a violin from a
guitar when both instruments are
the cochlear to the brain through the
playing the same note.
auditory nerves.
 The brain interprets the nerve
f) The least noticeable change in tone that
impulses as sound. These actions are
can be picked up by the ear varies with
very quick. pitch and loudness.
Effects of loudness and pitch on Masking

humans In noisy places, high-pitched sounds make
a) Human ears are capable of perceiving it difficult to hear lower-pitched sound.
an extraordinarily wide range of This is known as masking. To overcome
changes in loudness. The softest the effects of masking in noisy places,
audible sound to humans is 0 decibels, people are forced to raise their voices.
while painful sounds are those that rise
above 140 decibels. Earring aids
b) Beside loudness, the human ear can To amplify sound waves, special devices
detect a sound‘s pitch, which is related are used. Megaphones are used to address
to a sound‘s vibration frequency; the small groups of people while microphones
greater the frequency, the higher the fitted to amplifiers are used to reach a large
pitch. crowd of people.
Stethoscopes are used by doctors to listen
c) Different parts of the cochlea respond to heartbeat, and a person suffering from
to different pitches of sound. High-
389
partial deafness will require a hear trumpet

TEST QUESTIONS
to hear well. Radio waves are modulated
with sound and transmitted across the 1. Mention three examples of each
world. These devices improve hearing. of the following sources of sound:
(i) stringed instruments;
There are some situations when sounds (ii) wind instruments;
(especially noise) have to be reduced or (iii) percussion instruments.
snuffed out. When using electronic
devices, it is easy to turn down the volume 2. (a) What are mechanical waves?
to an appreciable level. (b) Distinguish between longitudinal
and transverse waves.
In some other cases the sound or noise
cannot be controlled, especially noise from 3. Describe an experiment to show that
machines or vehicles. These sounds can be sound needs a material medium for its
reduced with ear-muffs and ear plugs. They transmission.
absorb some of the sound energy so that
less noise reaches the ear, keeping it from 4. (a) Define the term velocity of sound.
damage. (b) A sound wave moving at a velocity
of 800 ms-1 possesses a wavelength
of 110 m. Calculate its frequency.
5. Explain the following terms:

(a) reflection of sound;
(b) refraction of sound.
megaphone ear trumpet 6. Define the following terms as applied

to sound waves:
(a) amplitude;
(b) frequency;
(c) wavelength.
7. Explain the following components of

music:
(a) pitch;
earmuffs earplugs (b) quality;
Fig. 100.5: Hearing aids
(c) loudness.
390
8. Differentiate between: 12. Describe the following parts of the

(a) Pitch and loudness human ear:
(b) Loudness and quality of sound (a) outer ear;
(b) middle ear;
9. (a) What is Doppler Effect? (c) inner ear.
(b) State four applications of Doppler
Effect. 13. Describe the hearing mechanism in
humans.
10. (a) What is an echo?
(b) Mention four uses of echo. 14. What is the effect of high pitch sound
on humans?
11. Draw and label the structure of the
mammalian ear.
391
35
NUCLEAR ENERGY
Specific Objectives RADIOACTIVITY

 Describe the nature of radioactivity. Radioactivity is the spontaneous
 Describe the nature and uses of radioisotopes.
disintegration of unstable atomic nuclei to
 State the uses of nuclear energy\outline ways for
protecting people from the effects of form stable nuclei with the emission of
radioactivity. radiations.
 Outline the problems associated with disposal of
nuclear waste.
Types of radioactivity
Natural radioactivity – This is the type of
radioactivity produced when naturally
occurring unstable nuclei disintegrate with
the emission of radiations.
INTRODUCTION
Artificial radioactivity – This is the
Nuclear energy is the energy controlled bombardment and disintegration
released during the splitting or fusing of of unstable nuclei using nuclear particles to
atomic nuclei. form stable nuclei with emission of
radiations.
The energy of any system, whether
physical, chemical, or nuclear, is The radiations released during radioactivity
manifested by the system‘s ability to do are:
work or to release heat or radiation. The 1. alpha particle,
total energy in a system is always 2. beta particle and
conserved, but it can be transferred to 3. gamma rays
another system or changed in form.
392
35 Nuclear Energy Samking
Characteristics of the radiation 3. They are not deflected by either

emitted during radioactivity magnetic or electric fields.
4. They have very high penetrating
Alpha particles (α) power.
1. They are made up of helium atoms. 5. They have no charge (neutral).
2. Alpha particles are positively charged 6. They have lower ionizing power.
(+2). 7. They have no mass.
3. They have mass number of 4 and 8. They do not undergo fluorescence.
atomic number of 2 ( 42He)
4. They consist of two protons and two Summary of the characteristics of the radiations
neutrons. Characteristic Alpha Beta Gamma
Particles Particles rays
5. They have no electron. (α) (β) ()
6. They have small deflection in a
magnetic field. Speed Slow Fast Very fast
Charge Positive Negative Neutral
7. They are relatively slow-moving. Mass Very Heavy No mass
8. They have very high ionizing power. heavy
9. They have low penetration power. Penetration Low High Very high
power
10. They undergo high fluorescence.
Ionization Very high High low
power
Beta particles (β) Electric and Small Big No effect
1. They consist of a stream of electrons. magnetic
field effect
2. They are negatively charged ( −10e). Fluorescence High Low Non
3. Beta particle move fast.
4. They have high ionizing power.
5. They have high penetrating power.
6. They are deflected by magnetic and
electric fields.
7. They are lighter than alpha particles.
8. They undergo low fluorescence.
Gamma rays (γ)

1. Gamma rays have a very short
wavelength (0.0005 to 0.1 nm) Fig. 100.6: Penetration power of the radiations
2. They have a very high velocity (equal
to that of light, 3.0 x 108 ms-1)
393
Similarities between alpha and beta  238 4 234

92U → 2He + 90Th
particles
i. They are both charged. Beta particles
ii. They can both ionize gas. When a beta particle is ejected, a neutron
iii. They are both deflected by electric in the nucleus is converted to a proton, so
and magnetic field, the mass number of the nucleus is
iv. They both have masses. unchanged, but the atomic number
v. They both undergo fluorescence. increases by one unit.
Nuclear reactions Example

Alpha particle 1. 205X  −10e + 206Y
When an alpha particle is ejected from a
nucleus, the mass number of the nucleus 2. Find the values of x and y in the
decreases by four units and the atomic nuclear reaction below:
y
x Pb  −1e + 83 Bi
number decreases by two units. 214 0
Examples Solution
1. In alpha disintegration of Radium -226 x = 83 - 1 = 82
to form Radon: y = 214 – 0 = 214
88 Ra  2He + 86 Rn
226 4 222
Gamma rays
2. Copy and complete the following alpha The emission of gamma radiation results
disintegration of Uranium -238 to form from an energy change within the atomic
Thorium: nucleus. Gamma emission changes neither
238
the atomic number nor the atomic mass.
U → 2He + 90Th Alpha and beta emission are often
accompanied by gamma emission, as an
Solution excited nucleus drops to a lower and more
 The mass number of thorium is 90. stable energy state.
Since uranium had to lose 2 atomic
numbers, its total atomic number Half-life (t½)
= 90 + 2 = 92 Half-life is defined as the time taken for
 The mass number of helium atom = 4 half the number of radioactive nuclei to
 Also, uranium had to lose 4 units of its undergo disintegration.
mass number to form thorium;
Hence 238 – 4 = 234
394
The time rate at which a radioactive change

NATURE AND USES OF
takes place is usually expressed by the time
RADIOISOTOPES
required for the decay or disintegration of
one-half of the atom. Radioisotope is an isotope that has an
The half-life of P is 2 years means out of a unstable nucleus and emits radiations
given mass of P half of it will did integrate during its decay to a stable form.
in 2 years.
For example, the most stable isotope of
Nuclear fission and fusion uranium, U-238, has an atomic number of
Nuclear fission is the splitting up of a 92 and mass number of 238. U-235, has
heavy nucleus into two smaller nuclei with three fewer neutrons, also with an atomic
the release of large amount of energy. number of 92 but mass number of 235. The
chemical behaviour of U-235 is identical to
Nuclear fusion is the combination of two all other forms of uranium, but its nucleus
light nuclei under high temperature to is less stable, giving it higher radioactivity
produce a heavy nucleus and high amount and greater susceptibility to the chain
of energy. reactions that power both atomic bombs
and nuclear fission reactors.
Stable and unstable atoms
A stable atom is the one whose probability Uses of radioisotopes
of undergoing disintegration is so small 1. Food preservation or irradiation
that no decay of the atom is observed. Food irradiation is a method of treating
food in order to make it safer to eat and
An unstable atom is the one which has a have a longer shelf life. This is done by
tendency to disintegrate to form a new either slowing down or eliminating the
atom of different element actions of disease-causing microorganisms
or those that cause spoilage
Causes of instability
Radioactive atoms have large atomic
numbers. There is therefore a large number
of protons. Hence, the force of repulsion
within the nucleus is so great that the atom
disintegrates so as to become a stable atom.
Fig. 100.7: Food treatment with radioisotopes
395
2. Medicine d) Used to gauge the moisture content

a) It is used to studying the cellular of soil in the road construction and
functions and bone formation in building industries
mammals. e) Used in mining to analyze materials
b) It is used to treat cancerous excavated from pits
tumours. f) Used to test the integrity of pipeline
c) Used to measure correct patient welds, boilers and aircraft parts
dosages of radioactive g) Used to detect explosives
pharmaceuticals h) Used to locate leaks in industrial
d) Used in research in red blood cell pipe lines
survival studies i) Used as fuel for nuclear power
e) Used as a tracer to diagnose plants
pernicious anaemia
f) Used in cancer treatment 4. Education and Research
g) Used to sterilize surgical a) Important aid to biomedical
instruments researchers studying the cellular
h) Used to diagnose thyroid disorders functions and bone formation in
and other metabolic disorders mammals.
including brain function b) Helps in research to ensure that
i) Different chemical forms are used potential new drugs are
for brain, bone, liver, spleen and metabolized without forming
kidney imaging and also for blood harmful by-products.
flow studies. c) Used in research in red blood cell
survival studies
3. Industry d) Used in protein studies in life
a) Used to measure and control the science research.
liquid flow in oil pipelines e) Used in survey meters by the
b) Used to ensure the right fill level military and emergency
for packages of food, drugs, and management authorities.
other products. (The products in f) Major tool for biomedical research
these packages do not become
radioactive.) 5. Agriculture
c) Used to ensure uniform thickness in a) They are used to treat disease
rolling processes like steel and resistant varieties of crops.
paper production b) Used to improve crop yield
396
c) Used to obtain information about the availability and quality, reduce production
nutrition values of plants costs and minimize pollution of food crops.
d) Used to sterilize male tsetse fly to
discourage the rise in tsetse fly Human Health
population One very common application is in the
treatment of cancer (radiotherapy). Also,
3. Other uses small amounts of radioisotope tracers are
a) Used in many smoke detectors for used for diagnostic and research purposes.
homes and businesses The radioisotopes aid in measuring the
b) Used to inspect airline luggage for concentration of various enzymes, some
hidden explosives drugs, hormones and many other
c) Used in indicator lights in substances that are present in the human
appliances such as clothes washers blood. These techniques have also helped
and dryers, stereos, and in monitoring the levels of toxic substances
coffeemakers in food, air and water.
d) Helps fluorescent lights last longer
e) Used to produce fluorescent
glassware, a variety of coloured
glazes and wall tiles
USES OF NUCLEAR ENERGY
Nuclear energy is one of the safest energies

that can be used to achieve many desired
results, provided it is used safely with due
precautions. The following are some of its
uses. Fig. 100.8: Radiotherapy treatment
Food and Agriculture Sterilization

The use of isotopes and radiation Gamma emissions can be used for the
techniques in agriculture comes under this sterilization of medical supplies like
category. Leading organizations have been cotton, bandages, gloves used for surgery,
working on the technology to increase syringes, burn dressings, etc.
agricultural production, improve food
397
Tracing Pollutants Use in Space

Radioisotopes can be actively used for Both fission and fusion of nuclear power is
tracing the pollutants present in air. The actively used in providing power for the
dangerous residues of the radioisotope missions in space. It generates high
present even in small amounts in air can be velocities that increase the speed of
very harmful to humans (can cause health rockets. This high generation of velocity is
effects such as kidney disease, etc.). due to the higher density reactions that take
Hence, the tracing quality helps to detect place and is around 7 magnitudes more
the residue easily, thereby ensuring a than the chemical reactions, which is used
healthy and safe environment. to power the current generation of rockets.
Detecting Leaks in Pipelines Generating Electricity

The gamma rays emitted by radioactivity With so many different uses, the use of
can be used to check welds of gas and oil nuclear energy for the production of
pipelines. In this the radioactive source is electricity is the most important. The
placed inside the pipe and the film outside energy released by the fission that takes
the welds. This being convenient, can place in a nuclear reactor of the nuclear
successfully be used in place of X-ray power plant is converted and generated
equipment, which was earlier used to into electricity.
detect leakage in pipelines.
Advantages of Nuclear Energy
Power Sources 1. It is a very reliable source of energy.
While decaying, radioactive elements emit The average life span of a nuclear
lots of energy which is used to control the reactor is approximately 40 years
heart pacemaker. This energy also provides which can be extended up to 60 years.
power to the beacons and satellites used for 2. Nuclear power stations are usually very
navigation. compact compared to thermal stations.
3. Although the initial capital cost of
Determination of Age (carbon building a nuclear plant is high, the
dating) maintenance and running costs are
Another interesting use of the nuclear relatively low.
energy is that it can be used by 4. It produces very less amount of
archaeologists, geologists and pollution (when no accident occurs).
anthropologists in determining the age of
structures, rocks, insects, bones, etc.
398
5. Very small amount of raw material is 8. There are a number of restrictions on

required to generate huge amount of the export or import of nuclear
nuclear energy. technology, fuels etc.
6. Since they are required in small 9. Nuclear power stations are always at
quantities, atomic materials can be risk from terrorist attack.
easily transported to far-off places. 10. Proliferation of nuclear technology
7. If nuclear power stations are operated increases the risk of nuclear war.
up to their full capacity they can 11. The waste produced remains 'active'
produce cheap electricity and gain from over many years and disposing it safely
other benefits of nuclear energy. is an issue which needs to be addressed
8. The quantity of nuclear waste produced properly.
is relatively small. 12. Nuclear power is not a renewable
source of energy.
Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy
1. Radioactive minerals are unevenly
EFFECTS OF RADIOACTIVITY
distributed around the world and are
found in limited quantities. The unit used to measure radiation dosage
2. Supply of high quality uranium, one of is the rem, which stands for roentgen
the raw materials, will last only for few equivalent in man. It represents the
decades. amount of radiation needed to produce a
3. Nuclear waste from nuclear power particular amount of damage to living
plant creates thermal (heat) pollution tissue. The total dose of rems determines
which may damage the environment. how much harm a person suffers.
4. Disposal of nuclear waste is a major Doses above 100 rems cause the first signs
problem. of radiation sickness including:
5. There is the danger of accidental a) nausea
discharge of radioactivity. b) vomiting
6. Starting a nuclear plant requires huge c) headache
capital investment and advanced d) diarrhoea
technology. e) fever
7. Nuclear plants are opposed on moral f) some loss of white blood cells
grounds, by many groups, because of g) miscarriage in pregnant women
their close linkage with development of
nuclear weapons. Doses of 300 rems or more cause
h) loss of hair
399
i) burns 5. Assess radioactive materials

j) damage to nerve cells and the cells through the use of robots and other
that line the digestive tract remote-controlled devices.
k) leukaemia (cancer of the blood) 6. Keep the body away from
l) lung cancer radioactive devices.
m) thyroid cancer, breast cancer, and
cancers of other organs can appear due
NUCLEAR WASTE DISPOSAL
to the radiation received.
n) severe loss of white blood cells, which After their usage mostly for energy
are the body's main defence against production, nuclear wastes must be properly
infection; this makes radiation victims disposed of because of the following
highly vulnerable to disease. dangers and health risks posed to humans
o) Radiation also reduces production of and the environment:
blood platelets, which aid blood  Toxic - nuclear materials are poisonous
clotting, so victims of radiation or unhealthy if ingested, inhaled, or
sickness are also vulnerable to touched.
haemorrhaging.  Corrosive - nuclear materials cause
significant damage to other materials
Half of all people exposed to 450 rems die, that come in contact with them.
and doses of 800 rems or more are always  Radioactive - they emits radiation
fatal. which may cause harm to living tissue
 Explosive/Heat Risk - the materials
Protection from the effects of may explode under certain
radiation circumstances, or is significantly
As of yet, there is no effective treatment exothermic (i.e. produce heat on their
for radiation exposure. It is hence ideal to own)
protect oneself against it.  Chemically Reactive - the materials are
The following are some protective prone to producing volatile, toxic, or
measures to undertake: other dangerous compounds when
1. Wear protective clothing always. exposed to the normal environment.
2. Spend less time at the radiation area or  Militarily Valuable - nuclear materials
device. have military value; that is, they are
3. Have medical checks regularly. important ingredients in creating some
4. Wear protective shields. weapons.
400
Problems associated with nuclear reactive), or stored in special

waste disposal chemically inert, sealed containers.
The major problem of nuclear waste is 6. Militarily valuable materials must
what to do with it. In fact, one of the either be guarded from theft, or
biggest (and perhaps the single biggest) reformulated into materials that are
expenses of the nuclear power industry impractical for making into a weapon.
could eventually be the storage of nuclear
waste. Currently there are several ways in Other effective methods of disposing of
which nuclear waste is stored. Most of nuclear wastes include:
these methods are temporary. In most cases 7. burying the wastes under the ocean
a viable long-term solution for waste floor,
storage has yet to be found. This is because 8. storing them underground
the time period for storage is so incredibly 9. shooting them into space
long, (on the order of thousands of years).
Proper nuclear waste disposal TEST QUESTIONS

1. Toxic materials must be either rendered
chemically non-toxic, or isolated from 1. (a) Explain the term radioactivity.
exposure to the environment. (b) Name the three radiations produced
2. Corrosive materials must be rendered by radioactivity.
chemically inert, or stored in special (c) Arrange the radiations named in (ii)
containers resistant to the corrosive in order of increasing penetration
effects. power.
3. Radioactive materials must be stored in
shielded containers until the amount of 2. (a) Differentiate between natural and
radiation emitted by the material is at a artificial radioactivity.
safe level. (b) Distinguish the characteristics of
4. Explosive and exothermic materials the radiations in terms of speed,
must either be chemically neutralized, penetration power and ionizing
or sealed in a non-reactive container power.
and isolated from any outside contact.
5. Chemically reactive materials must 3. (a) Explain the term radioisotope.
either be chemically destroyed (i.e. (b) List six uses of radioisotopes.
turned into a compound which is not
4. (a) Describe four uses of nuclear
energy.
401
(b) Mention four advantages and four 8. Describe the uses of radioisotopes in
disadvantages of nuclear energy. the following fields:
(a) food preservation;
5. (a) State five harmful effects of (b) medicine;
radioactivity. (c) education;
(b) List four ways of protecting oneself (d) industries;
from radiation. (e) agriculture.
6. (a) State four dangers of nuclear waste. 9. Describe the effects of radioactivity in
(b) Mention five ways of proper term of doses on humans.
disposal of nuclear waste.
10. How can nuclear energy be used for the
7. (a) Explain the term nuclear decay. following:
(b) Copy and complete each of the (a) treatment of diseases;
following radioactive reactions by (b) detecting leaks in pipes;
providing the missing mass and
(c) sterilization;
atomic numbers.
234 (d) electricity generation.
(a) 90Th → 91Pa + -1e
(b) 88Th →
222
Pa + 42He
11. Explain the problems associated with
nuclear waste disposal
402
36
MAGNETISM
Specific Objectives Magnetism or magnetic force is a force

After completing this chapter, you will be able to: which tends to attract certain materials.
 Distinguish between magnetic and non-
magnetic materials.
 Explain magnetic field This force is produced by the motion of
 Outline the processes of magnetization and electrons. Materials which are responsive
demagnetization
to magnetic forces are known as magnetic
materials and those which are not affected
by magnetic forces are referred to as non-
magnetic materials.
INTRODUCTION
MAGNETIC AND NON-
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
The phenomenon of magnetism has been
known since ancient times. The mineral
Magnetic materials
lodestone, an oxide of iron that has the
property of attracting iron objects, was Magnetic materials are elements which
known to the Greeks, Romans, and can be attracted by a magnet.
Chinese. When a piece of iron is stroked Examples of magnetic materials include
with lodestone, the iron itself acquires the iron, nickel, cobalt steel and alnico (an
same ability to attract other pieces of iron. alloy of aluminium, nickel and cobalt.
The magnets thus produced are
polarized—that is, each has two sides or Ferromagnetic materials are magnetic
ends called north-seeking and south- materials which can easily be magnetised
seeking poles. (i.e turned to magnets).
Examples include nickel, steel, cobalt, iron
etc.
403
36 Magnetism Samking
Testing for a magnet Temporary magnets

To test whether an object is a magnet, Temporary magnets are magnet from
bring it closer to a known of magnet. If it is materials that are easy to magnetize but
repelled by one of the poles then that lose their magnetism easily..
object is a magnet.
These are magnets made are from soft
Non-magnetic materials irons, such as iron rod or iron nails.
These are materials which are neither Temporary magnets have low retentivity
attracted nor repelled by a magnet. and thus lose their magnetism easily.
Examples of non-magnetic materials are Retentivity is the ability of a magnet to

plastic, copper, gold, wood, fabric etc. keep it magnetic property over time.
Law of magnetism Permanent magnets

The law of magnetism says that the like Permanent magnets are magnets from
poles of two magnets repel one another, ferromagnetic materials are difficult to be
and the unlike poles attract. magnetized, but once they are magnetized,
retain their magnetism for a long time.
This law means that when the same pole
(e.g. north-north) of two magnets are Permanent magnets have high retentivity.
brought together, they push each other Steel and alnico can be magnetized this
apart, whereas if different pole (north- way.
south) are brought together, they attract
each other. Characteristics of magnets
1. Magnets have two poles – north and
TYPES OF MAGNETS AMD south poles
THEIR USES 2. Like poles, such as North to North or
South to South poles repel each other.
Magnets are classified as temporary 3. Unlike poles, such as North to South
magnets and permanent magnets, based on attract each other.
the ferromagnetic material they are made 4. Magnets have magnetic lines of force
from. around them.
404
Uses of magnets is a coil of wire through which electric

1. Magnets are used in many electrical current, representing the sounds from the
and electronic appliances, such as distant telephone, flows. A thin diaphragm
microphones, television sets etc. of magnetic material is suspended from the
2. They are used in industries to lift inside edges of the magnetic ring so it is
pieces of iron. positioned between the magnet and the
3. They are used in refrigerator and coil.
freezer doors. The magnetic field created by the magnet
4. Magnets are used in loud speaker. changes with the current in the coil and
5. They are used in magnetic compass to makes the diaphragm vibrate. The
show directions. vibrating diaphragm creates sound waves
6. The index of minimum and maximum that replicate the sounds that were
thermometers is reset with a magnet. transformed into electricity by the other
7. They are used to remove pieces of telephone.
magnetic materials swallowed
accidentally or fallen into the eye.
8. Cobblers, shoemakers, seamstresses
and tailors use magnets to pick and
keep small nails, pins and needles.
9. Magnets are used to post information
on metallic (iron or steel) notice board
and refrigerators.
10. Cassettes, magnetic tapes (CDs and
DVDs) and floppy disks are coated
with a thin film of magnet. Fig. 100.9: Telephone earpiece
Function of magnet in a telephone

earpiece Function of magnet in a loud
A telephone set contains a receiver that speaker
amplifies sound from an incoming call. A loudspeaker is a device that converts an
The receiver of a telephone set is made electrical signal into sound. A solenoid is
from a flat ring of magnetic material with a placed inside a hollow, cylindrical
short cuff of the same material attached to permanent magnet and attached to a paper
the ring‘s outer rim. Underneath the or plastic cone that is held steady at the
magnetic ring and inside the magnetic cuff open end by a metal, plastic, or wooden
ring. When current flows through the
405
solenoid, the interaction between the

permanent magnet‘s magnetic field and the
solenoid‘s changing magnetic field causes
the solenoid to move, making the cone
vibrate.
When the cone vibrates, it produces the
original sound. The vibration of the cone is
proportional to the current in the solenoid,
which, in turn, represents the original
sound converted into an electric signal by
the microphone.
Fig. 101.2: Microphone
Function of magnet in magnetic

compass
A compass is an instrument that indicates
direction, used by mariners, pilots,
campers, hunters, and other travellers to
enable them to get from one place to
another. A magnetic compass indicates
direction by means of a needle pointing in
the direction of the magnetic North Pole. It
consists of a magnetized needle mounted
Fig. 101.1: Loud speaker on a pivot at the centre of a fixed graduated
card so as to permit the needle to swing
Function of magnet in a microphone freely in the horizontal plane.
A microphone is a device used to transform
sound energy into electrical energy. In
microphones, a thin metallic ribbon is
attached to a diaphragm and placed in a
magnetic field. When sound waves strike
the diaphragm and vibrate the ribbon, a
small voltage is generated in the ribbon by
electromagnetic induction.
Fig. 101.3: Magnetic compass
406
Function of magnet in electric metre conductor, a current will flow around the
Electric metres measure and indicate the circuit.
magnitude of electrical values such as
current, voltage, power etc. Metres use the
MAGNETIC FIELD
force existing between a magnetic field and
a pivoted, current-carrying coil within the Magnetic field is the region or area
field which causes an observable deflection around a magnet where magnetic effects
of the coil. Because the deflection is can be experienced or felt.
proportional to the current, a calibrated
scale is employed to measure the electric Magnetic field is often represented by
current. magnetic lines of force. The lines of force
are imaginary lines used to show the size,
Function of magnets in refrigerators strength and shape of the magnetic field.
When opening the door of refrigerators and
freezers, you will need to apply a little In a magnetic field, electrons move from
more effort to it than you will in opening the North Pole to the South Pole. The lines
an ordinary door of the same size. This is of force do not cross or run over each
because refrigerator doors are lined with other, and are closer and stronger at the
magnetic strips. These give refrigerators pole of a magnet.
air-tight closure.
Function of magnet in electricity

generation
When a conductor moves through the gap
between the poles of a magnet, the
negatively charged electrons in the
conductor will experience a force along the
length of the conductor and will
accumulate at one end of it, leaving Fig. 101.4: Magnetic lines of force
positively charged atomic nuclei, partially
stripped of electrons, at the other end. This Two adjacent magnets
creates a potential difference, or voltage, If two magnets are placed beside each
between the ends of the conductor. If the other, electrons will move from the North
ends of the wire are connected by a Pole of one magnet to the South Pole of the
other.
407
Demonstrating the effect of magnetic field

 Place a bar of magnet on a horizontal
surface.
 Sprinkle some iron filings on it.
 Note the pattern formed by the iron
filings around the magnet.
Fig. 101.5: Two magnets with unlike poles facing
If two bars of magnets are placed

horizontally with the like poles facing each
other, no lines of force pass through it
resulting in a zero point. This point is Fig. 101.7: Iron filings around a bar of magnet
known as the neutral point.
The earth’s magnetic field
The Earth‘s magnetic field is believed to be
generated by charged particles that
circulate in the Earth‘s liquid outer core,
along with forces caused by its rotation. An
electric current is generated, which in turn
creates a magnetic field.
Two like poles together repel The magnetic field protects the Earth by
deflecting high-energy particles from the
Sun. Without it, life on Earth would be
impossible.
The earth‘s magnetic field is tilted at angle
11o to the spin axis.
Unlike a bar of magnet, the Earth‘s North

Pole is actually the South Pole of a magnet.
This is why the compass needle always
points towards the north but not the south.
Fig. 101.6: Neutral point
408
 Connect the two opposite ends of the

wire to a power source (such as a
battery).
 Close the circuit for a short time and
then open it.
 Bring the magnetized material close to
other magnetic materials.
Observation
It would be noted that the magnetized
material attracts other magnetic materials.
Bring it close to a known magnet whiles
turning it around. It will repel or push
Fig. 101.8: The earth as a magnet away the magnet in one of the poles.
MAGNETIZATION AND
DEMAGNETIZATION
Magnetization
Magnetization is the process of turning a
magnetic material into a magnet.
There are various ways of magnetizing a

material based on the characteristics of the
ferromagnetic material and the type of Fig. 101.9: Electrical method
magnet expected. Some methods of
magnetization are:
The stroke method
The electrical method There are two methods of magnetizing a
 Wound a piece of insulated wire material using the stroke method – the
around the magnetic material (such as single stroke or touch and the double stroke
an iron nail). or touch.
409
The single stroke method  Stroke continuously from the middle

 Place the material to be magnetized to one end with the North Pole of a
(e.g. nail), on a horizontal surface. magnet.
 Stroke the North Pole of a known bar  Repeat the procedure with the South
of magnet continuously in the same Pole of the magnet to the other end of
direction on the magnetic material. the magnetic material.
 Turn the North Pole of the magnet
closer to the end of the nail where the Conclusion
stroking started. The nail would be This would result in the formation of
repelled. consequent poles in the middle of the
 Bring the magnet to the opposite end magnetic material as well as the ends.
of the nail; the nail gets attracted
strongly.
Conclusion
This shows that the end where the
stroking started is the North Pole while the
Fig. 102.1: Double stroke magnetization
other end is the South Pole.
Demagnetization
Demagnetization is the process by which a
magnet loses it magnetic properties.
In other words, the magnet will not be able

to attract magnetic materials nor repel
other known magnets.
Methods to demagnetize a magnet

Fig. 102.0: Magnetization by the stroke method
The electrical method
The double stroke method  Wound a magnet in an insulated wire.
 Put the magnetic material on a  Connect the ends of the wire to a power
horizontal surface. source.
 Close and open the circuit.
410
Heating 6. Electric motors work on the principle

 Heat the magnet to red hot of electromagnetism.
 Cool it quickly 7. They are used in generators.
8. They are used in metal detectors.
Hammering 9. Electromagnets are used in television
 Put the magnet on a hard surface. sets.
 Hammer it repeatedly for sometime
Dropping
 Drop or throw the magnet several times TEST QUESTIONS
on the floor.
1. (a) Define the term magnetism.
(b) Differentiate between the following
ELECTROMAGNETISM magnetic and non magnetic
When electric and magnetic forces are materials and give three examples
combined, a new phenomenon is created each.
known as electromagnetism.
2. Explain the following types of
Electromagnetism is produced when magnets:
electric current moves through a magnetic (a) temporary magnets;
field. (b) permanent magnets.
Magnets produced through 3. (a) Mention three characteristics of

electromagnetism, are very essential in the magnets.
functioning of many electrical and (b) List five uses of magnets.
electronic devices.
4. Describe the function of magnets in
Uses of electromagnets the following devices:
1. Electromagnets are used in relays and (a) telephone earpiece;
circuit breakers. (b) loudspeaker;
2. Loudspeakers used the principles of (c) microphone;
electromagnets. (d) refrigerator door.
3. They are used in telephone receivers
4. They are used in electric bells. 5. (a) What is magnetic field?
5. Electromagnetic clutches and breaks (b) Draw and label a diagram of a bar
in automobiles functions with it. of magnet showing the lines of
force around it.
411
(a) Define the term neutral point. 8. (a) What is demagnetization?

(b) Two bars of magnets are placed (b) Mention four ways of
with the same poles facing each demagnetizing a magnet.
other. Draw the lines of forces
around them and indicate the 9. (a) Define electromagnetism.
neutral point. (b) State five uses of electromagnets.
6. Describe the earth as a magnet.
7. (a) Define the term magnetization.

(b) Describe two methods of
magnetizing an iron nail.
412
37
FORCE, MOTION AND PRESSURE
Specific Objectives FORCE

 Define force and outline various types. A force is a push or pull on an object
 State the Archimedes Principle and the law of which causes it to change position or
flotation.
 Explain the terms, distance, displacement,
shape or speed.
speed, velocity, acceleration and momentum. Or
 Explain types of motion and the Newton’s laws of A force is an influence that changes the
motion.
 Define centre of gravity and distinguish between velocity of or deforms an object.
stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium.
 Explain moment of a force. Force is the product of mass and
 Define pressure and describe the effects and
application of pressure in solids, liquids and acceleration due to gravity (the earth‘s
gases. pull on an object).
Force = mass  acceleration due to gravity

OR
F = mg
INTRODUCTION
The unit of force is newton (N).
Have you tried to change the position or Force is a vector quantity, which means
shape of an object? If you have then you that it has both direction and magnitude.
probably pushed or pulled it. When you
apply a push or pull on an object, it causes When several forces act on an object, the
the object to move (sets it in motion), forces can be combined to give a net force
change shape (deforms) or change speed which is equal to zero. In this case the
(accelerate or decelerate). This action of object remains either motionless or moves
pulling or pushing the object is referred to at a constant velocity.
as a force.
413
37 Force, Motion and Pressure Samking
Categories of forces
There are different types of forces, and
they can be collectively classified as
contact and non-contact forces.
Contact force
These are the forces between two or more
objects which are in contact with each
other.
Examples are frictional force, viscosity,
tensional force etc.
Non-contact or field force Fig. 102.3: A stationary block with a number of

forces acting on it
These are the forces which are between
objects which are not in contact or
touching. Coefficient of friction
Examples are gravitational force, magnetic To determine the amount of friction
force, electrostatic force etc. between two bodies, we find the coefficient
of friction (µ), given mathematically as:
Types of forces
𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝑭)
Coefficient of friction (µ) =
Frictional force 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝑹)
This is the force which opposes relative

motion between objects or surfaces which Examples
are in contact. 1. A mug of weight 20 N rests on a table.
To investigate the effect of friction, take a If a static frictional force of 30 N acts
brick and slide it on a surface. The brick on it, find it coefficient of friction.
moves a short distance and then stops. This
is because the surface applies a force on it Solution
𝐹
which slows it down until it finally comes Coefficient of friction () = 𝑅
to a halt.
Frictional force (F) = 30 N
The friction between stationer bodies is Normal force (R) = W = 20 N
called static friction, whiles the one 30
20 
between moving bodies is referred to as
dynamic friction.
414
2. An object of mass 50 kg is placed on a Gravitational force (force of gravity)

rough horizontal floor. If the object is This is the force that pulls all objects
moved by the application of a towards the surface of the earth.
horizontal force of 320 N, calculate the Take a piece of stone and throw it
(a) Force exerted by the floor on the vertically upwards. What happens? The
object stone moves at a height up and then falls
(b) Coefficient of friction back down. The stone behaves that way
[take g = 10 ms-2] because the earth exerts a force on it which
pulls it towards the surface of the earth.
Solution The force of gravity (g) on earth has a
(a) Normal force (R) = weight (W) value of 9.8 ms-1; approximately 10 m s-1.
W = mg = 50 x 10 = 500 N
R = 500 N Weight
Weight is the effect of gravity on a body.
𝐹 When the body rests on a surface, the force
(b) Coefficient of friction () = 𝑅
of gravity and the mass of the body gives it
320
 500 weight.
Weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity
Normal force Or
This is an upward force which is exerted W = mg
on an object by the surface it rests on.
The normal force is equal the weight of the Viscosity
Viscosity is the force which prevents
object.
motion in fluids.
It is also referred to as fluid friction. If you
Magnetic force
move an object through a thick liquid, the
This is the force possessed by some objects
object moves at a slower rate as opposed to
(magnets) which tends to attract other
the object moving in the air. This is
objects (magnetic materials).
because thick fluids are more viscous,
As we discussed earlier, magnets have two
while thin fluids are less viscous.
poles – north and south poles. Like poles
repel each other and unlike poles attract
Electrostatic force
each other.
This is the force which exists between two
When electricity is introduced in the
bodies with opposing charges.
magnetic field, an electromagnetic force is
Electrostatic force can be demonstrated by
produced.
rubbing a plastic comb in the hair (which
415
gives it a negative charge) and using it to centrifugal force which pulls the earth from
attract pieces of positively charged paper. the sun (centre of rotation).
Another example of electrostatic force is
lightening, which occurs as a result of the
attraction between the negatively charged
crowds and the positively charged earth.
Tensional force
This is the force that exists in a stretched
material.
Materials such as springs and ropes
become stretched when their ends are
pulled in the opposite directions; this is
because of the tensional force existing in Fig. 102.4: Centripetal and centrifugal force
them.
Upthrust
Centripetal force Upthrust is the upward force that prevents
This is the force that pulls a rotating a floating body from sinking to the bottom
object towards the centre or axis. of a fluid.
For example, supposing a ball is tied to a Take an inflated ball and try forcing it
string and swung around in a circle at a under water. The ball forces it way
constant velocity. The ball moves in a upwards no matter how much force you
circular path because the string applies a apply to it. This is because the water
centripetal force to the ball. applies a force which keeps the ball from
sinking into it.
Centrifugal force
This is the force which keeps and object ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE AND
in a circular path pulls it away from the THE LAW OF FLOATATION
centre of rotation.
Take for instance the earth, which revolves The Archimedes’ principle states that a
round the sun. As it moves round, body immersed in a fluid displaces an
Gravitational force from the sun attracts it. amount of the fluid which is equal to its
However, the reason why the earth does weight.
not crush into the sun is because of
The Archimedes‘ principle explains what
happens to an object which is totally or
416
partially immersed in a fluid. The body  Calculations

experiences an upthrust which pushes it out  Weight of object in air = W1
of the fluid.  Weight of object in water = W3
A body in a fluid has two main forces  Loss of weight of object = W1 – W3
acting on it – its weight and upthrust. If the  Weight of empty beaker = W2
upthrust is greater than or equal to the  Weight of beaker and water = W4
weight of the body, it will float. On the
 Weight of displaced water = W4 – W2
other hand, if the weight of the body is
greater than the upthrust, it will sink either
Observation
fully or partially based on the amount of
It would be observed that the loss in
fluid it displaces.
weight of object W1 – W3 equals the
An experiment to verify Archimedes’ weight of displaced water = W4 – W2
Principle W1 – W3 = W4 – W2 = upthrust of the
 Tie a thread to a solid object such as a (object)
piece of stone.
 Wrap the thread around the hook of a Conclusion
This concludes that the amount of fluid
spring balance, and hence determine
displaced by an object equals its weight.
the weight of the stone in air as W1. This is known as the law of flotation.
 Fill a Eureka can with water and allow
it to stop dripping from the spout.
 Place a beaker of known weight W2
under the spout of the Eureka can.
 Gently lower the solid object hanging
on the spring balance into the water in
the Eureka can.
 When the object is fully submerged,
record the reading on the spring
balance as W3.
 Allow the water dripping into the
beaker from the spout of the Eureka
can to stop.
 Record the weight of the beaker and
the water as W4. Stone suspended on spring balance
417
Examples The law of flotation

A solid weighs 250 N in air and 170 N The law of flotation states that a floating
when fully immersed in water. Calculate body displaces its own weight of the fluid
the it floats in.
(a) weight loss of the solid;
(b) upthrust of the solid; The higher the density of the body, the
(c) volume of the solid; further it sinks. But, the higher the volume,
(d) mass of the solid; the higher it floats. Remember, density is
(e) density of the solid. equal to the ratio of mass and volume.
(f) Why is the weight of solid in air Therefore, by increasing the volume of the
greater than that in water? body, its density lessens, though its mass
[take g = 10 m s-2] remains the same.
Solution Applications of Archimedes’

(a) Weight of solid in air W1 = 250 N principle and the law of flotation
Weight of solid water W2 = 170 N
Weight loss of solid = W1 – W2 The flight of birds
= 250 – 170 = 80 N Birds have streamline bodies, which allow
them to move through the air with little air
(b) Upthrust = weight loss = 80 N resistance. In flight, birds extend their
wings; this increases their volumes
(c) Volume of the solid = weight of increasing their upthrusts or the upward
displaced water = volume of displaced force of the air under their wings, making
water = 80cm3 them less dense than the air around them;
thus being able to float.
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔 𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 250
(d) Mass = = = 25g
𝑔 10 The flight of aeroplanes
The principle underlying the design of
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 25
(e) Density = 𝑣𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 80 = 0.3125gcm-3 aeroplanes was discovered from birds.
Aeroplanes have wings so in flight air
(f) This is because a part of the weight of builds up under the wings giving them the
the solid is used to overcome upthrust lift upwards. They are also hollow; this
exerted by the water. increases their volumes, thereby making
them less dense than the surrounding air.
This causes them to afloat in the air. The
heavier the aeroplane, the higher it should
418
be so as to allow more air pressure under weight. Ships normally have Plimsoll line
the wings to increase it volume and reduce which indicates the safe-depth to which
its density. they should sinks. If they are supposed to
sink further, they are given more loads to
increase their weight or density and vice
versa.
Operation of submarine
Submarines have the ability to submerge in
water and also rise up to the surface. For a
submarine to sink, water is pumped into its
Fig. 102.5: Wing of an aeroplane ballast tanks, increasing its average
density. For it to afloat, air is pumped into
Boats in water the ballast tanks to displace the water and
Boats float in water because their hollow decreasing its average density, hence
nature increases their volumes, giving them floating.
less density than that of the water. This
reduces the weight of the boat causing it to
displace some water which is equal to its
weight, which is submerged in the water,
making it able to float.
Fig. 102.7: Flotation of submarine
GROUP ACTIVITY:
1. Observe and record what happens when

Fig. 102.6: A floating boat different metallic and wooden objects are
placed in water.
Flotation of ships 2. Place a fresh egg first in water and then in

The principle governing the flotation of concentrated salt solution and explain the
observation in each case.
ships is similar to that of boats. They are
hollow, thus, high volume, less density or
419
Average velocity: This is the total

TERMS TO NOTE
displacement covered with time.
Distance – This is the interval between Average velocity =

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
any two points.
It has only magnitude, making it a scalar
For a body with constant acceleration,
quantity. It is measured in metres (m).
𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒗 +𝒖
Average velocity = =
Distance travelled = speed  time taken 𝟐 𝟐
where v = final velocity
Displacement – This is the distance u = initial velocity
covered in a specific direction.
Displacement is a vector quantity because Constant or uniform velocity: This is the
it has both magnitude and direction. It is rate of change of displacement with
also measured in metres (m). constant time.
Displacement = velocity  time Instantaneous velocity: It is the velocity

at any given time.
Speed – Speed is the rate of change of
distance with time. Acceleration – This is the change in
In other words, speed is the distance velocity with time.
covered in a specific time. It is a scalar Acceleration is a vector quantity with the
quantity and is measured in meter per SI unit ms-2. In a situation where a
second (ms-1). uniformly body changes its velocity with
respect to time, the velocity with which it
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒎) starts moving is the initial velocity (u),
Speed = whiles the velocity with which it ends is its
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔)
final velocity (v).
Velocity – It is the rate of change of Mathematically,
displacement with time. 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
Acceleration =
Velocity is a vector quantity and is 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
or
measure in ms-1.
𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 – 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
Acceleration = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝒎)
Velocity =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒔) 𝒗−𝒖
or a=
𝒕
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Constant or uniform acceleration: This

GRAPHS OF MOTION
is the rate of change of velocity with
constant time. An object moving with The motion a body undergoes can be
constant velocity has no acceleration. represented on a graph and calculated. this
is referred to as graph of motion. The two
Deceleration or retardation: It is the principal graphs of motion are:
decrease in velocity with time.  displacement–time graph
Deceleration is always negative.  velocity-time graph
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 Displacement-time graph

Deceleration = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
In this graph, the displacement (or
distance) travelled by a body is plotted
Constant or uniform deceleration: This
against time. From this graph, the velocity
is the decrease in velocity with constant
at anytime can be deduced from the slope
time
of the graph at that time.
Examples
Features of displacement-time graph
1. A car moves with a velocity of 19 ms-1
and increases to 25m-1 in 5 seconds. Uniform motion
Determine it acceleration. If the motion is uniform, the slope is
constant throughout the motion and the
Solution graph is a straight line. Velocity is the
𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 slope or gradient of the line.
Acceleration =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
25 – 19 6
= = = 1.2 ms-2
5 5
2. An object of mass 4 kg moving with

initial velocity of 20 ms-1 accelerates
for 10 s and attains a final velocity of
60 ms-1. Calculate the acceleration.
Solution Increasing velocity

𝒗−𝒖
Acceleration (a) = When the slope of the line increases with
𝒕
60 − 20 40 time to give a curved line indicate that the
a= = = 4 ms-1
10 10
421
body is increasing its velocity, thus (a) Use the above data to plot a graph
accelerating. of distance against time.
(b) Use your graph to calculate the
slope of the particle.
(c) What does the slope represent?
Velocity-time graph
In this graph, velocity is plotted against
time. The slope of the graph at anytime
represents the acceleration of that time.
Uniform deceleration Features of velocity-time graph

When the graph is curved with decreasing Constant or uniform acceleration
slope, the body is slowing down or Constant acceleration is indicated by a
breaking. This is called uniform retardation straight diagonal line. This shows that the
or deceleration. body is moving faster from its current
velocity.
Uniform velocity
When equal distances are covered in equal
time, the velocity is uniform and
acceleration is zero.
Uniform or constant velocity

This is shown with a straight line parallel
to the time line (horizontal axis. Uniform
velocity shows that the body maintains its
Examples velocity in the given time. This means that
1. The data below represent the distance there is no acceleration.
moved by particle with time recorded
at 10 seconds interval.
Distance/m 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time/s 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
422
Solution
(a)
Constant deceleration or retardation (b) Total distance (s) covered = area of

This is shown with downward diagonal trapezium
line. It indicates that the body is slowing s = ½ (l1 + l2)h
down or stopping. If the body decelerates l1 = 45; l2 = 95; h = 25
to a stop, the diagonal line touches the time s = ½ (45 + 95)  25
line, indicating zero velocity. s = 1210 m
2. A bus starts from rest and accelerates

uniformly at 2 ms-2 for 10 s. It
maintains the maximum speed attained
for further 10 s and decelerates at 1 ms-
2
gradually to rest.
(a) Draw the velocity- time graph of
the motion of the bus
(b) Use your graph to determine
(i) the maximum velocity
Examples attained
1. A car starts from rest and move with a (ii) the time taken
velocity of 25 ms-1 in 30 seconds. It (iii) the total distance covered
maintains it speed for 45 seconds after (iv) the average velocity.
which it slowed to a stop in 20 seconds.
(a) Sketch the velocity-time graph to Momentum – The momentum of a body
represent the motion of the car. in motion is the product of its mass and the
(b) Calculate the total distance is velocity with which it moves. This is
covers; represented as:
(c) What is the acceleration of the car? Momentum (p) = mass (m)  velocity (v)
423
Momentum is a vector quantity and is a) The motion of the moon around the
measured in newton-second (Ns) or earth
kilogram-metre per second (kgms-1). b) A motorist negotiating a curve.
c) Revolution of the Earth around the
Example moon
Calculate the momentum of a ball of 2kg
rolling at 3m\s.
Solution
Momentum = mass  velocity
p = 2  3 = 6 kg-m/s
MOTION
Rotational/ spin motion
Whenever a body gains velocity, it changes When a body moves around on its axis, it
position or direction. In this case the body is termed as rotational motion. Examples
is said to be set in motion. are
a) The spin of a car tyre.
Motion is the change in position or b) The rotation of a fan.
direction of a body. c) The rotation of the Earth.
Types of motion Oscillatory motion

When a body moves but returns to a
Linear/ rectilinear/ translational motion
specific periodic point continuously, it is
When a body moves along a straight line or
said to have undergone oscillatory motion.
path, it is said to have undergone linear
Examples of oscillatory motion are:
motion. Examples include:
a) The motion of weight hanged on an
a) Motion of a toy car pushed along a
elastic string.
floor.
b) Motion of water in a displaced
b) Motion of a train on straight tracks.
container.
c) Motion under gravity.
c) Motion of loaded test tube on water.
Circular motion
Random motion
The movement of a body in a circle is
Random motion is the motion of a body or
termed as circular motion. Examples of
bodies in all directions. This type of
circular motion include:
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motion does not follow any pattern, plan, Effects of inertia

system or connection. Examples include: Inertia is felt when one is in a car or on a
a) Motion of dust particles. bus or train. The next time you stand on a
b) Motion of the molecules of gas. bus, observe your actions. When the bus
c) Movement of scattered balls. stops suddenly, you lurch forward.
This is because when the bus was
travelling at the previous speed, say
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
70 ms-1, your body was also travelling at
Sir Isaac Newton, an 18th century English the same speed. However, as soon as the
scientist proposed three laws to describe bus stops at 0 ms-1, since your body is not
the motion of bodies. attached to the bus, it keeps moving at 70
ms-1. Passengers on buses and trains have
Newton’s first law of motion to grab hold of something firm in order to
It states that an object at rest will stay at prevent themselves from falling.
rest, and an object in motion will remain
in motion at constant velocity, unless The opposite effect is felt when the bus
acted upon by an unbalanced force. moves suddenly. The passengers will be
thrown backwards, since the bus will gain
In other words, a stationary object will speed at a short notice while the
remain stationary until a force is applied on passengers‘ speed remain at 0 ms-1.
it. An object in motion will continue to
travel at constant velocity until a force is Similarly, when the bus negotiates a curve
applied to it. the bodies of the passengers will move to
This means that if an object is standing still the direction where the bus was going
and is not contacted by any forces, it will previously.
continue to remain motionless. It also
means that if an object is moving along,
untouched by a force of any kind, it will
continue to move along in a perfectly
straight line at a constant speed. This is
referred to as the law of inertia.
Inertia
Inertia is the reluctance of a body to
change its velocity.
Fig. 102.9: Effects of inertia
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The need for seatbelts Hence, Force =

𝒎(𝒗 – 𝒖)
𝒕
When a car is brought to a sudden stop, for
𝒗–𝒖
example, during a collision, the effect of But, = acceleration (a)
𝒕
inertia is severe. This could cause Force = mass  acceleration
passengers to hit their heads against Or
something right in front of them, or in F = ma
worst cases, be thrown out through the
windscreen of a car. This could be very For instance, Kofi's car, which has a mass
fatal. of 1,000 kg, is out of fuel. Kofi is trying to
To prevent this, vehicles such as cars, push the car to a petrol station, and he
trains, buses and aeroplanes are fitted with makes the car go 0.05 m/s2. Using
seatbelts. Newton's Second Law, you can compute
how much force Kofi is applying to the car.
Seatbelts keep passengers in their seats so
that in the event of a sudden stoppage, the
body would be restrained from moving
further forward, hence saving the
passenger from injuries.
Newton’s second law of motion

Fig. 103.0:
This law states that the rate of change of
momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the force acting on it and Force = mass x acceleration
occurs in the direction of the force.
F = 1000 X 0.05 = 50 N
The second law of motion is also known to
as the law of momentum. Example
1. A force of 80 N is applied on a body to
This can be represented as cause it to rise to a certain height.
𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 Calculate the mass of the body.
Force = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 [Take g = 10 m s-2]
Remember that Solution

Momentum (p) = mass (m)  velocity (v) F = 80 N, a = g = 10 m s-2, m = ?
change in momentum F = ma
p = m(v – u)
426
𝐹 80 engines, and the reaction is that the
m= = = 8N
𝑎 10
ground pushes the rocket upwards with
an equal force.
2. A certain particle of mass 250 g moved
with a uniform acceleration of 4 m s-2.
Find the force with which it moves.
Solution
F = ma
250
m = 250g = 1000 = 0.25kg
a = 4ms-2
F = 0.25 x 4 = 1.0N
Fig. 103.1: A rocket
Newton’s third law of motion
 Flight of birds: A bird flies by using its
Newton’s third law of motion states that
wings. The wings of a bird push air
to every action there is an equal and
downwards. In turn, the air reacts by
opposite reaction.
pushing the bird upwards.
The size of the force on the air equals
This means that whenever a body exerts a
the size of the force on the bird; the
force F on another body, the second body
direction of the force on the air
exerts a force −F on the first body. F and
(downwards) is opposite the direction
−F are equal in magnitude and opposite in
of the force on the bird (upwards).
direction. For example, if you push on a
Action-reaction force pairs make it
wall, it will push back on you as hard as
possible for birds to fly.
you are pushing on it.
This law is sometimes referred to as the
action-reaction law, with F called the CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND
"action" and −F the "reaction". The action STABILITY OF OBJECTS
and the reaction are simultaneous. The centre of gravity of an object is the
point in the object where its entire weight
Application of the third law appears to act.
 Rocket design: The third law of motion
was applied in designing rockets. The The centre of gravity is the point where if a
rocket's action is to push down on the pivot is located can create a turning effect
ground with the force of its powerful on a body.
427
Determining the position of the centre  Hung the shape by the other holes at
of gravity of regular lamina bodies the edges and repeat the last step.
A lamina body is a shape cut out from a  The lines will cross each other at a
flat sheet. To determine the centre of particular point on the card. That point
gravity of a regular shaped lamina (e.g. is the centre of gravity of the body or
square or triangle), draw plumb lines shape.
across its centre from different points on its
edges. The point where the plumb lines
cross each other is the centre of gravity of
the lamina. Examples of regular laminas
with their centres of gravity are shown
below.
Square triangle
Fig. 103.2: Centre of gravity
The centre of gravity of irregular-shaped Fig. 103.3: Plumbline method

lamina
 Cut out an irregular shape from a
STABILITY OF OBJECTS
cardboard.
 Punch three holes near its edges. States of equilibrium
 Hung the shape on a support through A body is said to be in equilibrium when it
one of the holes. returns to its usual position after a nudge
 Suspend a plumb line from the hole or slight displacement.
holding the body and mark the line of
the string across the cardboard.
428
States of equilibrium centre of gravity is neither raised nor

There are three states of equilibrium – lowered and remains above the base or
stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium. point of support.
Stable equilibrium
A body in a stable equilibrium returns to
its usual or former position after a slight
tilt or displacement.
Such body has its centre of gravity close to
its base. Fig. 103.6: Neutral equilibrium
Stability of objects
The position of the centre of gravity of a
body determines its stability. Stable bodies
standing on a support have their centre of
gravity at their bases.
Fig. 103.4: Stable equilibrium
To determine the strength of the centre of
Unstable equilibrium gravity of a body, draw a vertical line from
A body is said to be in an unstable the centre of gravity to the base. If the two
equilibrium if it falls over and does not halves are the same, then the object is
return to its former or usual position after stable. That is the body will return to its
a slight displacement. former position when released. On the
This body has its centre of gravity above other hand, if the vertical hand does not
the base. bisect the body evenly, then its stability is
weak and will fall over when nudged.
Fig. 103.5: Unstable equilibrium
Neutral equilibrium Fig. 103.7: Comparing the stability of a double-

A body in neutral equilibrium assumes a decker bus and a car
new position after slightly displaced. The
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Stability of an acrobat on rope Reason why the loading compartments

The stability of an acrobat on a stretched of buses are found at the base
rope is less. This means that the acrobat When the load is located at the base of a
could easily fall over. To improve his bus, it brings its centre of gravity closer to
stability, an acrobat on a stretched rope the base making it more stable. On the
carries a long pole or stick which he other hand, if the load is located at top of
balances in his hands. That is the central the bus, its centre of gravity is raised,
point of the pole must be on the rope. This making it less stable. This may cause the
lowers his centre of gravity. If he feels bus to easily fall over or overturn easily.
heavy at one point, and is about to fall, he
shifts the pole to the opposite point so that
the weight would be distributed evenly, MOMENT OF A FORCE
maintaining his centre of gravity. The moment of a force about a point is
the product of the force and its
perpendicular distance to the line of force.
Moment = force  perpendicular distance

Or
p = Fs
Moment of a force is referred to as the

turning effect of the force. That is the
Fig. 103.8: An acrobat on a rope moment of a force causes a pivoted body to
turn. The S.I unit of moment is Nm or
Spinning a pan with a finger kg.ms-2.
A pan spinning on a finger is less stable.
This is because the centre of gravity of the Applications of moment of force
pan is above the base. To bring the centre 1. Screwing and unscrewing with a
of gravity a little closer to the base, the screw driver – the force applied to the
spinner brings the weight of his body to screw driver causes the screw to turn.
where the pan might appear to fall over; 2. Riding a bicycle – force applied by the
this increases the stability of the pan. rider on the pedals produces a resultant
Similarly, a person on stilt has his centre of turning effect on the hind wheel.
gravity raised and might easily fall.
430
3. Wheel and axel – wheels of Conditions of equilibrium

automobiles are attached to axels. When a number of parallel forces are in
When the axel turns, the wheel turns. equilibrium:
4. Opening and closing doors and gates i. the sum of clockwise moment about a
– the force applied on the door causes it point is equal to the sum of
to turn due to the turning effect exerted anticlockwise moment about the same
on the hinges. point.
ii. the sum of the forces in one direction is
Principle of moments equal to the sum of forces in the
opposite direction.
The principle of moment states that the
sum of clockwise moment about a point
Example
(pivot) on a body in equilibrium is equal
1. Calculate the moment of the figure
to the sum of the anticlockwise moment
below
about the same point.
Clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment

500 cm
Consider the metre rule balanced on a knife

15 N
edge, as illustrated below.
Solution
Moment (p) = force (F) x distance (s)
F = 15N
500
s = 100 =5m
p = 15 x 6 = 75 Nm
Supposing a weight W1 is hanged x cm
from the pivot and another weight W2 is 2. A little girl of weight 65 N sits 2 m
hanged y cm from the pivot at the other from the pivot of a see-saw. Find the
side of the beam. Then by applying the distance from the other end that a boy
principle of moment: who weighs 72 N should sit.
clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
Solution
W1 x x = W2 x y Let‘s represent the distance from the
other end by D.
431
Solution
From to the principle of moment,
F1S1 + F2S2 = F3S3 + F4S4
S1 = 40cm = 0.4m
According to the principle of moment: S2 = 0.3m
clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment S3 = 40cm = 0.4m
 65 x 2 = 72 x D S4 = 60cm = 0.6m
130
0.4x + 25.03 = 35  0.4 + 50  0.6
D= = 1.8 m
72 0.4x + 7.5 = 14 + 30
3. Consider the bar below. 0.4x = 44 – 7.5
36.5
x= = 91.25N
0.4
PRESSURE
Find the value of x
Pressure is defined as the force per unit
area at a particular region of a substance.
Solution
According to the principle of moment,
It is expressed mathematically as:
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝑭)
40 x 30 = x x 13 Pressure, (P) =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 (𝑨)
1200
x= = 92.3 N
13
4. Calculate the value of x below if F1 = x,

F2 = 25, F3 = 35N, F4 = 50N, S1 =
40cm, S2 = 3m, S3 = 40cm and S4 =
60cm. The standard unit for pressure is the Pascal
(Pa), which is Newton per square meter
(Nm-2).
Sharp pointed devices such as nails can

easily be driven into other materials with
432
little force as opposed to broad pointed 3. A 600 g book of dimensions, 30 cm 

devices. This is because sharp pointed 25 cm  10 cm, rests on a table.
devices have little area in contact. That is a. What is the maximum and
the smaller the area, the smaller the force minimum pressure exerted on the
needed and the greater the pressure. table by the book?
b. How does increase in area affect
Example pressure? [g = 10 ms-2]
1. A cement block weighs 50N and a side
area of 0.2m2, rests on a table. Solution
Calculate the pressr exerted on the
table by the block.
Solution
Force (F)
Pressure, (P) =
Area (A)
50
(P) =
0.2
P = 250Nm-2 a. Mass of book = 600 g = 0.6 kg

Force = ma = 0.6  10 = 6 N
2. A boy presses an inflated ball into a
Area A1 = 0.3  0.25 = 0.075 m2
rectangular basin filled to the brim with
water, with a force of 40 N. If the lenth Area A2 = 0.3  0.1 = 0.03 m2
and breadth of the basin are 7m and 5m Area A3 = 0.25  0.1= 0.025 m2
respectively, find the pressue of in the 𝐹 6
water. Pressure, P1 = = = 80 Pa
A1 0.075
𝐹 6
Solution Pressure, P2 = = = 200 Pa
A2 0.03
Force (F)
Pressure, (P) = 𝐹 6
Area (A)
Pressure, P1 = = = 240 Pa
Force (F) = 40 N A3 0.025
Area (A) of the rectangular basin = l x b Maximum pressure is 240 Pa and
A = 7  5 = 35m2 minimum pressure is 80 Pa.
40
Pressure, (P) = = 1.14 Pa b. Increase in area decreases the pressure
35
produced.
433
Pressure in liquids The Pascal’s Principle

Pressure transmitted through liquid is Pascal’s principle states that pressure at
known as hydrostatic pressure. In liquid, any part of a fluid equals pressure at all
pressure depends on: the parts in the fluid.
 Depth of the liquid;
 Density of the liquid an Applications of Pascal’s Principle
 Acceleration due to gravity.
The hydraulic press
Pressure increases as the depth and density In a hydraulic press, a small force applied
of the liquid increase. The pressure at one to the master or effort piston, generates
point of a liquid is the same at every point pressure which is equally transmitted
of the liquid. throughout the liquid to the slave or load
piston. This produces a large force at the
An experiment showing that pressure slave or load piston and a heavy mass is
increases with depth. raised by the force produced by the
 Get a water tank with three spouts, pressure acting on the piston.
labelled 1, 2, 3 along its vertical height.
 Fill it with water and maintain the
water level with a continuous flow
from a tap running into the tank.
Observation
It would be observed that water comes
out of spout 3 with the highest speed
showing that pressure is greatest there.
Followed be spout 2 and 1, in order of
Fig. 104.0: The hydraulic press
decreasing pressure.
Bicycle pump
A bicycle pump has a leather washer which
is cap-shaped, fixed to the end of a piston
rod which moves up and down the barrel of
the pump. Air flows into the barrel through
a small hole between the barrel and the
leather washer, when the handle is pulled
Fig. 103.9
434
up. When the piston is pressed down the

valve closes to prevent the air that has
entered the barrel from escaping. The air is
then compressed through the hole at the
nozzle into the football or bicycle tyre that
needs to be inflated. This is done
continuously until the football or tyre is
fully inflated.
Fig. 104.2: Air compressor
A rotating air compressor consists of a

bladed wheel that spins inside a closed
circular housing. Air is drawn in at the
centre of the wheel and accelerated by the
centrifugal force of the spinning blades.
The energy of the moving air is then
converted into pressure in the diffuser, and
the compressed air is forced out through a
narrow passage to the storage tank.
Fig. 104.1: A bicycle pump
Air compressor
Air compressors are of two general types:
reciprocating and rotating.
In a reciprocating, or displacement
compressor, which is used to produce high
pressures, the air is compressed by the Fig. 104.3:
action of a piston in a cylinder. When the
piston moves to the right, air flows into the Water/ force pump
cylinder through the intake valve; when the Water pumps are devices for moving water
piston moves to the left, the air is from one location to another, using tubes
compressed and forced through an output- or other machinery.
control valve into a reservoir or storage Two types of modern pumps used to move
tank. water are the positive-displacement pump
and the centrifugal pump.
435
Positive-displacement pumps use suction Operation of siphons

created by a vacuum to draw water into a The siphon is a tube used to remove liquid
closed space. An example of this type of mostly from a container. The siphon tube is
pump is the lift or force pump. The lift bent over the edge of the container, one
pump is operated by raising a handle that is end in the liquid and the other outside end
attached to a piston encased in a pipe. at a lower level than the surface of the
Lifting the piston creates a partial vacuum liquid in the container. If the tube is once
beneath it in the pipe, causing water to be filled, a flow of liquid from the container
drawn from a well below, through the pipe, through the tube will be set up.
and into a chamber in the pump.
Subsequent pumps of the piston pull more
water into the chamber, which eventually
overflows, spilling water out of a spout.
Fig. 104.5: Siphoning a liquid from one beaker into

another
Siphons operate by atmospheric pressure.

Fig. 104.4: A centrifugal water pump
The container from which the liquid is
siphoned must therefore be open to the air.
Centrifugal pumps use motor-driven When the tube is filled, the liquid will run
propellers that create a flow of water when out of the lower end. As the liquid starts to
they rotate. The blades of the propeller are flow, the fluid pressure at the top of the
immersed in the water to be pumped. As tube is lowered. A liquid always flows
the propeller turns, water enters the pump from an area under higher pressure to an
near the axis of the blades and is swept out area of lower pressure. The liquid in the
toward their ends at high pressure. container (under atmospheric pressure)
flows up into the tube, an area of lowered
436
pressure). This liquid in turn will flow out (ii) displacement;

the outside end of the tube, again lowering (iii) velocity;
the pressure at the top of the tube. (iv) acceleration.
(b) A man of mass 80 kg, runs across a
field with an initial velocity of 10
TEST QUESTIONS ms-1 and accelerates for 120 s and
attains a final velocity of 35 ms-1.
1. (a) What is a force? What is his acceleration?
(b) Distinguish between contact a force
and field force. 7. (a) Define the term momentum.
(b) Determine the momentum of a
2. Write a short note on the following metal ball of mass 17 kg, moving at
types of forces and categorize them as 8 ms-1.
contact or field forces
(a) frictional force; 8. (a) What is motion?
(b) magnetic force; (b) State and explain three types of
(c) electrostatic force motion. Give one example in each
(d) tensional force case.
(e) gravitational force
9. State and explain Newton‘s three
3. (a) State three effects of force on a laws of motion.
body.
(b) Explain the term upthrust.
10. (a) Define the term inertia.
4. (a) State the law of floatation.
(b) Why is it important to wear a
(b) Describe the application of
seatbelt in a moving car.
flotation in the following:
(i) flight of airplanes;
11. (a) What is the centre of gravity of a
(ii) flotation of a ship on the sea;
body?
(iii) the operation of submarines
(b) Describe how you will determine
the centre of gravity of the
5. Explain why a piece which weighs
following bodies:
0.005 kg sinks to the bottom of water
(i) a rectangular lamina
but a ship of 5000 kg floats.
(ii) a triangular lamina
(iii) an irregular lamina
6. (a) Define the following terms:
(i) distance;
437
12. (a) When is a body said to be in 16. (a) State the Pascal‘s principle.
equilibrium? (b) Describe the operation of the
(b) Explain the following types of following:
equilibrium: (i) hydraulic press;
(i) stable equilibrium; (ii) bicycle pump;
(ii) unstable equilibrium; (iii) siphon.
(iii) neutral equilibrium.
17. Explain why a carpenter will require
13. (a) Explain the term moment of a more force to hammer a blunt nail into
force. a wood compared to a pointed nail.
(b) State the conditions of equilibrium.
18. A cement block of weight 50.0 N and
14. (a) What is pressure? one side of area 0.2 m2 rests on a table.
(b) Describe an experiment to show Calculate the pressure exerted on the
table by the cement block
that pressure in liquid increases
with depth.
15. Explain the danger associated with

loading the top carriers of vehicle
heavy.
438
38
SAFETY IN THE COMMUNITY
actions of persons that are caused by

Specific Objectives ignorance or neglect of safety principles.
 Identify appliances used at home and how to use
them properly.
 Use first aid methods to treat accidents at home. APPLIANCES USED AT HOME
 Identify hazardous substances at the work place
and their effects on humans. There are wide ranges of appliances which
 Identify some common hazards in the are used at home for various purposes such
community.
 Outline the role of organizations working to as entertainment, food preparation and
improve the health of mankind and the factors preservation, communication, utility,
which promote Public Health. personal upkeep, etc.
The appliances used for these purposes
include television sets, radio, computers,
phones, DVD players, electric cookers,
microwave ovens, rice cookers,
INTRODUCTION refrigerators, electric irons, electric fans,
electric lamps etc.
Safety is the act of being protected from
danger or accidents. Proper ways of using appliances at
home
Accidents are unintended and unforeseen All appliances and gadgets need to be
event, usually resulting in personal injury handled and used with care and precaution.
or property damage. The following are some proper ways of
using home appliances:
The basic causes of accidents are, in 1. Appliances usually come with
general, unsafe conditions of machinery, instructional manuals, therefore make
equipment, or surroundings, and the unsafe sure to read and understand them
before using the appliance.
439
38 Safety in the Community Samking
2. You should make sure that the g) Food poisoning

appliances are usable. If they are faulty, h) Gas poisoning
get a qualified person to repair them. i) Drowning
3. The environment where they are used j) Fire outbreak
must be considered. Such appliances
normally work safely in a dry How to prevent accidents at home
environment. 1. Keep working electrical appliances
4. The electric outlet where you plug the from water.
appliances should be checked regularly. 2. Avoid touching hot plates, pans etc.
5. Check all electrical connections to be with the bare hands.
sure that none is bare or unsafe. 3. Keep plastics and cables from hot
6. Iron clothes in bulk. electric plates.
7. Do not leave refrigerator and freezer 4. Turn off gas right after use.
doors open. 5. Keep sharp tools and instruments on
8. Keep a distance between you and the racks and other appropriate places.
television. 6. Keep drugs and non-edible substances
9. Do not overload electric sockets. out of the reach of children.
10. Turn off all unused appliances. 7. Wipe off all spilled substances from the
11. Turn off all electric sockets when not in floor.
use or when leaving the house. 8. Keep combustible substances from fire
12. Avoid scattering and trailing electric or sources of heat.
cables on the floor. 9. Throw away spoiled food and drinks.
13. Do not open appliances when still 10. Do not dip the finger in a bucket of
plugged in. water with an electric heater.
14. Regularly brush or dust the appliances. 11. Maintain ventilation in the room.
15. Do not immerse any appliance in water 12. Repair all faulty pipes and electrical
or pour water on them. appliances.
13. Keep children from swimming pools or
Some common accidents at home supervise them when near swimming
a) Electric shock pools.
b) Burns
c) Suffocation
d) Fall
e) Cuts
f) Scalds
440
Injury to the eyes

FIRST AID
Medical attention should be sought for all
First aid is an emergency medical eye injuries as well. In the case of foreign
treatment given to a sick or injured person material in the eye, especially caustic
before more thorough medical attention substances, or those that can burn, corrode,
can be obtained. or dissolve tissues, the eye should be
flushed immediately with a cool, sterile,
First aid may prevent a victim‘s condition saline solution - if available, or plain tap
from worsening and provide relief from water for 5 to 10 minutes. The first-aid
pain. First aid must be administered as provider should not attempt to remove
quickly as possible. In the case of the embedded objects from the eye.
critically injured, a few minutes can make
the difference between complete recovery Injury to the nose
and loss of life. The most common injuries to the nose
involve nosebleeds, objects lodged in the
First-aid measures depend upon a victim‘s nasal passages, and broken nasal bones.
needs and the provider‘s level of The victim of a simple nosebleed should sit
knowledge and skill. Knowing what not to down, tilt the head backwards, and gently
do in an emergency is as important as pinch together the soft part of the nose for
knowing what to do. Improperly moving a 15 minutes. A cold compress can also be
person with a neck injury, for example, can placed on the bridge of the nose. If material
lead to permanent spinal injury and lodged in the nose cannot be forced out by
paralysis. gently blowing the nose, the victim should
request medical help. In the case of a
Methods of administering first aid broken nose, the first-aid provider should
Injury to the head apply a cold compress to the bridge of the
Injuries to the head may involve the scalp, nose and seek medical attention.
skull, or brain. If the victim has a head
wound, the first-aid provider should not Sprains and fractures
apply pressure to it, as this may damage the A sprain is the painful stretching or tearing
brain. If the victim has a seizure (a sudden of ligaments (tissues that connect bones at
spasm of the body) the head must be joints), occurs when a bone is suddenly
protected with cushions to prevent further wrenched at the joint. A fracture, break or
injury. All individuals with head injuries crack in a bone, is caused by sudden,
should be evaluated by a physician. violent pressure against the bone. Great
441
pain and swelling characterize both sprain Electric shock

and fracture, but the inability to move the In giving first aid to an electric-shock
affected part, a deformed appearance, and victim, a caregiver must not touch the
pain or tenderness at a specific point victim with bare hands until the source of
usually indicate a fracture. Sprains and electricity has been removed safely or the
fractures should be treated in the same way power source shut off. If the victim is not
by a first-aid provider, since it can be breathing, mouth-to-mouth or mask-to-
difficult to diagnose a fracture without an mouth resuscitation is necessary.
x-ray of the affected bone.
Because the slightest movement of the
affected part may cause the injured person
great pain and increase the damage, no
attempt should be made to straighten or
move sprained or broken limbs until
medical help arrives. If the injured person
must be transported to a hospital, rigid
splints should be used to immobilize the
broken part and adjacent joints or bones.
Splints can be improvised from light,
smooth boards or folded cardboard and tied Fig. 104.7: Twisted ankles should be gentle
to the broken part with wide strips of cloth bandaged
or improvised material. If the person also has no pulse,

cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)
should be administered until professional
emergency help arrives.
Fig. 104.6: Securing broken arm
Fig. 104.7: Safely remove the source of the

electricity
442
Burns poisonous substances list the antidote or

A burn is an injury to the skin caused by remedy on the label.
exposure to fire, hot liquids or metals, Burns or stains on the skin or a
radiation, chemicals, electricity, or the characteristic odour on the breath may also
sun‘s ultraviolet rays. help the first-aid provider to recognize the
First aid for burns involves removing the poison.
source of the burn as soon as possible. The Before clearing the victim‘s mouth of any
burn should be cooled immediately with obstructions, the provider should first put
cold water. A clean, cold wet towel or on clean first-aid gloves or wrap a cloth
dressing can be placed on less serious around his or her fingers. If the person who
burns to ease pain and protect the burn ingested the poison is unconscious, the
from contamination. airway, breathing, and circulation should
be checked and CPR started if necessary.
Continuously bathe chemical burns with
running water for at least 20 minutes to
dilute the substance. Any powder should be
carefully brushed off with gloved or
protected hands before washing. Wet
dressings or ointments should never be
used for burns. Instead, the first-aid
provider should gently apply dry, sterile
dressings held in place by bandages and
seek immediate medical attention.
Fig. 104.8: Clearing victim’s airway
Poisoning
A poisonous substance introduced into the Drug overdose
body through the mouth or nose causes A drug overdose occurs when an individual
symptoms such as nausea, cramps, and takes too large a dose of a drug or takes a
vomiting. Poisons include toxic dose that is stronger than the person can
medications, herbicides, insecticides, tolerate.
household disinfectants, and noxious gases. A drug overdose can be difficult to
Try to identify the poison, either by diagnose because the signs and symptoms
questioning the victim or searching for vary widely and often mimic other
suspicious containers. Containers of many illnesses or injuries. Symptoms of a drug
overdose include unusually dilated or
contracted pupils, vomiting, difficulty in
443
breathing, hallucinations, and in severe  Pulse compression and give two

cases unconsciousness and slow, deep mouth-to-mouth ventilation. Check for
breathing. If an overdose is not treated, the pulse and heart beat. Continue the
individual may die. Victims of overdose process if nothing happens.
should be taken immediately to a hospital
emergency room.
How to perform cardiopulmonary

resuscitation (CPR)
Mouth-to-mouth ventilation
 Open the airway of the casualty by
raising the chin and pressing the
forehead backwards.
 Take a deep breath and exhale, cover
the casualty’s mouth with yours and
exhale, while pinching his nose shut.
Do this until the patient starts
breathing.
 Place the casualty in a recovery
position to ensure that his airway
remains open ad that the tongue
cannot fall backwards into the throat
to choke him. It also ensures that any Fig. 104.9: Administering CPR
fluid from the patients mouth drains
freely
ACTIVITY:
External chest compression
1. Invite a Fire Service Officer or Red Cross
 Place the casualty on his back on a flat Personnel to talk to class on accidents
surface, and with one hand covering prevention and first aid.
the other, place both hands on the 2. Students to make a first aid box for the
lower part of his chest. class.
 Press downwards sharply and release

14 to 15 times at a rate of 80
compressions per minute.
444
Agricultural waste
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
Industries are not alone in generating
AND THEIR EFFECTS
hazardous wastes. Agriculture produces
Hazardous substances are solids, liquids such wastes as pesticides and herbicides
or gaseous substances that can cause and the materials used in their application.
death, illness, or injury to people or Fluoride wastes are by-products of
destruction of the environment if phosphate fertilizer production. Even
improperly treated, stored, transported, or soluble nitrates from manure may dissolve
discarded. into groundwater and contaminate
drinking-water wells; high levels of nitrates
Substances are considered hazardous if may cause health problems.
they are ignitable (capable of burning or
causing fire), corrosive (able to corrode Domestic waste
steel or harm organisms because of Household sources of hazardous wastes
extreme acidic or basic properties), include toxic paints, flammable solvents,
reactive (able to explode or produce toxic caustic cleaners, toxic batteries, pesticides,
cyanide or sulphide gas), or toxic drugs, etc.
(containing substances that are poisonous). Renovations of older homes may cause
toxic lead paint to flake off from walls.
Sources of hazardous substances Insulation material on furnace pipes may
Industrial waste contain asbestos particles, which can break
Hazardous substances are generated by off and hang suspended in air; when
nearly every industry. Various industries inhaled, they can cause lung disease and
such as the chemical manufacturing plants, cancer.
petroleum industry, metal production and
fabrication plants etc. produce various
wastes which normally go untreated. These
wastes are often discarded in the
environment and in water bodies, resulting
in the destruction of terrestrial and aquatic
habitats as well as posing danger to
humans.
Fig. 105.0: Domestic waste
445
Medical waste Air pollution

Hospitals use special care in disposing of Air may become contaminated by direct
wastes contaminated with blood and tissue, emission of hazardous wastes. Evaporation
separating these hazardous wastes from of toxic solvents from paints and cleaning
ordinary waste. Hospitals must be agents is a common problem. The air
especially careful with needles, scalpels, above hazardous waste may become
and glassware, called ―sharps.‖ Pharmacies dangerously contaminated by escaping gas.
discard outdated and unused drugs; testing
laboratories dispose of chemical wastes. Land contamination
Medicine also makes use of significant Agricultural wastes often lead to the
amounts of radioactive isotopes for contamination of productive land. These
diagnosis and treatment, and these often reduce crop yield produced by those
substances must be tracked and disposed of lands. Other pollutants which may
carefully. contaminate the land include plastics and
scraps of metal.
Effects of hazardous substances Plastics remain in the soil for a very long
Water pollution time while scraps of metal may corrode
Some wastes are directly discharged into and leak toxic chemicals into the soil,
water bodies. This normally results in the killing soil living organisms in the process.
death of organism in those water bodies;
interfering with life in the aquatic habitat. Radioactive radiation
Some waste and poisonous substances get Some industrial waste products are
into drinking water, causing harm to people radioactive. Radioactive waste can be
who may drink it. Oil spills are known to active for a very long time and cause
cause a great deal of damage to water damage to animal and plant lives. While
bodies. some nuclear or radioactive waste may
cause immediate damage, other may
slowly deteriorate a community or
township for decades.
Spread of diseases
When hazardous wastes get into humans
and animals, they interfere with the normal
functioning of the body rendering the
Fig. 105.1: A pelican covered in spilled oil
446
person or animal sick. Some of the diseases turning it into a glass through a process
may be easy to treat, other may be fatal. known as vitrification.
Sometimes waste can be stabilized on-site;
Control of hazardous substances simple remedies such as covering the waste
Recycling may be sufficient. Other stabilization
Recycling is the collection, processing, and methods involve building a barrier around
re-use of waste materials. Materials the waste. This barrier can be of plastic,
ranging from precious metals to broken steel, concrete, clay, or even glass.
glass, from old newspapers to plastic
spoons, can be recycled. The recycling Source reduction
process reclaims the original material and The best way to eliminate hazardous waste
uses it in new products. is not to generate it in the first place. For
Using recycled materials to make new example, improvements have been made in
products costs less and requires less energy the production of integrated circuits: The
than using new materials. Recycling can toxic chlorinated hydrocarbons commonly
also reduce pollution, either by reducing used in the 1970s were replaced in the
the demand for high-pollution alternatives 1980s by less toxic glycol ethers and in the
or by minimizing the amount of pollution 1990s by low-toxicity esters and alcohols.
produced during the manufacturing
process. Recycling decreases the amount of Disposal
land needed for trash dumps by reducing Surface impoundment (placing liquid or
the volume of discarded waste. semi-liquid wastes in unlined pits) keeps
waste in long-term storage, but it is not
Treatment considered a method of final disposal.
Wastes may be made less hazardous by About 8 percent of hazardous waste is
physical, chemical, or biological treatment. injected into deep wells; 21 percent enters
Sulphuric acid wastes, if not recycled, can landfills (large, unlined pits into which
be treated with ammonia wastes from the solid wastes are placed) as its ultimate
same plant, forming ammonium sulphate, a resting place.
fertilizer.
Solidification of wastes involves melting OCCUPATIONAL HAZARD
them and mixing them with a binder, a
substance that eventually hardens the mix Occupational hazard is any danger or risk
into an impenetrable mass. One suggested associated with a particular job or
treatment of radioactive waste involves profession.
447
Any disease that arises as a result of One hazard suffered by teachers who use
occupational hazard is referred to as chalk is dust. Such teachers, and
occupational disease. sometimes students experience respiratory
problems. A worker in a nuclear power
Different companies, establishments and plant may be exposed to radiation, and so
even institutions have specific products on.
they bring out. However, before those
products are brought out, other products Protection against occupational
have to be used. Either the products hazards
brought or used or both could be 1. Workers should be educated about the
hazardous. In this case, worker of such possible hazard they may be exposed to
companies are at risk of occupational in a particular field.
hazards of various forms. 2. They should be given appropriate
protective clothing such as overalls,
Examples of hazards that workers are safety booths, goggles, ear muffs etc.
exposed to 3. Regular medical screening and check-
(a) corrosive substances up should be conducted for them.
(b) explosion and fire 4. Hazard signs should be mounted to
(c) toxic fumes show the various dangers in that work
(d) radiation environment.
(e) gas poisoning 5. Hazardous substances should be well
(f) electric shock and electrocution labelled.
(g) dust 6. Safety signs and symbols should be
(h) general poisoning from ingestible. mounted in various places.
Physical hazards include traumatic injuries

and noise.
Trauma arising from unsafe environments
accounts for a large proportion of
preventable human illness, and noise in the
workplace is responsible for the most
prevalent occupational impairment -
hearing loss or permanent deafness.
Fig. 105.2: Protective clothing must be worn
448
Fig. 105.3: Hazard signs
Fire and its management

Fire is said to be ―a good servant but a bad
master‖. This is because while fire helps
humankind in so many ways, its
destructive impact is very huge. Fire has
caused many losses of lives and destruction
of properties.
Knowing how to stop a small fire will help

in preventing a huge, destructive and
uncontrollable fire.
Some methods of controlling fire include
the use of fire extinguishers, sprinklers
sand and fire blankets
Fig. 105.4: Fire extinguishers
449
Table 7.4: Fire prevention methods
Fire prevention Application Mode of Where normally

method operation used
Sprinklers A sprinkler system is an Lowers the In huge buildings
integrated system of temperature and and offices and large
underground and overhead prevents oxygen fires. Sprinkler
piping, connected to one or from getting into systems are nearly
more automatic water contact with the 100 % effective.
supplies. The system is fire
usually activated by heat from
a fire, and the sprinkler heads
then discharge water over the
fire area.
Fire blanket Cover the fire with the Prevents oxygen Small fires and
blanket. If it is a person on from reacting with burning clothes or
fire, wrap him/ her with the the fire persons
blanket.
Sand Pour sand over the fire Covers the fire and Small fires
prevents contact
with air
Fire extinguishers
Carbon dioxide Splash a continuous stream of CO2, which is Electrical and
extinguisher carbon dioxide on the base of heavier than medium-sized fires
the fire oxygen and does
not support
burning, displaces
oxygen from the
fire.
Foam extinguisher Spray foam directly onto the Prevents oxygen Small and medium-
fire from contacting sized fires
the fire
Water extinguisher Spray continuous flow of Lowers the Not suitable for
water to the base of the fire surrounding electrical fires since
temperature and water has some
prevents air from appreciable
the fire conductivity
Dry powder Spray on the base of the fire Engulfs the fire Suitable for all fires
extinguisher and then spread to the rest of and prevents
the fire contact with
oxygen
Soda and gas Direct the mixture of CO2 and Water lowers the Suitable for all fire
cartridge extinguisher water at the base of the fire temperature whiles except electrical fires
CO2 displaces air
450
Aims of public health authorities

HAZARDS IN THE COMMUNITY
The goals of public health authorities are
Some common hazards in the community to:
include diseases, pest and parasite 1. prevent human disease, injury, and
outbreak, insanitary conditions, traffic disability;
problems, pollution and waste generation. 2. protect people from environmental
health hazards;
Table : Hazards in the community and their effects 3. promote behaviours that lead to good
Hazard Effect physical and mental health;
Disease, pest and  Reduction in labour 4. educate the public about health;
parasite outbreak force and productivity
5. ensure availability of high-quality
 High expenses on
treatment and health services.
medication
Insanitary  Disease outbreak, e.g.
conditions cholera
Activities of public health
 Increase in the rate of authorities
mosquito breeding Public health workers may engage in
 Flooding due to choked
gutters
activities outside the scope of ordinary
Traffic problems  Increase in accidents medical practice. These include:
and fatalities 1. inspecting and licensing restaurants.
 Air pollution
2. conducting rodent and insect control
 Congestion
 Stress programs.
 Decreased productivity 3. checking the safety of housing, water,
Pollution and  Diseases and food supplies.
waste generation  Discomfort
 Suffocation 4. in assuring overall community health,
 Hearing impairment public health officials also act as
 Mutation advocates for laws and regulations—
 Low crop yield such as drug licensing or product
 Destruction of aquatic labelling requirements.
life
Ways of improving public health
PUBLIC HEALTH 1. Providing waste and refuse containers
2. Providing good and safe drinking water
Public health is the protection and 3. Proper house planning
improvement of the health of entire 4. Cleaning public places
populations through community-wide 5. Public education
action, primarily by governmental 6. Proper siting of refuse dumps
agencies.
451
7. Provision of waste disposal facilities in The role of the Environmental

cities, towns and villages Protection Agency (EPA)
8. Cleaning and desilting of gutters 1. Controls air, water and land pollution.
9. Proper house planning to improve 2. Regulates noise level in communities.
ventilation 3. Checks radiation levels in industries.
10. Effective cleaning of homes and public 4. Educate on the proper use of
toilets pesticides, and other toxic substances.
5. Check waste disposal by industries.
The role of health service 6. Research into the effects of water and
organizations other contaminants.
To ensure effective delivery of health
services, various health service Ghana Standards Boards
organizations have been set up. 1. Promotes development and efficiency
In Ghana, local health service in industries
organizations such as Ghana Health 2. Ensures high quality of goods
Service, Environmental Protection Agency, produces in Ghana
Ghana Standards Board and the Food and 3. Regulates importation of goods
Drug board as well as international health 4. Promotes industrial and public
service organizations like the WHO, FAO, standards
UNICEF, Red Cross, Red Crescent and 5. Checks the safety of manufactured
Blue cross all contribute in ensuring goods
efficient health service delivery.
Food and Drugs Board
The role of Ghana Health Service 1. Ensures that foods are pure and
1. Training of health personnel. wholesome and produced under
2. Advising the government on health sanitary conditions
issues. 2. Checks the safety and effectiveness of
3. Carrying out vaccinations. drugs and therapeutic devices
4. Educating the public on health 3. Makes sure that cosmetics are safe and
matters. made from appropriate ingredients
5. Monitors and prevents outbreaks of 4. Ensures that labels and packaging of
diseases. products are truthful, informative, and
6. Provides national health statistics. not deceptive.
5. Ensures proper labelling and safety of
chemical products, toys, and other
articles used in the home.
452
The role of the World health 6. Establish monitoring networks to warn

Organization (WHO) of possible food shortages
1. Works to reduce human disease 7. Facilitates improved worldwide food
2. Funds medical research security.
3. Provides emergency aid during 8. In recent years, the FAO has worked
disasters, to develop new plant mutations by
4. Aims to improve nutrition, housing, using radioactive materials, to aid
sanitation, and working conditions in developing nations in cultivating fast-
developing countries. growing varieties of crops such as rice
5. Manages international disease and wheat
prevention and control efforts,
6. Involved in training medical The role of the United Nations
personnel, International Children’s Emergency
7. Educates the world populations about Fund (UNICEF)
public health issues including 1. UNICEF has helped provide millions
widespread diseases, nutrition, of children with clean drinking water
population control, and the benefits of and sanitary living conditions.
environmental sanitation. 2. By training educators to develop
effective school programs, the agency
The role the Food and Agriculture has enabled children around the world
Organization to benefit from a primary school
1. Collects, analyzes, and distributes education.
information about nutrition, food, and 3. UNICEF also provides a relief
agriculture network for children and their parents
2. Fosters conservation of natural or other caregivers in the aftermath of
resources disasters, such as floods, earthquakes,
3. Develops basic soil and water and droughts.
resources 4. It has worked extensively with
4. Controls animal diseases and plant children from war-torn countries to
diseases; help alleviate their suffering.
5. The organization works to prevent
5. Provides needy member nations of
child abuse, child labour, sexual
technical assistance in such fields as
exploitation of children, and the use of
nutrition, food preservation, irrigation,
children as soldiers.
soil conservation, and reforestation.
6. UNICEF has provided immunizations
to millions of children against
453
potentially fatal diseases, such as 3. Provides support during disasters such

diphtheria, tetanus, whooping cough, floods, earthquakes, fire outbreak etc.
measles, polio, and tuberculosis. 4. Maintains maternal and child welfare
7. UNICEF‘s promotion of basic health- clinics in deprived areas.
care delivery systems and treatments, 5. Provides emergency aid to those in
such as rehydration therapy for distress
children suffering from diarrhoea, has 6. Provides supports for refugees
also contributed to dramatic
reductions in child mortality.
SANITATION AND PERSONAL
8. UNICEF works to prevent the
HYGIENE
transmission of AIDS and human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in Sanitation is measures to protect public
young people and to obtain medicine health through proper solid waste disposal,
for infected individuals. sewage disposal, public and personal
9. It also helps communities care for the hygiene and cleanliness during food
millions of children orphaned by the processing and preparation.
death of their parents from AIDS.
Waste disposal
Solid waste disposal is the disposal of
normally solid or semi-solid materials,
resulting from human and animal activities
that are useless, unwanted, or hazardous.
Types of solid waste

1. Garbage: decomposable wastes from
food
2. Rubbish: non-decomposable wastes,
either combustible (such as paper,
Fig. 105.5: A UNICEF official giving a vaccine wood, and cloth) or non-combustible
(such as metal, glass, and ceramics)
The role of the International Red 3. Ashes: residues of the combustion of
Cross (IRC) and Red Crescent solid fuels
Movement 4. Large wastes: demolition and
1. Provides first aid in time of war construction debris and trees
2. Trains personnel 5. Dead animals
454
6. Sewage-treatment solids: material

retained on sewage-treatment screens,
settled solids, and biomass sludge
7. Industrial wastes: such materials as
chemicals, paints, and sand
8. Mining wastes: slag heaps and coal
refuse piles
9. Agricultural wastes: farm animal
manure and crop residues
Waste disposal methods Fig. 105.6: A landfill site
Selecting a disposal method depends

mostly on the type of waste and costs. Incineration
Waste disposable methods include: In incinerators, refuse is burned on moving
grates in refractory-lined chambers;
Landfill combustible gases and the solids they carry
Sanitary landfill is the cheapest and the are burned in secondary chambers.
most satisfactory means of disposal, but Combustion is 85 to 90 percent complete
only if suitable land is within economic for the combustible materials.
range of the source of the wastes. In addition to heat, the products of
Typically, collection and transportation incineration include the normal primary
account for 75 percent of the total cost of products of combustion—carbon dioxide
solid waste management. and water—as well as oxides of sulphur
and nitrogen and other gaseous pollutants;
In a modern landfill, refuse is spread in non-gaseous products are fly ash and
thin layers, each of which is compacted by unburned solid residue
a bulldozer before the next is spread. When
about 3 m of refuse has been laid down, it Composting
is covered by a thin layer of clean earth, Composting operations of solid wastes
which also is compacted. Pollution of include preparing refuse and degrading
surface and groundwater is minimized by organic matter by aerobic micro-
lining and contouring the fill. organisms. Materials that might have
salvage value or cannot be composted are
removed, and are ground up to improve the
efficiency of the decomposition process.
The refuse is placed in long piles on the
455
ground or deposited in mechanical present are absorbed by a granular,

systems, where it is degraded biologically activated-carbon filter. Viruses and
to humus with a total nitrogen, phosphorus, bacteria are then killed by ozonization.
and potassium content of 1 to 3 percent, At this stage the water should be cleansed
depending on the material being of all contaminants, but, for added
composted. After about three weeks, the reliability, second-stage carbon absorption
product is ready for curing, blending with and reverse osmosis are used, and chlorine
additives, bagging, and marketing. dioxide is added to attain the highest
possible water standard.
Sewage Disposal
Sewage or wastewater disposal is the Septic tanks
various processes involved in the A sewage treatment process commonly
collection, treatment, and sanitary disposal used to treat domestic wastes is the septic
of liquid and water-carried wastes from tank: a concrete, cinder block or metal tank
households and industrial plants. where the solids settle and the floatable
materials rise. The partly clarified liquid
Methods of disposing of sewage stream flows from a submerged outlet into
subsurface rock-filled trenches through
Direct discharge into water which the wastewater can flow and
Direct discharge into a receiving stream or percolate into the soil where it is oxidized
lake is the most commonly practiced aerobically. The floating matter and settled
means of sewage disposal; the water body solids can be held from six months to
is then treated. The treatment process several years, during which they are
involves conventional primary and decomposed anaerobically.
secondary treatment followed by lime
clarification to remove suspended organic
compounds. During this process, an
alkaline condition is created to improve the
process.
In the next step, re-carbonation is used to
bring the pH level to neutral. Then the
water is filtered through multiple layers of
sand and charcoal, and ammonia is
removed by ionization. Pesticides and any
other dissolved organic materials still
Fig. 105.7: A septic tank
456
Public and personal hygiene 6. Washing the hand before touching

Hygiene is the practice or principles of food or cooking
cleanliness thereby preserving life. 7. Wearing shoes or foot ware to protect
the feet
Diseases like cholera, dysentery etc. are
acquired as a result of insanitary and Ventilation
unhygienic lifestyles. To improve quality Ventilation is the removal of hot, stale
of life, both environmental and personal and odorous air from a room or an
hygiene must be observed. enclosed area and replacing it with clean,
fresh air.
How to observe public and
environmental hygiene Buildings in which people live and work
1. Cleaning public places regularly. must be ventilated to replenish oxygen,
2. Desilting gutters. dilute the concentration of carbon dioxide
3. Maintenance of clean roads and and water vapour, and minimize unpleasant
streets. odours.
4. Weeding weed-infested public places.
5. Providing refuse dump and containers. How to ensure proper ventilation in a
6. Proper disposal of solid and liquid room
wastes.
7. Proper town and village planning. Natural method
1. Adequate number of windows and air
8. Provision of clean water supply.
vents.
9. Availability of public toilet.
2. Large windows raised above the
10. Proper ventilation in house planning.
ground level.
3. Windows should face each other so
How to observe personal hygiene
that fresh air will enter through one
1. Regular bathing or washing of the
and force warm air through the other.
body with soap.
4. Windows, doors and air vents should
2. Washing the hands with soap after
face the direction of the wind.
visiting the toilet.
5. Planting of trees around or near the
3. Changing and washing dirty and
house.
odorous clothes.
6. Siting houses on hilltops and flatlands
4. Cleaning the teeth regularly.
instead of valleys.
5. Keeping the hair tidy by combing.
7. Avoid overcrowding in houses and
buildings
457
8. Siting air vents in the ceiling and high

TEST QUESTIONS
on the walls
1. Explain six proper ways of using
appliances at home.
2. (a) Mention five common accidents at

home.
(b) State five ways of preventing
accidents at home.
3. (a) What is first aid?

(b) List four importance of first aid.
Fig. 105.8: Proper ventilation 4. Describe the methods of administering

first aid to the following accident:
Artificial methods (a) head injury;
1. Provision of electric fans (standing, (b) sprain
ceiling or wall fans) (c) electric shock
2. The use of hand fans (d) poisoning
3. Availability of air-conditioners or air-
conditioning units. 5. Describe how you will perform
cardiopulmonary resuscitation to an
Importance of ventilation unconscious person.
1. It replaces warm, stale, humid air with
fresh one. 6. (a) What are hazardous substances?
2. It increases evaporation of sweat from (b) Explain four sources of hazardous
the body. substances.
3. It reduces droplet infections by
bacteria and viruses. 7. (a) List four effects of hazardous
4. It prevents headaches and drowsiness substances.
as a result of overheating and high (b) Describe four ways of controlling
concentration of carbon dioxide. hazardous substances.
5. It prevents pest such as cockroaches
and bedbugs from encroaching rooms. 8. Some hazard symbols usually
6. It removes body odour. displayed on chemical containers are
7. It prevents suffocation. listed below.
458
13. (a) What is public health?

(b) State three aims of public health
authorities.
(c) Mention three methods used by
(a) What does each symbol signify? public health authorities in
(b) Give one name of a chemical preventing disease outbreak.
which can be associated with
each symbol. 14. List four roles played by each of the
following bodies in ensuring proper
9. (a) Define the term occupational health care.
hazard. (a) Ghana Health Service;
(b) Mention six common occupational (b) Environmental Protection Agency;
hazards. (c) Foods and Drugs Board;
(d) World Health Organization;
10. (a) List five ways of controlling (e) United Nations International
occupational hazards. Children‘s Emergency Fund.
(b) Why is it important to know the
basic hazard symbols? 15. (a) Briefly explain the term sanitation
(b) Explain four waste disposal
11. Describe the appropriate methods of methods.
controlling the following fires:
(a) bush fire; 16. (a) What is personal hygiene?
(b) small fire; (b) List five ways of ensuring personal
(c) large factory fire. hygiene.
12. State two effects of each of the 17. (a) Explain the term ventilation.
following hazards in the community: (b) State six methods of ensuring
(a) disease; proper ventilation.
(b) insanitary conditions; (c) Mention five importance of
(c) traffic problems. ventilation.
459
39
ENDOGENOUS TECHNOLOGY
they discovered fire by striking flint

Specific Objectives
against pyrites to produce sparks.
 Distinguish between science and technology.
 Outline the significance of science and The rise in civilization introduced man to
technology to society.
 Explain the term endogenous technology. new forms of tools, materials, designs
 Outline problems associated with application of structures, etc. In the Renaissance era,
some technology. more complex tools and machineries were
 Identify some small scale industries and their
importance. invented as humans continued to
 Identify the scientific principles underlying the understand science better.
operation of some small scale industries.
Our modern period has brought about even

more sophisticated tools, gadgets, vehicles,
structures etc. Humans are still developing
and the development is measured primarily
on the technologies invented and
INTRODUCTION introduced.
Technology has been a cumulative process
at the centre of human experience. It is SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
perhaps best understood in a historical
context that traces the evolution of early The meanings of the terms science and
humans from a period of very simple tools technology have changed significantly
to the complex, large-scale networks that from one generation to another. More
influence most of contemporary human similarities than differences, however, can
life. be found between the terms.
The prehistoric man made tools out of
stone, mostly for hunting. As time went on,
460
39 Endogenous Technology Samking
Science and machines to increase their control and

Science is the systematic study of understanding of the material environment.
anything that can be examined, tested,
and verified. Technology is an essential condition of
advanced, industrial civilization. The rate
From its early beginnings, science has of technological change has developed its
developed into one of the greatest and most own momentum in recent centuries.
influential fields of human endeavour.
Table 7.5: Distinction between science and
Today different branches of science
technology
investigate almost everything that can be
observed or detected, and science as a Science Technology
whole, shapes the way we understand the Study of how things Uses science to make
work things work
universe - our planet, ourselves, and other Systematic study of Process of converting
living things. things things or materials into
useful products
Aims to learn, to Aims to create, to build,
Knowledge gained in science accumulates know and to to accomplish
as time goes by, building on work understand.
Pursues knowledge Applies science to
performed earlier. Some of this knowledge,
for knowledge sake achieve specific ends
such as our understanding of numbers, Focuses on Focuses on
stretches back to the time of ancient understanding understanding the made
natural phenomena environment
civilizations, when scientific thought first Experimental and Design, construction,
began. Other scientific knowledge, such as logical skills needed testing, planning, quality
our understanding of genes that cause assurance, problem
solving, decision
cancer, dates back less than 50 years. making, interpersonal
However, in all fields of science, old or and communication
new, researchers use the same systematic skills needed
Drawing correct Taking good decisions
approach, known as the scientific method. conclusions based based on incomplete
on good theories data and approximate
and accurate data models
Technology Corresponding Key Technological
Technology is the study, development and Scientific Processes
Processes
application of devices, machines and Discovery Design, invention,
techniques for manufacturing and (controlled by production
productive purposes. experimentation)
The term technology also refers to the

processes by which humans develop tools
461
Similarities between science and productive hours. Nowadays, a person can

technology travel over thousands of miles in a matter
1. Both science and technology imply a of hours, thanks to science and technology.
thinking process;
2. Both are concerned with causal Health
relationships in the material world; Today with continuous scientific studies
3. Both employ an experimental and new technologies, medical research is
methodology that results in thorough being done every day to help find cures or
demonstrations that can be verified by vaccines for devastating diseases such as
repetition malaria, cancer, HIV and AIDS,
leukaemia, etc. People are now assured of
Significance of science and long lives because of better available
technology healthcare and facilities.
Communication Education
Over the years communication has been Through the internet, teachers and students
much easier through science and have a huge stock of information to help in
technology. The invention of mobile their research and learning processes.
phones, which allow people to speak to Students can sit in their houses and study
others kilometres away, are a key example. everything they ought to know through
In Ghana, about 60% to 70% of the computer-based distance learning. Other
populace own or use mobile phones. multimedia tools such as videos, slides
The internet with the World Wide Web with projector and even audio help
offers people the chance to chart through educators to reach wide audiences.
various social networking sites such as
―Facebook‖, ―Twitter‖, ―Myspace‖, Agriculture
―LinkedIn‖, etc. Skype, for instance More scientific and technological
enables people to talk over the internet processes have helped farmers to improve
while seeing each other on the computer on the quality, quantity and yield of their
screen. produce. Fertilizers improve crop yield
while ―weedicides‖ kill weeds thereby
Transportation reducing competition for nutrients.
Before the invention of automobiles, trains Machineries such as ploughs, planters and
and aircrafts, people had to walk for miles, harvesters help farmers to grow more crops
wasting much needed strength and with little manual labour. Animal breeding
462
techniques enable farmers to raise all kinds the development of some of the most
of farm animals. sophisticated new technologies.
Economy Industries which make use of

All the benefits listed lead to one major endogenous technology in Ghana
field – economic growth. Computers and 1. The akpeteshie or local gin distillation
mobile phones are used extensively in industry
industries for communication and other 2. The kente weaving industry
purposes such as report writing, accounting 3. Local soap manufacturing industry
and database. Transportation helps save 4. Black smith
valuable, productive time; education help 5. Wood carving industry
expose people to many fields of the 6. Small-scale mining or ‗galamsey‘
economy; when people are healthy they industry
can work more hours and faster; and 7. Herbal medicine production
finally, with agriculture being the number 8. Food preparation and processing
one employer in Ghana and Africa at large, 9. Batik tie and dye industry
advances in it invariably improves the
economy of the country. Problems associated with
endogenous technology
development in Ghana
ENDOGENOUS TECHNOLOGY
The development of endogenous
Endogenous technology covers technology in Ghana suffers huge setbacks.
technologies that make the best usage of The following are some problems with
the local resources of a particular country endogenous technology in Ghana.
or region. It may include foreign or
exogenous technology, but such Imports of foreign goods
technologies must be adapted to suits the Imported goods, especially those from
particular needs, conditions and resources Eastern and Southern Asia (chiefly China
of the developing country. and India) usually have low prices
compared to those locally made. This gives
The development of endogenous those goods better patronage than those
technology almost always requires made in the country.
innovation and is therefore as much a
challenge for well-qualified personnel as in
463
Lack of technological development Transportation problems

Most local manufacturers rely on the age- Most of the roads in the rural areas where
old technologies handed down from their endogenous technology industries are
ancestors. Those technologies are often based are in a deplorable state. People find
less productive as they require more it extremely difficult conveying their raw
manual labour. The wood carving industry, materials and products to their production
for instance requires the carver to use axe sites and marketing centres. Most of the
to shape the wood instead of faster means roads are virtually non-motorable during
such as the use of chain saws or other the rainy season.
mechanized means.
SMALL-SCALE INDUSTRIES
Lack of highly qualifies of skilled
personnel A great majority of industries which rely
Endogenous technology requires highly on endogenous technology are small-scale.
qualified and skilled engineers or
technicians, since a high degree of Features of small-scale industries
competence is needed to determine how 1. Small-scale industries normally
certain technologies can be adapted to suit operate on little resources.
different environments in countries. 2. They rely on low starting capital
However, that is not the situation on the because of lack of access to credit.
ground. Most of the people who work at 3. They normally employ fewer people,
the various fields lack the expertise needed in some cases a nuclear family may be
to make the industry going. the only workers on the field.
4. The workers usually lack technical
Lack of capital know-how in their chosen fields.
Though endogenous technology demands 5. The workers have little or no formal
relatively lesser capital, some basic tools education.
and materials have to be purchased. Most 6. The products are only known and
of the endogenous technology industries patronized by a few people.
are located in rural areas where there is 7. They are labour intensive, employing
little or no financial institutions to assist. more labour per unit of capital than
People therefore have to depend on the large enterprises.
little resources they have. This results in
less production.
464
Examples of small-scale industries cleanse, to cure skin sores, to dye hair,

a) Soap making used as perfume and skin ointment.
b) Vegetable oil extraction Raw materials needed
c) Palm oil extraction Soap requires two major raw materials:
d) Bread making fats and alkali.
e) Salt extraction
f) Pomade making Alkalis used in soap making
g) Herbal medicine extraction 1. Sodium hydroxide
2. Potassium hydroxide or potash (ash of
Importance of small-scale industries dried plantain peel).
in Ghana 3. Ash of coconut husk
1. Small-scale industries are the major 4. Ash of dried cocoa pod
employers in Ghana.
2. They promote indigenous Fats used in soap making
technological know-how. 1. Palm oil
3. They are a huge contributor to the 2. Olive oil
economic growth of the country. 3. Palm kernel oil
4. They alleviate or reduce poverty in 4. Coconut oil
Ghanaian societies. 5. Animal fat
5. They reduce rural-urban migration.
6. They are able to compete (but behind The Manufacturing Process
protective barriers).  Fats and alkali are melted in a
7. They cater for the needs of the poor. container.
8. They adapt easily to customer  After boiling, the mass thickens as the
requirements. fat reacts with the alkali
9. They serve as a source of foreign (saponification), producing soap and
exchange. glycerine.
10. They help in developing deprived
 The mixture is treated with salt,
areas of the country.
causing the soap to rise to the top and
the glycerine to settle to the bottom.
Preparation of soap
 The glycerine is extracted from the
Soap is a combination of animal fat or
plant oil and caustic soda. When dissolved bottom of the kettle.
in water, it breaks dirt away from surfaces.  To remove the small amounts of fat
Through the ages soap has been used to that have not saponified, a strong
caustic solution is added to the kettle.
465
 The next step is called pitching. The Types of soap

soap in the container is boiled again Soft soap – These are soaps which are very
with added water. soluble in water. They are produced from
 The mass eventually separates into potassium-based alkalis.
two layers. The top layer is called neat
soap, which is about 70% soap and Hard soap – These are soaps which are not
readily soluble in water. These soaps are
30% water. The lower layer, called
produced from sodium-based alkalis.
nigre, contains most of the impurities
in the soap such as dirt and salt, as
Palm oil production
well as most of the water.
Only fully ripe palm fruits are harvested
 The neat soap is taken off the top. The and extracted into oil.
soap is then cooled.
Procedure
 Boil the palm nut fruits until they are
soft and cracking open. The flesh of
the fruits should be soft and tender.
 Grind the fruits with mortar and
pestle. Do not break the nut, but grind
the palm nuts with the pestle so the
juices flow out of it. You will have a big
mush when you are finished.
Fig. 105.9: Soap preparation  Mix the mush with water and filter the
solution through a sieve.
saponification  Boil the palm nut fruit juice. As you
boil the juice, the oil will separate and
glycerol float on the surface of the water.
washing
recovery  Use a spoon to scrape the oil off the
surface of the water. Ladle it into an
fitting
airtight container.
drying
Fig. 106.0: Flow chart of soap preparation
466
Procedure
boil palm nut fruits
 Clean dried kernels with water. Make
sure they are free of any dirt or gravel.
grind the fruits  Shell the kernels with a nutcracker to
separate the shells from the kernels.
 Heat the nuts in an oven until roasted.
filter mush
 Grind in a blender or pound with a
hand mortar until it is a pasty
boil filtered juice consistency.
 Mix the paste with water heated to
boil in a bowl. Boiling water separates
scrape oil off
the oil from the palm paste. The oil will
Fig. 106.1: Summary of palm oil extraction float to the top.
 Skim the palm kennel oil off the top of
the cooled water with a spoon.
 Pour the oil in the jar and close tightly.
clean palm kennel
remove kennel from shell
roast kennel
Fig. 106.2: People preparing palm oil
Palm kennel oil production mix paste with water

The palm kennel extracted from the palm
fruit is used for the production of palm
skim oil off
kennel oil.
Fig. 106.3: Palm kennel oil extraction
467
Scientific processes involved in Yoghurt production

some industries Yoghurt is a dairy product, which is made
by blending fermented milk with various
Salt production ingredients that provide flavour and colour.
There are two main scientific processes Main scientific processes involved in the
involved in salt production – evaporation production of yoghurt include
and crystallization. homogenization and pasteurization.
Procedure Raw Materials

 Brine or seawater, which has high salt  Milk
concentration, is pumped into a  Sugars
shallow pond.  Stabilizers
 With the help of the sun and dry wind,  Fruits and flavours
the water is evaporated from the salt.  Bacterial culture
 Insoluble impurities such as sand and
clay and slightly soluble impurities Procedure
such as calcium carbonate settle to the  Blend Ingredients: The ingredients
bottom as evaporation begins. are mixed or adjusted.
 The remaining brine is moved to yet  Pasteurization: The milk mixture is
another pond where the salt settles pasteurized (heated) at 85°C for 30
out as evaporation continues. minutes.
 Iodine, which helps prevent the  Homogenization: The blend is
thyroid disease (goitre), is added to the homogenized to mix all ingredients
solution. The water is finally allowed to thoroughly to improve yogurt
evaporate and the salt crystallized. consistency.
 The final product is then bagged.  Cooling: The milk is cooled to 42°C to
bring the yogurt to the ideal growth
temperature for the starter culture.
 Inoculation with bacteria cultures
 The starter cultures are mixed into
the cooled milk.
 Incubation: The milk is held at 42°C
until a pH 4.5 is reached. This allows
the fermentation to progress to form
Fig. 106.4: Shovelling crystallized salt
468
a soft gel and the characteristic 3. (a) What is endogenous technology?

flavour of yogurt. This process can (b) Mention five industries which use
take several hours. endogenous technology in Ghana.
 Stirring and cooling: The yogurt is
stirred and cooled to 7°C to stop the 4. Explain four problems associated with
fermentation process. endogenous technology in Ghana.
 Addition of Fruit & Flavours: Fruit and
5. Briefly describe the production of soap.
flavours are added at different steps
depending on the type of yogurt. The
6. How is palm oil extracted?
yogurt is pumped from the
fermentation vat and packaged as 7. Describe the production of palm kennel
desired. oil.
8. The main processes involved in salt
production are evaporation and
TEST QUESTIONS crystallization. Describe how they
occur.
1. Explain, with examples, how
science and technology have helped to 9. Describe the following steps involved
improve the living standards of human in yoghurt production:
kind (a) pasteurization;
(b) homogenization
2. (a) State five differences between (c) incubation
science and technology.
(b) Explain four significance of science
and technology.
469
40
BIOTECHNOLOGY
On the large scale, biotechnology may be

Specific Objectives
used for various industrial processes. The
 Explain the term biotechnology. question is what is biotechnology?
 Give examples of industrial bases
biotechnology.
 Explain the meaning of genetic engineering and MEANING OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
list examples of its application.
 Explain the term tissue culture and give
Biotechnology is the use of living systems
examples of it application.
and organisms to develop or make useful
products.
It involves the practice of using plants,

animals and micro-organisms such as
INTRODUCTION
bacteria, as well as biological processes -
such as the ripening of fruit or the bacteria
For thousands of years, humankind has
that break down compost, to some benefit.
used biotechnology in agriculture, food
production and medicine. Whenever a
Biotechnology is not only limited to
farmer puts a seed into the soil, he is
biological fields, but links biology to the
practicing the concept of basic cloning;
other fields of science. It can thus be
whenever corn dough is left overnight
defined as utilizing the sciences of biology,
before using it, we are practicing
chemistry, physics, engineering,
fermentation and whenever a herbalist
computers, and information technology to
collects different plants and put them
develop tools and products that hold great
together as one medicine, he or she is using
promise.
a form of biotechnology.
These processes are traditional
Both traditional and modern biotechnology
biotechnological methods.
share the same foundation - the use of
470
40 Biotechnology Samking
living organisms to enhance crops, fuels, physical stretching of the protein by carbon
medical treatments and a host of other tools dioxide gas. These result in the light, airy
that can help humans. physical structure associated with yeast
leavened products.
EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIES
Development of fermentation flavour
BASED ON BIOTECHNOLOGY
Yeast imparts the characteristic flavour of
bread and other yeast leavened products.
Biotechnology has applications in most During dough fermentation, yeast produces
major industrial areas, including: many secondary metabolites such as
1. healthcare (medical), ketones, higher alcohols, organic acids,
2. crop production and agriculture, aldehydes and esters.
3. non food (industrial) uses of crops and Some of these alcohols for example, escape
other products (e.g. biodegradable during baking. Others react with each other
plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and with other compounds found in the
4. environmental uses. dough to form new and more complex
flavour compounds. These reactions occur
Importance of yeast in bread making primarily in the crust and the resultant
Yeast is a tiny plant-like microorganism flavour diffuses into the crumb of the
which serves as a catalyst in the process of baked bread.
fermentation. In the production of bread,
yeast is a key ingredient and serves three
primary functions:
Production of carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide is generated by the yeast as
a result of the breakdown of fermentable
sugars in the dough. The evolution of
carbon dioxide causes expansion of the
dough as it is trapped within the protein
matrix of the dough.
Fig. 106.5: Gaps left by escaped CO2 in bread
Causes dough maturation
This is accomplished by the chemical Uses of yeast in brewing industry
reaction of yeast to produce alcohols and  It metabolises the sugars extracted
acids on protein of the flour and by the from grains, which produces alcohol
471
and carbon dioxide, and thereby turns well as several pectinases, lipase,
wort into beer. amylases, cellulases, and proteases.
 In addition to fermenting the beer,
yeast influences the character and
flavour. The dominant types of yeast
used to make beer are Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, known as ale yeast, and
Saccharomyces uvarum, known as
lager yeast.
 If the brewer wishes to increase the
alcohol content of his beer, he only
has to add more yeast of a specific
variety.
Fig. 106.6: Penicillium
Penicillium Sp. in drug and food
industries Lactobacillus Sp. in food industry
Penicillium is a genus of Ascomycetous Lactobacillus is a major part of the lactic
fungi of major importance in the natural acid bacteria group, named as such because
environment as well as food and drug most of its members convert lactose and
production. other sugars to lactic acid.
Several species of the genus Penicillium Some Lactobacillus species are used for
play a central role in the production of the production of yogurt, cheese,
cheese and of various meat products. sauerkraut, pickles, beer, wine, cider,
Penicillium nalgiovense is used to improve cocoa, and other fermented foods, as well
the taste of sausages and hams, and to as animal feeds, such as silage.
prevent colonization by other moulds and
bacteria. Sourdough bread is made using a starter
culture, which is a symbiotic culture of
In addition to their importance in the food yeast and lactic acid bacteria growing in a
industry, species of Penicillium and water and flour medium. Lactobacilli are
Aspergillus serve in the production of a some of the most common beer spoilage
number of biotechnologically produced organisms.
enzymes and other macromolecules, such The species operates by lowering the pH of
as gluconic, citric, and tartaric acids, as the fermenting substance by creating the
lactic acid, neutralising it to the desired
extent.
472
GENETIC ENGINEERING
Genetic engineering is the manipulation

of the genetic makeup of an organism in
order to produce an organism of a desired
trait.
This is done using techniques that remove

heritable material or that introduce DNA
prepared outside the organism either
directly into the host or into a cell that is
then fused or hybridized with the host.
Fig. 106.7: Lactobacillus
Fig. 106.8: Genetically engineering a mouse
473
Applications of genetic engineering can be treated. These elements can be

Genetic engineering techniques have been injected into the bodies of the patient.
applied in numerous fields including 3. Chemotherapy and Radiology, which
research, agriculture, industrial are very prominently used in cases of
biotechnology and medicine. terminal diseases, are a gift of nothing
but genetic research.
Applications in Agriculture 4. Treatment of heredity diseases too is
1. Genetically modified (GM) foods are possible by manipulating the genes in
foods which have been engineered to the human body before birth.
produce higher yield both in sizes and 5. Helps in giving birth to babies of
quantities. desired traits.
2. Fertilizers and bio synthesizers which
help in proper growth of crops at the Applications for Humans
same time killing the harmful bacteria 1. Scientists are pondering over the
have helped the agriculture sector. possibility of making children with
3. When nutrients are added to the soil, only the desirable traits are possible
the produce is of better quality and of after the successes in cloning.
higher quantity, both of which are 2. It helps prevent some diseases and
very beneficial. infections.
4. Soils which have been treated with 3. Babies who have deficiency could be
organic matter, such as humus, do not treated with additions being done to
lose their potential to grow more their genetic structure.
crops, which allows the agriculture 4. people who cannot reproduce due to
process to be carried out all through medical complications have also seen
the year. positive results with surrogate parent's
concept becoming available.
Applications in Medicines
1. Majority of the findings of genetic Applications to the Environment
research have proved to be of great Organisms have been known to help in the
significance to the medical world. bio-degradation of waste materials.
2. With different kinds of vaccines, However, there are some materials like
antibodies and vitamins developed and plastics which cannot be degraded by them.
easily available on the market, many To help such causes, genetic research has
diseases are now under control and produced modified micro-organisms which
not only have the capability of doing this
474
but are also more efficient due to the

speedy process.
Oceanophillis bacteria were popularly
used in the 2010 BP oil spill in the Gulf of
Mexico to eat up the spilled oil.
Applications in Industries
1. Synthetically produced items are now
available on the markets which are
used as raw materials by the
industrialists. Fig. 106.9: Plant tissue culture
2. Commercially viable items can also be
produced by using the biological Advantages of tissue culture
procedures like fermentation (in 1. It can create a large number of clones
bakeries). from a single seed or plant.
3. Genetic research has been able to tell 2. It is easy to select desirable traits
exactly what percentage and what directly from the culture setup (in
quantities of items should be used for vitro), thereby decreasing the amount
optimum results making everything of space required for field trials.
calculated and risk free. 3. The time required is much shortened,
no need to wait for the whole life
cycle of seed development.
TISSUE CULTURE
4. For species that have long generation
Tissue culture is a process that involves time, low levels of seed production, or
exposing plant tissue to specific nutrients, seeds that do not readily germinate,
hormones, and lights under sterile rapid propagation is possible.
conditions to produce many new plants, 5. It overcomes seasonal restrictions for
each a clone of the original mother plant, seed germination.
over a very short period of time. 6. It enables the preservation of pollen
and cell collections form which plants
This method is known as micro- may be propagated (like a seed bank).
propagation. 7. It allows for the international
exchange of sterilized plant materials
(eliminating the need for quarantine.)
475
8. It helps to eliminate plant diseases

TEST QUESTIONS
through careful stock selection and
sterile techniques. 1. Explain the term biotechnology.
9. It enables cold storage of large
number of viable plants in a small 2. Describe the importance of
space. biotechnology in the following
10. If there is plant with partially infected industries:
tissue, it is possible to produce a new (a) bread making industry;
plant without infection. (b) brewing industry;
(c) food industry.
Disadvantages of tissue culture
1. Costs of the equipments are very 3. (a) What is genetic engineering?
expensive in large-scale production. (b) Explain the application of genetic
2. The procedure is very variable and it engineering in the following fields:
depends on the type of the species so (i) agriculture;
sometimes it needs trial-and-error type (ii) medicine;
of experiments if there is not any (iii) environment.
review about that species.
3. The procedure needs special attention 4. (a) Define the term tissue culture.
and diligently done observation. (b) State six advantages and four
4. There may be error in the identity of disadvantages of tissue culture.
the organisms after culture.
5. Infection may continue through
generations easily if possible
precautions are not taken
6. Decrease genetic variability
476
41
WORK AND MACHINES
Specific Objectives WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

 Explain work, energy and power. Work
 Identify simple machines.
Work is done on an object when an
 Explain the terms mechanical advantage,
velocity ratio and efficiency of machines. applied force moves it through a distance
 Explain the effects of friction and methods of in the direction of the force.
reducing friction in machines.
Work = Force  distance

Or
W=Fs
Work is a scalar quantity. The SI unit for

INTRODUCTION
work is the joule (J), which is newton-
Since prehistory, humans have been meter (Nm).
working day-in and day-out for various
reasons. To make the work they do easier When work is done on a body, there is a
and effective, they have invented numerous transfer of energy to the body, and so work
machines. can be said to be energy in transit.
The dawn of civilization brought with it
even more complex machines. Every work, If, for example, an object is lifted from the
no matter how simple or complex, has got floor to the top of a table, work is done in
a machine with which the work is done overcoming the downward force of gravity,
efficiently and with ease. and the energy imparted to the body as
work will increase its potential energy.
477
41 Work and Machines Samking
Examples Distance = 80 m
1. A boy applies a force of 30N to move a 1200
 Force = = 15 N
wooden box across the floor over 2m. 80
Calculate the work done. 15

Mass = 10 = 1.5 kg
Solution
Energy
Work (W) = force (F) x distance (s)
W = 30 N x 2 m = 60 J Energy is the ability to do work.
 Work done = 60 J Energy can also be defined as the capacity
of matter to perform work as a result of its
2. A bag of cement of mass 50 kg is motion or its position in relation to forces
raised to a height of 4 m. Find the work acting on it.
done in raising the cement.
[g = 10 m s-2] Like work, energy is also measured in
joule, J.
Solution
W=Fxs NB: The various forms of energy have
been treated in chapter 15.
F=mxg
m = 50 kg, g = 10 m s-2 Mechanical energy
F = 50 x 10 = 500 N Mechanical energy is defined as the
energy possessed by a body by virtue of its
s=4m
position or motion
W = 500 x 4 = 2000 J = 2 kJ Or
Mechanical energy is the sum of potential
3. 1.2kJ of work is done in pushing a load and kinetic energies of a body or system.
over a distance of 80m. Determine the
mass of the load. Potential energy is the energy an object or
[Take g = 10ms-2] a system has because of it position or
condition.
Solution
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Mass = Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by
𝑔
an object due to its motion.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
Force =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Potential and kinetic energies are treated in
Work = 1.2kJ = 1.2 x 1000 = 1200J detail in chapter 15.
478
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
(ii) Power =
2560
P = = 170.67 W
15
2. An electric motor is fed with 1200W of

power. If it is allowed to run for two
Fig. 107.0: Examples of PE and KE minutes, calculate the total work it can
produce.
Power
Power is the rate of doing work. Solution
Or 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
Power =
Power is the rate of transferring energy.
Work done = power x time
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
Power = Power = 1200W
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
Time = 2 minutes = 2 60 = 120s
Or
𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 Work done = 1200  120 = 144000J
Power =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 Total work produced = 144kJ
Its S.I unit is the watt (W).

3. An engine does 40kJ of work when it
1 watt is equivalent to 1 joule per second
was supplied with 2.0kW of power.
(Js-1).
What is the total time with which the
engine does the work?
Example
1. A man pulls a load with a force of 80N
Solution
across a distance of 32m in 15s.
work done
Determine the Power =
time taken
i. work done;
work done
ii. power of the man. Time taken =
power
Solution Work done = 40kJ = 40000J

(i) Work done = force  distance Power = 2.0kW = 2000W
= 80  32 40000
= 2560 J
Time take = = 20 s
2000
479
composed of the combination of some of

SIMPLE MACHINES the simple machines.
A simple machine is any device that
enables work to be done more easily and
effectively.
A force called effort is applied to the
machine which responses by providing a
greater force to move, lift or break a load.
The work input to a simple machine is

expressed as:
Work input = effort  distance moved by effort
The work done or work output of a simple

machine is given as: Fig. 107.1: Types of simple machines
Work output = load  distance moved by load Lever

A lever is a simple machine consisting of a
Types of simple machines rigid bar that rotates about a fixed point,
The types of simple machines include: called a fulcrum or pivot. Levers affect the
 the lever, effort needed to do a certain amount of
 the pulley, work, and are used to lift heavy objects.
 the inclined plane,
 the wheel and axle, To move an object with a lever, a force
 the screw, (effort) is applied to one end of the lever,
 the wedge, and the object to be moved (load) is
 gear. usually located at the other end of the
lever, with the fulcrum somewhere
Each machine affects the direction or the between the two.
amount of effort needed to do work. Most
mechanical machines, such as automobiles The distance from the effort to the fulcrum
or power tools, are complex machines is called the effort distance or arm and the
composed of many parts. However, no distance from the load to the fulcrum is
matter how complicated a machine is, it is called the load distance or arm.
480
Parts of a Lever
Fig. 107.2: Parts of a lever Fig. 107.4: First-class lever
The velocity ratio (VR) of a lever is the Examples of first-class levers

ratio effort distance to the load distance.  Scissors
 Pliers
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒  Seesaw
VR =
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒  Pincers
 Claw hammer
 Shears
 Beam balance
 Catapult
Fig. 107.3: Man lifting a rock with a lever
Types or classes of levers

There are three types or classes of levers,
according to where the load and effort are
located with respect to the pivot. Fig. 107.5: Pliers is an example of first-class lever
First-class lever Second-class lever

A first-class lever has the pivot placed A second-class lever has the load in
between the effort and load. If the effort between the effort and the pivot. In this
goes upwards, the load goes downwards type of lever, the movement of the load is
and vice versa. in the same direction as that of the effort.
481
Examples of third-class levers

 Tweezers
 Stapler
 Mousetrap
 Broom
Fig. 107.6: Second-class lever  Hockey stick
Examples of second-class levers

 Wheelbarrow
 Crowbar
 Nut cracker
 Bottle opener
Fig. 107.9:
Example
1. A uniform bar 200 cm long is pivoted
at the centre of gravity. A load of 50 N
is hung 40 cm from the end of the bar.
What is the magnitude of the effort
Fig. 107.7: Wheelbarrow, an example of second- placed at the 200 cm mark?
class lever
Solution
Third-class lever
A third-class lever has the effort in
between the load and the pivot. Both the
effort and load are in the same direction.
Moment about the pivot:

Effort x effort arm = load x load arm
Effort = ?
Effort arm = 40 cm = 0.4 m
Load = 50 N
Fig. 107.8: Third-class lever Load arm = 100 cm = 1 m
E  1 = 50  0.4
20
E= = 20 N
1
482
2. A crowbar is used to lift a load of 200 Pulley

N acting at a distance of 90 cm from A pulley is a simple machine used to lift
the pivot. objects. A pulley consists of a grooved
a) What is the value of the effort wheel or disk within a housing, and a rope
applied in at a distance of 2.3 m or cable threaded around the disk. The disk
raising the load? of the pulley rotates as the rope or cable
b) Draw a diagram to show the force moves over it. Pulleys are used for lifting
on the crowbar. by attaching one end of the rope to the
c) Calculate the mechanical advantage object, threading the rope through the
of the crowbar pulley (or system of pulleys), and pulling
d) What is the velocity ratio of the on the other end of the rope.
crowbar?
Pulley systems
Solution Two common types of pulley systems are
a) Moment about P: the chain hoist and the block and tackle
200  0.9 = 2.3  E systems.
180 = 2.3E
E = 78.26 N Chain hoist system, also called fixed
pulley is usually operated by hand. Take a
b) look at a flagpole. That is an example of a
fixed pulley. Because of the pulley at the
top, the person raising the flag can stand on
the ground and hoist the flag by pulling
c) Mechanical advantage of the down on the rope.
crowbar
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 200
MA = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 = 78.26
MA = 2.56
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
d) VR=
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
2.3
VR = 0.9 = 2.56
Fig. 108.1: Fixed pulley
483
The velocity ratio of a fixed pulley is given The V.R. of the block and tackle system is
by the ratio of the radius of the axel (r) to equal to the number of pulleys present in
the radius of the wheel (R). the system.
For example if there are 2 pulleys present,
𝑹 the V.R. is 2; if there are 4 pulleys, the
VR =
𝒓 V.R. is 4 and so on.
Fig. 108.2:
Block and tackle system

Block and tackle system is often used with
an engine or motor. This type of pulley Fig. 108.4: Pulley system with VR = 4
system is called a 'block and tackle', where
'block' refers to the pulleys and 'tackle' is Inclined plane
the chain that the person is pulling to lift Inclined plane is a simple machine
the load. consisting of a flat surface that is at an
angle to the load.
An inclined plane makes it easier to lift
heavy objects by enabling a person to
apply the necessary force over a greater
distance. The same amount of work is
accomplished in lifting the object with or
without the inclined plane, but because the
inclined plane increases the distance over
which the force is applied, the work
requires less force.
Examples of inclined planes are ramp for

wheelchairs and stare case.
Fig. 108.3: A man pulling a load with a block and
𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆
tackle system Velocity ratio = 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆
484
The main benefit of the wedge is changing

the direction of effort to help split or cut
through an object. A knife and an axe are
forms of wedge. The wedge shape of their
edges helps the user cut through materials.
Fig. 108.5: Inclined plane
Wheel and axel

Wheel and axle is a simple
machine, consisting of a circular object
(the wheel) with a shaft (the axle) running
through and attached to the centre of the
wheel. Fig. 108.6: Axe, an example of a wedge
A round doorknob and a round water tap
are both examples of wheels and axles. The Screw
much larger handle turns a much smaller A screw is an inclined plane wrapped
axle to move a door latch, in the case of a around an axis, or pole. The edge of the
doorknob, or open a water valve, in the inclined plane forms a helix, or spiral,
case of a tap. A wheel and axle makes around the axis. Screws are often used to
work easier by changing the amount and raise objects.. The screw requires a lot of
direction of the force applied to move (or turning, which equates with effort applied
in this case turn) an object. over a long distance; this allows heavy
loads to be lifted with a small amount of
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝑹 effort. Screws are also useful as fastening
Velocity ratio = =
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒙𝒆𝒍 𝒓 devices.
Wedge Screws driven straight into wood or other

A wedge is a form of inclined plane. A materials, as well as threaded nuts and
wedge is essentially a double inclined bolts take advantage of the friction that
plane, where two planes are joined at their results from the contact between the
bases. The joined inclined planes form a inclined plane and other objects. These
blunt end that narrows down to a tip. devices use friction to hold things together.
Wedges are often used to split materials
such as wood or stone. Since
485
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒓
VR =
𝒏𝒖𝒎,𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒓
MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE,
VELOCITY RATIO AND
EFFICIENCY OF A MACHINE
Fig. 108.7: A screw Mechanical advantage

Mechanical advantage (MA) is the ratio
The mechanical advantage of a screw is of load to effort.
related to the circumference of the screw 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
MA =
divided by the pitch of the threads. 𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕
𝟐𝝅𝑳
VR =
𝑷 The mechanical advantage (MA) of simple
The pitch of a thread is the distance along machine measures how much the machine
the axis of the screw from one thread to the magnifies the effort applied to it.
next.
Example
Gears A force of 200N is applied to a machine to
Gears are a type of simple machine raise a load of mass 30kg. Calculate the
consisting of wheels with teeth. The teeth mechanical advantage of the machine.
fit together so that when one gear turns it [Take g = 10ms-2]
also turns the other gear. Sometimes the
gears fit right together, and sometimes they Solution
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
work together through a chain or a belt. MA =
𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
Gears are modified form of the pulley and
Effort = 200N
the wheel and axel.
Load = mg = 30 x 10 = 300N
300
MA = = 1.5
200
Velocity ratio
Velocity ratio (VR) is the ratio of the
distance moved by effort to the distance
moved by load.
Fig. 108.8: Gear system of a bicycle
486
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒅𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

VR = Efficiency =  100
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐
Or
𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 Or
VR = Efficiency is the percentage ratio of work
𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
output to work input of a machine.
Example
An effort of 180N is applied 2m away from 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
Efficiency =  100
a load of 260N to move it onto a truck 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
1.3m high. Determine the

(a) velocity ratio Since work and energy are relative,
(b) mechanical avantage. 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
Efficiency =  100
(c) efficiency 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
Solution NB: The efficiency of a machine is always

𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 less than 100%. This is because part of the
(a) VR =
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 work input or effort is used to overcome
Effort distance = 2m some other forces such friction, gravity,
Load distance = 1.3m drag and viscosity.
2
VR = = 1.54 Examples
1.3
1. A simple machine is provided with
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 2000J of work. If it produces a total
(b) MA =
𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 work of 1500J of work, calculate its
Load = 260N, effort = 180N efficiency.
260
MA = = 1.44
180
Solution
𝑚𝑒𝑐 𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
(c) Efficiency = x 100% Efficiency = x 100
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
1.44
MA = 1.54 x 100% Work output = 1500J
MA = 93.5% Work input = 2000J
1500
Efficience Efficiency = x 100%
2000
Efficiency is the ratio of mechanical
Efficiency = 75%
advantage to velocity ratio expressed in
percentage.
487
2. The efficiency of an earth-moving 𝑚𝑒𝑐 𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

(b) Efficiency = x 100
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
device is 82%. If its velocity ratio is
2.8, determine its mechanical VR = 6
advantage. 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
MA =
𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
Solution Load = 5000N
𝑚𝑒𝑐 𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
Efficiency = x 100
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 Effort = 3000N
Efficiency = 82% 5000
MA = 3000 = 1.67
VR = 2.8
1.67
MA = ? Efficiency = x 100%
6
𝑀𝐴 = 27.8%
82 = 2.8
x 100
82 x 2.8 = 100 MA
229.6 FRICTION
MA = 100
= 2.3
Friction is the force that resists the
3. (a) Draw a pulley system with a relative motion of two bodies in contact.
velocity ratio of 6.
(b) If the pulley system is used to raise In other words, the force which prevents
a load of 5000 N with the two objects in contact from sliding against
application of a force of 3000 N. each other is called friction.
What is the efficiency of the pulley
system. Causes of friction
Friction occurs in part because rough
Solution surfaces tend to catch on one another as
(a) they slide past each other. Even surfaces
that are apparently smooth can be rough at
the microscopic level. They have many
ridges and grooves. The ridges of each
surface can get stuck in the grooves of the
other, effectively creating a type of
mechanical bond, or glue, between the
surfaces.
488
Methods of reducing friction

Reducing the amount of friction in a
machine increases the machine‘s
efficiency. Less friction means less energy
lost to heat, less noise, and less wearing
down of material.
Advantages or uses of friction
1. It prevents humans from slipping There are two main methods of reducing
when walking or running. friction. The first method involves
2. It enables nails and screws to fasten reducing the roughness of the surfaces in
pieces of objects together. contact. For example, sanding two pieces
3. It prevents car and bicycle tyres from of wood lessens the amount of friction that
sliding on the road. occurs between them when they slide
4. It enables automobiles to stop when against one another.
the breaks are applied.
5. It causes the hand to grip firmly to Applying a lubricant to a surface can also
objects. reduce friction. Common examples of
6. It helps to light match. lubricants are oil and grease. They reduce
7. It helps grind food into required friction by minimizing the contact between
pieces. rough surfaces. The lubricant‘s particles
8. It enables sharpening of tools. slide easily against each other and cause far
9. It helps humans to write or produce less friction than would occur between the
desired marks with pens and pencils surfaces.
Lubricants such as machine oil reduce the
Effects or disadvantages of friction amount of energy lost to frictional heating
1. It slows down motion. and reduce the wear damage to the
2. It causes unnecessary heat, especially machine surfaces caused by friction.
in machines.
3. It causes vehicle tires to wear. The use of ball bearings is also an ideal
4. It shrinks and tears the sole of shoes. method of reducing friction.
5. It reduces efficiency of a machine.
6. It leads to melting, warbling and In summary, friction can be reduced by:
breaking of machine parts as a result 1. polishing
of overheating. 2. oiling
3. greasing
489
4. ball-bearing simple machines:

5. powdering (i) lever;
6. streamlining (reduces fluid friction or (ii) pulley;
viscosity) (iii) inclined plane;
(iv) wheel and axle.
6. Explain the following classes of lever

and give two examples each:
(a) first-class lever;
(b) second-class lever;
(c) third-class lever.
Fig. 108.9: Ball bearing 7. Explain why the efficiency of a

machine is always less than 100%.
TEST QUESTIONS
8. (a) Define the term friction.
(b) Explain the causes of friction.
(a) work; 9. (a) Mention five advantages and four
(b) energy; disadvantages of friction.
(c) power. (b) Describe the three methods used to
reduce friction in machines.
4. (a) Differentiate between potential
energy and kinetic energy. 10. A boy who weighs 120 N carries a load
(b) An orange falls to the ground from of 50 N up a fright of stair which is 5 m
a branch which is 4 m above the high in 2 minutes. Calculate:
ground. If the mass of the orange (a) the work he does;
is 20 g and rolls on the ground at (b) his power
12 ms-1, calculate the:
(i) potential energy of the 11. Define the following terms:
Orange; (a) mechanical advantage
(ii) kinetic energy of the orange. (b) velocity ration
[take g = 10 ms-2] (c) efficiency
5. (a) What are simple machines?

(b) Discuss the following types of
490
42
METALS AND NON-METALS
categories is another known as semi-

Specific Objectives metals. Different elements fall under each
 Classify chemical elements into metals, semi- of the categories based on their
metals and non-metals and relate them to their characteristics.
physical and chemical properties.
 Relate the properties of metals, non-metals and
semi-metals to their uses in the home and other Metals and non-metals are separated on the
places. periodic table by a diagonal line of
 Explain what alloys are, their properties and
uses elements. Elements to the left of this
diagonal are metals, and elements to the
right are non-metals. Elements that make
up this diagonal have both metallic and
non-metallic properties and are known as
semi-metals. Metallic elements can
INTRODUCTION combine with one another and with certain
other elements, either as compounds, as
All elements found on the periodic table
solutions, or as intimate mixtures.
fall under two main categories – metals
and non-metals. In between these two
[See the back cover for the full list of the elements on the periodic table]
491
42 Metals and Non-metals Samking
points.
CLASSIFICATION OF 3. They are solid at room temperature
ELEMENTS INTO METALS,
except mercury.
SEMI-METALS AND NON-
METALS 4. They have high tensile strength. Thus
can be stretched without breaking.
Metals 5. Metals are sonorous. That is they
A metal is a chemical element that is a produce sharp ringing sound when
good conductor of both electricity and heat struck.
and forms cations and ionic bonds with 6. Metals are malleable. (Can be beaten
non-metals. to any shape).
7. They are ductile. (Can be drawn into
In a metal, atoms readily lose electrons to thin wires).
form positive ions (cations). Those ions are 8. They are usually hard except alkali
surrounded by delocalized electrons, which metals such as sodium, potassium,
are responsible for the (electricity and heat) calcium etc.
conductivity. The solid thus produced is 9. They have high density except alkali
held by electrostatic interactions between metals such as lithium.
the ions and the electron cloud, which are 10. Metals are lustrous (or shiny) in their
called metallic bonds. pure state except gold and copper.
Metals are elements that undergo Chemical properties of metals

chemical reaction by donating electrons 1. Metals react with chlorine to form solid
in other to be stable. metal chlorides, which can conduct
electricity in their molten state.
Examples of metals are sodium, potassium, Ca + Cl2 → CaCl2
calcium, lithium and magnesium. 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl
These are known as reactive metals. Other
metals such as gold, copper, silver and lead 2. Metals react with oxygen to form
are less reactive metals. oxides over changing timescales
Examples:
Properties of metals 4 Na + O2 → 2 Na2O (sodium oxide)
Physical properties 2 Ca + O2 → 2 CaO (calcium oxide)
1. Metals are good conductors of heat 4 Al + 3O2 → 2 Al2O3 (aluminium oxide)
and electricity.
2. Metals have high melting and boiling
3. Metals react with water to form
492
hydroxides. Examples: These elements are mostly located on the

Na + H2O → NaOH2 right hand side of the periodic table.
Ca + H2O → CaOH2
Properties of non-metals
4. Metals react with dilute acids to form Physical properties
salt and hydrogen. Examples: 1. Non-metals are poor conductors of
K + 2HCl → KCl + H2 electricity except carbon (graphite).
Ca + H2SO4 – CaSO4 + H2 2. They are poor conductors of heat
3. They usually have low melting and
5. Metals typically have low ionization boiling points.
potentials. This means that metals react 4. They usually have low densities.
easily by loss of electrons to form 5. They are mostly brittle.
positive ions, or cations. Thus, metals 6. Non-metals are not sonorous.
can form salts (chlorides, sulphides, 7. They are not lustrous (do not have
and carbonates, for example) by shiny surfaces).
serving as reducing agents or electron
donors. Chemical properties of non-metals
1. Non-metals react with metals to give
6. Metals react chemically with non- salt. Example,
metals to form compounds such as Cl + K → KCl
NaCl, KOH, CaCl etc.
2. Non-metals react with oxygen to give
various oxides. Phosphorus, for
Non-metals
example reacts with oxygen to give
Metals are said to be electron donor. When
phosphorus oxide, a white crystalline
metals donate electrons, the class of
solid which is used as a reducing
elements which accepts or gain the
agent.
electrons are non-metals.
P2 + O5 → P2O5
Non-metals are defined as elements which Carbon reacts with oxygen in the
undergo chemical reaction by accepting presence of heat to give carbon
electrons in order to be stable. dioxide (CO2) or carbon monoxide
(CO) in limited supply of oxygen.
Examples of non-metals are carbon, C + O2 → CO2
oxygen, chlorine, hydrogen, nitrogen,
1
sulphur etc. C + 2 O2 → CO
493
Heated sulphur reacts with oxygen to primarily in the manufacturing of

give sulphur dioxide (SO2), a pungent electronic components. Examples of semi-
smelling gas. metals are boron, silicon, germanium,
S + O2 → SO2 arsenic, antimony, tellurium, polonium,
and astatine. These elements form a
3. Some non-metals such as carbon react diagonal line from the upper right of the
with water (steam) to give a mixture periodic table.
of carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas
known as water gas. This gas is used CHARACTERISTICS AND USES
for heating in industries. OF SOME COMMON METALS
C + H2O → CO + H2
Aluminium (Al)
Chlorine gas reacts with water to Aluminium is the commonest metal in the
produce oxochlorate acid, a bleaching earth‘s crust. It is a good conductor of heat,
and antiseptic solution has fairly low density, does not corrode,
Cl2 + H2O → HOCl + HCl can easily be mould into shape. This makes
it ideal for making cooking utensils and
4. Most non-metals do not react with other household objects, roofing sheets and
dilute acids, owing to the fact that they overhead electric cables. It also has a high
cannot donate protons or displace tensile strength therefore it is used in
hydrogen from dilute acids. making ladders. Air craft bodies are made
with aluminium. This is because of its
5. Some non-metals react with hydrogen lightness and the ability to form aluminium
to form hydrides. For example oxide, a protective film which prevents it
phosphorus and nitrogen react with from rusting upon reaction with oxygen.
hydrogen to give hydride of
phosphorus and nitrogen respectively.
P + H3 → PH3
N + H3 → NH3 (ammonia)
Semi—metals
Elements with characteristic in between
metals and non-metals are known as semi-
metals or metalloids. Because of their
unique properties, semi-metals are used
Fig. 109.0: Aircraft body made of aluminium
494
Gold (Au) construction work, tools, engines and

Gold is a soft, dense, bright yellow metallic automobile bodies. This is because of its
element. It is the most malleable and high density and tensile strength; therefore,
ductile of all the metals. It can easily be things made of iron are quite durable. Iron
beaten or hammered and could be drawn has a disadvantage of being very corrosive.
into a thin wire. It is one of the softest
metals and is a good conductor of heat and Copper (Cu)
electricity. It is unaffected by air, heat, Because of its many desirable properties,
moisture, and most solvents and therefore such as its conductivity of electricity and
does not corrode or rust. heat, its resistance to corrosion, its
Due to its properties, gold is used mostly malleability and ductility, and its beauty,
for making jewellery and ornaments such copper has long been used in a wide
as necklaces, wrist watches, earrings, variety of applications.
bracelets etc. It is also used in electrical Copper is very ductile; hence, it can be
and electronic equipments because of its drawn into wires of any diameter. Because
high conductivity, and electroplating of its high tensile strength and
because of its ability to withstand conductivity; it can be used in outdoor
corrosion. power lines and cables, as well as in house
wiring, lamp cords, and electrical
machinery such as generators, motors,
controllers, signalling devices,
electromagnets, and other communication
equipments.
Copper has been used for coins throughout
recorded history and has also been
fashioned into cooking utensils, and
ornamental objects.
Fig. 109.1: The Ashanti King arrayed in gold regalia
Iron (Fe)
Iron is a metal with high density and
tensile strength. It is good conductor of
electricity and can easily be magnetized at
normal temperature. Iron is used for Fig. 109.2: Common uses of copper
495
Zinc (Zn) Silver is used in jewellery and coinage. It is

Pure zinc is a crystalline metal, insoluble in used to coat smooth glass surfaces for
hot and cold water and soluble in alcohol, mirrors. Silver is also widely used in the
acids and alkalis. It is extremely brittle at circuitry of electrical and electronic
ordinary temperatures, but becomes components.
malleable between 120°C and 150°C. Zinc
is unaffected by dry air; in moist air it is
oxidized and becomes coated with a
carbonate film that protects it from further
corrosion.
The metal is used principally as protective
coating, or galvanizer, for iron and steel; as
an ingredient of various alloys, especially
brass; as plates for dry electric cells; and
for die castings.
Zinc oxide, known as zinc white or
Chinese white, is used as a paint pigment.
It is also used as filler in rubber tires and is
employed in medicine as an antiseptic
ointment. Zinc chloride is used as a wood
preservative and as a soldering fluid. Zinc Fig. 109.3: Silverware
sulphide is useful in applications involving
electroluminescence, photoconductivity Nickel (Ni)
and semi-conductivity and has other Nickel is a white magnetic metal which is
electronic uses. It is employed as a hard, malleable, ductile and capable of
phosphor for the screens of television tubes taking a high polish. It resists corrosion.
and in fluorescent coatings. Nickel is used as a protective and
ornamental coating for metals, particularly
Silver (Ag) iron and steel, that are susceptible to
Silver is a white, lustrous metallic element corrosion.
that conducts heat and electricity better It is used as catalyst in many processes,
than any other metal. It is highly malleable including the hydrogenation of oils.
and ductile; softer than copper but harder Nickel is used chiefly in the form of alloys.
than gold. It does not react with oxygen or It imparts great strength and corrosion
water at ordinary temperatures. resistance to steel. Nickel steel is used in
automobile parts such as axles, crankshafts,
496
gears, valves, and rods; in machine parts; major component of coal, petroleum,
and in armour plate. asphalt, limestone, and most materials
made by plants and animals. Allotropes
Tin (Sn) (different forms) of carbon are used in
Tin is a highly ductile and malleable metal industrial processes.
which resists corrosion. Tin is a widely
sought metal and is used in hundreds of Diamond is used for making jewellery and
industrial processes. because of its hard nature, used for cutting
In the form of tinplate, it is used as a steel, glass and ceramics. Graphite is used
protective coating for copper vessels, as lubricant in machines and for electrodes.
various metals used in the manufacture of It is also used in controlling reactions in
tin cans, and similar articles. nuclear reactants. Coal is used as fuel for
industrial and domestic purposes.
Tin is important in the production of alloys
such as bronze (tin and copper), solder (tin Hydrogen (H)
and lead), and type metal (tin, lead, and Hydrogen is a combustive gas which is
antimony). It is also used as an alloy with lighter than air. It is used as fuel in rocket
titanium in the aerospace industry and as and space shuttles.
an ingredient in some insecticides. It is also used in oxy-hydrogen torches for
welding, and for the manufacture of
ammonia. Because of its light nature,
CHARACTERISTICS AND USES
hydrogen is used in filling balloons.
OF SOME COMMON NON-METALS
Oxygen (O) Nitrogen (N)

Oxygen is a colourless, odourless, Nitrogen is a colourless, odourless,
tasteless, slightly magnetic gaseous tasteless, nontoxic gas. It can be condensed
element. It is very combustive and is thus into a colourless liquid, which can in turn
used in oxy-hydrogen torches for welding, be compressed into a colourless, crystalline
and as a fuel for rockets. It is also used in solid.
metal fabrication industries. Animals
require oxygen for respiration. Most of the nitrogen used in the chemical
industry is obtained by the fractional
Carbon (C) distillation of liquid air. It is then used to
Carbon occurs in nature in nearly pure synthesize ammonia.
form in diamond and graphite. It is also the
497
From ammonia produced in this manner, a to anchor metal objects, such as railings
wide variety of important chemical and chains in stone.
products are prepared, including fertilizers,
nitric acid, urea, hydrazine, and amines. In
CHARACTERISTICS AND USES
addition, an ammonia compound is used in
OF SEMI-METALS
the preparation of nitrous oxide (N2O) a
colourless gas popularly known as At low temperatures, pure semiconductors
laughing gas. behave like insulators. Under higher
temperatures or with the addition of
Mixed with oxygen, nitrous oxide is used impurities, however, the conductivity of
as an anaesthetic for some types of surgery. semiconductors can be increased
Used as a coolant, liquid nitrogen has dramatically, reaching levels that may
found widespread application in the field approach those of metals.
of cryogenics, and as a refrigerant.
Due to these properties of semi-metals,
Sulphur (S) they are used mostly in electronic
Sulphur is a tasteless, odourless, light components such as transistors, diodes,
yellow flammable solid. The most microchips and integrated circuits (ICs).
important use of sulphur is in the They are also used for making solar panels
manufacture of sulphur compounds, such for trapping and converting solar energy
as sulphuric acid, sulphites, sulphates, and into electrical energy.
sulphur dioxide.
Medicinally, it has assumed importance

because of its widespread use in sulpha
drugs and in many skin ointments. Sulphur
is also employed in the production of An integrated circuit A computer microchip
matches, vulcanized rubber, dyes, and
gunpowder. In a finely divided state and
frequently mixed with lime, sulphur is used
as a fungicide on plants.
When combined with various inert mineral

fillers, sulphur forms special cement used
Fig. 109.4: Uses of semi-conductors
498
General properties or importance of

ALLOYS, PROPERTIES AND
alloys
USES
1. Alloys have more tensile strength than
An alloy is a substance composed of a their constituent elements.
uniform mixture of two or more metals or 2. They are more corrosive resistant.
a metal and a non-metal. 3. They are often more durable.
4. They are usually cheaper than the
The properties of alloys are frequently far constituent metals.
different from those of their constituent 5. They suit the purpose for which they
elements. Alloys are built to possess some are used.
characteristics which are not already 6. Alloys are able to sustain very high
possessed by the constituent elements. In temperatures.
most cases, a property lacking in one
element may be provided by another.
Table 7.6: Properties and uses of some alloys

Constituent
Alloy Properties Uses
elements
Brass Copper and zinc Lustrous, non-corrosive, Musical instruments, ornaments,
sonorous screws,
Steel Iron and carbon High tensile strength, high Vehicle parts, constructing of
density buildings and bridges, machine
parts
Stainless Iron, carbon and High tensile strength, high Cutlery set, food processing
steel chromium density, resists corrosion materials, surgical instruments
Bronze Copper and tin Non-corrosive, sonorous, Ornaments, medals, machine
lustrous parts, statues
Cupronickel Copper and Non-corrosive, high Machine part, coinage, ornaments
nickel tensile strength, lustrous
Solder Lead and tin Low melting point, soft Joining electric circuit parts,
joining metals
Duralumin Aluminium and Non-corrosive, strong, Aircraft parts, parts of automobile
copper light and railway carriages
Nichrome Nickel and Resists corrosion, Electroplating, resistant wires,
chromium resistant to electric shock tools
499
4. Describe the characteristics and uses of

the following metals:
(a) gold;
(b) aluminium;
(c) silver;
(d) copper.
5. Describe the characteristics and uses of

the following non-metals:
Fig. 109.5: An alloyed wheel rim
(a) oxygen;
(b) carbon;
(c) hydrogen;
TEST QUESTIONS (d) nitrogen.
1. Mention four physical properties 6. (a) What are alloys?

and three chemical properties of (b) Explain the importance of alloys.
metals.
7. Copy and complete the following table:
2. List three physical properties and three Alloy Constituent Uses
chemical properties of non-metals. elements
Solder
3. (a) What are semi-metals? Bronze
Steel
(b) Mention four semi metals.
Brass
(c) Discuss the uses of semi metals Nichrome
500
43
EXPLOITATION OF MINERALS
Characteristics of a mineral
Specific Objectives 1. A mineral must occur naturally.
 Outline the effects of mineral exploitation on the 2. It must be inorganic.
environment. 3. It must be a solid.
4. It must possess an orderly internal
structure; that is, its atoms must be
arranged in a definite pattern.
5. It must have a definite chemical
composition that may vary within
INTRODUCTION specified limits.
A mineral can be defined as a naturally Examples of minerals include gold,

occurring inorganic solid that possesses diamond, bauxite, manganese, etc. All
an orderly internal structure and a these minerals are mined in various parts of
definite chemical composition. Ghana.
Minerals can be described by variable

physical properties, which relate to its
chemical structure and composition.
Common distinguishing characteristics
include crystal structure and habit,
hardness, lustre, diaphaneity, colour,
streak, tenacity, cleavage, fracture, parting,
and specific gravity.
More specific tests for minerals include
reaction to acid, magnetism, taste or smell,
and radioactivity. Fig. 109.6: Gold bars and a diamond
501
43 Exploitation of Minerals Samking
In Ghana, mineral exploration is done by

MINERAL EXPLOITATION large registered companies such as
Anglogold Ashanti as well as small-scale
Mineral exploration is the process of exploration called Galamsey.
finding ore (commercially viable
concentrations of minerals) to mine.
Mineral exploration activities are
undertaken to determine the presence of
geological formations which may contain
deposits such as precious metals, base
metals, gemstones, coal or other minerals,
as well as to determine the extent,
geometry and grade of such deposits.
Drilling, pitting, trenching and surface Fig. 109.8: Large scale mining
stripping are common activities undertaken
during mineral exploration. Temporary
work camps and docks are often
established to support mineral exploration
activities.
Mineral exploration methods vary at
different stages of the process depending
on size of the area being explored, as well
as the density and type of information or
mineral sought.
Fig. 109.9: Galamsey operators at work
EFFECTS OF MINERAL
EXPLOITATION
1. Destruction of landscape – Pits dug

during mining are left uncovered and
that destroys the structure of the land.
2. Air pollution – Dust which rises

Fig. 109.7: Panning for diamond during excavation and milling pollutes
502
the air. Sulphur oxides cause acid rain produced from the filtration stage.
which destroys vegetation whiles Slag destroys natural vegetation.
arsenic is poisonous to humans.
3. Pollution of water bodies – Chemicals

used for the extraction process such as
cyanides and mercury leak into nearby
water bodies and pollute them.
Cyanides prevent the human cells
from using oxygen.
4. Land pollution – Solid wastes

Fig. 110.0: Lake polluted by mining activities
generated are normally left or dumped
on the surface of the land; these could
How to minimize the negative effect
harm vegetation.
of mineral exploitation
1. Solid waste generated should be
5. Mercury poisoning – Mercury vapour
properly disposed of.
which is given off is very poisonous to
2. Chemicals should be used in
humans and animals.
moderation.
3. Chemicals should be prevented from
6. Noise pollution – Heavy machineries
leaking or running off into water
used for the mining and extraction
bodies.
produce lots of noise which can affect
4. Strict enforcement of mining laws.
hearing.
5. Communities where mining takes
place should be educated about the
7. Destruction of ecosystem – Habitats
negative effects of mining.
of organisms are normally disturbed.
6. Mining companies should be made to
Aquatic life is destroyed when
pay compensation and royalties to
chemicals leak into water bodies,
mining communities.
whiles plants and other small
7. The Environmental Protection Agency
organisms on and inside the soil are
should monitor the activities of mining
destroyed.
companies.
8. Mining communities should be
8. Formation of slag – Slag such as red
provided with treated water instead of
mud, which is high in alkaline, is
503
drinking from water bodies which may

TEST QUESTIONS
be contaminated.
9. Reforestation of degraded forests and
vegetation. 1. What are minerals?
10. Mining companies should be made to
periodically sprinkle mining areas 2. Mention four characteristics of
with water to control the rise of dust minerals.
particles.
11. Small-scale miners (Galamsey) should 3. List four minerals mined in Ghana.
be educated on the right methods to
extract minerals. 4. What is mineral exploitation?
5. Explain five effects of mineral

exploitation.
6. Mention five methods of reducing the

negative effects of mineral exploitation.
Fig. 110.1: Land left desolate after mining activities
Social and economic impact of

mineral exploitation
1. Provision of income and foreign
exchange
2. Provision of employment.
3. Attraction of investors to the country.
4. Provision of social amenities such as
schools, hospitals, good roads,
electricity etc. to mining communities.
5. Rise in living standard of mining
communities and townships.
504
44
EXTRACTION OF MINERALS
Specific Objectives EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM

 Describe the chemical extraction of Aluminium is extracted from bauxite.
aluminium and gold from their ores Bauxite contains the hydrated oxide of
aluminium (Al2O3.3H2O), silica (SiO2) and
iron (II) oxide impurities.
Stages in the extraction of aluminium

INTRODUCTION There are two stages involved in the
extraction of aluminium
Most metals appear naturally as 1. Purification of bauxite to get alumina
compounds in their ores. These ores are not 2. Electrolysis of alumina
useful for anything, therefore, in order to
work with them, the pure metal have to be Purification of bauxite
extracted from their ores.  Dry and crush bauxite to powder.
 Dissolve or digest the powdered
Ores are naturally occurring rock
bauxite in hot concentrated sodium
containing high concentrations of one or
hydroxide (NaOH).
more metals that can be profitably mined.
 The hydrated oxide of aluminium,
reacts with sodium hydroxide to give
Ore minerals are the minerals within ores
that contain the metal. Ores occur as large sodium aluminate, while silica reacts
bodies of rock called ore deposits, which with NaOH to form sodium
are metal-bearing mineral deposits. trioxosilicate (IV). The reaction
equations are:
 Al2O3 + 3H2O + 2NaOH → 2NaAl(OH)4
 SiO2 + 2NaOH → Na2SiO + N2O
505
42 Extraction of Minerals Samking
 Iron (II) oxide, on the other hand does Electrolysis of alumina

not react with sodium hydroxide, Because aluminium is very reactive, it
therefore it is filtered off. cannot be extracted from alumina by
 The solution is seeded with crystals of heating with carbon. It is, therefore,
pure aluminium oxide, Al(OH)3 to extracted by electrolysis. That is passing an
precipitate out solid aluminium electric current through alumina using
graphite electrode in a process known as
hydroxide.
Hall process, using Hall cell.
 The solid aluminium hydroxide is
washed, filtered and heated.
The electrolysis process
 This causes the hydroxide to lose
 The alumina is dissolved in liquid
water leaving pure aluminium oxide,
cryolite (sodium aluminum fluoride),
Al2O3, called alumina.
Na3AlF6.
 2Al(OH)3 → Al2O3 + 3H2O
 Aluminium oxide is decomposed into
crushing of bauxite aluminium ions, Al3+ and oxide ions,
O2.
dissolution of powdered bauxite ib  Aluminium ions are extracted to the
NaOH
negative electrode (cathode) where
filtration of iron (II) oxide they gain electrons to become
seeding to precipitate Aluminium aluminium atoms. Al3+ + 3e−→ Al
hydroxide  Oxide ions are extracted to the
positive electrode (anode) where they
filtration and washing
lose electrons to become oxygen
heating of aluminium hydroxide molecules; 2O2−– 4e−→ O2
alumina obtained
alumina dissolves in cryolite
electrolysis
pure aluminium obtained
Fig. 110.2: Flow chart of diamond extraction
Fig. 110.3: Hall cell
506
EXTRACTION OF GOLD
Unlike aluminium, gold is un-reactive:
thus, does not form compounds with other
elements in its ore. This means that the
gold ore is in its native or un-combined
form.
The extraction process Fig. 110.4: Smelting of gold

 The gold ore is ground into fine
powder.  The reaction that takes place during
 Water is added to form slurry (a the electrolysis is:
watery mixture of insoluble ore [Au(CN)2]− + e−→ Au + 2CN−
particles).
 The gold is deposited at the steal
 The slurry is dissolved or leached in a
cathode.
solution of sodium cyanide and oxygen
 The crude gold is heated without
to form a soluble gold cyanide called
melting in order to eliminate moisture
dicyanoaurate(I), Au(CN)2.
and other impurities in a process
4Au + 8NaCN + O2 + 2H2O → 4NaAu(CN)2 + 4NaOH
known as calcinations.
 The calcined gold is finally smelted in
 The gold ion is absorbed or attached to which the gold is mixed with chemicals
the surface of carbon and then called flux and then melted into a
desorbed or detached by washing with yellow liquid and then allowed to
sodium cyanide solution. Absorption solidify into gold bars.
and desorption remove impurities and
increase the concentration of the gold crushing of gold
 The gold is electrolysed in a process
leaching
known as electrowinning.
absorption and desorption
Electrowinning is the process of using
electrolysis (electrowinning)
electricity to recover pure gold from its
ore. calcination and smelting
Fig. 110.5: Gold extraction process
507
TEST QUESTIONS
1. Bauxite is the ore of aluminium.

Briefly describe the extraction of
aluminium from bauxite.
2. Draw and label the structure of a hall

cell.
3. Briefly describe the extraction of gold.
508
45
RUSTING
formed but, porous and somewhat bulkier,

Specific Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to: is relatively weak and brittle.
 Explain the process of rusting.
PROCESS OF RUSTING
Corrosion and rust

Corrosion is the chemical reaction which
causes metals to wear away when it reacts
INTRODUCTION with air and moisture.
When reactive metals come into contact

When corrosion persists for a long time, it
with oxygen and moisture, oxides of those
results in rust.
metals are produced. This process is known
as oxidation.
Rust is the reddish-brown coating on the
surface of iron or steel that forms when
More reactive metals show stronger
the metal is exposed to air and moisture.
oxidation effects. The oxidation reaction
causes them to wear off. One metal which
shows stronger oxidation reaction is iron.
When iron reacts with oxygen or moisture,
in a process known as corrosion, iron (III)
oxide (hydrated iron oxide) is formed. This
iron (III) oxide is a thin reddish-brown
layer that forms on the surface of the iron
called rust.
The oxide is a solid that retains the same Fig. 110.6: A rusting car
general form as the metal from which it is
509
45 Rusting Samking
Conditions necessary for corrosion whiles the nails in test tubes B and C show
or rusting of iron no sign of rusting.
 Air or oxygen
 Water or moisture or vapour Conclusion
Test tube A, which contain both water and
NB: Both conditions must be available for air, supports rusting while test tubes B and
rusting to occur.
C, which have water only and air only
respectively, do not support rusting.
Experiment to show that air and water
Therefore, both water and air are
are necessary for rusting of iron
necessary for rusting.
 Collect three test tubes, labelled A, B
and C, with stoppers, clean iron nails,
freshly boiled water (with the
dissolved air in it removed), silica gel
and liquid paraffin.
 Place a nail in each test tube.
 Fill test tube A with ordinary tap water
and stopper it. (Tap water contains
dissolved oxygen)
 Fill test tube B with the freshly boiled
water and cover the water with a layer
of the oil and stopper it. (The layer of
Fig. 110.7
oil prevent air from entering the
water)
Reactive metals which do not rust
 Put a small quantity of the calcium
chloride in test tube C and stopper it. Some metals, such as aluminium, although
(The calcium chloride absorbs moisture very active chemically, appear not to
corrode under normal atmospheric
and keeps the atmosphere dry).
conditions.
 Leave the test tubes for 4 to 6 days.
Actually, aluminium corrodes rapidly, and
a thin, continuous, transparent layer of
Observation
oxide forms on the surface of the metal,
After four days, it would be observed that protecting it from further rapid corrosion.
the nail in test tube A has begun rusting
510
45 Rusting Samking
Lead and zinc, although less active than Galvanizing

aluminium, are protected by similar oxide Galvanizing is the process of coating the
films. Copper, a comparatively inactive iron or steel with a thin layer of zinc. Since
metal, is slowly corroded by air and water zinc does not rust, the zinc layer protects
in the presence of such weak acids as the base iron from rusting.
carbonic acid, producing a green, porous, Some examples of commonly galvanized
basic carbonate of copper. Green corrosion products are garbage cans, corrugated
products, called verdigris or patina, appear sheets for roofing, iron pipe, and fence
on such copper alloys as brass and bronze, wires.
as well as on pure copper.
Enamelling
Non-reactive metals which do not Enamelling involves coating the surface of
rust the metal with enamel. Enamel is a special
Some metals, called noble metals, are so paint which consists of zinc oxide and
inactive chemically that they do not suffer lithopone in brown linseed oil and high-
corrosion from the atmosphere; among grade varnish.
them are silver, gold and platinum. Products which are normally enamelled are
A combination of air, water, and hydrogen refrigerators, gas cookers, auto mobiles etc.
sulphide will act on silver, but the amount
of hydrogen sulphide normally present in
the atmosphere is so small that the degree
of corrosion is negligible except for the
black discoloration, called tarnishing,
produced by the formation of silver
sulphide.
PREVENTION OF RUSTING
Rusting and corrosion destroy iron and

steel structures. The most effective method
of preventing iron or steel from rusting is
to keep it away from water and air. Fig. 110.8: Enamelled ware
The following are some methods of
keeping iron from water and air. Painting
Oil-based paints when applied to the
surfaces of irons harden and become
511
45 Rusting Samking
affixed, thereby preventing air and water Cladding

from having direct contact with the iron. Cladding is the process of bonding a non-
corroding metal to a corrosive metal.
Tinplating One example of a clad metal is rolled gold,
Cans and tins, especially those for which consists of an iron or steel core with
commercial products are often tinplated. a layer of gold on the outside. Cladded
Tin plating involves coating the surface of aircraft components may have a thick layer
the iron or steel with a thin film of tin of strong aluminium alloy in the centre and
(which is resistant to rusting). thin outer layers of corrosion-resistant pure
aluminium sheets. The various layers or
Electroplating plies of metal are usually heated and rolled
Cadmium, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, together.
silver and tin are electroplated on irons or Other cladding methods include casting,
steel. This is because they resist rusting. welding, and pouring molten metal around
a hardened core. In addition to sheets and
In electroplating, the iron is placed in a strips, clad metals are produced in wires,
solution and is connected to the negative bars, and tubing.
terminal with the coating metal connected
to the positive terminal of an electricity Oiling and greasing
source. Current is then allowed to pass Corrosive metals can be oiled or greased to
through which causes atoms from the protect their surfaces from rusting. One
coating metal to move to cover the surface disadvantage of oiling or greasing is, it
of the base iron. does not last long and the metal will have
to be oiled or greased regularly.
Alloying
One effective method of preventing Plastic coating
corrosive metals from rusting is chemically Some metals are also coated with a thin
mixing them with metals which do not rust. film of plastic. Such metals are prevented
Iron, for example, is normally alloyed with from contact with fire or heat as that will
carbon and chromium or nickel to give a cause the plastic coating to melt off
rust-proof metal known as stainless steel. exposing the underlying corrosive metal.
Objects which are made from stainless
steel include cutlery set, surgical
instruments etc.
512
45 Rusting Samking
3. Describe an experiment to show the

TEST QUESTIONS
conditions necessary for rusting of iron.
(a) corrosion; 4. Differentiate between reactive and non-
(b) rust. reactive metals.
2. State the conditions necessary for 5. Describe four ways of preventing

rusting of iron. rusting.
513
46
ORGANIC AND INORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
phosphorus, silicon, and sulphur. Organic

Specific Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to: compounds are structurally diverse.
 Relate the nucleus, chromosomes
 Classify chemicals as organic and inorganic The range of application of organic
compounds.
 Identify chemicals as organic compounds. compounds is enormous. They either form
 Distinguish between neutralization and the basis of, or are important constituents
estrification.
 Identify the sources and application of
of many products including plastics, drugs,
petrochemicals. petrochemicals, food, explosives and
paints. They form the basis of almost all
earthly life processes (with very few
exceptions).
INTRODUCTION
Inorganic Chemistry
Organic chemistry Inorganic Chemistry is the study of the
Organic chemistry is the scientific study structure, properties, and reactions of the
of the structure, properties, composition, chemical elements and their compounds.
reactions, and preparation of carbon-
based compounds, hydrocarbons, and Inorganic chemistry does not include the
their derivatives. investigation of hydrocarbons (compounds
composed of carbon and hydrogen).
These compounds may contain any number
of other elements, including hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen, the halogens as well as
514
46 Organic and Inorganic compounds Samking
Characteristics of organic compounds

ORGANIC AND INORGANIC
1. Carbon can forms four bonds and is
COMPOUNDS
described as tetravalent.
Organic compounds 2. Carbon can form a ring or cyclic
Organic compounds can be defined as compounds.
compounds which contain hydrocarbon. 3. Carbon can bond with other atoms to
form stable compounds.
Organic compounds are classified as 4. Carbon atoms can combine with each
natural or artificial. other and hydrogen atom to form
open, straight and branched chains.
The physical structures of all living things 5. Carbon can bond with another carbon
are composed mainly of organic atom through stable, double and triple
compound. bonds. No other atom can form stable
multiple bonds.
Examples of natural organic 6. Organic compounds have low melting
compounds and boiling points
1. Carbohydrates 7. They occur in all the states of matter
2. Protein (liquid, gas and solid).
3. Vitamins 8. They are highly volatile.
4. Enzymes
5. Hormones Inorganic compounds
6. Herbs Inorganic compounds are compounds
7. Fats and oils which do not contain hydrocarbons.
Examples of artificial organic Examples of inorganic compounds

compounds 1. Chalk
1. Plastic 2. Salt
2. Insecticides 3. Washing soda
3. Pesticides 4. Carbon monoxide, CO
4. Soap 5. Carbon dioxide, CO2
5. Dyes 6. Trioxocarbonate (IV), CO32-
6. Drugs etc.
Characteristics of inorganic
compounds
1. They are mostly ionic.
515
2. They are insoluble in organic solvents. 3. They can be prepared by a general

3. They have quick rate of reaction. method.
4. They are not volatile. 4. They have similar chemical properties
5. They have high melting and boiling because they have the same general
points. formula.
5. They have different physical
Table 7.8: Differences between organic and properties.
inorganic compounds
Organic Inorganic
Types of organic compounds
compounds compounds  Hydrocarbons
Mostly covalent Mostly ionic  Alkanol
Have low boiling Have high boiling and  Alkanoic acids
and melting points melting points  Alkanoates
Generally soluble in Generally insoluble in  Fats and oils.
organic solvents organic solvents
Slow reaction rate Fast reaction rate
Functional groups
Highly volatile Normally not volatile
Functional groups are atoms or group of
atoms or bonds which give a family of
Types or families of organic organic compounds it characteristic
compounds chemical properties.
Organic compounds are divided into
families known collectively as Table 7.9: Organic compounds with their functional
homologous series. groups
Homologous series is a group of organic

compounds made up of a series of
compounds in which all members can be
represented by the same general formula
but different structural formulas.
Properties of the homologous series

1. They can be represented by a general
formula.
2. They possess different structural
formulas.
516
A functional group does not exist Cyclic compounds

independently but forms a part of a In cyclic compounds the carbon atoms
molecule. The properties of any family of form one or more closed rings as in
organic compound in the homologous aromatic compounds.
series depend on the functional group as
well as the nature of the carbon chain. The two major groups are subdivided
according to chemical behaviour into
Hydrocarbons saturated and unsaturated compounds.
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds,
composed entirely of carbon and Saturated hydrocarbons: These are
hydrogen. those compounds which contain hydrogen
and carbon atoms only, with single
They are the organic compounds of covalent bonds. Alkanes are saturated
simplest composition and may be hydrocarbons.
considered the parent substances from Petroleum contains a great variety of
which all other organic compounds are saturated hydrocarbons, and petroleum
derived. products such as gasoline, kerosene, heavy
fuel oil, lubricating oils, petroleum jelly,
Types of hydrocarbons and paraffin consist principally of mixtures
Hydrocarbons are conveniently classified of paraffin hydrocarbons, which range
into two major groups, open-chain and from the lighter liquid members to the solid
cyclic. members.
Open-chain hydrocarbons
In open-chain compounds containing more
than one carbon atom, the carbon atoms are
attached to each other to form an open
chain; the chain may carry one or more
side branches.
They are made up of aliphatic compounds
such as alkanes, alkenes and alkynes which
are hydrocarbons with single, double and
triple bonds respectively.
Fig. 110.9: A single bonded hydrocarbon
517
Unsaturated hydrocarbons: These are Table 8.0: The members of alkane, their molecular
those with double and triple covalent and structural formulas
Molecular Structural
bonds. Alkenes and alkynes are Alkane Name
Formula Formula
unsaturated hydrocarbons. 1 Methane CH4 CH4
2 Ethane C2H6 CH3CH3
Alkanes 3 Propane C3H8 CH3CH2CH3
These are single-bonded hydrocarbons, 4 Butane C4H10 CH3CH2CH2CH3
containing carbon atoms surrounded by a 5 Pentane C5H12 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
maximum of four hydrogen ions. 6 Hexane C6H14 CH3(CH2)4CH3
Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2, 7 Heptane C7H16 CH3(CH2)5CH3

8 Octane C8H18 CH3(CH2)6CH3
where n is the number of carbon atoms in
9 Nonane C9H20 CH3(CH2)7CH3
the molecule.
10 Decane C10H22 CH3(CH2)8CH3
The structure and naming of alkanes

Hydrocarbons are named based on the
number of carbon atoms contained in the
molecule.
 If the molecule contains only one
carbon atom, it is prefixed meth-;
 if there are two carbon atoms, it is
prefixed eth- and
 if the molecule contains ten carbon Fig. 111.0: Structure of the first five members of
atoms, it is prefixed dec-. alkane
 Each of the members of alkane is
suffixed with –ane. Among the Properties of alkanes
members of the series are methane Physical properties
CH4; ethane, C2H6; propane, C3H8; 1. The first four members of the series are
and butane, C4H10. gases at ordinary temperature and
pressure
There are two ways of writing a condensed 2. Intermediate members are liquids; and
structural formula. For example, butane the heavier members are semi-solids or
may be written as: solids.
CH3CH2CH2CH3 3. Alkanes are insoluble in water.
or 4. They are soluble in non-polar solvents
CH3(CH2)2CH3. such as ether and benzene.
518
5. They are colourless. 2. Methane, for instance, is used in the

house for cooking
Chemical properties 3. Butane is used in lighters.
1. Alkanes are unreactive; that is, they do 4. Higher alkanes such as octane are
not react readily at ordinary used in petrol and other fuels.
temperatures with such reagents as
acids, alkalies, or oxidizers. Alkenes
Alkenes, also known as olefins, are formed
2. They undergo reaction in the presence when an alkane misses two hydrogen
of excess oxygen to give carbon atoms to form a carbon-carbon double
dioxide and water. bond (C=C)
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) Alkenes have the general formula CnH2n.
3. They react in limited supply of oxygen The structure and naming of alkenes
to give carbon monoxide.  Alkenes have the same prefixes as
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO(g) + 4H2O(g) alkanes, but are suffixed –ene instead
of -ane.
4. Alkanes react with halogens in the  If the molecule contains two carbon
presence of sunlight to give atoms (C2), for example, it is called
haloalkanes and the corresponding ethene (C2H4);
halide. Methane, for example, reacts  If there are three carbon atoms –
with chlorine to give chloromethane propene (C3H6)
and hydrogen chloride.  If there are ten carbon atoms – decene
CH4(g) + Cl2(g) → CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g) (C10H20).
Sources of alkanes
 petroleum (crude oil)
 natural gas
 plants and animal remains and wastes
Uses of alkanes
1. Alkanes are used mostly as sources of
fuels either domestically or
industrially.
519
Properties of alkenes Uses of alkenes

Physical properties 1. Ethene is used to manufacture
1. Alkenes have relatively low boiling detergents.
and melting points than alkanes. 2. It is used to manufacture plastics.
2. They are insoluble in water. 3. It is used in the process of fruit
3. They are soluble in certain non-polar ripening.
organic solvents such as petroleum. 4. It is used in the industrial preparation
4. At normal temperature and pressure, of ethanol.
the first four members are gases, the 5. It is used in the manufacture of
middle members, liquids and the last glycerol.
members are semi-solids and solids. 6. Propene is used to make polypropene.
7. It is used to make synthetics fibres and
Chemical properties Buna-n-rubber.
1. Alkenes react with water to give
alkanol (alcohol).
C2H4 + H2O → C2H5OH
2. They undergo additional reaction with

hydrogen, halogens and bromine water.
For example, they undergo
hydrogenation with hydrogen in the
presence of Pb, Ni or Pt catalyst to give
the corresponding alkane.
Fig. 111.2: Buna-n-rubber
C2H4 + H2 → C2H6
Alkynes
3. Alkenes react with excess oxygen to
Alkynes are triple-bonded (-C≡C-)
produce carbon dioxide and water.
hydrocarbons with the general formula
C2H4 + 3O2 → 3O2 + 2H2O
C2H2n-2. Where n is the number carbon
atoms present in the molecule.
4. Alkenes can undergo self addition
reaction to form large molecules under
Structure and naming of alkynes
high temperature and pressure in a
Just like alkanes and alkene, alkynes are
process known as polymerisation. For
named based on the corresponding number
example, ethene can polymerise to
of carbon atoms in the molecule, with the
produce low-density polyethene.
520
suffix -yne, as in ethyne (C2H2), which is Chemical properties

the most important member of the alkyne  Alkynes burn in excess oxygen to give
group. carbon dioxide and water.
2C2H2 + 5O2 4CO2 + 2H2O
 Akynes do not undergo polymerization

reaction as readily as alkenes.
However, ethyne may be polymerised
under different conditions.
copper tube
3C2H2 C6H6
Uses of alkyens
Ethyne which is the most useful member of
the series may be used to manufacture:
1. polyvinylchloride (PVC) plastics;
2. synthetic fibres;
3. neoprene rubber;
4. triochloroethane;
5. Buna-N-rubber etc.
Fig. 111.3: Examples of alkynes
Alkanols
Properties of alkynes Akanols have the functional group -OH.
They are not hydrocarbons because they
Physical properties
contain oxygen (O) atoms in their
1. They are insoluble in water.
compounds.
2. They are quite soluble in the usual
They have the general formula
organic solvents of low polarity (e.g.
CnH2n+1OH, where n is the number of
ligroin, ether, benzene, carbon
carbon atoms.
tetrachloride, etc.).
3. They are less dense than water.
Structure and naming of alkanols
4. Their boiling points show the usual
Alkanols are named by replacing the last
increase with increasing carbon
letter of the name of the parent alkane with
number.
the ending -ol. For example, methanol
5. They are very nearly the same as the
(CH3OH) is an alkanol derived from
boiling points of alkanes or alkenes
methane. Others members in the series are
with the same carbon skeletons.
521
ethanol (C2H5OH), propanol (C3H7OH) C2H5OH  C2H4 + H2O

etc.
3. They react with carboxylic acids to
produce esters and water in a reversible
reaction called esterification reaction.
methanol ethanol 4. They are oxidized to acids with

acidified potassium dichromate.
C3H7 (with K2C2O7 H) C3H5OOH
Uses of alkanols
1. Alkanols are used for sterilizing
propanol butanol instruments.
2. They are used as fuels.
Fig. 111.4: Examples of alkanols
3. They are used as solvents for paints,
vanish, stains etc.
Properties of alkanols
4. They are used to prepare alcoholic
Physical properties beverages such as wines, beers, spirits
1. Alkanols are generally soluble in etc.
water. 5. alkanols (95% ethanol and 5%
2. They are colourless. methanol) are used in the preparation
3. They are mostly liquids or gases at of industrial methylated spirit.
room temperature.
4. Ethanol has a boiling point of 78oC Isomers
and freezes at -114oC.
Isomerism is the phenomena whereby
certain compounds, with the same
Chemical properties
molecular formula, exist in different
1. Alkanols burn in air to produce carbon
forms owing to their different
dioxide and water.
organisation of atoms.
C2H5OH + 3O2  2CO2 + 3H2O
Isomers are atoms with the same
2. They undergo dehydration in the molecular formula but different structural
presence of concentrated H2SO4 to formulas.
produce the corresponding alkene and
water.
522
The concept of isomerism illustrates the Cyclic alkanes are isomeric with alkenes,
fundamental importance of molecular e.g. cyclopropane and propene
structure and shape in organic chemistry.
Structural Isomers
Structural isomers have different structural
formulas because their atoms are linked
together in different ways.
This arises owing to: Alkanoic acids

1. Arrangement of Carbon skeleton These are organic compound with the
e.g. The formula C4H10 represents two functional group -COOH and the general
possible structural formulae, butane and formula CnH2n+1COOH, where n is the
mythylpropane number of carbon atoms.
Naming of alkanoic acids

2. Position of Functional group Alkanoic acids are named by replacing the
e.g. propan-1-ol and propan-2-ol last letter '-e' of the parent alkane with the
ending '-oic'. If the number of carbon
atoms is 3 the formula is C3H7COOH.
Since this compound contains four carbon

atoms, its name is butanoic acid.
Remember that the general formula already
3. Different Functional groups contains a carbon (C) atom.
e.g. the molecular formula C2H60
represents both ethanol and Alkanoic acids are commonly known as
methoxymethane fatty acids. This is because many of them
were obtained from fat sources. The table
below gives some alkanoic acids and their
natural sources.
523
Table 8.1: Sources of alkanoic acids Na2CO3+2CH3COOH → 2CH3COON + CO2 + H2O

Alkanoic
Formula Source
acid Uses of methanoic acid
Methanoic HCOOH Bee and
1. It is used to remove calcium
acid ant stings
(Formic acid) trioxocarbonate (IV) (chalk) deposits
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH Palm wine, from containers.
(acetic acid vinegar, 2. It is used as drying agent in making
sour wine
textiles.
Citric acid C3H4(OH)(COOH) Orange, 3. It is used as starting chemical in the
lemon,
grapefruit
production of other chemicals.
Lactic acid CH3CH(OH)COOH Sour milk,
animal Uses of ethanoic acid
muscle 1. It is used as solvent to dissolve other
Stearic acid CH3(CH2)16COOH Animal
(octadecanoic and plant
carbon compounds.
acid) fats and 2. It is used as vinegar in flavouring food.
oils 3. It is used for cleaning dirty metal
Oleic acid CH3(CH2)7CH= Olive oil, surfaces at home.
CH(CH2)7COOH pork fat,
groundnut
4. It is used in laundries for brightening
Palmitic acid CH3(CH2)14COOH Palm oil, colours.
animal and 5. It is used in drug production.
plant fats 6. It is used to make cellulose ethanoate
and oils
for use in vanishes, lacquers, cinema
films and some synthetic fibres such as
Properties of alkanoic acids
rayon.
1. Alkanoic acids undergo neutralization
reaction with alkalis to produce salt and
Alkyl alkanoates (esters)
water.
Esters are produced when an alkanol
CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COON + H2O
reacts with an alkanoic acid.
2. They react with reactive metals to give
a salt and a hydrogen gas. alkanol + alkanoic acid ⇌ ester + water
2CH3COOH + Zn → (CH3COO)2Zn + H2 This process is known as esterification.

Esters have a characteristic pleasant smell.
3. They react with trioxocarbonates (IV) Esters occur naturally in fruits (such as
to give carbon dioxide and water. banana, pineapple etc.) and flowers (such
524
as queen of the night, frangipani,

thumbergia etc), giving them their pleasant
smell.
They have the general formula RCOOR’,
where R and R’ belong to the same or
different alkyl groups.
Structure and naming of esters

 To write the correct structure of the
ester, the alkanoic acid loses the –OH Fruits
group and the alkanol loses the –H
atom.
 The naming is done by combining the

alkanol and the alkanoic acid.
 The alkyl of the alkanol is stated first,

followed by the acid name with the –
oic replaced by –oate. For example if
methanol, CH3OH, reacts with
ethanoinc acid, CH3COOH, the ester,
methyl ethanoate CH3COOCH3, is Flowers
formed.
CH3OH + CH3COOH → CH3COOCH3 + H2O Fig. 111.5: Fruits and flowers are scented by esters
 The alkyl group of methanol is methyl

and the acid part of ethanoic acid
becomes ethanoate, hence the name,
methyl ethanoate to the resulting ester.
 The reaction takes place in the presence

of heat, with concentrated H2SO4,
acting as a catalyst to speed up the
reaction.
Fig. 111.6: Examples of esters
525
Properties of esters (acid alkanoate). This is also known as

Physical properties glyceride. Esters with all the three
1. Esters have pleasant smell. hydrogen atoms replaced are called
2. They are usually colourless. triglycerides or triester of glycerol.
3. Esters with short chains are soluble in
water. Both fats and oils contain acid and alkanol
parts, which make them esters of the
Chemical properties glycerol, long-chain fatty acids and
 Since the esterification reaction is propanetriol.
reversible, an ester can be hydrolysed
to form an alkanol and alkanoic acid. CH2 – OH
|
CH3COOH2CH3 ⇌ CH3COOH + CH3CH2OH CH - OH
|
 The addition of lithium aluminium CH2 - OH
hydride can reduce an ester to ethanol. Fig. 111.7: Structure of glycerol
LiAIH
CH3COOCH3 CH3CH2OH + CH3OH Butyric acid (butanoic acid) is one of the
saturated short-chain fatty acids
Uses of esters responsible for the characteristic flavour of
1. Esters are used for making artificial butter
flavours and essences.
2. These are used in cold drinks, ice- CH3CH2CH2COOH or CH3(CH2)2COOH
creams, sweets and perfumes.
3. They are used as solvents for oils, fats,
gums, resins, cellulose, paints,
varnishes, etc.
4. Esters are used as plasticizers (added to
plastics or other materials to make or
keep them soft or pliable).
Fig. 111.9: Butanoic acid
Fats and oils
Fats and oils are formed when one or more
of the hydrogen atoms of the glycerol
group are replaced by a long chain ester
526
Table 8.2: Differences between fats and oils Esterification and neutralization
Fats Oils
Usually have Have unsaturated Esterification is the reaction between
Saturated hydrocarbon chain alkanols and alkanoic acids to produce
hydrocarbon chain esters and water.
Solid at normal Liquid at normal
temperature temperature
Have high melting Low melting point This reaction is reversible, and the catalyst,
point
concentrated H2SO4 is used to dehydrate
the ester. The following example is an
esterification reaction.
CH3COOH + C2H5OH ⇌ CH3COOH5C2 + H2O
NB: The acid is named by counting up the

total number of carbon atoms in the chain -
including the one in the -COOH group.
For example, CH3CH2COOH is propanoic

acid, and CH3CH2COO is the propanoate
group.
Fig. 111.8: Bar of butter (fat) and oil
Since esterification reaction is reversible,

Uses of fats and oils
the ester produced can be broken up into
1. Dietary fats supply energy, carry fat-
the constituent alkanol and alkanoic acid.
soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K), and are
This process is known as saponification.
a source of antioxidants and bioactive
compounds.
Saponification is the reaction between an
2. Fats are incorporated as structural
ester and an alkali to produce soap and
components of the brain and cell
glycerol.
membranes.
3. Fats and oils are used in the
Water may be produced but in small
manufacture of soap, drugs, margarine
amount.
etc.
4. They are used to make candles, paints, fat or oil + sodium hydroxide→soap + glycerol
glycerols etc.
527
Esterification and neutralization (reaction propylene and butadiene) aromatics

of acid and base) have some differences as (benzene, toluene, and xylenes); and
well as a similarity. methanol.
Table 8.2: Differences between esterification and Uses of petrochemicals

neutralization Primary petrochemicals can be converted
Esterification Neutralization
chemically to form more complicated
Reaction is reversible Reaction is
derivative products such as
irreversible
Reaction is slow Reaction is fast
1. vinyl acetate for paint, paper and
Heat involved No heat involved textile coatings,
Catalyst needed No catalyst needed 2. vinyl chloride for polyvinyl chloride
Products are ester Products are salt and (PVC),
and water water 3. ethylene glycol for polyester and
Reactants are alkanol Reactants are acid textile fibres,
and alkanoic acid and base (alkali)
4. styrene which is important in rubber
and plastic manufacturing.
Similarity between esterification and 5. Petrochemicals have had a dramatic
neatralization impact on our food, clothing, shelter
One similarity between esterification and and leisure.
neutralization is water is produced as a by- 6. Some synthetics, tailored for particular
product in both reactions. uses, actually perform better than
products made by nature because of
PETROCHEMICALS their unique properties.
Petrochemicals are chemicals made from

petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas.
Petroleum and natural gas are made up of
hydrocarbon molecules, which are
comprised of one or more carbon atoms, to
which hydrogen atoms are attached.
Oil and gas are the main sources of the raw PVC pipes Oil
materials because they are the least
expensive, most readily available, and can Fig. 112.0: Some end products of petrochemicals
be processed most easily into primary
petrochemicals, such as olefins (ethylene,
528
Cracking crude petroleum. The principle which is

Cracking is the process of breaking long- used is that the longer the carbon chain, the
chain hydrocarbons into short ones. higher the temperature at which the
compounds will boil.
The rate of cracking and the end products
are strongly dependent on the temperature Fractional distillation process
and presence of catalysts.  The crude petroleum is heated and
Oil refinery cracking processes allow the changed into a gas.
production of light products such as  The gas is passed through a distillation
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and petrol column which becomes cooler as the
from heavier crude oil distillation fractions height increases.
such as gas oils and residues. Fluid  When a compound in the gaseous
catalytic cracking produces a high yield of state cools below its boiling point, it
petrol and LPG, while hydro-cracking is a condenses into a liquid.
major source of jet fuel, diesel, naphtha  The liquids may be drawn off the
and LPG. distilling column at various heights.
Fractional distillation of petroleum Many kinds of compounds including

Petroleum refining is the process of alkenes are made during the cracking
separating the many compounds present in process.
Fig. 112.1: Fractional distillation process
529
Table 8.3: Uses of the various fractions of distillation
Fraction Uses
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)  As fuel for cooking
 Used to provide heat during fractional distillation
Naphtha  Used to produce high-octane elements of petrol.
 Used within the rubber industry and in dry cleaning
operations
 Used as fuel in camping stoves, lanterns, etc.
Petrol  As fuel for automobiles
 As fuel for generators
 Used as solvent
Kerosene  As fuel for jet planes
 As fuel for lanterns and camping stoves
Gas oil or Diesel  As fuel for automobiles
 As fuel in diesel generators
Lubricating oil  Used to lubricate machinery
 Used for power generation
Heavy gas-oil  As fuel in ships
 Undergoes cracking to produce more petrol
Residue/ bitumen  Used to surface roads
 Used to make roof felting
TEST QUESTIONS
following organic compounds:
6. Write a short note on the following: (i) alkanes
(a) organic compounds; (ii) alkenes
(b) inorganic compounds. (iii) alkynes
(c) Mention four differences between (iv) alkanols
organic and inorganic compounds. (v) alkanoic acids
7. (a) What is the homologous series? 4. (a) Briefly explain the term
(b) State four properties of the hydrocarbons.
homologous series. (b) Differentiate between saturated
hydrocarbons and unsaturated
3. (a) What are functional groups? hydrocarbons.
(b) Draw t he functional groups of the
530
5. Write briefly on the fooling types of 13. Name the natural sources of the
hydrocarbons. following alkanoic acids:
(a) alkanes; (a) methanoic acid;
(b) alkenes; (b) ethanoic acid;
(c) alkynes. (c) citric acid;
(d) lactic acid;
6. Draw the molecular and structural (e) palmitic acid.
formulae of the first five members of
alkane. 14. (a) What are esters?
(b) State three uses of esters.
7. (a) Mention four physical and four
chemical properties of alkanes. 15. (a) Define the term esterification.
(b) Explain the uses of alkanes. (b) List four differences between
esterification and neutralization.
8. (a) Write a brief note on alkenes
(b) State five uses of alkenes. 16. (a) What are petrochemicals?
(b) Name five products derived from
petrochemicals
9. (a) Mention three physical and three
chemical properties of alkenes. 17. (a) Explain the term cracking.
(b) State two differences between (b) Describe the fractional distillation
alkanes and alkenes. of petroleum.
18. Name five products produced from
10. (a) List four physical properties of petroleum distillation and state one use
alkynes. each.
(b) State three uses of alkynes.
19. Consider the following organic
11. (a) Mention three uses of alkanols. compounds:
(b) Describe the structure of alkanols. C3H6; C3H8; C2H5OH; CH3COOH and
CH3COOCH3
12. (a) Define the term isomerism. Select one compound which will
(b) Draw the structural formulae of the (i) undergo polymerization,
following isomers: (ii) give a pleasant smell,
(i) propan-2-ol (iii) liberate carbon dioxide with
(ii) methylpropane. sodium trioxocarbonate (IV),
531
(iv) decolorize bromine water. 22. Write the chemical formulae of each of
the following compounds:
20. State the main functional group in each (a) ethanoic acid;
of the following organic compounds: (b) 2, 2 – dimethylbutane;
(α) CH3COOH; (c) 3, methyl pent – 2 – ene;
(β) CH3C=CCH3; (d) 2, methylbutan – 2 – ol.
(γ) HCOOCH3.
21. (a) Write the formula of each of the

following compounds:
i) hex-2-yne;
ii) butan-2-ol;
iii) 2, 2-dimetylpentane.
b) Give an example each of
i) an organic acid;
ii) a naturally occurring alkanoate.
532
47
LIFE CYCLE OF PESTS AND
PARASITES
pests are mosquitoes, house flies, tsetse

Specific Objectives flies, etc.
 Identify some common pests and parasites
of farm animals and humans. Parasites
 Explain the term life cycle and its relevance Parasites are organisms which live in or
in the life of some plants and animals.
on another organism, called a host,
usually causing it some harm.
A parasite is generally smaller than the

host and of a different species. Parasites
are dependent on the host for some or all of
INTRODUCTION
their nourishment.
For example, tapeworm, a flattened worm
Pests
that lives in the gastrointestinal tract of
Pests are living organisms that cause
mammals, lacks an intestine of its own and
damage to livestock, crops, humans or
must absorb pre-digested food from the
land fertility.
intestine of its host. This food is the
tapeworm‘s only energy source for growth
Pests cause damage to crops and livestock
and reproduction.
by feeding on them and thereby cause
diseases to them. This is because most
Types of parasites
pests serve as transmitters of disease-
There are two types of parasite. They are
causing pathogens from a sick person or
endoparasites and ectoparasites.
animal to a healthy person or animal. Such
pests are known as vectors. Examples of
533
47 Life cycle of Pests and Parasites Samking
Endoparasites: These are parasites which

live in the bodies of their hosts.
Examples of endoparasites are tape worm,
liver fluke, guinea worm, round worm etc.
Ectoparasites: These are parasites which

live on the bodies of their host.
Examples of ectoparasites are flea, louse,
tick, mite etc.
Fig. 112.2: Female anopheles mosquito

TYPES OF PEST AND
PARASITES OF HUMAN, FARM Transmission of malaria
ANIMALS AND CROPS
 Mosquito infected with the malaria
Humans are subjected to numerous parasite bites human, passing cells
protozoan, worm, and insect-related called sporozoites into the human’s
parasites. Two of the most damaging bloodstream.
human parasites are the protozoan  Sporozoites travel to the liver. Each
plasmodium that causes malaria and the sporozoite undergoes asexual
flatworm schistosoma that causes reproduction, in which its nucleus
schistosomiasis. splits to form two new cells, called
There are an estimated 400 million to 600 merozoites.
million cases of malaria each year and 200
 Merozoites enter the bloodstream and
million cases of schistosomiasis
infect red blood cells. In red blood
worldwide.
cells, merozoites grow and divide to
produce more merozoites, eventually
Anopheles mosquito (Malaria)
causing the red blood cells to rupture.
Malaria is an infectious disease caused by a
Some of the newly released
one-celled parasite known as Plasmodium.
merozoites go on to infect other red
The parasite is transmitted to humans by
blood cells.
the bite of the female Anopheles mosquito.
 Some merozoites develop into sex cells
The Plasmodium parasite spends its life
cycle partly in humans and partly in known as male and female
mosquitoes. gametocytes.
534
 Another mosquito bites the infected  Prolonged infection results in anaemia

human and ingests the gametocytes. In and enlarged spleen
the mosquito’s stomach, the
gametocytes mature. Male and female Drugs such as chloroquine, camoquine,
gametocytes undergo sexual atesunate and amodiaquine can be used to
reproduction, uniting to form a zygote. prevent infection in the blood. An infected
person should seek a health professional‘s
The zygote multiplies to form
advice immediately.
sporozoites, which travel to the
mosquito’s salivary glands.
Control and prevention of malaria
 If this mosquito bites another human,
1. The use of insecticides and mosquito
the cycle begins again. repellents to kill and drive mosquitoes
from an area.
2. Destroying the mosquito larvae and
pupae by spraying oil on their
breeding areas such as pools, marshes
etc. (The oil causes the larvae and
pupae to sink as it lowers the surface
tension of the water)
3. Draining mosquito breeding ground.
4. Introducing fish such as top minnow
into the water to feed on the larvae
and pupae.
5. Preventing mosquito bites by sleeping
Fig. 112.3: Life cycle of the malaria
under treated nets, applying repellent
parasite
cream on the body, covering windows
with fine-mesh to keep out
Symptoms and treatment of malaria
mosquitoes.
The characteristic symptoms of malaria
6. Taking prescribed anti-malarial drugs
include.
regularly.
 Cold, headache and weakness
 Shivering
Schistosomiasis or Bilharziasis
 High fever
 Excessive sweat as a result of drop in Schistosomiasis is a widespread disease
temperature caused by the infestation of the human
body by flukes commonly called blood
535
flukes, of the genus Schistosoma. These snail, and then escapes back into the
flukes cause serious diseases. water, as mature larvae called
cercariae.
 Humans are infected with Schistosoma
when they enter water containing
infected snails. The larval stages of this
flatworm develop in the tissues of
infected snails and eventually release
fork-tailed cercariae into the water.
 The cercariae penetrate human skin,
lose their forked tails, enter the blood,
and migrate to major veins in the liver,
Fig. 112.4: Intestinal Schistosoma mansoni, intestine, or urinary bladder.
seen under light micrograph  Within about six weeks of infection,
the juvenile worms develop into
sexually mature adults measuring 1 to
2cm in length.
 The males and females mate and
produce microscopic eggs, some of
which migrate to the liver and cause a
condition known as cirrhosis.
 Other eggs move into the intestines
and are passed out in the faeces.
When untreated human sewage enters
Fig. 112.5: A leg infected with Schistosomiasis waters containing the snail hosts, the
eggs hatch and start a new cycle.
Life cycle of Schistosoma
 Eggs discharged from the host hatch Control and prevention
into larval forms in fresh water; from 1. Avoid swimming in or drinking from
the water, the larvae, miracidia, infected water.
invade the snail that acts as an 2. Wear protective clothing such as water-
intermediate host. proof boots and gloves when entering
 The larval form of the parasite infected water.
undergoes partial maturation in the
536
3. Apply special ointments to block Life cycle of tapeworm

penetration of the larvae into the skin.  Tapeworms may have a few or
4. Use drugs such a molluscicides to kill thousands of proglottids. The
infected water snails. proglottids contain organs of sexual
5. The drug praziquantel has proved reproduction, each with both testes
effective in killing Schistosoma in and ovaries; the segments farthest
humans.
from the head mature most rapidly
and, when ripe, separate from the
main body of the worm and pass out
with the faeces of the host animal.
 These newly detached proglottids
contain numerous eggs, and each egg
contains an embryonic tapeworm.
 When the living segment is ingested by
another primary host, the proglottids
regenerate a new scolex, which
Fig. 112.6: Life cycle of blood fluke, parasite of attaches itself to the intestinal wall,
schistosomiasis and the tapeworm resumes its growth
by budding.
Tapeworm
 When eggs are ingested, they hatch in
Tapeworms are flattened worms ranging in
the intestinal tract and release larval
length from about 13mm to about 9m. The
forms, which burrow into the tissues of
adult tapeworm is characterized by the
the host and form cysts
presence of a head, or scolex, equipped
with a crown of hooklets for attachment to  The larvae often exhibit specific
the intestinal lining of its host. At the rear selection of tissues in encysting; for
end of the scolex is a narrow neck, from example, one species attacks the liver
which body segments, or proglottids, are in humans and dogs, whereas another
budded off asexually. attacks the brain in sheep, causing the
disease known as gid or staggers.
 When larvae are ingested by a primary
host, usually in the form of encysted
meat of the intermediate host, they
Fig. 112.7: Tape worm
537
are stimulated by the gastric juice to

develop into adult tapeworms.
 The adults attach themselves to the
intestinal wall and absorb partially
digested food through their body
surface; tapeworms have no mouths or
digestive canals.
Fig. 112.9: Roundworm
Life cycle of roundworm

 Roundworm normally gets into
humans when an ingested fertilised
egg becomes a larval worm that
penetrates the wall of
the duodenum and enters the blood
stream.
Fig. 112.8: Life cycle of tapeworm  From there it gets to
the liver and heart and
Control of tapeworms enters pulmonary circulation to break
1. Cooking meat properly before eating free in the alveoli, where it grows In 3
2. Maintaining good sanitary conditions weeks, the larvae pass from
3. Regular de-worming or taking anti- the respiratory system to be coughed
parasitic and anti-inflammatory drugs
up, swallowed, and thus returned to
to destroy parasites
the small intestine, where it matures
to adult male and female worms.
Roundworm
 Fertilization can now occur and the
Roundworms, also called nematodes are
responsible for various diseases in humans female produces as many as 200,000
as well as farm animals. An ascarid eggs per day for a year. These fertilized
nematode, a species of roundworm is eggs become infectious after 2 weeks
responsible for the disease ascariasis in in soil; they can persist in soil for 10
humans, and it is the largest and most years or more.
common parasitic worm in humans
538
Fig. 113.1: Tsetse fly
Life cycle of tsetse fly

 Female tsetse fly mates just once.
Fig. 113.0: Life cycle of roundworm After 7 - 9 days she produces a single
egg which develops into a larva within
Trypanosomiasis her uterus.
Trypanosomiasis, also sleeping sickness, is  About nine days later, the mother
an endemic and sometimes epidemic
produces a larva which burrows into
chronic disease caused by a protozoan
the ground where it pupates.
blood parasite, genus Trypanosoma.
 The mother continues to produce a
Trypanosomiasis is very prevalent in Sub-
single larva at roughly nine day
Saharan Africa. It affects both humans and
farm animals. intervals for her entire life.
 The adult fly emerges from the pupa in
Causes of trypanosomiasis the ground after about 30 days.
The parasite trypanosoma is carried by a  Over a period of 12-14 days it matures,
blood-sucking insect known as tsetse fly. mates and, if it is a female, deposits its
They also transmit a first larva.
similar disease called nagana in domestic  Thus 50 days elapse between the
animals. Tsetse flies have mandibles emergence of one female fly and the
modified into bladelike structures used to subsequent emergence of the first of
pierce skin. They readily feed on its progeny.
the blood of humans, domestic animals,
and wild game.
539
nymph and adult stages. The mouthparts

are adapted for piercing.
Life cycle of mites

The dust mite is a common mite found in
human populations. They normally prefer
humid areas. The average life cycle for a
male house dust mite is 10 to 19 days. A
mated female house dust mite can last up
Fig. 113.2: Life cycle of tsetse fly to 70 days, laying 60 to 100 eggs in the last
5 weeks of her life. In a 10-week life span,
Control of trypanosomiasis a house dust mite will produce
1. Destruction of the wild game upon approximately 2,000 faecal particles and an
which the flies feed. even larger number of partially digested
2. Clearing of woodlands, and periodic enzyme-covered dust particles
burning to prevent the growth of brush.
3. Trapping of tsetse flies, control by
natural parasites.
4. Spraying of insecticides in affected
areas.
5. Exposing male tsetse flies to gamma
radiation to make them sterile or
sexually unproductive.
6. Introducing a large population of
sterilized male tsetse flies into a wild
population.
Fig. 113.3: A mite
Mites
Mites are a group of parasitic organisms Control of mites
which normally bite or cause irritation to 1. Using a recommended insecticide to
humans, animals and plants. They normally control mites.
cause asthma as well as allergies in 2. Destroying their hiding places. Mostly
humans. under carpets, in pillows and
Mites often have three pairs of legs in the mattresses, etc.
larval stage and four pairs of legs in the 3. Regularly cleaning or sweeping rooms.
540
4. Regularly washing beddings such as Control of tick

bed sheets and pillow covers. 1. Keeping the surroundings clean.
5. Using air-conditioners to reduce the 2. Practicing rotational grazing
temperature and humidity of a room. 3. Spraying of animals with
6. Dusting farm animals with recommended chemical or dipping to
recommended insecticides. destroy tick
4. Regularly changing animal bedding
Tick 5. Culling infected animals
Ticks are bloodsucking parasites found 6. Picking ticks from the bodies of host
mostly in woods, tall grass, and shrubby animals
vegetation where they climb onto plants
and wait to jump on a passing host. Flea
They are particularly sensitive to carbon Fleas are bloodsucking, wingless insects.
dioxide and movement—signals that a host Fleas lay their eggs under carpets, in the
is nearby. Their grasping forelegs allow folds of tapestry, in refuse piles, and in
them to climb on a host. They quickly find other places that provide safety and
a protected spot on the host's body, sink adequate nutrition.
their mouthparts into the flesh, and begin
to feed. When full, they drop off the host.
Several diseases are transmitted to humans
and domestic animals through tick bites or
tick excrement. Some of these are spotted
fever, relapsing fever, Lyme disease,
tularemia, some forms of encephalitis, and
Texas cattle fever.
Fig. 113.5: Flea
Life cycle of fleas

In 6 to 12 days the eggs hatch, becoming
larvae with biting mouth parts. After a few
days of voracious feeding upon organic
refuse, the larvae spin cocoons and enter a
pupal stage. The adult flea emerges from
Fig. 113.4: Sheep tick the cocoon in a few weeks.
541
Adult fleas, which are slightly more than Control of fleas

0.3 cm long, have broad, rather flat bodies, 1. Destroying the adults with insecticides
short antennae, and piercing and sucking 2. Making breeding places unsuitable for
mouth parts; their eyes are either minute or larval life.
absent. Their long, powerful legs enable 3. Adult fleas are destroyed by bathing
them to leap relatively high into the air. the host with strong soap and by
applying insecticides or petroleum.
Several flea species infest household pets
and domestic animals. The dog flea and the Louse (plural Lice)
cat flea are two of the most common Lice are wingless parasitic insects which
species, both of which are parasites also on normally thrive in conditions of filth and
human beings, poultry, and livestock. overcrowding.
Fleas are intermediate hosts of a common
cat and dog parasite, the cucumber Effects of lice infestation
tapeworm. Tapeworm eggs are deposited 1. Lice usually bite their hosts and feed on
in feacal matter, and some of these eggs loose skins.
may cling to the hair of the primary host. 2. Lice are carriers of typhus and
Fleas swallow the eggs, which then relapsing fever.
undergo some development in the flea. If 3. Heavy infestations of lice may cause
an animal or person accidentally swallows intense skin irritation, and scratching
an infected flea, an adult tapeworm for relief may lead to secondary
develops in the new host. infections.
Dog eczema is usually associated with the 4. In domestic animals, rubbing and
presence of fleas. damage to hides and wool may also
occur, and meat and egg production
may be reduced.
5. In badly infested birds, the feathers
may be severely damaged.
6. One of the dog lice is the
intermediate host of the dog tapeworm,
and a rat louse is a transmitter of
murine typhus among rats.
Life cycle of flea
542
Control of louse Dodder

1. Avoid overcrowding of humans and Dodder, also called love vine, strangle-
animals. weed, goldthread, and hell-bind is one of
2. Avoid sharing combs and clothing
with an infected person.
3. Infected animals should be culled.
4. Farm animals should be dusted with
insecticides.
5. Maintain good sanitary conditions.
COMMON PEST AND PARASITES Fig. 113.5: Mistletoe

OF PLANTS
Some plants are parasitic on other plants the few higher plants that are parasitic on
while some other living organism only rely other plants. It has yellowish or reddish
on plants for their survival. They include threadlike twining stems and no leaves or
mistletoe, dodder, weevils, leaf hopper, etc chlorophyll.
During germination, the plant attaches
Mistletoe itself to surrounding vegetation by means
Mistletoe is a widespread flowering plant of sucking organs called haustoria,
parasite that grows on oak, apple, juniper, through which it takes nourishment from
pine and other trees. Most mistletoe species the host.
are actually hemiparasites, or partial Dodder is especially harmful to clover,
parasites. alfalfa, and flax and is also found on
ornamental plants. Commercial clover and
Their leaves, found on the surface of alfalfa seed is always specially treated to
branches and trunks, produce sugar through avoid contamination by dodder seed.
photosynthesis, but their roots penetrate into
the host tree‘s tissue and absorb its
nutrients. Some species of mistletoe lack
leaves altogether and rely solely on their
host tree to provide all their nourishment.
Fig. 113.6: Dodder
543
Weevils vegetation. In doing so, they may also

Weevils are among the most destructive of transmit viral and fungal diseases from
pests that attack crops. They feed entirely plant to plant and can cause extensive
on plant life, causing much damage to damage to shrubs, field crops, and fruit
crops. trees.
Adult weevils lay their eggs in stalks or Sweet liquid called honeydew composed of
seeds of crops such as cotton, wheat, rice, unused sap and other excretions that they
and alfalfa. As larvae, weevils then feed on exude from their anus is eaten by ants and
these plant tissues, extensively damaging other insects. Leafhoppers lay eggs in
the plant in the process. There are about leaves and stems.
30,000 to 40,000 species of weevils some
families or subfamilies of weevils include
fungus weevils, primitive weevils, snout
weevils, leaf-rolling weevils, grain weevils,
flea weevils, acorn and nut weevils.
Fig. 113.8: Leafhopper
TEST QUESTIONS
7. Briefly explain the following terms:

Fig. 113.7: Some species of weevils
(a) pest;
(b) parasite.
Control of weevils
Weevils can be controlled by
8. Describe how female anopheles
1. Burning infested fruits, nuts, or stems;
mosquitoes transmit malaria.
2. Ploughing the ground in which the
insects pupate;
9. (a) Mention four symptoms of malaria.
3. Spraying crops with insecticides.
(b) State four methods of controlling
malaria.
Leafhoppers
10. Describe the life cycle of schistosoma.
Leafhoppers have piercing sucking
mouthparts for feeding on the juices of
544
5. (a) state three effects of schistosomisis 8. Describe the following pests and how
(b) List five ways of controlling they are controlled:
schistosomiasis. (a) tick;
(b) mite;
6. (a) Describe the life cycle of tapeworm (c) flea;
(b) State the control measures for (d) louse.
tapeworm.
9. Describe the following pests of plants:
7. Describe the life cycle of tsetse flies (a) dodder;
and their effects on livestock. (b) mistletoe;
(c) weevils.
545
48
CROP PRODUCTION
Classification of crops
Specific Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to: There are various classes of crops based on
 Describe the general principles of crop their uses and method of cultivation. Some
production classes of crops include:
 Cultivate a crop up to harvesting stage
1. Grains and cereal - e.g. maize, rice,

sorghum, wheat, millet
2. Vegetables – e.g. tomatoes, onion,
pepper, cabbage
INTRODUCTION 3. Stem and Root tubers – eg. cassava,
yam, potatoes, cocoyam
Crop production is the extensive 4. Fruits – eg. citrus fruits, pineapple,
cultivation of plants to yield food, feed, or mango, banana
fibre; to provide medicinal or industrial 5. Grain legumes – eg. groundnut,
ingredients or to grow ornamental bambara beans, cowpea, soya beans
products. 6. Beverage crops – eg. cocoa, coffee,
tea
Crop production developed in ancient 7. Industrial crops – eg. cotton,
times as hunters and gatherers of the Stone tobacco, rubber, sugar cane
Age turned to the cultivation of favoured 8. Oil crops – eg. oil palm, coconut,
species. shea butter tree, groundnut
Modern crops were gradually derived from 9. Ornamental crops – eg. roses, lawns,
their wild ancestors through continual sunflower
selection for larger seed size, improved 10. Fibre crops – eg. cotton,
fruit and other desired traits.
546
48 Crop Production Samking
Other classes of crops Raw materials

Most crops are seasonal; that is they have a Some crops are grown to feed the agro-
specific period they are planted. industries. Crops like cocoa, sugar cane
Some seasonal crops are: and tobacco are used to make chocolate,
 annual or arable crops: Grown, sugar and cigarette respectively. Fibre
reproduce and die in a year; crops such as cotton are used to make
 biennial crops: have two-year life clothing of all kinds for humans.
span;
 perennial crops: have life span of 3 to Drugs
5 years; Some crops are cultivated and used as
 permanent crops: last for 10 to 30 alternative medicines or herbal drugs. In
years. West Africa, most people rely on herbal
drugs to either stay fit or recover from
Uses of crops diseases.
Crops are used for many purposes
including: Ornaments
Lawns, roses and other ornamental crops
Food are planted to beautify a particular area.
The major importance of crops is food; and Hedges both appeal and also enclose an
the crops produced as food for human area.
consumption are known as food crops.
Some food crops are hugely used by some Shelter
people in a community either because of its Some tree crops are cut and used to build
availability or quality. Such crops are their houses. Live tree crops serve as shelter
staple food crops. from the sun and other elements. Grasses
Examples of staple food crops in Ghana are and leaves are sometimes used as roofing
rice, maize, millet, cassava, yam, etc. materials.
Animal feed
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF
Farm animals feed mostly on vegetation
CROP PRODUCTION
such as grasses and forage legumes as well
as food crops such as root tubers and For healthy growth, development and yield
grains. of crops, a crop farmer should consider the
following guidelines:
a) Selection of appropriate varieties
547
b) Site selection and land preparation Before the farmer selects a piece of land
c) Method of propagation and planting for growing his crop, he should consider:
methods
d) Cultural practices The type of soil
e) Pests and disease control The soil should be fertile, have good pH
f) Harvesting, processing, storage and value, contain enough moisture, and have
marketing good texture and structure. All these should
be known with respect to the selected crop
a) Selection of appropriate varieties variety.
Once the crop farmer is certain on the type
of crop he wants to cultivate, the next step Climatic condition
is selecting the variety of that species of How often does it rain on the land, how hot
crop. or cold is the temperature, how hard does
For instance, if the farmer wants to grow the sunshine or the wind blow? These are
cassava, he may choose to go in for any of the questions that the farmer should ask
the following varieties – Obaatanpa, himself.
Dobidi or Okomasa. These climatic factors affect the way the
crop grows and yields. While some crops
Factors to consider when selecting a like more water, others do better with little
crop variety water and so on.
1. Resistance to pests and disease
2. Drought tolerance Source of water
3. Climatic conditions (e.g. Rainfall, The farmer will be required to irrigate his
sunlight, temperature, wind) crops, especially, during the dry season to
4. Soil requirement (e.g. pH, moisture, stabilize the soil texture. Nearness to a
nutrient, texture etc.) river, stream or lake will help the farmer
5. Maturity period irrigate his crops without so much labour.
6. Growth habit
7. Yield Topography
8. Market Land with low level or gentle slope
topography is mostly preferred to steep-
b) Site selection and land sloped land. This is because such lands can
preparation easily be tilled mechanically and have low
The type of land used to cultivate a incidence of erosion.
particular variety of crop is very important.
548
If the land available is hilly, the farmer can Soil tillage

adopt soil conservation methods like Soil tillage is the physical manipulation of
terracing, contour ploughing and strip the soil to gain condition favourable for
cropping. crop production.
Soil tillage creates optimum environmental
Availability of labour conditions for plant growth.
Large-scale farming is usually labour- It involves breaking up, stirring and turning
intensive. It involves weeding, planting and the surface of the soil. Primary tillage is the
harvesting. Locating the farm to where initial breaking up of the surface of the
labour is available is a good practice. land and the subsequent tillage is the
secondary tillage.
Accessibility to farm Tillage can be done manually with hoe or
Being accessible means the farmer can get mechanically using disc plough or mould-
to the farm with ease. That is, either the board plough driven by a tractor.
farmer lives on or closer to the farm or
there is an accessible road to the farm.
Having accessible road will ensure
efficient transportation of heavy
implements to the farm as well as
transporting the farm produce to the
market.
Land preparation
There are three major stages in land
preparation – land clearing, soil tillage and
seedbed preparation. Fig. 113.9: A farmer tilling a land
Land clearing Importance of soil tillage

Land clearing is the removal of vegetation 1. Soil tillage improves soil structure.
cover from the land, either manually or 2. It loosens the soil for water to pass
mechanically. through easily.
Land clearing gives way for soil tillage, 3. It improves root penetration.
planting of crops and other cultural 4. It cleans the soil of stubbles.
practices. The cleared vegetation could be 5. It controls soil erosion.
used as mulch or gathered and burnt.
549
6. Soil tillage is used to mix fertilizers  sexual propagation and

into the soil.  asexual propagation.
7. It levels the surface of the land and aids
in mechanical sowing. Sexual propagation
8. It increases the aeration of the soil. Sexual propagation is the use of seeds to
9. It exposes the larvae and pupae of soil- propagate crops.
borne crop pest to the sun, thereby
destroying them Characteristics of seeds used for sexual
reproduction
Seedbed preparation 1. Ability to germinate into normal
A seedbed is a place where seeds seedlings under normal soil
germinate and from which established conditions.
plants get nourishment and support 2. Free from seed-bed diseases and pest
through their roots. damage.
Seedbeds increase the depth of soil surface, 3. Free from seed weeds and seeds of
limit erosion and provide good drainage. other crop varieties.
They provide the basis for the expansion of 4. Should have high germination
root and stem tubers of crops as well as percentage.
adequate supply and retention of soil water. 5. Should have uniform shapes and sizes
Seedbeds for vegetable production are 6. Should not be mouldy, cracked or
normally raised and rectangular in shape. shrunken.
Characteristics of a good seedbed A farmer may obtain good seeds from

1. Fine and granular surface soil certified agricultural agencies or grow his
2. Firm underneath to ensure satisfactory own from laid down procedures. The seeds
movement of moisture to sown seeds should be chemically treated to avoid
3. Free from weeds attacks from pests and parasites.
4. Retains adequate moisture but porous
enough to ensure good drainage and Planting of seeds
aeration. Depending mostly on the sizes and shapes
of the seeds, they could either be planted or
(c) Method of propagation and sown. Large seeds are planted while small
planting methods seeds are sown.
There are two main methods of plant

propagation –
550
Differences between planting and Time of planting

sowing of seeds Planting time of crops is normally
Planting: Seeds are planted (at stake or in influenced by factors such as rainfall,
situ) by making holes in the soil and temperature, maturity period, day length,
putting the seeds in them after which it is availability of labour, diseases and pest.
covered and firmed. Crops are generally planted at the
Examples of seeds which are normally beginning of the rainfall season when there
planted are maize, groundnut and beans. is adequate moisture and temperature for
Seeds may be planted by drilling, precision seed germination and for the growth and
planting. development of crops.
Some crops such as maize and millet are
Sowing: Seeds are sown by scattering them planted at a chosen time within the ideal
on the soil and covering them with a layer cropping season in order for them to
of soil to protect them from direct sunlight, mature immediately after the rains. This
pests, or being washed away by run-off provides suitable conditions for harvesting
water. and processing the produce.
It is advisable to sow seeds in a nursery to Plant population and spacing

produce seedlings and then transplanting The number of plants per hectare of
them onto a prepared field. farmland is referred to as plant
Examples of seeds sown are rice, tomatoes, population.
and millet. Seeds are sown by broadcasting
and random planting. Very high plant population reduces crops
yield because of competition for nutrients,
while excessively low plant population cuts
down yield because of unused land and its
resources.
Plant spacing varies from plant to plant
since each plant has its own growth habit.
Growth habit is the relative spread of

plant canopy and root system.
Fig. 114.0: Planting of seeds

Plant population is the product of the
number of crop stands per hectare of land
551
and number of plants per stand. The Plant nursery and nursery beds
number of plants is determined by dividing A plant nursery is a specially selected site
one hectare of land (10 000 m2) by stands where seedlings are raised.
or feeding area of a plant in square metres. In nurseries, plants are grown on nursery
beds, or containers. Seeds are sown in a
Mathematically, nursery by drilling or broadcasting method
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Number of stands = 𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 and then covered with a layer of soil. It is
𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑
then mulched with grass or other mulching
If the area of farmland is more or less than materials.
a hectare, the area of the farmland is A light shade is raised above the bed to
calculated in metres and used in the protect the weak plant from excessive heat
formula in place of hectare. and the impact of heavy rainfall. Nursery
beds are regularly watered until
Example germination. The next stage after
A maize farmer plants three seeds per hole germination is prickling-out.
at a spacing of 40 cm by 80 cm on 2
hectares of land. What is the plant
population if there is 98 % germination?
Solution
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑚
No. of crop stands =
𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑
2 𝑕𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠 2  10 000
= = Plant nursery and seedling
0.4  0.8 0.32
= 62 500 stands Pricking-out is the transfer of seedlings

onto a larger nursery bed or seed boxes at a
Plant population = spacing of about 4 cm.
No. of stands x No. of plants per stand
Importance of pricking out
= 62 500 x 3 = 187 500
1. It eliminates competition for nutrients
At 98% germination plant population
by seedlings.
98 2. It helps farmers to get seedlings of
= 100 x 187500 = 183 450 plants
uniform sizes for transplanting.
552
3. It helps to eliminate late germinators enables them to produce roots quickly

since only active seedlings are pricked after transplanting.
out.  It enables transplants to withstand
4. It gives the farmer a good account of harsher environmental conditions such
the number of viable seedlings. as dry winds, intense sunlight and
5. It reduces the incidence of diseases temperature.
because of the elimination of
overcrowding.
Characteristics of a good nursery bed

1. A nursery bed should be free from
disease pathogens, weeds and pests.
2. It should be rich in vitamins and free
draining.
3. It should be sited in open places with
enough sunlight and free air flow.
Fig. 114.1: A nursery bed
4. It should be close to a reliable source of
clean water to make regular watering of Transplanting
seedlings easy. Transplanting is the transfer of seedlings
from the nursery for planting.
Hardening-off
Before seedlings are transplanted, they are Transplanting is normally done early in the
hardened-off. morning or late in the afternoon when light
Hardening-off is the act of preparing intensity is low, and for that matter the rate
seedlings for transplanting by gradually of transpiration is low.
exposing them to harsher conditions.
Before transplanting, seedlings should be
Hardening off involves inducing seedlings watered around the roots in order to soften
to higher temperature, higher light the soil and reduce damage to it during
intensity, etc. removal. It is also advisable to heavily
water seedlings after transplanting in the
Importance of hardening off morning so that the high afternoon
 It helps the seedlings to accumulate temperatures do not affect their
carbohydrate in their tissues which establishment.
553
Vegetative propagation (asexual Plant tissue culture

reproduction) Tissue culture is the cultivation of plant
Vegetative propagation is the use of non- cells, tissues, or organs on specially
reproductive parts of plants to induce the formulated nutrient media.
formation of roots and the regeneration of
plants. Plant tissue culture relies on the fact that
Depending on the extent of human many plant cells have the ability to
interference, vegetative propagation may regenerate a whole plant (totipotency).
be described as natural or artificial. Single cells, plant cells without cell walls
(protoplasts), pieces of leaves, stems or
Natural vegetative propagation roots can often be used to generate a new
This method involves the use of naturally plant on culture media given the required
modified vegetative structures such a stem nutrients and plant hormones.
tuber, bulb, rhizome, corm and off-shoots
(slips, suckers and crowns). Advantages of tissue culture
These vegetative structures produce new 1. High quality of produce
plant and in the process renew themselves 2. Rapid propagation or maturity of plant
because they are naturally endowed with 3. Better production programming
food reserves to help them survive harsh 4. Production of disease-free plants
environmental conditions. 5. Economic use of planting materials
6. The production of exact copies of
Artificial vegetative propagation plants that produce particularly good
This method of vegetative propagation is flowers, fruits, or have other desirable
influenced by humans in regulating and traits.
inducing the growth of new plants from 7. The production of multiples of plants in
prepared vegetative structures. the absence of seeds.
Examples of artificial vegetative necessary pollinators to produce seeds.
propagation methods include layering, 8. The production of plants in sterile
budding, cottage (stem, root or leaf cutting) containers that allows them to be
and grafting. Another artificial propagation moved with greatly reduced chances of
method is tissue culture. transmitting diseases, pests, and
pathogens.
9. The production of plants from seeds
that otherwise may have very low
chances of germinating and growing.
554
10. it cleans particular plants of viral and Mulching

other infections and quickly multiplies This is the use of suitable materials to
these plants as cleaned stock for cover the surface of the soil. A material
horticulture and agriculture. used for mulching is known as mulch.
Examples of suitable mulches are grass,
(d) Cultural practices (Post-planting rice straw, sawdust, paper and corn cob.
activities)
After planting the crops, there are some Importance of mulching
basic activities that are performed until the 1. It maintains or conserves soil moisture.
time of harvesting. These activities are 2. It controls soil erosion.
known as cultural practices. Cultural 3. It regulates soil temperature.
practices in crop production include: 4. It suppresses weeds.
5. It increases water infiltration into the
Irrigation/ watering soil.
Irrigation is the artificial means of 6. The decay of the mulches improves the
providing or replenishing the moisture of organic matter content in the soil.
the soil to support plant growth.
Thinning-out
It is normally done right after planting or Thinning-out is the removal of extra
sowing the seeds. Some methods of seedlings from a stand.
irrigation used on large-scale farms include It is ideal for each stand to have at most
sprinkler irrigation, trickle or drip two plants, but during seed planting more
irrigation and furrow irrigation. than two seeds may be planted per hole to
compensate for the incidence of some
Importance of irrigation seeds not germinating.
1. It regulates soil temperature.
2. It provides adequate moisture to the Importance of thinning-out
plants. 1. It reduces competitions among
3. It keeps the temperature of the plants seedlings for nutrients.
cool through transpiration. 2. It control incidence of diseases among
4. It provides a suitable medium for soil seedlings.
nutrients to dissolve in for absorption 3. It prevents misshaping in carrots and
by plant roots. onions.
5. It maintains the turgidity of the plants
to avoid wilting and lodging.
555
Filling-in or supplying 4. It helps the farmer to easily estimate

This is the replanting of seeds at specific the number of crops on his farm.
spots where planted seeds failed to 5. It creates easy access through the farm.
germinate or died immediately after
germination. Pruning
It is advisable to do filling-in before two Pruning is the removal of unwanted
weeks of first planting in order to avoid parts of a plant.
variation in seedling size and the shading Pruning may be done on any part of the
of younger seedlings by older ones which plant to achieve horticultural or
results in poor growth. agronomic objectives. Pruning may be
done with a cutlass, shears, saw, knife or
Importance of filling-in secateurs.
It helps the farmer to get the total number
of plants he wants. Importance of pruning
1. It gives plants desired shapes and
Fertilizer application forms.
In fertilizer application, the farmer supplies 2. It removes diseased or damaged parts
fertilizers or organic manure to the soil to of plants.
supplement its nutrient content. A nutrient- 3. It promotes fruit formation.
rich soil ensures proper growth and 4. It improves aeration within the plant.
development of crops. 5. It controls the size of plants.
6. It enhances uniform ripening of fruits.
Weed control 7. It promotes the penetration of sunlight
Weed control is the use of mechanical onto the plant.
(cutlasses, hoes), biological (living 8. It helps in carrying out other cultural
organisms), chemical (weed-killers) or practices due to space creation.
cultural (crop rotation, mulching) methods
in preventing the growth of weeds on a Staking
farmland. Staking is the use of wooden or metallic
pole to physically support plants which
Importance of weed control have week stems to grow on.
1. It controls competition for nutrients
between growing crops and weeds.
2. It checks incidence of disease in plants.
3. It improves aeration for growing crops.
556
Qualities of a good staking pole or Examples of physical methods of pest

material and disease control
1. It should not interfere with the growth i. Fencing farm to keep out rodents
of the plant. ii. Using barriers to protect crops against
2. It should be strong enough to support large pests as well as microscopic
the plant. pathogens
3. It should last for a long time. iii. Screening crops to keep off birds and
4. It should not be too fresh to sprout insects
quickly. iv. Using traps and scarecrows
5. It should be free from thorns and v. Heat sterilization of the soil.
pricks.
2. Chemical methods
Importance of staking These methods are the use of chemicals
1. It keeps plants erect. known as pesticides to control pest and
2. It reduces rotting of fruit vegetables. disease pathogens. Pesticides are normally
3. It provides good aeration to the staked in liquid forms and are sprayed on farms.
plant.
4. It enables plants to display their leaves The table below gives types of pests and
to receive sunlight for photosynthesis. pathogens and the pesticides used to
5. It makes harvesting of produce easier. control them.
6. It facilitates weeding on the farm.
Table 8.5: Pesticides and pest or parasites they are
(e) Pest and disease control used to control
Pests and disease-causing parasites cause Pesticide Pest/ pathogen used on
Insecticides Insects
low yield in crops and could even destroy
Fungicides Fungi
the crops. They normally reduce the market
Rodenticides Rodents
value and at the same time increase the
Bactericides Bacteria
cost of production. Avicides Bird
Nematicides Nematodes
Methods to control pests and diseases
3. Biological methods
1. Physical methods
This is the use of some living organisms to
These include using devices and means
control pests and pathogens by mostly
that destroy pest and pathogens by
feeding on them.
affecting their physical environment.
557
Examples of biological methods Some Integrated Pest Management

i. Use of dogs and cats to catch and kill techniques include preventing pests from
rodents entering the farm, physically removing
ii. Use of chicken to control cotton pests from farm etc.
stainers in cotton fields
iii. Planting of African marigold to Importance of Integrated Pest
control nematodes Management
i. It leads to the production of good
4. Cultural methods quality produce.
These include the use of agronomic ii. It increases crop yield.
activities to reduce the incidence of pest iii. It is cost effective.
and pathogen attacks on crops. iv. It has little or no adverse effect on the
environment.
Examples of cultural practices
i. Use of resistant varieties of crops. 6. Prohibitions
ii. Early planting and harvesting to Prohibitions involves restricting crops or
control pests and pathogens attack. their planting materials suspected to be
iii. Heavy organic-manuring to control carrying pests and pathogens from entering
nematodes. a country or being moved from one place
iv. Eliminating diseased seeds and plant. to another within a country.
v. Use of clean and healthy panting
materials. (f) Harvesting
vi. Crop rotation. The final stage in the field operations with
vii. Removing infected part of a plant crops is harvesting. Harvesting is done
through pruning. when crops mature. Different crops have
viii. Soil tillage to expose soil borne pests different maturity timelines. It is advisable
and parasites. for the farmer to harvest his produce on
time so as to prevent pests and diseases
5. Integrated Pest Management from attacking them.
This is the use of environmentally friendly
measures in controlling pests and diseases. The method of harvesting should also be
The main objective of this method is to taken into consideration. The choice of
keep the population of pest very low so harvesting method depends on the type of
that they will not be able to do much crop and the scale of cultivation. While
damage to crops. manual harvesting methods such as the use
558
of cutlasses, hoes, hands etc. may be used Stored crops are prevented from contact
in small-scale farming, heavy-duty with pests, rain, mould, fungus or
machinery such as combine harvesters, excessive heat.
cassava lifter etc. are often employed in
large-scale farming. Marketing
Cash crops, such as cocoa and coffee are
Processing sold to the manufacturing industries
In their raw form, most farm produce through agents, while food crops are sold
cannot be used; they, therefore, have to be in various open markets. Most
processed. Thus, have their forms changed, communities have market days where
either manually or with machines, in order farmers bring their produce to sell.
to make them usable and also easy to store.
The method of processing used is different In order to successfully produce crops, a
from plant to plant. Cereals are threshed, farmer needs to follow the general
shelled, dehusked or winnowed with principles explained above. The principles
equipments such as threshing machines, could differ based on the crops cultivated.
shellers and winnows.
Cassava may be grated with cassava
graters while palm fruits are digested with FARM TOOLS
palm fruit digesters. Farm tools are various equipments and
machineries used in the farm to help
Storage cultivate crops successfully. Different farm
After harvesting, the crops could be kept tools are used for different fields of work
from damage by storing them properly. on the farm. Table 8.6 below gives some
Rice, for example is sun-dried after farm tools and their uses.
harvesting to remove moisture, after which
it is stored in sacks. Yam is stored in a cool
and well ventilated shed, while cassava can
be store in water or underground for a short
period.
In large quantities, farm produce may be

stored in silos or barns. Some produce
which are highly susceptible to spoilage
hand trowel hand forks
may be stored in refrigerators and freezers.
559
Table 8.6: Farm tools and their uses

Farm tool Uses
Cutlass Weeding, pruning, sharpening pegs and stakes
Hoe Weeding, bed preparation, marking out
Hand fork Turning/ stirring-up soil, making moulds
Secateurs Cutting hardwood, pruning bushes
Watering can Irrigating crops
Spade Turning, digging and lifting soil
Axe Pruning and hardwood cutting
Rake Gathering rubbish, levelling the soil
Budding knife Making budding and grafting
Pruning saw Pruning branches
Measuring tape Measuring out
Sickle Harvesting rice, wheat, millet
Shovel Turning and lifting soil
Hand trowel Digging, cutting roots and removing stumps
Dibber Making, stirring and loosening beds
Shears Cutting and trimming hedges
Knapsack sprayer Spraying chemicals such as pesticides, insecticides, weed-killers
Wheel barrow Transporting produce, tools and fertilizers over short distances
Digging mattock Digging out and removing stumps
Pick axe Uprooting stumps, making trenches
Long-handle sickle Harvesting cocoa and oil palm
Plough Used to till the soil
shovel
Hoe
Secateurs shears Digging fork
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PRODUCTION OF CROPS
Production of vegetables
pickaxe
Vegetables are the edible products of
herbaceous plants (i.e. plants with soft
stems).
Vegetables can be grouped according to
the edible part of each plant: leaves
(lettuce), stalks (celery), roots (carrot),
tubers (potato), bulb (onion) and flowers
(broccoli). In addition, fruits such as
Wheel barrow
tomato and seeds such as pea are
considered vegetables. Vegetables may be
eaten raw or cooked
Importance of vegetables
1. Vegetables are valuable sources of
vitamins.
watering can 2. They provide the body with energy.
3. They provide vital minerals needed by
the body such as calcium, iodine, iron
etc.
4. They are important sources of roughage
which helps in digestion and prevents
constipation.
5. They are low in fat and calories
disc plough therefore, keeping the body healthy.
Okro/ Okra (Hibiscus esculentus or

Abelmoschus esculentus)
Okro (okra), also called gumbo is an
annual herb which is cultivated for its long,
many-seeded pod, and when young and
manual plough green, is used to thicken soups and stews
Fig. 114.2: Farm tools and as a cooked vegetable. The okro bears
561
large, yellow flowers, similar to those of inadequate. To stimulate reasonable

the closely related hibiscus, and is vegetative growth for efficient
occasionally planted in flower gardens. photosynthesis, the okro crop is top-
dressed with fertilizers such as NPK.
Pest and disease control

Viral diseases which affect okro are leaf
mosaic and leaf curl. These diseases are
best controlled by crop rotation and the use
of resistant varieties. The vector of leaf
mosaic, white fly, can be destroyed with
insecticides.
Fungal diseases such as powdery mildew
and black leaf mould attack both leaves
Fig. 114.3: okro and fruits of okro. They are controlled
through crop rotation, clean husbandry and
Soil and climate the use of fungicides such as Dinocap and
Okra prefers a well-drained soil and Benomyl.
requires annual rainfall of 800 mm to 1000 Leaf and fruit-eating caterpillars, which are
mm and an average temperature of 25oC. It the major pests of okro, eat and kill
tolerates acidic conditions but does not do seedlings, eat leaves and fruits of older
well in heavy clays. plants. These pests are controlled by
spraying with Cypermethrin and Carbaryl.
Planting
Okro is planted at the beginning of the Harvesting
rainy season, as a sole plant or an interplant After maturity (8 to 12 weeks after
crop. Two or three viable seeds are planted planting) okro fruits are harvested either by
at stake on a bed or field to a depth of 3 – 4 hand picking or by cutting with a knife.
cm with a spacing of 30 – 40cm and 50 – Fruits should be harvested on time to
70cm within and between rows. The prevent them from toughening and
seedlings are thinned-out a week after hardening.
germination to leave one plant per stand.
Production of cereals and grains
Cultural practices Cereals and grains are various species of
The crop is constantly watered up to the grass family, cultivated for their seed,
fruiting stage, especially if rainfall is
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which is used as food. The most rainfall or regular irrigation. Maize needs a
extensively cultivated grains are maize, dry weather for maturity and harvesting.
rice, wheat, oats, rice, millet, and the grain
sorghums known as durra or guinea corn. Planting
Maize seedbed should be weed-free and be
Maize (Zea mays) finely tilled. Seed is planted three seeds per
hole at a depth of 3cm – 5cm. Seeds are
Common varieties normally planted at the onset of rain, in
The varieties of maize in Ghana include
March and August.
Dobidi, Obaatanpa, Safita, Temale Yellow
etc.
Cultural practices
Organic manure may be ploughed with the
Soil and climate
soil before planting. A base dress of
Maize grows well in a well-drained loam
compound fertilizer may be applied two
soil, which has temperature of about 20oC
weeks before planting. Nitrate top-dressing
and pH of 5 to 7. It requires consistent
can be applied when the crop reaches a
height of 40 – 50cm. Weeds can be
controlled using either physical or cultural
methods. Week plants can be removed to
give room for healthy ones.

Common maize pests include weevils and
stem borers. They can be controlled by
spraying with insecticides. Birds and rats
can be kept off the farm or storage by
Integrated Pest Management methods.
Maize diseases such as smut and mildews
maize
can be controlled with fungicides.
Maize plant
Fig. 114.4
Fig. 114.5: Maize weevils
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Harvesting Storage
Maize matures between 12 to 15 weeks Maize may be stored with grains on cob or
after planting, depending on the variety. Its shelled (grains removed). In either case, it
maturity can be recognized by yellowing of should be dried well and treated with
the leaves, hardness of grain and papery recommended insecticides. The storage
husk. The cobs are broken off by hand and room should be free of rodents and birds.
left in the sun for further drying.
Processing
In large-scale farming, maize may be The grain is usually grounded and made
harvested with a combine harvester. A into several dishes such as kenkey of all
combine harvester is a machine that picks kinds, porridge, banku etc. It can also be
the ears from the stalks, removes the husks, roasted and ground to make ―winiemix‖, a
and shells the kernels from the cobs. form of porridge.
Marketing
The grains can be exported, sold in the
open market, schools and institutions as
well as other governmental agencies such
as the Ghana National Procurement
Agency.
Fig. 114.6: Harvesting maize by hand
Fig. 114.8
Production of legumes
Legumes, also known as grain legumes are
crops characterized by a single-chambered,
Fig. 114.7: A combine harvester flattened seedpod with two sutures. It
564
usually splits open along the two sutures, Common varieties

as in the common bean. The seeds are Common locally cultivated varieties of
attached along one of the sutures. cowpea include amatin, soronko, valienga
and asontem. These varieties are
The legume may be indehiscent (not characterized by their distinctive colour as
splitting), as in the groundnut, which well as their maturity periods.
matures underground; or explosively
dehiscent, as in cowpea. Soil and climate
It also may range from only a few Cowpea tolerates a wide range of soils. It is
millimetres long to more than 30cm and drought resistant but cannot withstand
may be single or many seeded and brightly prolonged water-logging. It is mostly
or dully coloured. grown in dry savannah areas to
A common feature in the family is the temperatures up to 35oC.
presence of root nodules containing
bacteria of the genus Rhizobium. These Planting
bacteria are capable of converting With a spacing of 52 – 30cm in the row
atmospheric nitrogen, which cannot be and 75 – 90cm between rows, two or three
used by the plants, into nitrate (NO3-), a seeds are planted at a depth of 3 – 4cm.
form that can be used. Legumes are often Planting is done at the beginning of the
planted specifically to renew nitrogen rainy season.
supplies in soils.
Cultural practices
Cowpea (Vigna spp.) Depending on the soil fertility, single
superphosphate and sulphate of potash can
be applied in amounts. Weeds can be
controlled by hoeing or hand pulling. The
first weeding is normally done 2 – 3 weeks
after planting with the next done when
flowering starts.

Pests such as shield bugs, aphids and other
leaf-eating beetles can be controlled with
insecticides. Fungal attack is controlled
with regular application of fungicides.
Fig. 114.9: Cowpea plant
565
Harvesting Cassava (Manihot spp.)

Since all pods do not mature at the same
time, several hand pickings may be
required.
Storage
Pods are sundried and threshed. The stored
crop must be protected from pests. Various
recommended insecticides can be used to
keep insect pest away.
Processing and marketing

Cowpea is either cooked and eaten or is Fig. 115.0: Cassava tubers
grounded and added to other foods. It has
high protein content and provides enough Common varieties
energy. It can also be used as feed for farm Varieties of cassava include Enyan Abasa,
animals. Marketing is mostly done on the Katawere, Ankars, Okwenyonmko and
open market. Katawia. These could be classed based on
their sweetness or bitterness.
Production of root and stem tubers
Soil and climatic conditions
Root tubers are modified underground
Cassava does well in soils which are well
stems that store food and support tiny new
drained, deep and rich in organic matter.
plants that bud off their surfaces.
They require annual rainfall of 500 –
Young plants developing from tuber buds
750mm with a temperature 25oC – 30oC.
are nourished from starch stored in the
tubers until mature enough to develop root
Method of propagation
systems.
Cassava is cultivated asexually by stem
Examples of stem and root tubers include
cuttings, with each stem being 20 to 30 cm
cassava, yam, sweet potato and cocoyam.
long and containing 3 – 5 buds. The stems
These foods have high reserves of
are planted either fully or partially in the
carbohydrates and normally serve as
soil with a spacing of 100 cm x 100 cm.
staples in some communities.
Cultural practices
The soil may be ploughed with organic
fertilizer to improve its fertility. The crop
566
can be side-dressed or broadcast with NPK Storage

fertilizer two weeks after germination Cassava cannot be stored for a long time. It
occurs. Weeds can be controlled by hoeing can be stored underground or in water from
or with recommended weed killers. 1 to 2 weeks.
Pest and disease control Processing and uses

Mealy bugs, grasshoppers and green Cassava can be cooked and eaten (ampesi)
spiders can be controlled with or pounded into fufu. It can also be grated
recommended insecticides. into gari. For the textile industry, cassava
White flies, which are the vectors of can be used to prepare starch. The leave of
mosaic virus, are controlled with cassava plants and peal of tubers can serve
insecticides or using resistant varieties. as feed for livestock.
Harvesting Marketing
Cassava matures 8 – 18 months after Like most farm produce, cassava or its
planting. When mature, large tubers are products can be sold on the open market. It
carefully dug up leaving smaller ones to can be sold in large quantities to industries
grow. Smaller tubers can be harvested by for making starch.
pulling or lifting from the soil. Cassava
lifters can be effectively used to harvest the Production of Fruits
produce. Most fruits grow on trees. Fruits have an
important reserve of vitamins and minerals.
Fruits such as orange and pineapple are
fibrous and serve as roughage which
increases digestion in humans and prevents
constipation.
Fruits provide the body with energy. Some
fruits serve as ingredient for the production
of beverages.
Examples of fruits are pawpaw, citrus
fruits, mango, pineapple, etc.
Citrus fruits (Citrus spp.)

Fig. 115.1: Cassava lifters Citrus is a common name for several
related evergreen trees and shrubs of the
567
rue family. The plants are characterized by Pest and disease control
wing-like appendages on the leaf stalks, Insect pests such as aphids, mites, mealy
white or purplish flowers, and fruit bugs, caterpillars and scales are controlled
(classified as a kind of berry) with a with insecticides. The virus Tristeza and
spongy or leathery rind and a juicy pulp the fungal disease gummosis can be
divided into sections. The leaves, flowers, controlled by using resistant root stocks.
and rind of the fruit abound in volatile oil
and emit a sharp fragrance. Many citrus Harvesting and storage
plants have thorny branches. Citrus fruits are picked by hand when ripe.
Fruits can be stored for 5 to 8 days. It is
Common varieties advisable to harvest fruits only when they
 Sweet orange (Citrus sinensis); are ready to be used or transported.
 Sour orange (Citrus aurantium);
 Tangerine (Citrus reticulate); Processing and uses
 Grapefruit (Citrus maxima); Citrus fruits could be eaten raw or used for
 Lemon (Citris limon); other domestic purposes. They can be
 Lime (Citrus aurantifolia). canned or have the juice extracted. Pulped
whole fruit can be used to make
Soil and climatic conditions marmalades. The outer skin has high oil
Citrus fruits require well-drained soils with reserve and it can be extracted for other
modest level of fertility. They do well with uses.
annual rainfall of 1000 mm, and an average
temperature of 20oC.
TEST QUESTIONS
Method of propagation
10. Mention two examples of each of the
Citrus fruits are mostly propagated by
following classes of food‖
budding on to sour orange stock which has
(a) cereals;
been raised from seed, with spacing of 1m
(b) vegetables;
x 1m. When the seedlings are about 40 cm
(c) fruits;
tall, they are budded 25 – 30cm. The trees
(d) grain legumes;
are replanted 5 months after budding to
(e) stem and root tubers.
coincide with the start of the rainy season.
11. Describe four uses of crops.
12. (a) Mention four factors to be
568
considered when selecting a site for (c) avicides;

crop production. (d) nematicides:
(b) What is soil tillage? (e) fungicides.
(c) State five importance of soil tillage.
10. State the uses of the following farm
13. (a) What is plant population? tools and machinery
(b) Describe how to determine the Farm tool Uses
population of crops on a farm Hand fork
Secateurs
14. (a) What is a nursery bed? Shovel
(b) Mention five characteristics of a Shears
Plough
good nursery bed.
6. (a) What is plant tissue culture?
11. State four cultural methods and four
(b) state four advantages of plant
biological methods used to control
tissue culture.
pests and parasites.
7. Explain the importance of the

12. (a) Name four examples of vegetables.
following post-planting cultural
(b) Briefly describe how you will grow
practices:
a known vegetable to the
(a) irrigation;
harvesting stage.
(b) mulching;
(c) staking;
13. (a) What is the scientific name of the
(d) pruning.
following crops:
(i) maize;
8. Describe the following methods of pest
(ii) cassava;
and disease control:
(iii) cowpea;
(a) physical methods;
(b) Mention four varieties of maize.
(b) chemical methods;
(c) biological methods;
14. Outline the main cultural practices
(d) cultural methods.
involved in a cereal crop production.
9. Name the pests and pathogens

15. (a) Name four varieties of cassava.
controlled by the following chemicals:
(b) Describe how cassava is harvested
(a) bactericides:
and stored.
(b) rodentmicides;
569
16. In an experiment to determine the a) Name the device used in the

population of two plant species A and experiment.
B in a field, a device was thrown at b) Determine the total number of each
random and the number of each of the of the species A and B for the ten
species of the plant enclosed by the throws.
device was determined at each throw of c) Calculate the population density of
the device. The device was thrown ten species B given that the area of the
times. The data obtained are given in device used is 1 m2
the table below. d) State one precaution to be taken
Study the table carefully and answer when using the device.
Throw of Species A Species B

device
1st 4 7
2nd 9 11
3rd 12 7
4th 4 16
5th 5 7
6th 9 13
7th 7 8
8th 5 9
9th 8 7
10th 9 11
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49
NERVOUS SYSTEM
concerned with the reception of stimuli, the

Specific Objectives
transmission of nerve impulses, or the
 Describe the structure and functions of the activation of muscle mechanisms.
nervous system of humans.
 Identify the causes and effects of damages to
the brain and spinal cord. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
 Classify stimulus responses as voluntary or
involuntary actions.
OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF
 Describe the endocrine system and its functions. HUMANS
Neurones (Nerve Cells)

The nervous system is made up of units
called nerve cells or neurons. Neurons are
responsible for the transmission and
analysis of all electrochemical
INTRODUCTION
communication within the nervous system.
Each neuron is composed of a cell body
Have you wondered why your heart beats
called a soma, a major fibre called an
faster when you run, or why you pull your
axon, and a system of branches called
hand away when you touch a hot objects?
dendrites.
When a person runs, more oxygen is used
up; therefore, a message is sent to the heart
Functions of the parts of neurones
to replenish the used oxygen in the cells.
Axons, also called nerve fibres, convey
Hence, it beats faster. The mechanism in
electrical signals away from the soma.
the body which sends this message to the
heart is known as the nervous system.
Dendrites convey electrical signals toward
the soma. They are shorter than axons, and
The nervous system is a group of
are usually multiple and branching.
elements within an organism that is
571
49 Nervous System Samking
The central nervous system

The central nervous system is made up of
the brain and the spinal cord. These organs
communicate with the body through
nerves.
The brain communicates with the body
through (ten pairs of) cranial nerves while
the spinal cord communicates with the
body through (31 pairs of) spinal nerves.
Fig. 115.2: A motor neuron
Types of neurons
1. The motor neurones – transmit
information to the muscles.
2. The sensory neurones – transmit
information to and from the sense Fig. 115.3: The central nervous system
organs.
3. The relay neurones – connect the The brain
motor sensory neurones. The brain consists of millions of neurons.
There are three main distinguishable parts
of the brain –
Other parts of the nervous system
 the cerebrum,
The nervous system is made up of two
 the cerebellum and
other systems –
 the medulla oblongata.
 the central nervous system and
 the peripheral nervous system.
572
The cerebellum (Middle Brain)

The cerebellum is located at the lower part
of the hind brain. It controls and
coordinates body movements.
The cerebellum also maintains posture and
balance by controlling muscle tone and
sensing the position of the limbs. All motor
activities such as kicking a football,
running, jumping etc. depend on the
cerebellum.
Medulla oblongata (Hind-Brain)

This part of the brain, which is located at
Fig. 115.5: Parts of the human brain the foot of the hind-brain, is responsible for
all involuntary actions such as sneezing,
The cerebrum (fore-brain) heart-beat, yawning, blinking, etc.
The cerebrum is the largest part of the
brain. It is the region where most high- The spinal cord
level brain functions take place. The spinal cord is composed of large
It consists of two cerebral hemispheres, number of neurons grouped into a
responsible for intelligence, memory and cylindrical mass. It runs from the brain to
consciousness; and cerebral cortex, the tail. It is protected by the bone of the
responsible for vision, hearing, speech, spinal column. From between the
emotions, language, and other aspects of vertebrae, spinal nerves emerge and run to
perceiving, thinking, and remembering. all parts of the body.
The spinal nerves carry sensory impulses

to the brain and motor impulses from the
brain to the muscles and other organs.
The spinal cord is also concerned with

reflex actions and the conduction of
nervous impulses to and from the brain.
Fig. 115.4: Parts of the cerebrum
573
DAMAGE TO THE CENTRAL (b) Diseases

NERVOUS SYSTEM Diseases of the nervous system include
genetic malformations, poisonings,
The central nervous system is a delicate metabolic defects, vascular disorders,
system. Damage done to any part of the inflammations, degeneration, and tumours.
brain or spinal cord could result in These involve either nerve cells or their
irreversible physical or psychological supporting elements.
conditions. This is because damaged nerve Vascular disorders, such as cerebral
cells cannot heal. haemorrhage or other forms of stroke, are
among the most common causes of
A person with defect in the central nervous paralysis.
system may experience problems in: Some diseases exhibit peculiar geographic
1. looking after his/ her welfare; and age distribution. In Temperate zones,
2. forming and sustaining relationship multiple sclerosis is a common
with others; degenerative disease of the nervous
3. making rational decisions; system, but it is rare in the Tropics.
4. adjusting to stress; The nervous system is subject to infection
5. planning for the future; by a great variety of bacteria, parasites, and
viruses. For example, meningitis, or
Causes of damage to the central infection of the meninges infesting the
nervous system brain and spinal cord, can be caused by
There are many activities, lifestyles and many different agents.
conditions that cause damage to the central Some viruses causing neurological
nervous system. These include: illnesses affect only certain parts of the
nervous system. For example, the virus
(a) Accidents causing poliomyelitis commonly affects
Accidents of all sorts, such as traffic the spinal cord; viruses causing
accidents, accidents at home, school or in encephalitis attack the brain.
the workplace could cause a person to hit
his/ her head or fall heavily. Since the brain (c) Drug abuse
and the spinal cord are not designed to hit A drug is a chemical substance used for
anything hard, such accidents may damage medical or veterinary purposes.
the nerve cells and cause the brain or the
spinal cord to malfunction. If a person misuses drugs, he/ she is said to
be abusing drug.
574
Drug abuse is characterized by taking more 1. Long-term drug use may damage the
than the recommended dose of prescription heart, liver, and brain.
drugs without medical supervision, or 2. Drug abusers may suffer from
using government-controlled substances malnutrition if they habitually forget to
such as marijuana, cocaine, heroin, or other eat, cannot afford to buy food, or eat
illegal substances. Legal substances, such foods lacking the proper vitamins and
as alcohol and nicotine are also abused by minerals.
many people. Abuse of drugs and other 3. Individuals who abuse injectable drugs
substances can lead to physical and risk contracting infections such as
psychological dependence. hepatitis and HIV from dirty needles or
Psychotropic drugs, such as marijuana and needles shared with other infected
ecstasy, often taken by people to escape abusers.
from unpleasant realities or make them feel 4. One of the most dangerous effects of
good, actually affect the way the nerve illegal drug use is the potential for
cells transmit information, thereby overdosing—that is taking too large or
disrupting the person‘s thinking process too strong a dose for the body‘s
and changing their states of mind and their systems to handle. A drug overdose
perception about things around them. They may cause an individual to lose
often interfere with the person‘s judgement consciousness and to breathe
and may induce them to do things normal inadequately. Without treatment, an
human beings would not do. individual may die from drug overdose.
5. Drugs are expensive, which means the
Causes of drug abuse individual wastes a lot of money in
1. Peer pressure buying them.
2. Curiosity 6. It often results in metal disorders as a
3. Ignorance result of the malfunction of the brain
4. Performance enhancement cells.
5. Frustration 7. Drug abuse may result in serious
6. Easy access accidents because of lack of proper
7. Loneliness judgement by abusers.
8. Boredom
(d) Depression
Effects of drug abuse Depression is a mental illness in which a
Drug abuse can cause a wide variety of person experiences deep sadness and
adverse physical reactions. diminished interest in nearly all activities.
575
Depression could be as a result of changes carrying them out. Before a footballer

in the way the brain cells work, such as kicks a ball, he thinks about who or where
change in the balance of chemicals to kick it to, how to kick it and when to
produced by the synapses of nerves cells. kick it. Other activities such as singing,
running, walking or waving of the hand are
This is called endogenous depression; or a all done consciously and can be controlled.
person‘s response to the environment, such
as death of loved one, loss of job, stress, Involuntary or Reflex Action
frustration etc. This is referred to as A reflex action is a quick, automatic
reactive depression. response to a stimulus by an organism or
a system of organs, which does not
The peripheral nervous system involve the brain.
The peripheral nervous system consists of
12 pairs of cranial nerves extending from For example, the iris of the eye can
the cerebrum and brain stem; a system of contract or dilate the pupil with change in
other nerves branching throughout the light intensity without our being aware that
body from the spinal cord; and the it is happening.
autonomic nervous system, which More commonly, we are aware of a reflex
regulates vital functions not under occurring but are unable to control it. For
conscious control, such as the activity of example, blinking of the eye when a
the heart muscle, smooth muscle foreign object touches the cornea; the
(involuntary muscle found in the skin, jerking of the knee when it is struck just
blood vessels, and internal organs), and above or below the knee-cap or sneezing
glands. when dust particles enter the nose are all
reflex action which we are aware of, but
VOLUNTARY AND cannot control or prevent.
INVOLUNTARY ACTIONS
One similarity between voluntary and
Voluntary or Conscious Action involuntary actions is that they are both
Voluntary actions are actions which are controlled by the autonomic nervous
under the direct control of the brain. system.
How do you go about performing your The table below gives the differences
favourite activities? You think about them, between voluntary and involuntary or
either over a short time or long time before reflex actions.
576
Table 8.7: Difference between voluntary and Table 8.8: Differences between the sympathetic
involuntary actions and parasympathetic nerves
Voluntary action Involuntary action Sympathetic nerves Parasympathetic
Involves the brain Involves the spinal nerves
cord Speed up heart beat Slow down heart beat
Delayed response Immediate response
Constrict arteries Dilate arteries
Controlled Not controlled
consciously consciously Dilates pupils Constrict pupils
Response is in the The response is in Slow down peristalsis Increase peristalsis
skeletal muscle skeletal or an internal Decrease flow of Increase flow of saliva
only involuntary muscle saliva
Longer path of the Shorter path of the
nerve impulse nerve impulse
The reflex arc
Impulse travels Impulse travels only
from the brain to up or down the spinal The reflex arc is the pathway along which
the spinal cord cord nerve impulses travel when they are
stimulated.
The Autonomic Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System is one of the Many of the actions of the nervous system
two main divisions of the nervous system, can be explained on the basis of reflex arcs,
supplying impulses to the body's heart which are chains of interconnected nerve
muscles, smooth muscles, and glands. cells, stimulated at one end and capable of
bringing about movement or glandular
The autonomic system controls the action secretion at the other. Actions such as the
of the glands; the functions of the pulling away of the hand when one touches
respiratory, circulatory, digestive, and a hot object and the jerk of the knee are all
urogenital systems; and the involuntary initiated by the reflex arc.
muscles in these systems and in the skin.
Controlled by nerve centres in the lower

part of the brain, the system also has a
reciprocal effect on the internal secretions,
being controlled to some degree by the
hormones and exercising some control, in
turn, on hormone production.
Types of the autonomic nervous system

 sympathetic nerves and
 parasympathetic nerves. Fig. 115.6: Reflex arc
577
Pulling away of the hand when one the olfactory nerve cells. When the vapour
touches a hot or sharp object dissolves in the eye, fluid is discharged
Heat or pain receptors in the skin are from the tear glands to dilute the dissolved
stimulated and release impulses which vapour.
travel along a sensory neurone and enter
the spinal cord via the dorsal root. Types of reflex
The impulse then moves over a synapse 1. Cranial reflex is the reflex action
and stimulates a relay neurone and at the which takes place in the brain and
other end of the relay neurone to stimulate involves the organs of the head.
a motor neurone.
It travels out of the spinal cord via the 2. Spinal reflex are reflex actions which
ventral root to the muscles and the muscles take place below the head. In animals
contract to pull the hand away. such as frogs, spinal reflex action
occurs even if the brain is destroyed.
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system consists of a

group of specialized organs and body
Fig. 115.7
tissues that produce, store, and secrete
chemical substances known as hormones.
How knee-jerk occurs
The knee jerks when the sensory fibres Endocrine organs are called ductless
make a synapse directly with the motor glands because they have no ducts
fibre (no relay fibre involved). Striking the connecting them to specific body parts.
tendon below the knee cap stimulates
stretched receptors in the leg extensor The hormones they secrete are released
muscle. The impulse travels along the directly into the bloodstream.
reflex arc and causes the same muscle to In contrast, the exocrine glands, such as
contract. the sweat glands or the salivary glands,
release their secretions directly to target
Foreign matter in the eye areas—for example, the skin or the inside
When a person cuts an onion, for example, of the mouth. Some of the body's glands
the vapour arising from the cut onion are described as endo-exocrine glands
passes into the nose and eyes and stimulate because they secrete hormones as well as
578
other types of substances. Even some non- Components of the endocrine

glandular tissues produce hormone-like system
substances. For example, nerve cells The primary glands that make up the
produce chemical messengers called human endocrine system are the
neurotransmitters. hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid,
parathyroid, adrenal, pineal body, the
Hormones pancreas and reproductive glands (the
Hormones are chemical substances which ovary and testis).
are produced by an endocrine gland or
some nerve cells that regulates the function Some non-endocrine organs are known to
of a specific tissue or organ. actively secrete hormones. These include
Hormones are responsible for regulating the brain, heart, lungs, kidneys, liver,
the body's growth and development, thymus, skin, and placenta.
controlling the function of various tissues,
supporting pregnancy and other Almost all body cells can either produce or
reproductive functions, and regulating convert hormones, and some secrete
metabolism. hormones. For example, glucagon (a
hormone that raises glucose levels in the
blood when the body needs extra energy) is
made in the pancreas but also in the wall of
the gastrointestinal tract. However, it is the
endocrine glands that are specialized for
hormone production.
They efficiently manufacture chemically

complex hormones from simple chemical
substances—for example, amino acids and
carbohydrates—and they regulate their
secretion more efficiently than any other
tissues.
Fig. 115.8: The endocrine system
579
Table 9.0: Endocrine glands and their secreted hormones
Gland Location Secreted Function of hormone Effects of under or

in the hormone over secretion
body
Thyroid Neck Thyroxin  Controls growth rate  Under secretion
gland and development; causes cretinism
 Controls rate of in children and
chemical activities in myxoedema in
adult humans adults;
 over secretion
causes thinness
and over-activity
Adrenal Just Adrenaline  Increases heartbeat  Under secretion

gland above the and blood glucose causes delayed
kidneys level, response to
 dilates coronary stimulus;
arteries. (controls  Over secretion
response for fight or causes high blood
flight) pressure
Pituitary Base of Anti-diuretic  Stimulates re-

gland the fore- hormone absorption of water
brain (ADH) by the kidney tubules
Thyroid-  Stimulates production

stimulating of thyroxin
hormone
(TSH)
Luteinising  Stimulates ovulation
hormone (LH) and corpus luteum
development in
females
Testis-  Stimulates production

stimulating of sperm in males
hormone
(TSH)
Follicle-  Maturation of
stimulating Graafian follicles in
hormone females
(FSH)
580
46 Nervous System Kingsland
Prolactin  Stimulates production

of milk
Oxytocin  Stimulates
contraction of uterus
during childbirth
Islets of Pancreas Insulin  Controls blood sugar  Under-secretion

Langerhans level results in diabetes
or mellitus
Pancreas
Glucagon  Stimulates the liver
to convert stored
glycogen into glucose
when the blood
glucose level is low
Testes Inside the Testosterone  Controls development  Under-secretion

scrotum of male secondary results in under-
sexual characteristics development of
male secondary
sexual
characteristics
Ovaries Behind Oestrogen  Controls development  Under-secretion

the of female secondary results in under
kidneys sexual characteristics development of
secondary sexual
characteristics in
females
Progesterone  Development of  Under-production

uterine wall for results in poor
implantation development of
uterine wall
Parathyroid Atop the Parathormone  Stimulates release of  Under-secretion

gland thyroid calcium from bones results in low level
gland in into blood of calcium in the
the neck blood
581
Table 9.1: Differences between the nervous system

and the endocrine system
Nervous system Endocrine system

Response is quick Response is slow
Response e is Response is
localised (only specific widespread
parts of the body)
Impulse transmitted Impulse transmitted
through the neurons through hormones
Messages are Messages are
electrical hormonal
Messages are Messages controlled
controlled by brain and by endocrine glands
spinal cord
Effect is short Effect last longer
Linking mechanisms Linking mechanism is Fig. 115.9: A woman suffering from goitre
are neurons and the the circulatory system
central nervous
system
TEST QUESTIONS
The importance of iodated salt
Iodine is an important component of
1. (a) State the functions of the following
human diet. It is required by the thyroid to
neurons:
produce thyroxin, which controls chemical
(i) motor neuron
activities in the body as well as growth and
(ii) sensory neuron
development in children.
(iii) reflex neuron
Low level of iodine results in Iodine
Deficiency Disorders which include
(b) Draw and label a motor neuron.
enlarged thyroid (goitre), cretinism, mental
retardation etc.
2. Describe the structure of the human
brain.
Iodated salt is table salt treated with iodine
and a small amount of potassium or sodium
3. Explain four causes of damage to the
to replenish the iodine content in the body.
central nervous system.
4. (a) Mention five causes of damage to

the central nervous system.
(b) Explain four effects of damage to
the central nervous system.
582
5. (a) What are voluntary actions? 8. (a) What are hormones?

(b) Mention four differences between (b) State the effects of under-secretion
voluntary action and involuntary and over-secretion of the following
action. hormones:
(i) adrenalin;
6. (a) What are reflex actions? (ii) insulin;
(b) List four differences between (iii) testosterone;
sympathetic and parasympathetic (iv) oestrogen.
nerves.
9. Mention four differences between the
7. Explain the following: nervous system and the endocrine
(a) A boy quickly withdraws his hand system.
when he accidentally touches a hot
metal.
(b) How the knee jerks.
583
50
LIGHT ENERGY
therefore man has devised alternative

Specific Objectives sources of light.
 Review reflection and refraction of light and the
characteristics of images formed by plane Sources of light
mirrors.
 Draw the mammalian eye and describe the
The sources of light are grouped into
functions. natural and artificial sources.
 Describe and explain how to separate white light
into its component colours.
 Differentiate between primary colours and Natural sources: These are lights which
secondary colours. are provided by nature.
 Outline the components of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Examples of natural sources of light
1. Sun
2. Moon
3. Stars
4. Fireflies
INTRODUCTION
Light is a form of energy that makes Artificial sources: These are light which
vision possible. are provided by man-made devices and
mechanisms.
We say that light makes vision possible
because without it humans or animals Examples of artificial sources of light
cannot see their way round. During the 1. Fluorescent lamps
day, the sun provides us with enough light 2. Incandescent lamps
energy. At night, we get light from the 3. Kerosene lamps
moon, which actually reflect the sun‘s light 4. Candles
energy onto earth. Nevertheless, the energy 5. Lanterns
we get from the moon is not strong enough 6. Light emitting diodes (LEDs)
584
50 Light Energy Samking
Luminous and non-luminous bodies incandescent lamps, the sun, stars, CRT
Luminous body: This is a body which screens, lanterns, etc.
produces it own light.
Examples are the sun, stars, electric lamps, Phosphorescent light
candles, etc. This is the type of light produced by a
material after the main source of light has
Non-luminous body: This is a body which been removed. The material absorbs the
is not capable of producing it own light. It light energy from a source and reproduces
produces light by reflecting light energy it in a different colour or frequency.
from other sources. Examples of phosphorescent light are light
Examples are the moon, mirror, water, produced by advertising boards, road signs,
glass etc. road markings, etc.
Types of light energy Characteristics of light

The sources of light listed above can be put 1. Light travels in a straight line or path.
into three other groups. They are This is known as rectilinear
luminescent, incandescent and propagation of light.
phosphorescent types or sources of light. 2. Light travels at a speed of 3.0 x 108
ms-1.
Luminescent light 3. Light can be reflected, refracted,
This is the type of light which is produced diffracted, interfered or scattered.
without the production of heat. This type of 4. Light is an electromagnetic wave.
is normally produced from chemical or 5. Light is composed of photons.
electrical sources.
Examples of luminescent light are How light travels
florescent lamps, LCD screens, fireflies, Ray: This is the path along which light
moon, etc. travels. A ray of light is represented by an
arrowed line.
Incandescent light
light ray
This is the type of light whose production
depends on the production of heat. It is
Beam: A group of rays moving in a
produced as a result of the movement of
particular direction form a beam of light.
electrons from one level to another.
Examples of incandescent lamps are
beam of light
585
Movement of light through  The light can be seen through the

substances three holes by an observer viewing at
Transparent substances: These are the other end of the light source.
substances or materials that allow light to  Shift one of the cardboards so that the
pass through them. holes are no longer in a straight line.
Examples of transparent objects are glass,  The observer will no longer be able to
water, quartz etc. see the light through the last
cardboard.
Opaque substances: These are substances
 This shows that light travels in straight
that do not allow light to pass through
lines.
them.
Examples of opaque substances are wood,
human body, stone, metal etc.
Translucent substances: These are

substances that allow some amount of light
to pass through them.
Examples of translucent substances are
frosted glass, smoke, murky or coloured
water, fog, etc.
An experiment to show that light travels

in a straight line
Fig. 116.1
(Rectilinear propagation of light)
 Obtain three square cardboard or NB: The principle of rectilinear
screens of the same size. propagation of light states that light
 Punch a hole in the middle of each travels in a straight path.
cardboard.
 Align them up so that the holes are in a Shadow formation
straight line by threading a string When a ray of light is blocked by an
through the holes and pulling it taut. opaque object, a darkened image of the
 Place a lamp or lighted candle at one object is formed behind it. This darkened
end of the arranged screens. image is known as a shadow.
586
A shadow is a dark image formed when a Penumbra

ray of light is blocked by an opaque Penumbra is a shadow formed as a result of
object. an opaque object placed in between a large
source of light and a screen.
In the experiment on rectilinear Penumbra is less dark, large and indistinct.
propagation of light, you could see that Penumbra normally surrounds a core of
when the card is shifted, shadow of it is umbra.
thrown on the card behind it.
Fig. 116.3: Umbra and penumbra
Eclipses
An eclipse is the complete or partial
hiding of either the sun or the moon from
Fig. 116.2: Shadow formation the earth when one moves in between the
other and the earth.
Types of shadow
There are two types of shadow, based on Eclipse occurs when the sun or the moon
the type and source of light producing it. disappears from the earth because of the
They are umbra and penumbra. movements and relative positions of the
earth and the moon.
Umbra An eclipse could be total (umbra) or
This is the type of shadow with total partial (penumbra).
darkness cast by an opaque object between Eclipse occurs because of rectilinear
a point (small) source of light and a screen. propagation of light.
Umbra shadows are sharp, very dark and
well-defined. Types of eclipse
Two kinds of eclipses involve the earth:
 eclipse of the sun, or solar eclipses;
 eclipse of the moon, or lunar eclipses.
587
Solar eclipse or eclipse of the sun The penumbra is formed by tangents that
Solar eclipse occurs when the moon is intersect between the sun and the moon.
between the sun and the earth and its
shadow moves across the face of the
earth.
Fig. 116.6
Annular solar eclipse

An annular eclipse can be observed when
Fig. 116.4: Solar eclipse the moon is in between the earth and the
sun but is far from the earth that the umber
Total solar eclipse does not fall on the earth.
During a total solar eclipse, the moon The sun‘s outer edges are still visible and
completely blocks out the sun for as long form a ring around the moon.
as seven to eight minutes. This type of
eclipse is visible from the area on the earth
within the umbra, the inner part of the
moon's shadow. The umbra is formed by
tangents to the sun and moon, and the outer
portion.
Fig. 116.4
Lunar eclipse or eclipse of the moon

A lunar eclipse occurs when the earth is
between the sun and the moon and its
Fig. 116.5: Solar eclipse seen from the earth shadow darkens the moon.
Partial solar eclipse

Partial solar eclipse can be seen when part
of the Earth is within the penumbra, or the
outer portion of the Moon‘s shadow.
Fig. 116.6: Lunar eclipse
588
Total lunar eclipse occurs when the moon Characteristics of image formed by
passes completely into the umbra of the pinhole camera
earth‘s shadow. 1. The image formed is inverted.
2. It is smaller than the object.
Partial lunar eclipse occurs when only a 3. It is dim or blur.
part of the Moon enters the umbra of the 4. It is real (i.e. can be formed on a
Earth‘s shadow, leaving a portion of the screen).
Moon in total darkness. 5. The image formed is out of focus (i.e.
the smaller the hole, the sharper the
The pinhole camera image.
A pinhole camera is a basic form of camera
with a tiny hole for the aperture, with no
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
lens. Light passes through the hole to form
an inverted image on a screen. The Reflection is the bouncing back of light
construction of the pinhole camera is based rays after hitting a hard, smooth and
on the principle of rectilinear propagation shiny surface.
of light.
Types of reflection
A pinhole camera can be built by making a There are two types of reflection – regular
pinhole (small hole) in a box. Light passes an irregular reflection.
through the hole and forms an inverted,
backwards image of the subject on the back Regular or specular reflection
of the box. Reflection is termed regular when it occurs
on a smooth, shiny surface.
The images produced in regular reflection
are clear with all the reflected rays parallel
to each other.
Fig. 116.7: Pinhole camera
Fig. 116.8: Regular reflection
589
Irregular or diffused reflection

Irregular or diffused reflection is any
reflection on a rough surface. When the
surface is rough, it reflects the rays not as a
parallel set but in various directions.
Most of the light rays are absorbed
resulting in the production of diffused or
unclear image.
Fig. 116.9: Reflection on a plane mirror
Terms to note
 Incidence ray: This is the original ray
from the source of light.
Irregular reflection  Reflected ray: This is the ray produced

Fig. 116.8: when the incident ray strike the surface.
Laws of reflection  Normal: This is an imaginary line in

Regular reflection is governed by the law between the incident ray and the
that both the incident, or striking rays and reflected ray, and perpendicular to the
the reflected rays travel in directions surface.
making equal angles with the normal, a
line perpendicular to the reflecting surface  Angle of incidence: This is the angle
at the point of incidence; and that the rays the incidence ray makes with the
lie in the same plane as the normal. normal. It is represented by the letter i.
These angles are called the angle of
incidence and the angle of reflection.  Angle or reflection: This is the angle
the reflected ray makes with the
The laws of reflection state that: normal. It is represented by the letter r.
1. At the point of incidence, the incident
ray, the reflected ray and the normal all Formation of images
lie in the same plane. Light rays converging from an object onto
2. The angle of incidence (i) is equal to a shiny surface produce an image of the
the angle of reflection (r). [i.e. i = r] object. There are two types of images –
real and virtual images.
590
Real image surface of the mirror. An example of plane

An image is said to be real if it can be mirror is dressing mirror.
formed on a screen. Real images are
formed as a result of actual intersection of Characteristics of image formed by a
light rays. Thus, they have the same plane mirror
direction as the object. Real images can be 1. It is erect or upright.
magnified or diminished. Images produced 2. It is of the same size as the object.
by the pinhole camera and concave 3. It has the same shape as the object.
(converging) mirror are real. 4. It is virtual (meaning that the light rays
do not come from the image)
Virtual image 5. It is laterally inverted. (The right side
Images which cannot be formed on a appears as the left side and vices
screen are referred to as virtual. Such versa).
images are formed by the apparent 6. It appears behind the mirror.
intersection of rays which have backward 7. It has the same distance behind the
direction. They appear to be behind the mirror as the object in front of it.
mirror or screen. Plane mirrors and 8. It is on the same normal to the mirror
diverging (convex) mirrors produce virtual as the object. I.e. a line joining the
images. mirror will cross at right angle.
Types of mirrors
There are three main types of mirrors:
 Plane mirrors – e.g. dressing mirrors
 Concave or converging mirrors – e.g.
shaving mirrors
 Convex or diverging mirrors – e.g.
driving mirrors
Plane mirrors
A plane mirror is simply a flat mirror on
which objects can be reflected with little
change, (except lateral inversion). In a Fig. 117.0: Formation of an image on a plane
plane mirror, a straight line drawn from a mirror
part of the object to the corresponding part
of its image makes a right-angle with the
591
Uses of a plane mirror size and position of the object and the focal
1. Plane mirrors are used in shops and point of the mirror, or the place where light
supermarkets to detect shoplifters. rays converge.
2. They are used in periscopes.
3. Microscopes and cameras use plane
mirrors to reflect light onto an
objective lens.
4. They are used for dressing.
5. Barbers and hairdressers use mirrors to
enable their customers see how they
look.
6. They are used in kaleidoscopes.
7. They are used in meters.
8. They are used as mirror tiles. Fig. 117.1: Formation of image on concave mirror
Differences between image formed by a plane Characteristics of image formed on

mirror and a pinhole camera concave mirror
Plane mirror Pinhole camera 1. It is enlarged (larger than the object).
Virtual Real
Same size as the Diminished 2. It is upright or erect.
object 3. Image formed can be real or virtual.
Upright Upside down 4. Image distance is closer than object
Sharp Dim or blur
Same distance as the Distance between distance.
object image and object may
be different
Uses of converging mirrors
Laterally inverted Not laterally inverted
1. They are used to bring light rays to a
Concave or converging mirrors focus in a solar furnace.
A concave or converging mirror curves 2. They are used as reflectors behind
inward like the inside surface of a hollow torch bulbs and electric fire elements.
sphere. Light striking the surface of a 3. They are used as shaving or make-up
concave mirror reflects inward, or mirrors.
converges. 4. They are used for making reflecting
telescopes.
Image formed by concave mirror
The image formed on a concave mirror can
be either real or virtual, depending on the
592
Convex or diverging mirrors aim the camera when taking a self-

A convex mirror curves outward like the portrait.
outer surface of a ball. Light striking the
surface of a diverging mirror reflects Diverging mirrors distort the distance
outward, or diverges. involved in images; hence, images seen in
a convex rear mirrors of vehicle appear
farther away than they are.
Some terms used in curved mirrors

Principal axis – This is a long straight line
which passes through the poles of a mirror
perpendicular to the mirror.
Principal focus (F) – This is a point on the

Fig. 117.3: Formation of image on convex mirror
principal axis where rays close and parallel
to the principal axis converge.
Characteristics of image formed by Focal length (f) – This is the distance
convex mirror between the mirror and the principal focus.
1. It is erect.
2. It is diminished (smaller than the Centre of curvature – This is the centre of
object). the sphere of which the mirror is part.
3. Image distance is longer than object
distance. Pole – This is the centre of a mirror
4. Image formed is virtual. through which the principal axis passes.
Uses of diverging mirrors

1. Used as a driving mirror
2. Placed at awkward bends in a road
3. Used in shops and supermarkets to
keep an eye on customers.
4. Used in some automated teller
machines (ATM) to enable the user to
see what is going on behind them.
5. Attached to some mobile phone
cameras to allow the user to correctly Fig. 117.4:
593
The mirror formula Alternative method

The formula which gives the relationship 1 1 1
= +
between the focal length, the image 𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
distance and the position of an object for uv = fv + fu
all spherical mirrors is given as: uv – fv = fu
v(u – f) = fu
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑓𝑢
= + v = 𝑢−𝑓
𝒇 𝒖 𝒗
18 x 14 252
v= = -63cm
14−18 −4
Where,
f is the focal length of the mirror, 2. A diverging mirror of focal length 15
u is the distance of the object from the pole cm produces an image on its principal
of the mirror. axis, 10 cm from the mirror. Find the
v is the distance of the image from the pole position of the object.
of the mirror.
Examples Solution
1. A body is placed 14 cm from the pole Using the formula
of a mirror. Determine the distance of 1 1 1
the image from a converging mirror of = +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
focal length 18 cm.
uv = fv + fu
Solution uv – fu = fv
Using the formula u(v – f) = fv
1 1 1 𝑓𝑣
= + u = 𝑣−𝑓
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
Object distance u = 14 v = 10 cm
Focal length f = 18 f = 15 cm
1 1 1 15 x 10 150
= - u= = = 30cm
𝑣 18 14 15−10 5
1 7−9 −2
= = 3. A pedestrian stands 2 m from a convex
𝑣 126 126
𝑣 126 mirror of a bus and appears 4 m away.
= Calculate the focal length of the mirror.
1 −2
v = - 63cm
594
Solution (b) size of the image.

1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣 Solution
𝑢𝑣 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣
f = 𝑣+𝑢 (a) Magnification (m) = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 =𝑢
u=2m u = 10 cm, v = 2 0cm

v=4m 20
m= =2
2x4 8 10
f= = 6 = 1.33m
2+4 (b) The size of the image
𝑕1
m=
Magnification by spherical mirrors 𝑕0
Magnification is the enlargement or h0 = 4, h1 = ?
reduction of the actual size of the image
h1 = m x h0
formed by a mirror.
In spherical mirrors, magnification is h1 = 2 x 4 = 8 cm
referred to as linear, lateral or transverse
magnification. It is represented 2. A ball of diameter 20 cm appear 17 cm
mathematically as: in a concave mirror when placed before
𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 (𝒉𝟏 )
it.
Magnification (m) = (a) What is magnification of the
𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 (𝒉𝟎 )
image?
OR (b) Calculate the focal length of the
𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒗)
Magnification (m) = Mirror.
𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒖)
OR
𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 (𝒗) Solution
Magnification (m) = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣
𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 (𝒖) (a) Magnification (m) = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 =𝑢
Magnification has no unit. u = 20 cm, v = 17 cm

17
m = 20 = 0.85
Examples
1. An object 4 cm in height is placed 10 1 1 1
(b) = +
cm in front of the mirror. The image 𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
formed is 20 cm behind the mirror. 𝑢𝑣 20 x 17 340
f= == = = 9.2cm
Find the 𝑣+𝑢 17+20 37
(a) magnification of the image
595
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
When a light ray travels from one

substance or medium to another of
different optical density, it changes
direction. This change in direction is
termed refraction.
The light gets refracted on entering or
leaving the second medium.
For example,
 when light travels from air into water,
its path is refracted as it enters the Fig. 117.6: Reflection and refraction of light by
water. glass
 If it leaves the water and emerges back
into the air it is refracted again. Types of refraction of light
There are two types of refraction
depending on the order of the densities of
the media.
1. If the second medium is denser than
the first, the light is refracted towards
the normal.
2. If the first medium is denser than the
first medium, the light is refracted
away from the normal.
Fig. 117.4: Refraction of a stick from air to water
Refraction of light is defined as the

change in direction of a light ray as it
moves from one medium to another of
different optical density.
Fig. 117.5
596
Laws of refraction In terms of depth, the refractive index can

Refraction of light is governed by two be calculated by measuring the real depth
laws. The laws of refraction state that: and the apparent depth in the liquid or
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and glass.
the normal at the point of incidence all 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑕
µ=
lie in the same plane. 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑕
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of

incidence in one medium to the sine of
the angle of refraction in another
medium is constant for the two media.
This is known as the Snell’s law.
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
i.e. =µ
sin 𝑟
This constant is referred to as the refractive Fig. 117.7: Refractive index

index of the two media. Therefore,
according to Snell‘s law, for two media A Examples
and B, the refractive index is given as 1. A coin in a bucket of water appears to
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 be 20cm when viewed vertically from
AµB =
sin 𝑟 above. What is the real depth of the
coin if its refractive index of the water
Where i is the angle in medium A and r is is 1.5cm?
the angle in medium B.
Solution
The refractive index is also given as the 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑕
ratio of the speed of light in one medium to =
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝 𝑡𝑕
the speed of light in another medium. The
refractive index from medium A to Real depth =  x apparent depth
medium B is expressed as AµB where = 1.5  20 = 30 cm
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔 𝑕𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐴 2. A ray of light travelling through the air

AµB =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔 𝑕𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐵 strikes a pool of water at an angle of
45o to the normal. If it moves through
the water at an angle of 25o to the
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normal, calculate the refractive index can distinguish minute variations of shape,
of the water. colour, brightness, and distance.
Solution The actual process of seeing is performed

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 by the brain rather than by the eye. The
µ=
sin 𝑟 function of the eye is to translate the
angle of incidence (i) = 45o electromagnetic vibrations of light into
angle of refraction (r) = 25o patterns of nerve impulses that are
transmitted to the brain.
𝑠𝑖𝑛 45𝑜 0.707
µ= =
sin 25𝑜 0.42
Structure and functions of the parts
µ = 1.68 of the eye
The amount of light entering the eye is
3. A ray from a flash light travelling at a controlled by the pupil, which dilates and
velocity of 3.0 x 108ms-1 in the air contracts accordingly. The cornea and lens,
slows down to 1.9 x 108ms-1 when it whose shape is adjusted by the ciliary
passed through glass. Determine the body, focus the light on the retina, where
refractive index of the glass. receptors convert it into nerve signals that
pass to the brain. A mesh of blood vessels,
Solution the choroid, supplies the retina with
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔 𝑕𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 oxygen and sugar.
µ=
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔 𝑕𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 Lacrimal glands secrete tears that wash
velocity of light in air = 3.0 x 108ms-1 foreign bodies out of the eye and keep the
cornea from drying out. Blinking
velocity of light in glass = 1.9 x 108ms-1
compresses and releases the lacrimal sac,
3.0 𝑥 108 creating a suction that pulls excess
µ= = 1.58
1.9 𝑥 108 moisture from the eye‘s surface.
The Ciliary body is the thickened edge of

THE MAMMALIAN EYE
the choroid in the region around the lens. It
The eye is a light-sensitive organ of vision contains blood vessels and muscle fibres.
in animals. The eyes of various species The ciliary body contracts or relaxes to
vary from simple structures that are alter the shape of the lens.
capable only of differentiating between
light and dark to complex organs, such as
those of humans and other mammals that
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The pupil is the dark opening at the centre

of the iris which controls the amount of
light entering the eye.
The Choroid is a layer of tissue lining the

inside of the sclera. It contains a network
of blood vessels which supplies food and
oxygen to the eye. It contains a black
pigment which reduces the reflection of
light within the eye.
The Eye muscles contract to move the eye

from up and down or side to side.
Fig. 117.8: Structure of the mammalian eye
The Conjunctiva is a thin membrane
The Aqueous humour is a fluid in front which lines the inside of the eyelids, the
of the lens which carries nutrients to the front part of the sclera and is continuous
lens and the cornea and helps to maintain with the membrane of the cornea.
the shape of the eye.
The Sclera is a tough, non-elastic, fibrous
The Cornea is the transparent disc in the coat around the eye-ball.
front of the sclera. The cornea allows light
to pass through it to the eye. Its curved The Retina is located at the back of the
surface enables the refraction and eye and contains rods and cones, which are
convergence of light light sensitive cells connected to the brain
by the optic nerve.
The Lens is a flexible, transparent body,
situated behind the iris and focuses light on The Vitreous humour is a jelly-like
the retina. material behind the lens which maintains
the shape of the eyeball.
The Iris consists of an opaque disc of
tissue. In its centre is the pupil. The tissues The Fovea is a small depression in the
contract to regulate the size of the pupil. centre of the retina. It is also known as
This controls the amount of light entering yellow spot and is the most sensitive part of
the eye. the eye because of the concentration of
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sensitive cells there. This enables it to give Focus on near objects

detailed description of colour and form. When the eye focuses on near objects the
ciliary muscle contracts around the lens
The blind spot is where the nerve fibres and decreases it size. The suspensory
leave the eye to enter the optic nerve. It ligaments relax, causing the lens to form a
contains no light sensitive cells therefore more spherical shape.
images which fall on it are not visible.
Image formation and vision

 Light from an external object enters the
eye.
 The curved surface of the cornea, the
lens and the humours refract the light Focus on near and distant objects
and focus on the retina.
 The image thrown onto the retina is Focus on distant objects
real, diminished and upside down. When the eye focuses on distant objects the
 Impulses are sent to the brain through suspensory ligaments pull the edges of the
the optic nerve. lens towards the ciliary body, causing the
 The brain interprets the nature, colour, lens to flatten.
size and distance of the object.
 The inversion of the image on the
retina is corrected in the optical centre
of the brain to form the impression of
an upright object.
Accommodation
Colour vision
Accommodation is the ability of the eye to
The cones and rods are responsible for
focus both near and distant objects.
colour vision in the eye. There are three
types of cones and rods in the retina. They
The eye achieves accommodation as a
are sensitive to red, green and blue light
result of the change in shape of the lens.
respectively.
Accommodation is automatic and
instantaneous, and occurs as soon as the The cones and rods are stimulated by their
own particular wavelength of light so that,
person looks near or distance object.
according to the kind of cell and the
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number which are stimulated, the brain Long sightedness or hypermetropia

receives an impression of colour. Long sightedness is caused by small or
short eyeballs or the inability of the
How the eye controls light intensity muscles of the eye to alter the shape of the
 Intensity in the eye is controlled by the lens to focus light rays accurately. Light
iris and pupil. from a close object would be brought to
 In dim light, the iris dilates (expands), focus behind the retina blurring the image
causing the pupil to expand to allow of the object. People with long sight can
more light into the eye. see distant objects clearly but not near
 In bright light, the iris contracts objects.
(becomes smaller), resulting in the Long sightedness can be corrected by
contraction of the pupil to allow less wearing converging lenses.
light into the eye.
 The contraction of the pupil protect the
retina from damage by light of high
intensity, and in poor light the widened
pupil helps to increase the brightness of
the image.
Fig. 118.0
EYE DEFECTS Short sightedness or myopia

The proper functioning of the eye may be Short sightedness is caused by the eyeball
affected by a number of factors. Depending being too long or large. Light from distant
on the part affected, defects of the eye may objects is focused in front of the retina
be classified as: blurring the image of the object. People
 Long-sightedness (hypermetropia) with short sight can see near objects clearly
 Short-sightedness (myopia) but not distant objects.
 Astigmatism Short sightedness can be corrected by
 Lack of accommodation (presbyopia) wearing diverging lenses.
Fig. 118.1: Short sightedness

Fig. 117.9: Correct vision
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Astigmatism These convex lenses reduce the distances

Astigmatism is a defect in the outer of both near and distant points.
curvature on the surface of the eye that
causes distorted vision. Formation of mirage
In the normal eye, light rays coming from a Mirage is an optical illusion where objects
single point are bent, or refracted, toward appear to be at a place when in actual
each other by the cornea. As the rays pass sense they are not.
through the inner parts of the eye, the lens Mirages appear because differences in air
bends the rays still further, focusing them temperature cause light rays from an object
to a point on the retina. to take different paths to a viewer‘s eye.
In a patient with astigmatism, the cornea or Warm, less dense air near the ground bends
sometimes the lens of the eye is curved light, so when the light reaches the
abnormally. This causes light rays to viewer‘s eye, the ray seems to point into
refract unevenly inside the eye. the ground.
While some light rays focus on the retina, This produces a second image that looks
other light rays focus in front of or behind like a reflection of the object.
the retina, resulting in blurred vision.
Astigmatism may be corrected by wearing
cylindrical lenses to change the focal
length of vertical or horizontal planes.
Presbyopia (lack of accommodation)

Presbyopia occurs with age as the lens of
the eye gradually loses its elasticity. This
reduces the ability of the lens to focus for
near vision. Fig. 118.2: Mirage formation
The first indication of presbyopia usually is
difficulty with reading. Large print appears
LENSES
clearly, but small print is difficult to read
except at arm‘s length. Eventually the
A lens is a glass or other transparent
lenses of the eyes have little or no focusing
substances so shaped that it will refract
ability.
the light from any object and form a real
Simple reading eyeglasses with convex
or virtual image of the object.
lenses correct most cases of presbyopia.
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Diverging or concave lenses

A diverging lens is curved inward, with a
thin centre and thicker edges. Light passing
through a diverging lens bends outward, or
diverges.
Diverging lenses produce only virtual
images; that is, light rays do not actually
come from the virtual image, but the brain
perceives the diverging rays as though they
do.
Fig. 118.3: Parts of a lens
Types of lenses
Lenses come in two forms:
 Converging or convex lenses
 Diverging or concave lenses
Converging or convex lenses

A convex lens curves outward; it has a
thick centre and thinner edges. Light Fig. 118.5: Diverging lens
passing through a convex lens is bent
inward, or made to converge. This usually Uses of lenses
causes a real image of the object to form on 1. Lenses are used in contact lenses and
the opposite side of the lens. eyeglasses to correct visual defects.
The size of the image and the place where 2. Lenses are used in cameras
it is in focus depends upon the size and 3. They are used in microscopes to
position of the object and the focal point magnify specimen.
(F) of the lens (the place where light rays 4. They are used in telescopes to make
converge). distance object clearer.
5. They are used in magnifying glasses to
make objects look bigger.
Fig. 118.4: Converging lens
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DISPERSION OF LIGHT
Dispersion of light is the separation of

white light or other electromagnetic waves
into different wavelength.
OR
Dispersion is the separation of visible
light into its component colours.
Dispersion occurs as a result of the Fig. 118.7: Dispersion of white light

refraction of light when it travels from one
optical medium to another. Other electromagnetic radiations displayed
after dispersion of light are ultraviolet
White light is dispersed when it passes radiation, X-rays and gamma rays, which
through media such as a triangular prism, are above the violet colour, and infrared
water or cloud. radiation, microwave and radio wave,
which are below the red colour.
These colours are displayed because they
have different wavelength and speed in
other materials other than a vacuum.
Formation of rainbow
Sunlight is a white light made up of many
colours. When a ray of sunlight enters a
raindrop, the light refracts, or bends.
Different colours bend slightly different
amounts, so the colours spread out.
Much of the light reflects from the back of
Fig. 118.6: A glass prism the raindrop, and then refracts again as it
exits the raindrop.
Dispersion of white light Red light refracts the least; violet light
When white light is dispersed, its shows a refracts the most. The other colours would
spectrum of seven visible colours, namely, fan out between red and violet to form the
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and familiar rainbow.
violet (ROYGBIV).
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Table 9.2
PRIMARY COLOURS OF LIGHT Primary colours Secondary colours
Cones, which are the light-sensitive cells in Red + Blue Magenta (purple)
Red + Green Yellow
the eye are in three types – seeing three
Green + Blue Cyan (blue-green)
types of colours – red, green and yellow
(RGB). These colours are known as
Complementary colours
primary colours. They cannot be formed by
When certain primary colours are mixed
mixing any other colour. They occur
with secondary colours, they produce white
naturally.
light. These colours are known as
The three primary colours combined will
complementary colours.
produce a white light.
Examples are.
Two primary colours combined will
Red + Cyan = White light
produce a secondary colour.
Green + Magenta = White light
Blue + yellow = White light
Behaviour of objects under different

coloured light
When white light falls on a white object all
the wavelengths are reflected back, hence,
we see white.
On the other hand, when white light falls
on a coloured object, for example, blue the
object absorbs all the colours except blue,
which it reflects, hence, we see blue
Fig. 118.8: Primary and secondary colours
colour.
If the blue object is viewed in red light it
Secondary colours will appear black. This is because the blue
These are colours produced when two object will absorb the red light and not
primary colours are combined. The three reflect any light.
secondary colours obtained when each of
the primary colours is mixed with the other ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
are yellow, cyan and magenta.
Table 9.2 below shows the mixture of An electromagnetic wave is an
primary colours to obtain secondary energy waves produced by the oscillation
colours. or acceleration of an electric charge.
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Electromagnetic waves have both electric Application of electromagnetic

and magnetic components. They travel in a radiation
vacuum at a speed of 3 x 108 ms-1.
X-rays
An X-ray is a penetrating electromagnetic
The electromagnetic spectrum consists of
radiation, having a shorter wavelength than
a group of electromagnetic waves
light, and produced by bombarding a
arranged according to their frequencies
target, usually made of tungsten, with high-
and wavelengths.
speed electrons.
On the spectrum, waves extend extremely There are two types of X-rays –
high frequency and short wavelength to  soft X-rays have long wavelengths with
less penetrating power.
extremely low frequency and long
wavelength. White light, which is the only  hard X-rays have short wavelengths
component visible to the human eye, is with high penetrating power.
only a small part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Uses of X-rays
In order of decreasing frequency, the 1. X-rays are used to detect fractured
electromagnetic spectrum consists of boned in the human body.
gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, 2. They are used to destroy cancer cells in
visible light, infrared radiation, the body.
microwaves, and radio waves. 3. They are used to destroy tumours in the
body.
4. X-ray photographs can detect
swallowed metal
5. X-rays are used to detect cracks in
metals and welded joints
6. They are used to study crystal
structures of atoms in a substance.
7. X-rays are used to diagnose diseases
Fig. 118.9: The electromagnetic spectrum
Dangers or harmful effects of x-rays
In the above uses, X-rays are used in
controlled amounts. Over-exposure to x-
rays is very dangerous as it poses many
health hazards, which include:
a) X-rays can cause skin burns.
606
b) They can cause cancer. Gamma rays

c) They can damage cells and tissues in Gamma rays have the shortest wavelength,
the body. greatest energy, and most penetrating
d) They affect genetic functions in power of any form of electromagnetic
humans. radiation.
e) They cause leukaemia (blood cancer). Like most other forms of electromagnetic
f) They cause mutations of living cells. rays, gamma rays have no mass or charge,
g) X-rays cause miscarriage in pregnant carry discrete amounts (quanta) of energy,
women. and can behave like either waves or
h) They can ionise the fluid in humans particles.
which can interfere with the chemical Gamma rays are emitted in normal
activities in the body. radioactive decay, in nuclear explosions, in
matter-antimatter annihilation, in nuclear
Radio waves fusion in the cores of stars, and in high-
Radio waves have two related properties energy astronomical events such as
known as frequency and wavelength. exploding stars called supernovas, or
Frequency refers to the number of times mergers of neutron stars and black holes.
per second that a wave oscillates, or varies
in strength. Low-frequency radio waves Uses of gamma rays
have long wavelengths, whereas high- 1. Gamma rays are used in nuclear
frequency radio waves have short medicine for diagnoses purposes.
wavelengths. 2. They are used to detect cracks in
metals.
Uses of radio waves 3. They are used to sterilize medical
1. Radio waves are used in television, FM equipments.
and AM broadcast. 4. They are used in food storage to kill
2. They are used in wireless bacteria.
communication e.g. mobile phones 5. They are used to treat some forms of
3. They are used by air-traffic controllers cancer.
to communicate with pilot. 6. They are used in radiation therapy and
4. They are used in radars to detect other CT scans.
signals.
5. They are used in robotics. Dangers of gamma rays
a) They can cause cancer.
607
b) They can interfere with the genetic Infrared (IR) radiation

make-up of an organism. Infrared radiation is an electromagnetic
c) They can cause skin burns. wave in the portion of the spectrum just
d) They can destroy cells and tissues in beyond visible light. The wavelengths of
the body. infrared radiation are shorter than those of
radio waves and longer than those of light
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation waves. Infrared radiation may be detected
Ultraviolet radiation is often divided into as heat, and instruments such as a
three categories based on wavelength, UV- bolometer are used to detect it.
A, UV-B, and UV-C. Natural ultraviolet
radiation is produced principally by the Uses of infrared radiation
sun. Ultraviolet radiation is produced 1. It provides vitamin D to humans.
artificially by electric-arc lamps. In general 2. It provides medium for the radiation of
shorter wavelengths of ultraviolet radiation heat energy.
are more dangerous to living organisms. 3. It provides warmth to living organisms
4. Infrared devices enable sharpshooters
Uses of ultraviolet radiation to see their targets in total visual
1. Ultraviolet lamps are used to sterilize darkness.
medical and laboratory equipments. 5. It is used in thermal imaging to
2. They are use to detect fake money note, remotely determine position of objects.
and documents. This is mostly used in industrial and
3. They are used to control pests. military operations.
4. Ultraviolet radiation is used in skin 6. It is used to track launched missiles.
tanning
5. It is used in food processing. Dangers of Infrared radiation
6. UV is used to brighten dyes and paints. a) Over-exposure can damage the eye.
b) It may lead to skin burns.
Dangers of ultraviolet radiation c) It can cause skin irritations.
a) Over-exposure can cause sunburns d) It can cause low blood pressure in
b) High intensity UV light can cause elderly patients.
defect in the eye. e) It can cause dehydration.
c) Ultraviolet radiation can damage
polymers, pigments and dyes. Microwave
Microwaves are short, high-frequency
radio waves lying between infrared waves
and conventional radio waves Microwaves
608
thus range in length from about 1 mm to 30 The frequencies of these waves are very
cm. They are generated in special electron high, about 5  1014 to 7.5  1014 Hz and
tubes or by special oscillators or solid-state wavelengths ranging from 400 to 700 nm.
devices.
Importance of visible light
Uses of microwaves 1. It enables humans and animals to see.
1. Microwaves are used in radio and 2. It helps humans to differentiate colours.
television broadcasting. 3. It helps human to judge distances.
2. They are used in radars for 4. Plants use visible light for
communication photosynthesis.
3. They are used to detection and measure 5. Lack of visible light (sunlight) can
distance of objects. cause depression and brain damage.
4. They are used in meteorology to
forecast the weather. Dangers of visible light
5. They are used in satellite a) Over exposure can cause eye defects.
communications. b) It can damage pigments and dyes
6. They are used in research into the (photodegradation).
properties of matter. c) It can cause breakdown of some
7. Microwave ovens are used to cook and plastics and polymers.
heat food.
Dangers of microwaves TEST QUESTIONS

Exposure to microwaves is dangerous 3. (a) Differentiate between natural and
mainly when high densities of microwave artificial sources of light.
radiation are involved. (b) Name two examples each of natural
a) They can cause burns to the skin
and artificial sources of light.
b) They can cause cataracts (an eye
defect) 2. Explain the following terms:
c) Microwaves can damage the nervous (a) transparent objects:
system. (b) opaque objects;
d) They can cause sterility in organisms. (c) translucent objects.
Visible light 3. (a) Mention three characteristics of

The visible light refers to the range of light.
frequencies that can be seen by humans. (b) Describe an experiment to show
609
that light travels in a straight path. 10. (a) Mention one example of the
following types of mirror:
4. (a) What is a shadow? (i) plane mirror;
(b) Distinguish between umbra and (ii) concave mirror;
penumbra. (iii) convex mirror.
5. (a) Define the term eclipse. 11. (a) List four uses of plane mirror.
(b) Briefly explain: (b) Mention four characteristics of
(i) solar eclipse; plain mirror.
(ii) lunar eclipse. 12. (a) Describe the nature of images
formed by concave and convex
6. Describe how a pinhole camera works. mirrors.
7. (a) Define the term reflection of light. (b) Mention three uses of each of
(b) Explain the following types of concave and convex mirrors.
reflection: 13. Explain the following terms:
(i) regular reflection; (a) principal axis;
(ii) diffused reflection. (b) principal focus;
(c) focal length;
3. A girl applies make-up100cm in front (d) centre of curvature.
of a spherical mirror and notices her
reflection 80cm in the mirror. 14. (a) A man stands 50cm from a plane
(a) What is magnification of the mirror. What is the distance of his
image? image if the focal point is 85cm?
(b) Calculate the focal length of the (b) An object of height 2.5cm is placed
mirror 20cm from of a converging mirror
8. (a) State the laws of reflection. of focal length 10cm. find the
(b) Draw a ray diagram of light height of the image formed.
incident at an angle of 45o with the
normal on the surface of a plane 15. (a) What is refraction of light?
mirror. (b) State the laws of refraction.
9. Explain: 16. Describe how the eye:

(a) real image; (a) forms an image;
(b) virtual image. (b) controls light intensity.
610
17. Explain the following defects of the 23. In an experiment to determine focal
eye. length , f of a converging lens, the
(a) hypermetropia; image distance d = d1, d2, d3, d4 and d5
(b) myopia; and the corresponding magnifications
(d) astigmatism. m = m1, m2, m3, m4 and m5 were
determined.
18. Describe the formation of mirage.
In the figure below, I shows the iamge
19. (a) What is a lens? distances d = d1, d2, d3, d4 and d5
(b) Describe the following lenses: while II shows the corresponding
(i) converging lens; magnifications m = m1, m2, m3, m4 and
(ii) diverging lens. m5 produced.
20. (a) Explain the term dispersal of light.

(b) Briefly describe the formation of
rainbow.
21. (a) Distinguish between primary

colours and secondary colours.
(b) indicate the primary colours which
form the following secondary
colours:
(i) magenta;
(ii) cyan;
(iii) yellow.
22. (a) Define the term electromagnetic

spectrum.
(b) State three uses of the following
electromagnetic radiations:
(i) X ray;
(ii) gamma ray;
(iii) radio waves;
(iv) microwave;
(v) visible light.
611
a) Measure and record the image

distances d = d1, d2, d3, d4 and d5.
b) Measure and record the
corresponding magnifications m =
m1, m2, m3, m4 and m5.
c) Convert the raw value obtained in (a)
and (b) above into actual values.
Present the result in a tabular form.
d) Plot a graph with d as the vertical
axis and m as the horizontal axis.
e) Determine the slope of the graph and
the intercept on the d-axis.
f) What do the slope and the d-intercept
represent?
612
51
HEAT ENERGY
Specific Objectives NATURE AND SOURCES OF

After completing this chapter, you will be able to: HEAT
 Describe the modes of heat transfer.
 Explain the concept of temperature and how it is Nature of heat
measured. Heat is the transfer of energy from one
 Discuss the effects of heat.
 Explain how heat causes change of state of part of a substance to another or from one
matter. body to another.
Heat is energy in transit; it always flows

from a substance at a higher temperature to
a substance at a lower temperature, raising
the temperature of the latter and lowering
INTRODUCTION that of the former substance until they
reach thermal equilibrium (the same
Heat is one of the most important and
temperature) provided the volume of the
commonest forms of energy on earth. It is
bodies remains constant.
generated by most activities usually as a
Since heat is energy, it is measured in joule
result of friction.
(J).
Heat energy is usually the final energy in
most energy conversions, and can itself be
Sources of heat
converted to other forms of energy such as
1. The sun
electricity and light.
2. Nuclear reaction
Almost all chemical changes take effect
3. Electricity
because of heat energy. Living organisms
4. Friction
rely on heat to keep them warm. Humans
5. Chemical reaction
depend on it for most of their day-to-day
6. Fossil fuel
activities.
7. Fire
613
51 Heat Energy Samking
Conduction
Heat conduction is the transfer of heat
energy from one region of a solid to
another or from one solid to another.
Heat transfer in metals is stronger and

faster than through non—metals. This is
because metals have free moving electrons
which can readily transfer heat from one
area of the metal to another. Thus metals
Fig. 119.0: Heat from fire
are good conductors of heat.
Uses of heat energy

On the other hand, non-metals are bad
1. Provision of warmth to humans and
conductors of heat, and are referred to as
animals.
insulator (e.g. plastic, wood, glass etc.).
2. Cooking and heating of food.
3. Burning of fuels in automobile and
It is conduction that makes the handle of a
aeroplane engines.
metal spoon hot when we use it to stir hot
4. Extracting metals from their ores.
soup. It is actually conduction that makes
5. Cutting, shaping and softening of
the pan containing the soup hot as heat
metals and other materials.
from the fire is easily transferred to it.
6. Drying substances such as food,
clothes, etc.
Experiment to show the Transfer of Heat
Energy by Conduction
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER  Light the Bunsen burner.
 Place a lump of Vaseline and a drawing
Heat can be transferred by three processes:
pin on an aluminium stick.
 Conduction,
 Place the stick about 3 inches above
 Convection,
the flame and start the stopwatch.
 Radiation.
 After a few seconds, the drawing pin
These different methods are used to will fall off.
transmit heat in different states of matter.  This is because the iron rod has heated
up by conduction and melted off the
Vaseline.
614
Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat through
the exchange of hot and cold molecules.
Conduction happens only in fluids (i.e.

liquids and gases); hence can be defined as
the transfer of heat in fluids.
Rate of conduction
The rate of conduction depends on:
How conduction occurs
1. The nature of solid
It is through convection that water in a
2. The temperature gradient or difference
kettle becomes uniformly hot even though
in temperature between two points in
only the bottom of the kettle contacts the
the solid
flame.
3. The cross-sectional area of the solid
This occurs because the molecules in the
water gain kinetic energy and move about
Reason why cooking utensils have
more quickly, causing the water to expand
wooden or plastic handles
and decrease in density. The less dense
Wood and plastic are insulators, which are
water rises up from the bottom of the kettle
bad conductors of heat. This prevents the
and is replaced by cool, denser water from
conduction of heat from the cooking
the top. This cycle continues until there is
utensils into them. Therefore, the utensils
thermal equilibrium.
can be lifted up by their handles without
The movement of hot fluid to replace cold
getting the hand burnt.
one is called convection current.
An experiment to demonstrate
convection current in fluid
 Fill a beaker or flask with water.
 Place a crystal of potassium
permanganate, KMnO4 (purple colour)
at a corner of the bottom of the
beaker.
 Gently apply heat to the beaker at
where the crystal of potassium
permanganate is located.
Fig. 119.1
615
Observation
 It would be observed that an upward
movement of purple-coloured water
from the region of the crystal to the
top.
 When the coloured stream reaches the
top it spreads out and after a while
circulates down the sides of the
beaker.
Conclusion
 Heat is carried from one place to Fig. 119.2: heat transfer around a source pan
another in the water by the movement
of the water itself shown by the The vacuum flask
movement of the colour. This is due to The vacuum flask, also known as the
convection. thermos flask, is an insulating storage
vessel which is used to maintain the
temperature of a substance.
Structure of the vacuum flask

 It is made up of two glass-walled
bottles, one placed in the other and
joined together at the neck.
 The gap between the bottles is partially
evacuated to create a near vacuum
Fig. 119.2
which prevents heat transfer by
conduction or convection.
Radiation  The silvery surfaces of the glass walled
Radiation is the transfer of heat through bottles prevent heat transfer by thermal
electromagnetic radiation. radiation.
 The insulating cork, which covers the
Radiation does not need a medium for its opening, prevents heat transfer by
transmission; hence, occurs in a vacuum. conduction.
The sun‘s energy gets to the earth through
radiation. Radiant energy is emitted in the
form of waves or rays, since it is
electromagnetic.
616
Temperature tells the amount of heat or

thermal energy in a body. It is a vector
quantity and is measured in Kelvin, K or
degree Celsius.
Table 9.3: Differences between heat and

temperature
Heat Temperature
Measured in joules, J Measured in Kelvin, K
Can be transmitted Cannot be transmitted
from one body to from one body to
another another
Is a form of energy Is not a form of energy
Fig. 119.3: A vacuum flask Measured with Measured with
calorimeter thermometer
Does not depend of Depends on external
Uses of vacuum flasks
external body body
1. Vacuum flasks are used domestically to Amount of kinetic Measure of the
keep food warm. energy in a body amount of kinetic
2. In laboratories, they are used to store energy in a body
liquids which become gaseous below
ambient temperature, such as oxygen Temperature scales
and nitrogen. There are a couple of temperature scales
3. They are used in industries, especially available, which makes determining
food industries to maintain the temperature of bodies easier.
temperature of products. Some temperature scales available include
4. They are used to store standard cells the Celsius scale, the Kelvin scale, the
and ovenized Zener diodes as well as Fahrenheit scale and the Rankine scale.
their printed circuit boards. The Celsius and the Kelvin scales are the
5. They are used to store certain types of commonest scales used in Ghana.
rocket fuels.
Celsius Scale or Centigrade Scale
On this scale, the unit of temperature is
TEMPERATURE
degree Celsius (oC). The lower fixed point
Temperature is a measure of how hot or is represented by 0 oC and the upper fixed
cold a substance is. point by 100 oC.
617
The lower fixed point refers to the This can be expressed as:
temperature at which freezing of water C = K – 273
takes place at standard atmospheric
pressure. It is also known as the ice point Examples
Convert the following to temperatures to
o
The upper fixed point refers to the C:
temperature of water at which its i. 373K
vaporization takes place at standard ii. 500K
atmospheric pressure. It is also known as iii. 25K
the steam point.
Solution
Kelvin scale C = K – 273
The Kelvin scale is also known as the
thermodynamic scale. The temperature on i. C = 373 – 273
this scale is measured in Kelvin (K). The = 100oC
lowest temperature of a body is represented
as 0 K, (equivalent to -273.15 oC) which is ii. C = 500 – 273
called the absolute zero temperature. Also, = 227oC
the lower fixed point is represented as
273.15 K and upper fixed point 373.15 K. iii. C = 25 – 273
= -248oC
Conversion from degree Celsius to

Kelvin
Inversely, to convert from degree Celsius
to Kelvin, add 273 to the given value. This
can be expressed as:
K = C + 273
Example
Convert the following temperatures to
Conversions between the Celsius and
Kelvin:
the Kelvin scales
i. 100 oC
To convert temperature in Kelvin to
ii. 0oC
Celsius, subtract the absolute zero
iii. 12oC
temperature, -273, from the figure given.
618
Solution
K = C + 273
i. K = 100 + 273
= 373 K
ii. K = 0 + 273
= 273 K
iii. K = 12 + 273
= 285 K
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
- THERMOMETERS
Thermometric liquids
A thermometer is an instrument use to These are liquids that increase or decrease
measure the temperature of a body. The in depth with temperature change. Mercury
various types of thermometer include: and alcohol are usually preferred as
thermometric liquid because of the
 Liquid-in-glass thermometer following reasons.
 Bimetallic thermometer
 Gas thermometer Reasons why mercury is preferred to
 Pyrometer alcohol in liquid-in-glass thermometer
 Resistance thermometer 1. Mercury has low specific heat and
 Thermocouple hence absorbs little heat from body.
2. Mercury is comparatively a good
Liquid-in-glass Thermometer conductor of heat.
This type of thermometer consists of a 3. Mercury can be seen in a fine capillary
narrow, sealed glass tube filled with liquid tube conveniently, alcohol is
such as mercury or alcohol at the lower colourless.
end. As the temperature rises, the liquid 4. Mercury does not wet the wall of the
expands and rises in the tube. A drop in tube.
temperature causes the liquid to contract so 5. Mercury has a uniform coefficient of
that its level in the tube falls. expansion over a wide range of
temperature and remains liquid over a
large range as its freezing and boiling
619
points are –39 ºC and 357 °C 2. Its boiling and freezing temperature
respectively. range is very small.
3. It is not easily visible.
Disadvantages of mercury as a 4. It vaporizes easily.
thermometric liquid 5. It wets glass (Clings to the glass tube
a) Mercury cannot be used to measure when falling).
low temperature. This is because it
freezes at -39 oC. Reason why it is not advisable to
b) It cannot be used in cold or temperate sterilize alcohol thermometer in
regions. boiling water
c) It is poisonous, hence harmful if the Alcohol expands at 78 oC, while boiling
bulb breaks water has a temperature of 100 oC.
d) It is relatively expensive Therefore, if an alcohol thermometer is
sterilized in boiling water, the alcohol will
Advantages of alcohol as a over expand and cause the capillary tube to
thermometric liquid break.
1. Alcohol can be used to measure
extremely low temperatures. (It freezes Clinical thermometer
at -122 oC). The clinical thermometer is a type of
2. It can be used in cold regions. liquid-in-glass thermometer (with mercury
3. It has a very high expansion rate. as the thermometric liquid). It is specially
4. It is very cheap. designed to measure human temperature. It
5. It is not poisonous. is so named because it is mostly used in
clinics, hospital and other health centres or
Disadvantages of alcohol as a homes to determine the temperature of
thermometric liquid patients.
a) It is not easily visible
b) It is a poor conductor of heat and Structure of the clinical thermometer
responds slowly. The clinical thermometer has a constriction
c) It boils at 78 oC and cannot be used to or kink which stops the mercury from
measure high temperatures. falling back into the bulb when removed
Reason why water is not a good from the body. This enables the reading of
thermometric liquid high body temperatures with ease.
1. The expansion of water is not uniform.
620
Range if the clinical thermometer is sterilized in

It has a graduation range from 35 oC to 43 boiling water, the mercury in the capillary
o
C. This range is centred on the normal tube will over-expand and cause the tube to
body temperature of 36.9 oC. The short break.
range enables the scale to be divided into
smaller intervals (0.1 oC) for greater g = acceleration due to gravity
THERMAL EXPANSION
accuracy.
Objects generally expand when heated;
whether, solid, liquid or gas. This is due to
the fact that when heated, the molecules in
the objects gain kinetic energy which
causes them to move about more strongly,
bumping into each other and the walls of
the object. This constant bumping causes
the objects to become larger.
When cooled, they contract (become
smaller). This is because the molecules
Clinical thermometer lose kinetic energy and attract each other.
Using the clinical thermometer Experiment to demonstrate that heat

The thermometer is placed under the causes expansion
armpit or tongue of the patient. The (The ball and ring method)
mercury level rises in correspondence to  Pass a metal ball through a metal ring.
the patient‘s body temperature, (remember, The diameter of the ball should be
the normal human body temperature is 36.9
o slightly smaller than that of the inside
C). After reading the temperature, the
of the ring.
mercury can be returned to the bulb by
 Heat the ball over a heat source for a
vigorously shaking the thermometer
few minutes.
towards the bulb.
 Try passing it through the ring again.
Reason why the clinical thermometer
should not be sterilized in boiling Observation
water  It would be observed that the metal
The clinical thermometer has a maximum ball will not be able to enter the ring
temperature range of 43 oC, whiles boiling after heating.
water has a temperature of 100 oC. Hence,
621
Conclusion Therefore, to prevent or reduce the effects

 This shows that upon heating, the of heat some measures have been observed
metal ball has expanded or increased to reduce the damages they cause.
in size.
Overhead cables
Overhead cables are in pairs or more; and
are not suppose to touch each other. They
are, hence, laid with enough spacing in
between them.
Another issue that is taken into
consideration is the effect of thermal
expansion which causes the cables to sag
Fig. 119.9: A ball and ring and drop down during the hot day. The
cables are normally lay very high so that
Experiment to investigate expansion in when they drop they will not pose danger
liquid due to heat to passers-by. They are also allowed to
drop slightly to compensate for
 Fill a test tube half way with water and
contraction.
mark the level of the water on the test
tube.
Building construction
 Heat the test tube gently over a heat
Some buildings have holes in the walls
source. which serve as expansion gaps to control
expansion. Terrazzo works have soft
Observation materials such as plastic in between the
It would be observed that the level of the slabs; and tiles are bevelled to prevent
water in the test tube rise pass the mark. them from cracking when they expand or
contract.
Conclusion
This show that the heat has caused the Glass tumblers and bottles
molecules to be vibrant, and that has in Glass tumblers with thick walls are not
turn caused the level of the water to rise. used to store hot liquid. This is because
when a hot liquid is poured into them, the
Practical application of expansion inner walls heat faster than the outer ones.
Uneven expansion and contraction of This causes uneven expansion in the walls
matter could be problematic to structures. resulting in the cracking of the tumblers.
622
It is, therefore, ideal to store hot liquids in

thin bottles which have even expansion and
will not break.
Grooves in roofing sheets

On hot afternoons cracking sounds are
normally head from metal roofing sheets.
These are a result of the expansion of the
roofing sheets.
Fig. 120.1: Undulated railway lines
To control the effects of expansion, roofing
sheets are built with grooves and also
Bimetallic strip
allowed to overlap so that when they
A bimetallic strip is made up of two
expand or contract, they would not deform.
different metals of the same length, riveted
together. These two metals have different
expansion rates. For example, if iron and
brass are used; for a given temperature, the
brass will react more than the iron.
So if the strip is heated the brass will
Fig. 120.0: A corrugated roofing sheet
expand more which will cause the strip to
bend toward the iron because it would be
Bursting of inflated hot lorry tyres shorter.
When an automobile moves, only a part of
the tyre touches the road at a time. This At normal atmospheric temperature, the
mean when the road is heated up by the strip retains its straight shape. When the
sun, only a part of the tyre gets heated up temperature drops the brass contracts more,
by the road through conduction. This hence, becomes shorter; causing the strip to
causes that part of the tyre to expand more bend towards it.
than the other parts, resulting in uneven
expansion and the bursting of the tyre.
Gaps in railway lines

Railway lines are lay with gaps in between
the ends of each line. This is to prevent the
lines from bulging up or undulating when
Fig. 120.2: Bimetallic strip
they expands, which could derail a train.
623
Bimetallic thermostats As the thermostat heats up, the gas expands

A thermostat is a device used to control or applying pressure to the diaphragm which
regulate temperature in electrical and reduces the flow of gas to the burner.
mechanical devices.
Examples of devices which use thermostats

are refrigerators freezers, electric ovens gas
cookers, pressing irons, electric cookers,
blenders and stoves, electric and automatic
flashers etc.
How the Bimetallic Thermostat works

A bimetal thermostat uses a special strip of Fig. 120.3: A thermostat
metal to open and close a circuit as
temperature fluctuates. Two metals with CHANGE OF STATE OF MATTER
different expansion rates are bonded to
make the strip. As we have discussed earlier under matter
The thermostat is arranged so that when the in chapter 4, matter exists in three states –
metals are hot, the strip bends upward solid, liquid and gas.
(toward the metal with the lower expansion All matter are made up of molecules and a
rate) and disconnects the circuit. change in the molecular structure of the
matter, caused by change in temperature,
could cause that matter to change from its
state to another state.
One particular matter which can exist in all

three states is water, which can exist as ice
(solid), water (liquid) and vapour (gas).
Gas oven and cooker thermostats
Thermostats are sometimes used to When ice is heated, the molecules gain
regulate gas ovens. It consists of a gas- more kinetic energy and begin to break off
filled bulb connected to the control unit by each other. This causes the ice to melt into
a slender copper tube. The bulb is normally water. When the water is heated further,
located at the top of the oven. The tube the molecules become more energetic
ends in a chamber sealed by a diaphragm. because of more kinetic energy induced.
624
This causes them to break even further and Characteristics of Physical Change
move faster, resulting in vapour. 1. It is a change which no new substances
are formed.
When the vapour is cooled, the molecules 2. Chemical properties of the substances
loose kinetic energy. This causes the gas to do not change
condense into water again. Further cooling 3. It is easily reversible.
decreases the kinetic energy further and 4. It is not accompanied by great amount
solidifies the water into ice. This shows energy change.
that the change of state of water is
reversible. Examples of physical changes
a) Freezing water to ice
Physical and chemical changes b) Boiling water to vapour
Matter undergoes changes in c) Melting ice to water
characteristics. That is one object in one d) Melting of candle
state of mater can change and have the e) Melting or metal
properties of another state. f) Esterification
Characteristics of Chemical Change

1. New substances are formed.
2. Chemical properties of the objects are
changed
3. It is not easily reversible.
4. It results in change of temperature.
Examples of chemical change

a) Rusting of iron
b) Burning of wood
Fig. 120.4: Change of state of matter c) Cooking of food
d) Decomposition (when a molecule
There are two types of change of state of breaks down into two or more
matter. They are: substances)
i. Physical change e) Neutralisation (reaction of acid and
ii. Chemical change base).
625
(by heating). The liquid molecules move

TERMS TO NOTE around each other more quickly when
heated. Some of the molecules near the
Sublimation surface of the liquid gain enough energy to
It is the process of changing directly from escape from the liquid into the air or space.
the solid state into the gaseous state, The temperature at which a liquid
without the substance passing through the evaporates is its boiling point.
liquid state.
Examples of substances that sublime are: Boiling is the process whereby a liquid
 Camphor (Naphthalene balls) turns into vapour at a given or fixed
 Solid iodine temperature. The fixed temperature is
 Ammonium chloride called the boiling point.
 Ice
 Solid carbon dioxide Table: Differences between evaporation and
boiling
When a gas changes into solid without Evaporation Boiling
being liquid first, it is called deposition or Occurs only at the Occurs throughout the
surface of the liquid liquid
reverse sublimation. Occurs at all Occurs only at the
temperatures boiling point
Melting Does not involve huge Involves huge amount
amount of heat of heat energy
Melting is the process of changing from the energy
solid state to the liquid state (by heating). Temperature is Temperature is
The molecules gain energy when heated, inconsistent consistent
An extensive property An intensive property
and they vibrate more and more quickly.
They break from each other and move Condensation
around. When this happens the solid melts Condensation is the process of changing
to form a liquid. from the gaseous state into the liquid state
The temperature at which a solid melts is (by cooling). When the gas is cooled the
its melting point. temperature drops slowly, the molecules
Examples of substances that melt are ice, lose energy to bounce off each other as
plastic, wax/candle, metal, etc. they collide.
Freezing / solidification
Evaporation / vaporization Freezing is the process of changing from
Evaporation is the process of changing the liquid state into the solid state (by
from the liquid state into the gaseous state
626
cooling). Reducing the temperature cools 2. What is the amount of energy required
the liquid. This causes the molecules to to change the temperature of a water
slow down. The particles vibrate and stick from the melting point to the boiling
together as they come together. The point if the heat capacity of water is
temperature at which liquids freeze is their 4.18 J oC-1
freezing points.
Solution
𝑄
HEAT CAPACITY C=𝜃
C = 4.18 J oC-1
The heat capacity of a substance is the
amount of heat energy required to change Boiling point of water = 100oC
its temperature by one degree Celsius (1 Melting point of water = 0oC
oC) or 1 Kelvin.
 = 100 – 0 = 100oC
𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑸
Heat capacity C = 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆  Q = C  
Or Q = 4.18  100 = 418J

𝑸
C=𝜽
Specific heat capacity (c)
o -1 -1
The unit of heat capacity is J C or J K . This is the amount of heat required to
change the temperature of one unit mass
Examples of a substance by one degree.
1. 3500J of heat energy applied on a piece
of metal changes it temperature from 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝑪) 𝑪
c= OR c =
26oC to 180oC. Calculate the heat 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝒎) 𝒎
𝑄
capacity of the metal. but C=
𝜃
𝑸
Solution hence c = 𝒎𝜽
𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑄
Heat capacity C = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒  The unit of specific heat capacity is joule
Q = 3500J per kilogram per degree Celsius or Kelvin.
(J kg-1 oC-1 or Jkg-1 K-1)
 = 180 – 26 = 154oC
3500 For instance, specific heat of water is 4200
C = = 22.7 J oC-1
154
J kg-1K-1. This means that it takes 4200 J to
627
raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by Examples

1 K. 1. Explain the statement; the specific heat
capacity of water is 4200 J kg-1K-1.
Differences between heat capacity and specific
heat capacity
2. Water of mass 400.0 g at 30.0oC is
Heat capacity Specific heat
capacity mixed with 200.0g of water at 80.0oC.
Amount of heat Amount of heat Neglecting heat losses, calculate the
energy needed to needed to change the temperature of the mixture. [specific
change temperature temperature of one
of a body by 1K unit of mass of a heat capacity of water = 4200Jkg-1K-1]
substance by 1K
-1 -1 -1
Measured in JK Measured in Jkg K Solution
An extensive variable An intensive variable
According to the law of heat transfer,
Calorimetery Heat loss = heat gained
Calorimetery is the measure of the m1c1 ( - Δ1) = m2 c2 ( - Δ2)
amount of heat energy in a body or
system. m1 = 400g = 0.4 kg
1 = 30oC
A calorimeter is an instrument for m2 = 200g = 02kg
measuring the amount of heat released or
absorbed in physical and chemical 2 = 80oC
processes. c = 4200Jkg-1K-1
0.4 x 4200 (30 - ) = 0.2 x 4200 (80 - )
Consider two bodies at different
temperatures, insulated from all other 1680( - 30) = 840( - 80)
bodies, yet able to transfer heat to each 1680 - 50400 = 67200 - 840
other. The heat gained by the initially
1680 + 840 = 67200 + 50400
cooler body is equal to the heat lost by the
initially hotter one. 2520 = 117600
m1c1 (Δ1) = m2 c2 (Δ2) 117600
= 2520
= 46.7oC
where m1, c1 and 1 are the mass, specific Temperature of the mixture = 46.7oC
heat and temperature of the cooler body
and m2, c2 and 2 are the mass, specific
heat and temperature of the hotter body.
628
LATENT HEAT where Q = quantity of heat energy

m = mass of the substance
Latent heat is the hidden heat used to
change the state of a substance without a Specific latent heat is measured in is joules
change in its temperature. per kilogram (Jkg-1).
Change of heat energy = temperature
Before water turns to vapour, its change x mass x specific heat capacity
temperature must reach the boiling point of OR
100oC. Q = ∆Tmc
At this temperature, only the temperature
of the water changes but not the state. To Specific latent heat of fusion
change the state of the water, an additional This is the amount of heat needed to
heat energy which will not increase the change 1kg of a substance from the solid
temperature of the water, but increase the state into the liquid state without a change
kinetic energy of the molecules. in its temperature.
This extra energy needed to convert the
water from the liquid state into vapour is Specific latent heat of vaporization
called latent heat of vaporization. This is the amount of heat needed to
change 1kg of a substance from the liquid
In similar manner, water freezes into ice at state into gaseous state without a change in
0oC. To melt ice into water, an extra it temperature.
hidden energy is required to change the ice
into water while the temperature is still Examples
0oC. This energy is known as latent heat of 1. If the specific latent heat of
fusion. The latent heat of fusion breaks the vaporization is 2.26 J kg-1, calculate the
bond between the molecules of the solid amount of energy required to vaporize
ice, giving them kinetic energy to move 200g of water at its normal boiling
about. point.
Solution
Specific latent heat Q = L x ∆m
Specific latent heat is the quantity of heat Q = 2.26 x 200
required to change 1kg of a substance Q = 452 J
from one state to another.
𝑸
Specific latent heat (L) = 𝚫𝒎
629
2. How much heat is required to melt 500 How water in earthenware or clay pot
g of ice at oC. The specific latent heat cools
of fusion of water is 336 kJ kg-1. An earthenware pot has pores through
which warm water evaporates. When warm
Solution water evaporates it carries with it latent
Q = L x ∆m heat thereby keeping the remaining water
L = 336 kJ kg-1; m = 500 g = 0.5 kg cool.
Q = 336 x 0.5 = 168 J
Reason why a fan rotating in a room
3. Calculate the amount of heat given out may make you feel colder even though
when an 8 kg bar of metal cools from the temperature remains the same
75oC to 28oC. (take specific heat The moving air dries the moisture or sweat
capacity of metal = 380 Jkg-1K-1) on the body. As the moisture or sweat
evaporates from the body, it takes latent
Solution heat of evaporation from the body,
Q = ∆Tmc reducing the amount of heat energy in the
Temperature change ∆T = 75oC –28oC body even though the temperature does not
= 47 oC change.
Q = 47 x 8 x 380
Q = 142880 J = 142.88 kJ
TEST QUESTIONS
Reason why steam from boiling water
inflicts more burns than the boiling 1. (a) What is heat?
water (b) Name five sources of heat.
Boiling water has a temperature of 100oC (c) Mention five uses of heat.
and is still liquid. When the water changes
into steam, it means its latent heat of 2. Describe the following modes of heat
vaporization has given the molecules extra transfer:
heat energy. This causes the steam to have (a) conduction;
more heat energy that the boiling water, (b) convection;
hence its ability to inflict more burns. (c) radiation.
3. Explain why cooking utensils have

plastic or wooden handles.
4. (a) Draw and label a vacuum flask.
630
(b) Give four uses of vacuum flasks. thermostat works
5. (a) Define the term temperature. 12. Mention three characteristics and three
(b) Write a brief note on the following examples each of physical change and
temperature scales: chemical change.
(i) Celsius scale;
(ii) Kelvin scale; 13. Explain the following term:
(c) Distinguish between ice point and (a) sublimation;
steam point. (b) condensation;
(c) melting;
6. (a) Draw and label a liquid-in-glass (d) solidification;
thermometer. (e) evaporation.
(b) Describe how a clinical
thermometer is used. 14. (a) What is latent heat?
Explain the reason why mercury is often (b) Water of mass 1.5 kg is heated
preferred to alcohol in liquid-in-glass from 20oC to 70oC. Calculate the
thermometers. amount of heat absorbed.[Specific
heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1]
7. Explain the reason why it is not
advisable to sterilize alcohol 15. Explain the following observations:
thermometers in boiling water. (a) steam from boiling water inflict
more burns that the boiling water
8. Explain the reason why clinical itself;
thermometers should be sterilized in (b) rotating fan make you feel colder
boiling water. even though the temperature
remains the same.
9. Describe an experiment to demonstrate (c) water in an earthenware cools.
that heat causes expansion in metals.
16. In an experiment five different
10. Explain: volumes of water at 62oC were allowed
(a) Why roofing sheets are corrugated; to cool to 27oC. They were then
(b) Thick glass tumblers break when a weighed separately. Figure 4 shows the
hot liquid is poured in them but thin five volumes V = V1, V2, V3, V4 and V5
ones do not break. of water at 27oC and corresponding
11. (a) Describe a bimetallic strip.
(b) Describe how the bimetallic
631
masses M = M1, M2, M3, M4 and M5 of the specific heat capacity of water
water and the measuring cylinder. is 4200 J/kg oC, calculate the
Study the diagram carefully and amount of heat used.
answer the questions that follow.
18. The rise in temperatures θ1, θ2, θ3, θ4
and θ5 of a heated metal and the
corresponding time t1, t2, t3, t4 and t5 are
shown below in fig. 5 (a) and Fig. 5 (b)
respectively.
A B C D E
Fig. 5(a): An ungraduated thermometer
a) Read and record the volumes V = V1, drawn to scale.
V2, V3, V4 and V5 of water shown in
the figure.
b) Read and determine the masses of the
volumes of water in A, B, C, D and E
given that the masses of the empty
measuring cylinder is 50 g.
c) If the specific heat capacity of water is
4200 J kg-1 K-1, calculate the heat Fig. 5 (a): time in seconds
losses in kilojoules in each case.
d) Tabulate your result in (a), (b) and (c). a) Determine and record the
e) Plot a graph of heat loss on the vertical temperature θ = θ1, θ2, θ3, θ4 and θ5
axis against volume of water on the and the corresponding time t = t1, t2,
t3, t4 and t5 in the following table.
horizontal axis.
Temperature  (oC)
f) Draw the line of best fit for the point Time, t (s)
you have plotted.
g) Determine the heat loss for water b) i) Plot a graph with temperature, θ
whose volume is 30 cm3. on the vertical axis against time, t
on the horizontal axis.
17. (a) Define specific heat capacity. ii) Calculate the slope of your graph.
iii) What is the relationship between
(b) Some quantity of water of mass 3.0
the rise in temperature and the
kg is heated from 26oC to 76oC. If time?
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52
ELECTRONICS III
Specific Objectives
 Describe the structure of a transistor and
investigate its uses.
INTRODUCTION
Fig. 120.5: Transistor symbol
Transistors, as we have considered already,
play a vital role in all electronic devices The circuit shown in fig. 120.6 below is
and gadgets. In this chapter we are going to based on an NPN transistor. When the
consider transistors as electronic switches, switch is pressed a current passes through
both for high-power applications such as the resistor into the base of the transistor.
switched-mode power supplies and for The transistor then allows current to flow
low-power applications such as logic gates. from the 9V to the 0V, and the lamp comes
on.
The transistor has to receive a voltage at its
TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
‗base‘ and until this happens the lamp does
The following diagram shows an NPN not light. The resistor is present to protect
transistor which is often used as a type of the transistor as it can be damaged easily
switch. A small current or voltage at the by too high a voltage or current.
base allows a larger voltage to flow The transistor is acting as a switch, and this
through the other two leads (from the type of operation is common in digital
collector to the emitter). circuits, such as computers, calculators,
633
mobile phones, digital clocks and watches The circuit below is a ‗Darlington Pair‘
etc., where only "on" and "off" values are driver. The first transistor‘s emitter feeds
relevant. into the second transistor‘s base and as a
result the input signal is amplified by the
time it reaches the output.
Fig. 120.6 Fig. 120.7:
Darlington pair The important point to remember is that the

A Darlington pair is a combination of two Darlington Pair is made up of two
transistors in a circuit. transistors and when they are arranged as
shown in the circuit they are used to
In Darlington pair, two bipolar transistors amplify weak signals.
(either integrated or separated devices)
connected in such a way that the current LOGIC GATE
amplified by the first transistor is amplified
further by the second one. A logic gate is a circuit in which
This configuration gives a much higher transistors act as high-speed switches.
common-emitter current gain than each
transistor taken separately and, in the case Digital and telecommunication devices use
of integrated devices, can take less space logic gates for their operations. There are
than two individual transistors because two inputs with two levels of voltage
they can use a shared collector. known as 1 and 0. 1 means on or high
Integrated Darlington pairs come packaged voltage level, while 0 means off or low
singly in transistor-like packages or as an voltage level.
array of devices (usually eight) in an Combinations of logic gates in open or
integrated circuit. closed positions can be used to represent
and execute operations on data.
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A series of logic gates together form a AND operation i.e. A.B. The dot is
logic circuit. sometimes omitted i.e. AB
The output of a logic circuit can provide

input to another circuit or produce the
result of an operation.
The output derived is dependent on the
input. In circuits, logic gates are referred to
as electronic gates or simply gate.
Electronic gates require a power supply.
Gate INPUTS are driven by voltages
having two nominal values, e.g. 0V and 5V
representing logic 0 and logic 1 OR gate
respectively. The OUTPUT of a gate The OR gate is an electronic circuit that
provides two nominal values of voltage gives a high output (1) if one or more of
only, e.g. 0V and 5V representing logic 0 its inputs are high. A plus (+) is used to
and logic 1 respectively. In general, there is show the OR operation.
only one output to a logic gate except in
some special cases.
Types of logic gates

There are seven basic gates used in digital
circuits. They are
 AND gate
 OR gate
 NOT gate
 NAND gate
 NOR gate
 XOR gate NOT gate
 XNOR gate The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that
produces an inverted version of the input at
AND gate its output. It is also known as an inverter.
The AND gate is an electronic circuit that If the input variable is A the inverted
gives a high output (1) only if all its inputs output is known as NOT A. This is also
are high. A dot (.) is used to show the shown as A', or Ā, as shown at the outputs.
635
The diagrams below show two ways that NOR gate

the NAND logic gate can be configured to This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to
produce a NOT gate. It can also be done an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. The
using NOR logic gates in the same way. outputs of all NOR gates are low if any of
the inputs are high.
The symbol is an OR gate with a small
circle on the output. The small circle
represents inversion.
NAND gate
This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to
an AND gate followed by a NOT gate.
The outputs of all NAND gates are high if
any of the inputs are low. The symbol is an
AND gate with a small circle on the output.
The small circle represents inversion. Exclusive OR (XOR) gate
The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which
will give a high output if either, but not
both, of its two inputs are high. An
encircled plus sign ( ) is used to show the
XOR operation.
XOR
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Exclusive NOR (XNOR) gate Uses of transistors

The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate circuit does the  Transistors are used as switches
opposite to the EOR gate. It will give a low  The amplify signals
output if either, but not both, of its two
inputs are high. The symbol is an EXOR TEST QUESTIONS
gate with a small circle on the output. The
small circle represents inversion. 1. (a) Describe the structure of a
transistor.
(b) List two uses of transistors.
ENOR 2. Describe how transistors act as

switches in circuits.
3. Explain the term Darlington pair.
4. (a) What is a logic gate?

(b) Write a short not on four logic
gates.
Fig. 120.8 is the 7400 chip, containing four
NAND gates. The two additional pins
supply power (+5 V) and connect the
ground.
Fig. 120.8
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53
VARIATION, INHERITANCE AND
EVOLUTION
animals are put into kingdom animalia

Specific Objectives while plants fall into kingdom plantae. The
After completing this chapter, you will be able to: smallest category of organisms is called
 Relate the nucleus, chromosomes and genes as
a sequence in inheritance. species, where members are so similar that
 Explain the causes of and consequences of they can interbreed; human, for example
variation. fall into the species sapiens.
 Explain the concept of inheritance in organisms.
 Explain how sex is determined in humans.
 Discuss the inheritance of the various blood Living organisms transmit traits from their
groups and Rh-factors and outline their
importance.
parents making them similar to the parents,
 Explain how sickle cell gene is inherited and in a process known as inheritance or
sickle cell anaemia is acquired. hereditary.
 Explain evolution and discuss some theories of
evolution. Nevertheless, no two creatures are exactly
 Cite some evidence of evolution. the same, even twins. Every organism has
got its own distinctive characteristics
which makes it different from other
organisms of the same kind. This is called
variation.
INTRODUCTION The study of the hereditary and variations
is called genetics.
Living organisms are classified based
mainly on their similarities. For example, CHROMOSOMES AND GENES
organisms with a single cell are known as
unicellular organisms, whereas those with A chromosome is structure found in a cell
multiple cells are multi-cellular. Also, all nucleus that carries the hereditary materials
that determines the sex and characteristics
of an organism inherited from its parents.
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53 Variation, Inheritance and Evolution Samking
Fig. 120.9: A cell showing the location of a chromosome and gene
Chromosomes consist chiefly of proteins Genes hold the information to build and
and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Tiny maintain an organism's cells and pass
chemical subunits called nucleotide bases genetic traits to offspring.
form the structure of DNA. A sequence of
bases along a DNA strand that codes for All organisms have many genes
the production of a protein is known as a corresponding to various biological traits,
gene. some of which are immediately visible,
such as eye colour or number of limbs, and
Gene some of which are not, such as blood type
A gene is a molecular unit of heredity of a or increased risk for specific diseases, or
living organism. the thousands of basic biochemical
processes that comprise life.
Genes occupy precise locations called
locus on the chromosome. A group of Terms to know
different genes which occupy the same Genotype – This is the genetic makeup of
locus and perform the same functions is an organism.
known as allele.
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Phenotype – This is the physical F2 generation (second filial generation) –

characteristics of an organism. Offspring produced by crossing members
of F1 generation.
Heterozygote – An organism or cell with
two different genes or alleles at the same MENDEL’S LAWS OF
location. INHERITANCE
Homozygote – An organism or cell with Mendel‘s laws of inheritance are

two identical genes or alleles at the same statements about the ways certain
place. characteristics are transmitted from one
generation to another in an organism. The
Dominant character – One of the different laws were derived by Gregory Mendel, an
pair of genes in a heterozygote that is Austrian Mont.
easily distinguished or expressed. A Mendel's approach was to transfer pollen
dominant character is represented by a from the anther of one pea plant to the
capital letter. A gene which controls a stigma of a second pea plant, resulting in a
dominant character is called a dominant hybrid.
gene. As a simple example of this kind of
experiment, suppose that one takes pollen
Recessive character – On of the pair of from a pea plant with red flowers and uses
genes in a heterozygote that is not easily it to fertilize a pea plant with white
distinguished in the organism. It is flowers.
represented by a small letter. A gene which Among the traits Mendel wanted to known
controls a recessive character is called a were the colour of the plant‘s flowers, their
recessive gene. location on the plant, the shape and colour
of pea pods and seeds, and the length of the
Hybrid – A hybrid is an organism plant‘s stem,
produced from parents that are not In a second series of experiments, Mendel
genetically identical. studied the changes that occurred in the
second generation. That is, suppose two
F1 generation (First filial generation) – offspring of the red/white mating (cross)
The first filial generation offspring is are themselves mated. What colour will the
produced by crossing two parental line. flowers be in this second generation of
plants?
As a result of these experiments, Mendel
was able to state three generalizations (or
640
laws) about the way characteristics are That fact can be represented by simple
transmitted from one generation to the next equations, such as:
in pea plants. RR → R + R
The laws are: or
1. The law of segregation of Rr → R + r
characteristics;
2. The law of independent assortment; Application of the sequence of
3. Law of dominance. inheritance in cloning and stem
cells
In our discussion, we are only interested in Cloning is the process of creating an
the first law. exact copy of a single gene, cell, or
organism.
The law of segregation of The copies produced through cloning have
characteristics identical genetic makeup and are known as
This law states that every individual clones. Scientists use cloning techniques in
possesses a pair of alleles for any the laboratory to create copies of cells or
particular trait and that each parent organisms with valuable traits. Their work
passes a randomly selected allele of only aims to find practical applications for
one of these to its offspring. cloning that will produce advances in
This law describes what happens to the medicine, biological research, and industry.
alleles that make up a gene during Gene cloning, for example, is often used to
formation of gametes. For example, study human disease.
suppose that a pea plant contains a gene for
flower colour in which both alleles code As part of the cloning process, scientists
for red. One way to represent that coax embryos to divide and grow. The
condition is to write RR, which indicates embryos contain cells that can transform
that both alleles (R and R) code for the into any cell type that an organism needs
colour red. Another gene might have a during its development, such as blood
different combination of alleles, as in Rr. cells, skin cells, and all the specialized
In this case, the symbol R stands for red cells that make up body tissues.
colour and the r for "not red" or, in this These cells are encourage to develop to
case, white. form embryo stem cells, which have the
The first law says that the alleles that make ability to form any cell type.
up a gene separate from each other, or
segregate, during the formation of gametes.
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Although all cells can divide to make When one tries to classify individuals
copies of themselves, only stem cells can according to height or weight, the decision
create new cell types. becomes more difficult; this is because
there are not merely two classes of people,
tall or short, but a whole range of
intermediate sizes differing from each
other by measurable distances. It is known
as continuous variation because the
particular characteristic under
consideration keeps changing from time to
time.
Fig. 121.0: Stem cell cloning Examples of continuous variation are
weight, height, intelligence, feet length,
VARIATION finger length, scar, language, etc.
Variation is the difference in Continuous variation may be influenced by

characteristics between organisms of the the environment or genetically controlled.
same species.
Discontinuous variation
The differences among people most easily
Discontinuous variation is the variation
and commonly noticed include those in
where there is a clear-cut difference
skin colour, body shape, the shape of the
between organisms.
face, facial features and hair colour and
texture.
This type of variation has no intermediate
forms. For example, if white and black
Types of variation
mice are bred together, they will produce
1. Continuous variation
black or white offspring. There are no
2. Discontinuous variation
intermediate colours and no difficulties
arise in deciding the colour categories to
Continuous variation
place the individual. It is not possible to
This is the type of variation where there arrange the mice in continuous range of
are intermediate forms between the colour from white to black. Another
organisms under consideration. example is the inheritance of sex; one is
either a male or a female. The feature of
discontinuous variation is determined
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genetically; they cannot be changed during wind velocity. This is because the
the lifetime of the individual. plants with time adopt a growth habit
Examples of discontinuous variation are which may slope it away from the force
eye colour, blood group, sex, Rhesus of the wind.
factor, sickle cell anaemia, albinism,
tongue rolling, baldness, etc. 3. Light intensity – Plants which have
enough light tend to do better than
Causes of variation those in the shade. This is because light
The two prime factors responsible for provides plant with conditions that help
variation are environmental factor and to photosynthesize. The food prepared
genetic factors. through photosynthesis is mostly used
by the plants themselves.
Environmental factors
Environmental factors are external 4. Altitude – The higher one goes, the
conditions that influence the life processes lesser the oxygen he is expected to get.
and cause differences between organisms This is because the amount of oxygen
of the same species. These factors cannot in the air decreases with increase in
be passed down from parent to offspring altitude. To compensate for the
(not inherited). minimal level of oxygen, inhabitants of
highlands have more red blood cells
Common environmental factors of per cubic centimetre than those in
variation lowlands.
1. Food/ diet – Living organisms depend
on food for growth and development. 5. Heat – Plants which grow in deserts,
Eating a well-balanced diet is a sure humid areas and areas much
way to keep the growth pattern normal. susceptible to drought have the ability
However, if some nutrients are to live longer with little water as
deficient in the body, it may give rise to compared to those in mashes.
some diseases like rickets, kwashiorkor
or marasmus. 6. Other organisms – The competition for
nutrients in plant-world may cause
2. Wind velocity – Plants which grow in some plants to grow and develop better
windy areas normally have stronger than the others. Disease causing
root systems than those of the same organisms infect other organisms with
species growing elsewhere with low diseases which may leave permanent
marks on them.
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7. Chemicals – Some chemicals are toxic Mutations occur during DNA replication
and when one is exposed or over- when the chemical structure of genes
exposed to them may interfere with undergoes random modifications. Once a
their structure or growth pattern. change has occurred, the altered genes
continue to replicate in their changed form
8. Exposure to radiations – exposure to unless another mutation occurs.
radioactivity may also result in
changing the structure of an organism. Types of mutation
X-ray, for example, may interfere with 1. Chromosome mutation
the development of a foetus if the 2. Gene mutation
mother is exposed to it.
Chromosome mutation
Genetic factors Chromosome mutations result in the
Genetic factors are concerned with change in the number or functions of
heredity. These are the characteristics the chromosomes incorporated into cells.
offspring inherits from their parents. They A child produced as a result may have, for
are passed down to the offspring through instance, an extra chromosome, or an extra
the genes. part of a chromosome attached to the
normal set in a condition known as Down's
Genetic factors which cause variation syndrome, which is caused by having 47
1. Mutation chromosomes instead of the normal 46 per
2. Segregation cell.
3. Polygenic characteristics Radiation damage can also affect an entire
4. Co-dominance (incomplete or partial chromosome, disrupting the function of
dominance) many genes.
5. Independent assortment
6. Albinism Gene mutation
Genes themselves are constantly being
modified through mutation, changing the
MUTATION
structure of the DNA in an individual‘s
Mutation is the spontaneous change in a cells. Mutations can occur during
gene or chromosome which may produce replication, the process in which a cell
a change in the characteristic under its splits itself into two identical copies known
control. as daughter cells. Normally each daughter
cell receives an exact copy of the DNA
644
from the parent cell. Occasionally, Natural selection thus tends to promote
however, errors occur, resulting in a adaptation by maintaining favourable
change in the gene. Such a change may adaptations in a constant environment
affect the protein that the gene produces (stabilizing selection) or improving
and, ultimately, change an individual‘s adaptation in a direction appropriate to
traits. environmental changes (directional
selection).
Causes of mutation
While some mutations occur
INHERITANCE IN PLANTS AND
spontaneously, others are caused by factors
ANIMALS
in the environment, known as mutagens.
Genetic inheritance refers to the passing
Examples of mutagens that affect human or handing-on of characteristics of a
DNA include: parent to its offspring.
1. Ultraviolet light
2. Chemicals, such as asbestos, cigarette Two parents, (male and female parent), are
smoke and nitrous acid involved in sexual reproduction. The
3. High-energy radiation, e.g. X rays offspring produced possesses
4. Error during DNA replication characteristics of both parents. This is
because each parent passes half the number
Consequences of variation of its chromosomes to the offspring. In
Variation promotes natural selection. humans, for example, the offspring inherits
23 chromosomes from each parent, adding
Natural selection is the process by which up to 46 chromosome (haploid).
organisms better adapted to their
environment tend to survive and If for example, a tall parent (TT) and a
reproduce more offspring. short parent (tt) are crossed, the offspring
will inherit characteristics from both
The characters that inhibit reproductive parents as shown below.
success decrease in frequency from
generation to generation. The resulting
increase in the proportion of reproductively
successful individuals usually enhances the
adaptation of the population to its
environment.
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Heritable and non-heritable

characters in humans
Heritable characters
Heritable or sex-linked characters are
traits or characters which are easily
passed-on from parents to offspring.
Fig. 121.1: Inheritance in living organisms Examples of heritable characters

1. Blood group
The first filial generation (F1) is the 2. Rhesus factor
offspring produced after crossing the 3. Haemophilia
parental generation. 4. Baldness
5. Tongue rolling
When the offspring of F1 are inter-crossed 6. Eye colour
they form the second filial generation (F2). 7. Colour blindness
F2 is made up of homozygous (two similar Non-heritable characters

allele) tall (TT), homozygous short (tt) and Non-heritable characters are characters
heterozygous black (two dissimilar allele) which may be possessed by both or one of
(Tt). the parents but may not be passed-on to
the offspring.
Such characters are normally influenced by

the environment.
Examples of non-heritable characters

1. Weight
2. Height
3. Intelligence
Fig. 121.2 4. Scar
5. Skill
The crossing is also similar in plants. 6. Skin colour
7. Temper
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SEX DETERMINATION
Most chromosome pairs consist of identical
or homologous partners. In many species,
including humans, there is one pair of
chromosomes in which the partners
noticeably differ from each other.
These are called the sex chromosomes
because they determine the differences
between males and females. Genes located
on the sex chromosomes display different Fig. 121.3: Sex determination
patterns of inheritance than genes located
on other chromosomes. BLOOD GROUPS
Sex determination in humans Blood group or blood type is a

In human females, the sex chromosomes classification of blood based on the
consist of two X chromosomes, while presence or absence of certain protein
males have an X chromosome and a shorter molecules called antigens and antibodies.
Y chromosome with many fewer genes.
The antigens are located on the surface of
In males the X chromosome contains many the red blood cells as well as other cells
genes that have no corresponding gene on and tissues, while the antibodies are in the
the Y chromosome. A male‘s X blood plasma. These antigens may be
chromosome may contain a recessive allele proteins, carbohydrates, glycoproteins, or
associated with a genetic disorder, such as glycolipids, depending on the blood group
haemophilia or Duchene muscular system.
dystrophy. In this case, males do not have a
normal second copy of the gene on the Y Blood types are inherited and represent
chromosome to mask the effects of the contributions from both parents.
recessive gene, and disease typically Individuals have different types and
results. combinations of these molecules. The
blood group you belong to depends on
what you have inherited from your parents.
There are more than 20 genetically

determined blood group systems known
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today, but the ABO and Rh systems are the Because O type blood has neither
most important ones used for blood substance on its red cells, it can be given
transfusions. successfully to almost any person. Persons
with blood type AB have no antibodies and
Not all blood groups are compatible with can receive any of the four types of blood;
each other. Mixing incompatible blood thus blood group O is called universal
groups leads to blood clumping or donor whereas group AB is called
agglutination, which is dangerous for universal recipient.
individuals.
Characteristics of the blood groups
The ABO blood grouping system
According to the ABO system, there are
four groups of blood. They are A, B, AB
and O.
Blood group A contains red blood cells that
contain antigen A on their surface. This
group of blood also contains an antibody
directed against substance B, found on the
red blood cells of persons with blood group
B.
Group B blood contains the reverse
combination. Serum of blood group AB
Blood group and pregnancy
contains neither antibody, but red cells in
Many pregnant women carry a foetus with
this type of blood contain both A and B
a blood type different from their own, and
substances.
the mother can form antibodies against
In type O blood, neither substance is
foetal RBCs.
present on the red cells, but the individual
Sometimes these maternal antibodies are
is capable of forming antibodies directed
IgG, a small immunoglobulin, which can
against red cells containing substance A or
cross the placenta and cause haemolysis of
B.
foetal RBCs, which in turn can lead to
If blood type A is transfused into a person
haemolytic disease of the newborn, an
with B type blood, anti-A antibodies in the
illness of low foetal blood counts that
recipient will destroy the transfused A red
ranges from mild to severe.
blood cells.
648
Fig. 121.5 shows the blood groups of body that does not have the same type, can
offspring of parents with blood groups AB cause the person's immune system to
and OO. respond by producing antibodies that attack
Because blood groups A and B are allele, if the proteins. The Rh factor, Rh+ and Rh-,
a person is AO or BO, the O has no effect usually refers specifically to the presence
hence the person is A or B. or absence of one of these proteins — the
D antigen. The D antigen tends to cause an
especially strong immune response in
people who do not have it.
There are two alleles, or genetic variants,
of this antigen: D and d. A person who is
Rh- has two recessive variants, dd. Anyone
who has at least one D — DD or Dd — is
Rh+. As with most genetic traits, one allele
is inherited from each parent.
Rh Type and Pregnancy

A person's Rh type is generally most
Fig. 121.5 relevant with respect to pregnancies.
During pregnancy, an Rh+ foetus
RHESUS FACTOR developing in the womb of an Rh- woman
runs the risk of developing Rhesus disease,
The Rhesus factor, also known as the Rh also called Rh disease or haemolytic
factor, is an antigen that exists on the disease of the newborn. Only Rh- women
surface of red blood cells in most people. risk having children with this disease; an
Rh+ woman can carry an Rh- child without
People who have the Rhesus factor are developing this condition.
considered to have a "positive" (+) blood
type, such as A+ or B+. Those who don't For an Rh- woman to have an Rh+ child,
are considered to have a "negative" (-) the father must have been Rh+. An Rh+
blood type, such as "O-" or "AB-". man has at least a 50% chance of passing
on the Rhesus factor to the child; a Dd
The Rh blood grouping system involves father could pass either the D or d to his
more than 50 antigens that are found on the child. If the father is DD, there is a 100%
surface of red blood cells. These antigens chance that the child will be Rh+.
are proteins that, when introduced into a
649
If the mother is Rh- and the child is Rh+, This means that the gene can be passed on
and if the child's blood enters the woman's from a parent carrying it to male and
bloodstream during pregnancy, labour, or female children. In order for sickle cell
delivery, the woman's immune system anaemia to occur, a sickle cell gene must
might respond by producing antibodies to be inherited from both the mother and the
fight off the child's antigens, which are father, so that the child has two sickle cell
foreign to the woman's system. genes.
This may cause some health problems for The inheritance of just one sickle gene is
the body including jaundice, anaemia, and called sickle cell trait or the carrier state.
brain or heart damage. In severe cases, Rh Sickle cell trait does not cause sickle cell
disease can be fatal to the infant. anaemia. Persons with sickle cell trait
usually do not have many symptoms of
sickle cell anaemia.
SICKLE-CELL ANAEMIA
When two carriers of sickle cell trait mate,
Sickle cell anaemia is a disorder of the their offspring have a one in four chance of
blood caused by an inherited abnormal having sickle cell anaemia.
haemoglobin (an oxygen-carrying protein
within the red blood cells).
The abnormal haemoglobin causes
distorted (sickled) red blood cells. The
sickled red blood cells are fragile and
prone to rupture. When the number of red
blood cells decreases from rupture
(haemolysis), anaemia is the result. This
condition is referred to as sickle-cell
anaemia. The irregular sickled cells can
also block blood vessels causing tissue and
organ damage and pain.
How sickle cell anaemia is inherited

Sickle cell anaemia is inherited as an
autosomal recessive condition (meaning
that the gene is not linked to a sex
chromosome) whereas sickle cell trait is
inherited as an autosomal dominant trait.
Fig. 121.6:
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creatures, being unable to reproduce,

EVOLUTION
became extinct, while others thrived.
Evolution is a complex process by which
the characteristics of living organisms Aristotle’s theory
change over many generations as traits Aristotle, also a Greek philosopher and
are passed from one generation to the scientist who lived in 300 BC, used a chart
next. he called ―ladder of nature‖, a progression
of life forms from lower to higher rank
The theory of evolution seeks to with humans occupying the top rank.
understand the biological forces that Aristotle acknowledged that some
caused ancient organisms to develop into organisms are incapable of meeting the
the tremendous and ever-changing variety challenges of nature and so cease to exist.
of life seen on Earth today. It addresses As he saw it, successful creatures
how, over the course of time, various plant possessed a gift, or perfecting principle,
and animal species branch off to become that enabled them to rise to meet the
entirely new species, and how different demands of their world.
species are related through complicated Creatures without the perfecting principle
family trees that span millions of years. died out. In Aristotle‘s view it was this
principle (not evolution) that accounted for
Development of theory of evolution the progression of forms in nature.
In 500s BC, the Greek philosopher,
Anaximander, believed that the Earth first Lamarck’s theory
existed in a liquid state. He also believed In 1809, a French biologist, Jean Baptiste
that humans evolved from fishlike aquatic Lamarck, proposed an evolutionary theory
beings that left the water once they had which says that plants and animals respond
developed sufficiently to survive on land. to their environments by becoming better
adapted to them. This was based on the
Another Greek scientist called Empedocles observation that parts of the body
speculated in the 400s BC that plant life frequently used become more developed
arose first on Earth, followed by animals. and parts less used degenerate. This trait is
Empedocles proposed that humans and passed on to offspring. The classic example
animals arose not as complete individuals used to explain this concept is the
but as various body parts that joined elongated neck of the giraffe.
together randomly to form strange,
fantastic creatures. Some of these
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According to Lamarck's theory, a given than those of other birds because penguins
giraffe could, over a lifetime of straining to do not use them to fly.
reach high branches, develop an elongated
neck. Darwinism
A major downfall of his theory was that he In 1859, the man whose name is almost
could not explain how this might happen, synonymous to evolution, a British
though he discussed a "natural tendency naturalist called Charles Darwin, proposed
toward perfection." his theory of evolution.
Darwin's theory asserts that all life
descended from a common ancestor. His
general theory presumes the development
of life from non-life and stresses a purely
natural "descent with modification."
Basically, Darwin theorizes that complex
creatures evolved from more simplistic
ancestors, and that beneficial genetic
mutations are preserved because they aid
survival in a process he called natural
selection. That is, complex creatures
naturally evolved over time from more
simplistic ancestors. Beneficial mutations
accumulated and eventually resulted in an
entirely different creature. He theorized
Fig. 121.7: Lamarck’s theory of use and disuse that evolution is a slow, gradual process.
Another example Lamarck used was the Darwin’s main ideas on evolution
toes of water birds. He proposed that from Darwin‘s based his evolutionary theory on
years of straining their toes to swim the following observations:
through water, these birds gained
elongated, webbed toes to better their Variation
swimming. In every species there is variation. This
These two examples demonstrate how use variability is apparent even within related
could change a trait. By the same token, organisms. Even siblings will vary in
Lamarck believed that disuse would cause colour, height, weight, number of offspring
a trait to become reduced. The wings of and other characteristics.
penguins, for example, would be smaller
652
Organisms in some geographic areas may Differential survival

be related to those in other parts of the Some individuals will survive the struggle
world. However, due to very specific for resources. These individuals will
conditions in their surroundings, these reproduce adding their genes to the
species evolve very distinct characteristics. succeeding generations. The traits that
helped these organisms to survive will be
Competition passed on to their offspring. This process is
Most species produce more offspring each known as natural selection.
year than the environment can support. The conditions in the environment result in
This high rate of growth results in the survival of individuals with specific
competition among the local species for the traits which are passed through heredity to
limited natural resources available. The the next generation. Today we refer to this
consequence of the struggle for resources process as "survival of the fittest‖.
is an increasing mortality rate within a
species.
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
Inheritance Though evolution occurs over a long time
Each species has traits that are strongly frame – over hundreds, thousands or
influenced by inheritance. Other millions of time – evidence can be
characteristics are affected more strongly observed in numerous ways, including
by environmental factors and are not 1. fossil record
considered inherited. 2. distribution of species (both
Inherited traits are passed directly from geographically and through time)
parent to offspring in a consistent manner. 3. comparative anatomy
Heritable traits that are related to a 4. embryology.
particular disease may be manipulated
through gene therapy. Fossil records
Those traits related to environmental Remains of animals and plants found in
factors often respond best to behavioural sedimentary rock deposits give us an
changes, such as dietary restrictions, indisputable record of past changes through
increasing exercise and quitting smoking. vast periods of time. This evidence attests
Isolating traits based on their heritability to the fact that there has been a tremendous
has enormous implications for health care variety of living things.
in humans. Some extinct species had traits that were
transitional between major groups of
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organisms. Their existence confirms that Comparative Embryology

species are not fixed but can evolve into It has been noted that in the earliest stages
other species over time. of development, the embryos of organisms
that share a recent common ancestor are
very similar in appearance. As the embryos
develop, they grow less similar.
For example, the embryos of dogs and cats,
both members of the mammal order
Carnivora, are more similar in the early
archaeopteryx fossil archaeopteryx recreation stages of development than just before
birth. The same is true of human and ape
Fig. 121.8:
embryos.
Geographical distribution
It is evident that some organisms mutate in
order to fit into their environment. They
develop different structures which enable
them to be stronger, faster, etc.
An example is the speeches of Galápagos‘
finch found on the Galápagos Archipelago.
These birds, though from a common
ancestor, have evolved by an adaptive
radiation that diversified their beak shapes
to adapt them to different food source.
Fig. 122.0: Comparative embryology
Molecular similarity
Despite the enormous variety of form and
function seen in living things, the
underlying genetic code, the molecular
building material of life, displays a striking
uniformity.
Almost all living organisms have DNA,
and in each case it consists of different
pairings of the same building blocks: four
Fig. 121.9: Species of Galapagos finch
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nucleotide bases called adenine, thymine,

guanine, and cytosine.
Using different combinations of these
bases, DNA directs the assembly of amino
acids into functional proteins. The same
uniform code operates within all living
things.
Anatomical similarity
(Comparative anatomy)
Study of the internal and external features
of different living organisms also provides
a wealth of information about evolution.
Fig. 122.1: Comparative anatomy of the limbs
The arm of a human, the flipper of a whale,
selected animals
the foreleg of a horse, and the wing of a
bird have different forms and are adapted
to different functions. Yet they correspond TEST QUESTIONS
in some way, and this correspondence
extends to many details. In the case of the 3. Briefly explain the following terms
(a) chromosome;
above structures, for example, each
(b) gene;
appendage shows a similar bone structure. (c) phenotype;
(d) heterozygote;
The study of comparative anatomy has (e) homozygote;
revealed many instances of correspondence (f) dominant character;
within various groups of organisms and (g) recessive character.
these bodily structures are said to be
4. Write briefly on Mendel‘s first law of
homologous (having the same origin).
inheritance.
These homologous structures are said to 3. The offspring of a tall man and a short
originate from a common ancestor. The woman were all found to be tall. With
differences arose as each group diverged the aid of an appropriate crosses,
from the common ancestor and adapted to illustrate the above observation.
different ways of life.
4. (a) What is variation?
(b) Distinguish between continuous and
discontinuous variations.
655
4. Describe four environmental factors 14. Why is the occurrence of sex-linked

that cause variation. characters a more common feature in
male than in female?
5. (a) What are genetic factors of
evolution? 15. A woman with one sickle cell gene
(b) Mention four genetic factors of was married to a man of one sickle-
evolution. cell gene. Using the appropriate
crosses, explain the genetic
6. (a) Define the term mutation. constitution of their children.
(b) Briefly explain chromosome
mutation and gene mutation. 16. (a) Define the term evolution,
(b) Compare the evolutionary theories
7. Explain the consequences of of Lamarch and Darwin.
evolution.
8. Distinguish between heritable and 17. State the explain four evidence of
non-heritable characteristics in evolution.
humans.
18. The offspring of a black rabbit and
9. Give four examples each of heritable white rabbit were all found to be
and non-heritable characteristics in black. With the aid of an appropriate
humans. crosses, illustrate the observation.
10. With the aid of a diagram, describe 19. Copy and complete the table below on
how sex is determined in humans. A, B, O blood system.
Blood Antigen Antibodies
11. Describe the ABO blood group group present on present in
cells plasma
system.
A
B
12. (a) What is rhesus factor? OB
(b) Explain why it is not advisable for O
a rhesus negative woman to marry
a rhesus man.
13. Explain how sickle-cell anaemia is

inherited.
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54
EXAMINATION-TYPE
QUESTIONS
(OBJECTIVE TYPE)
1. Which of the following instruments is C. of the absence of the force of

used to measure the radius of an egg? gravity.
A. Spherometer D. the weight of the body exactly
B. Micrometer screw gauge balances the force of gravity.
C. Vernier calliper
D. Opisometer 5. It is advisable to add sodium
trioxocarbonate (IV) to water when
2. Which of the following gases is not a washing with soap. This is because of
constituent of air? the
A. Oxygen A. presence of bacteria in water.
B. Water vapour B. presence of dissolved magnesium
C. Carbon (IV) oxide salt.
D. Sulphur (IV) oxide C. acidity of water.
D. dirt in the water.
3. To which of the following kingdoms
do protozoa belong? 6. The organisms belonging to the same
A. Prokaryotae species
B. Fungi A. always live in the same habitat.
C. Plantae B. can produce fertile offspring.
D. Protoctista C. cannot communicate with each
other.
4. Bodies are weightless in space because D. have the same lifespan.
A. the acceleration due to gravity of
the earth balances that of the sun. 7. What is the velocity ration in the
B. of the absence of air. simple machine shown below?
A. 4 B. 3 C. 2 D. 1
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54 Examination-type Questions Samking
12. Chromosomes are found in the

A. cytoplasm. B. nucleus.
C. ribosomes. D. genes.
13. Atoms which defer in mass number

but have the same proton number are
referred to as
A. Allotropes. B. isomers.
C. Isotopes. D. nuclides.
8. Which of the following statements is not
correct about acids? 14. A cell wall consists mainly of
A. Acids contain replaceable A. lignin. B. cutin.
hydrogen. C. wax. D. cellulose.
B. Acids turn blue litmus red.
C. Substances which contain 15. A steel ball of mass 20.0 kg cools
hydrogen are acids. from 120 oC to 80 oC. If the specific
D. Acids are neutralised by bases. heat capacity of steel is 435 J/kg,
calculate the quantity of the heat given
9. Which of the following compounds is out.
used in the manufacture of soap? A. 3.48 x 105 J B. 4.32 x105J
A. Ca(OH)2 B. Na2SO4 C. 8.43 x 105 J D. 4.83 x105J
C. NaOH D. Mg(OH)4
16. The muscle is an example of
10. The following are all characteristics of A. a system. B. an organ.
living things except C. a tissue. D. an organelle.
A. excretion. B. nutrition.
C. respiration. D. secretion. 17. Which of the following statements
is/are correct? In the thermos flask
11. Which of the following is used to I. A vacuum is created between the
measure temperature of 100 oC? two walls.
A. Alcohol thermometer II. The outside faces of the glasses
are silvered.
B. Pyrometer III. The heat loss by conduction is
C. Thermosistor reduced by the use of a cork
D. Mercury thermometer stopper.
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A. I only B. I, II and III A. I only B. II only

C. III only D. I and II only C. I and II only D. II and III only
18. In the formation of an ionic 22. The new cell formed after fertilization is
compound, atoms of one of the known as
combining elements must A. an embryo. B. a foetus.
A. convert neutrons to electrons. C. a zygote. D. a seed.
B. lose protons.
C. gain protons. 23. Glycerol is used for the manufacture of
D. gain electrons. A. dyes. B. stain removers.
C. detergents. D. dynamites.
19. The gas given of during
photosynthesis can be identified by 24. Which of the following statements are
using corrects? In a concave mirror, when the
A. potassium hydroxide. object is placed at the centre of
B. a glowing splint. curvature,
C. lime water. I. The image formed is real.
D. litmus paper. II. The magnification is one.
III. The image formed is inverted.
20. Which of the following statements
about the diagram below is correct? A. I and II only B. I and III
only
C. II and III only D. I, II and III
25. The rate of chemical reaction is

increased when the
A. Portion X is called penumbra. A. then concentrations of reactants are
B. Illustrates an eclipse of the sun. decreased.
C. Portion Y is called umbra. B. concentrations of reactants are
D. Illustrates an eclipse of the moon. increased.
C. reactants are in large lumps.
21. Which of the following statements D. concentrations of products are
is/are correct? The particles associated increased.
with conduction of electricity are
I. Protons II. electrons III. ions
659
26. Which of the following substances is C. right auricle and right ventricle
not carried in the plasma? D. left ventricle and aorta.
A. Urea B. Carbon (IV) oxide 32. Estrification is the reaction between
C. Oxygen D. Glucose A. acids and bases.
B. alkanoic acids and ammonia.
27. An object is placed 25.0 cm from a C. organic bases and alkanools
converging lens of focal length 20.0 cm. D. alkanoic acids and alkanols.
calculate the magnification of the image
formed. 33. Which of the following is an
A. 4 B. 3 C. 2 D. 1 example of ferromagnetic material?
A. Silver B cobalt
28. Alkanols contain C. Plastic D. Mercury
A. carbon, oxygen and hydrogen only.
B. carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen only. 34. Which of the following is not found
C. carbon, oxygen and nitrogen only. in the lymph?
D. carbon and oxygen only. A. Red blood cells
B. Antibodies
29. Gestation period is the time between C. Glucose
A. fertilization and birth. D. White blood cells
B. fertilization and implantation.
C. ovulation and fertilization. 35. When a plastic comb is used to comb
D. implantation and birth. a dry hair and it is brought quickly
near small pieces of paper,
30. For any system to produce sound, it A. the papers get heated.
must B. there is repulsion between paper
A. possess potential energy. and comb.
B. be vibrating. C. there is attraction between the
C. both kinetic and potential energy. comb and the pieces of paper.
D. Possess kinetic energy. D. the charges on the comb are
neutralised.
31. The tricuspid valve is formed between 36. Which of the following gases is used
the in welding?
A. right ventricle and pulmonary A. Ethane B. Ethane
artery. C. Methane D. Ethyne
B. left auricle and let ventricle.
660
37. Pollutants are substances

A. from industries only. 43. In an electrical circuit, the function of
B. in the atmosphere. the fuse is to
C. which breed harmful organisms. A. regulate the voltage in the circuit.
D. which make the environment B. prevent lightening from destroying
harmful to life. the appliances.
C. regulate the flow of current in the
circuit.
D. protect the circuit against excess
current.
44. Viruses can only reproduce when they

38. Calculate the value of the current I in are present in a
the circuit above. A. culture solution.
A. 3.5A B. 4.5A C. 5.5A D B. living organism.
6.5A C. dead matter
D. sugary medium.
39. Muscles are attached to bones by
A. Tendons. B. ligaments. 45. All the following minimize soil erosion
C. Cartilage. D. tissues. except
A. planting of trees.
40. A baby‘s sex is determined by B. creating lawns.
A. mother at conception. C. weeding premises with hoe.
B. father at conception. D. creating gutters for running rain
C. food eaten by mother. water.
D. drugs taken by mother.
46. In the wiring of houses, appliances are
41. Two resistors of values 2 Ω and 3 Ω are connected in parallel to enable
connected in parallel. Calculate the A. each appliance t have the same
effective resistance. voltage.
5 6 B. power to be saved.
A. 6 Ω B. 5 Ω C. 6 Ω D. 5 Ω
C. each appliance to have the same
current.
42. Which of the following not a vertebrae?
D. the power to be stepped up.
A. Axis B Atlas
C. Scapula D. Coccyx
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47. Night blindness is caused by lack of C. the increase in the volume of the
A. vitamin C. B. vitamin A. chest cavity.
C. vitamin D. D. vitamin E. D. the increase in the volume of
lungs.
48. Which of the following methods would
improve the quality of life in human 52. The function of a step-down
beings? transformer is to
A. Deforestation A. protect the power supply to an
B. Taking of unprescribed drugs area.
C. Uncontrolled birth B. reduce the voltage to the desired
D. Family planning value.
C. change the a.c to d.c.
49. A pressing ion is rated 100 W, 249 V. D. decrease the resistance in the
this means that the cable.
I. Iron cannot work on 220 V.
II. Iron consumes 100 A and hour. 53. Soap may itch the skin when it contain
III. Maximum current the iron can take excess
is 0.42 A. A. glycerol B. oil
IV. Iron can use a 5 A fuse. C. alkali D. acid
A. I and II only B. II and III only 54. Movement of water into plant cell
C. III and IV only C. I and III only causes the cell to
A. become turgid.
50. Which of the following is extensively B. become flaccid.
used in medicine? C. burst its cell wall.
A. α-particle. B. γ-rays. D. become plasmolyzed.
C. X-ray D. β-rays
55. Liquid petroleum gas, which is used as
51. All of the following processes occur a domestic fuel, belong to the group of
during respiration in a human body A. alkenes. B. alkanes.
except C. alkanols. D. alkanoates.
A. the contraction of diaphragm
muscles. 56. Which of the following statements is
B. the contraction of intercostals not true of X-rays?
muscles. A. They cause fluorescence.
662
B. They are deflected by electric field. 62. The following are all abiotic factors
C. They can produce ionization. except
D. They can be diffracted. A. wind. B. light.
C. bacteria. D. rainfall.
57. A person who needs glucose can take
A. ethanol. B. glycerol 63. A plastic windscreen for a car is made
C. starch. D. citric acid. of
A. nylon. B. Teflon.
58. Which of the following is not involved C. Perspex. D. polythene.
in a reflex action?
A. Sensory neurone 64. All of the following substances can
B. Spinal cord pollute the air except
C. Cerebellum A. sulphur dioxide. B. fertilizer.
D. Motor neurone C. exhaust fumes. D. dust.
59. Which of the following is used by 65. Which of the following pairs of
satellite in space? diseases is caused by insanitary
A. Dry cells surrounding?
B. Alkaline batteries A. Dysentery and measles
C. Solar cells B. Bilharzia and dysentery
D. Lead acid batteries C. Cholera and chicken pox
D. Malaria and cholera
60. The mode of nutrition involving the
use of dead organic matter is referred 66. How many moles are there in 4.2 g of
to as NAHCO3?
A. saprophytic. B. symbiotic. (Na = 23, O = 16, C = 12, H = 1)
C. parasitic. D. halophytic. A. 0.05 mol B. 0.5 mol
C. 0.005 mol D. 5.0 mol
61. A virus is basically composed of
A. protein, DNA and RNA. 67. Which of the following statements
B. protein and either RNA or DNA. about viruses is not true? They are
C. protein, DNA and nucleic acid. A. akaryotic.
D. protein, RNA and nucleic acid. B. non cellular
C. prokaryotic.
D. able to form crystals
663
68. Absolute ethanol can be prepared from A. It controls the rate of childbirth.
95% of ethanol by B. It discourages couples from
A. fractional distillation of 95 % ethanol having children.
B. crystallisation of 95 % ethanol C. It helps the mother to restore her
C. extraction of 95 % ethanol with health before another child is
benzene born.
D. distilling a calculated amount of D. It helps couples to have the
mixture of benzene and 95 % ethanol number of children they can look
after.
69. Which of the following sets of elements
can be extracted from their ores by 73. The left ventricle of the heart has the
reduction with carbon? thickest wall because
A. Ca, Al and Pb B. Fe, Pb and Zn A. it is the largest camber of the
C. La, Mg and Na D. Mg, Cu and Fe heart.
B. it requires much pressure to pump
70. During bread making, yeast is added as blood to the heart.
an ingredient because it C. the blood, which gets into the left
A. gives the bread a peculiar flavour. ventricles, is under low pressure.
B. helps to preserve the bread. D. the left ventricle has to pump
C. reduces the sugar content to an blood to all parts of the body.
acceptable level.
D. produces CO2, which causes the 74. In the hydrocarbon structure below,
dough to rise. how many carbon atoms are in the
longest chain?
71. In the preparation of local soap, the
ash of plantain peels or cocoa pods is
added to palm oil to
A. thicken the oil.
B. give the colour of the soap.
C. provide alkali to saponify the oil. A. 3 B. 4 C. 5 D. 7
D. give the soap a present smell.
75. In certain breed of dogs, brown fur is
72. Which of the following statements is dominant over white fur. What is the
not a reason why family planning is possible genotype of a dog with brown
encouraged? fur, which produces a white puppy?
664
A. BB B. BW C. Bw D. Bb C. adrenaline. D. testosterone.
76. The part of the eye responsible for 81. Antagonistic muscles are known to
changing the size of the pupil is called A. react fast to stimuli.
A. Iris. B. lens. B. relax at the same time.
B. Retina. D. cornea. C. alternately contract and relax.
D. avoid resistance to stimuli.
77. Which of the following parts of the
brain is responsible for memory? 82. In a simple electrical circuit, the
A. Hindbrain voltage supply is 3.0 V. if the total
B. Cerebrum resistance in the circuit is 6 Ω,
C. Cerebellum calculate the current in the circuit.
D. Medulla oblongata A. 0.5 A B. 2.0 A
B. 12.0 A D. 18.0 A
78. All the following are continuous
variations in human being which can 83. The following statements are all
be measured except reasons why air is a mixture except
A. weight of pupils in a class. A. there is no chemical formula for
B. height of pupils in a class. air.
C. number of red blood cells per B. the constituents of air are not in a
cubic millimetres of blood. fixed proportion.
D. ability of pupils to roll their C. air has weight and occupies
tongues. volume.
D. the constituents of air can be
79. The following are all methods of separated by physical means.
maintaining sanitation in a community
except 84. The velocity of sound in steel is 500
A. cleaning of gutters. ms-1. If the wavelength of the sound is
B. weeding around houses. 0.2 m, calculate its frequency.
C. draining of stagnant water. A. 100 Hz B. 250 Hz
D. fitting of mosquito nets on houses. C. 1000 Hz D. 2500 Hz
80. Cretinism in children result from the 85. Which of the following is not a
deficiency of the hormone magnetic material?
A. insulin. B. thyroxin. A. Iron B. Nickel
665
C. Cobalt D. Magnesium A2(g) + 3B →2AB3(g) ΔH = -X kJ mol-1
86. Copper sulphate solution and few I. The equation is exothermic

drops of sodium hydroxide solution II. Increase in pressure increases the
were added to food substance and rate of forward reaction.
shaken. A violet colour was observed. III. Introduction of more A2(g)
Which food substance was present? decreases the concentration of
A. Fat B. Sugar AB3(g)
C. Starch D. Protein
A. I and III only
87. A tissue is defined as B. II and III only
A. a group of cells performing a C. I and II only
function. D. I, II and III
B. different types of cells performing
the same function. 90. When white light is dispersed, the
C. a group of cells specialized to following colours are observed except
perform the same function. A. Orange. B. yellow.
D. a group of similar cells, which C. Green. D. magenta.
perform the same function.
91. Which of the following instruments is
88. Two liquids X and Y of relative not used for the purpose stated for it?
densities 0.8 and 0.6 respectively are A. Spring balance measures the
mixed with water W. which of the mass of a body.
following mixture arrangements will B. Thermometer is used to measure
occur? the degree of hotness or coldness
of a body.
C. Vernier callipers are used to
measure the internal and external
diameters of cylindrical objects.
D. Micrometer screw gauge is used
to measure small diameters.
92. Which of the following is classified as

89. Which of the following statements are an energy-giving food?
true of the equation below? A. Egg B. Rice
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C. Beef D. Fish C. refraction, its virtual, erect and of

the same size as the object.
93. Which of the following are stages in D. reflection, its virtual, erect and of
the manufacture of soap? the same size as the object.
I. Saponification
II. Salting out 97. Which of the following is/ are
III. Washing with water source(s) of electricity?
IV. Distillation I. Dynamo
II. Battery
A. I and II only III. Solar panel
B. I and IV only
C. II and IV only A. I only B. II only
D. I, II and III only C. III only D. I, II and III
94. A body of mass 2.5 kg is raised 4.0 m 98. Which of the following devices
above the ground. Calculate the work operate by going through the
done. [g = 10 ms-2] following energy transformations?
A. 1.0 J B. 10.0 J Electrical energy → magnetic energy
C. 25.0 J D. 100.0 J →kinetic energy → sound energy
A. Electric fan B. Electric kettle
95. Which of the following instruments C. Electric bell D. Transformer
does not depend on pressure for its
operation? 99. All the following may produce acid
A. Siphon B. Force except
pump A. muscles.
C. Thermometer D. Barometer B. grapefruit.
C. fats and oils.
96. Which of the following is not true of D. ash from cocoa husk.
the image formed by an object placed
in front of a plane mirror? The image 100. In which of the following
is formed by instruments are lenses not employed?
A. refraction, its virtual, inverted and A. Microscope
of the same size as the object. B. Spectacles
B. reflection, its real, erect and of the C. Terrestrial telescope
same size as the object. D. Pinhole camera
667
101. Which of the following statements D. Surface area of calcium carbonate

about the components of a thermos
flask is true? 105. The main disadvantage in the use of
A. The silvery surface of the glass iron in the construction industry is that
reduces heat loss by radiation. it
B. The glass material reduces heat A. is too soft. B. is too hard
loss by convection. C. is too bulky D. corrodes easily
C. The stopper reduces heat loss by
radiation. 106. Consider the equilibrium reaction
D. The vacuum reduces heat loss by below:
radiation. N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) + heat energy.
102. Isotopes of a particular elements Which of the following will happen

have the same when the temperature of the reaction is
A. mass number lowered?
B. atomic mass. A. The equilibrium will shift to the
C. atomic number. right.
D. number of neutrons. B. The equilibrium will stop
completely.
103. A substance which has a pH of 1.5 C. The equilibrium will shift to the
is considered as a left.
A. strong acid. B. weak acid. D. The equilibrium will remain the
C. strong base. D. weak base. same.
104. It took 5 minutes for a lump of 107. The alloy duralumin contains
calcium carbonate to react with HCl A. copper and aluminium.
but 3 minute for the same mass of B. B. zinc and aluminium.
powdered calcium carbonate to C. chromium and aluminium.
undergo same reaction. Which of the D. D. tin and aluminium.
following factors accounts for the
differences in the reaction rates? 108. Semiconductors are used in the
A. Temperature of the system manufacture of
B. Volume of the system A. magnets. B. transformers.
C. Concentration of calcium C. transistors D. electric cables.
carbonate
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109. Fats and oils are the esters formed C. I and II only D. II and III only
from the reaction between
A. glycerine and long chain fatty 114. Light ray passes from glass to air at
acids. a certain angle of incidence. If the
B. glycerol and long chain fatty refracted ray lies along the glass-air
acids. interface, the angle of incidence is
C. glycerine and sodium hydroxide. called
D. glycerol and sodium hydroxide A. contact angle.
B. angle of deviation.
110. Which of the following is not a C. critical angle
fractional distillation of petroleum? D. angle of emergence.
A. Ethanol B. Kerosene
C. Diesel D. Butane 115. The distance between two
successive compressions of sound
111. The following are all synthetic wave is its
polymers except A. pitch. B. frequency.
A. nylon. B. polythene. E. wavelength. D.
C. cellulose. D. polystyrene. amplitude.
112. A body of mass 4 kg absorbs 2.0 x 116. Which of the methods listed below
105 J of heat. If its temperature is raised is not used in the purification of water?
by 25 oC, calculate the specific heat A. Boiling B. Distillation
capacity of the body. C. Sterilization D. Fermentation
A. 2.0 x 103 Jkg-1K-1
B. 5.0 x 104 Jkg-1K-1 117. What is the systematic name of the
C. 8.0 x 106 Jkg-1K-1 compound whose structure is given
D. 1.3 x 106 Jkg-1K-1 below?
113. Which of the following confirms

that light travels in a straight line?
I. Absorption of light
II. Eclipse of the sun
III. Shadow formation
A. 1,2 - dichlorobutene
A. I only B. III only B. B. 1.2 – dichlorobut-2-ene
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C. Trans–1,2dichlorobut-2-ene A. Worm infestation

D. D. cis1,2 dichlorobut-2-ene B. Stomach ache
C. Presence of blood in urine
118. Which of the following factors will D. Reduction in body temperature
not change the position of an
equilibrium reaction? 122. The number of positive charges on
I. Temperature an alpha particle is
II. Concentration A. 2. B. 3. C. 4. D. 6.
III. Nature of reactants
A. III only B. I and II only 123. A farming practices that is most
B. II and III only D. I, II and III effective for the maintenance of soil
fertility is
119. Water was added to a quantity of A. monocropping. B. ploughing.
soil and the mixture shaken and C. terracing. D. weeding.
filtered. When red litmus solution was
added to the filtrate, the filtrate turned 124. Which of the following compounds is a
blue. The result shows that the soil is hydrocarbon?
A. C2H6 B. C6H12O6
A. acidic B. alkaline C. C2H5OH D. CH3COOH
C. clayey D. neutral
125. A chemical substance that can be
120. The structural representation of 3- used in the laboratory to distinguish an
methylbutan-2-ol is alkaline from alkene is
A. hydrochloric acid.
B. bromine water.
C. cobalt chloride paper.
D. anhydrous copper sulphate.
126. A particle changed its velocity from

10 ms-1 to 15 m-1 in 8 seconds.
Determine its acceleration.
A. 0.63 ms-2 B. 1.25 ms-2
C. 1.66 ms-2 D. 4.00 ms-2
121. Which of the following conditions 127. Which of the following bones form
is a symptom of food poisoning? the axial skeleton in humans?
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I. limb and limb girdle. C. Some will be black and some will
II. The vertebral column be black.
III. The skull D. They will be partly white and
IV. Ribs and sternum partly black.
A. I and II only B. I and III only 131. A simple electrical circuit has a
C. II and III only D. II and IV only voltage supply of 12 V. If the total
resistance in the circuit is 6 ,
128. A farming method that is regarded determine the current in it.
as environmentally friendly is A. 0.5 A B. 2.0 A
a. bush burning C. 6.0 A D. 18.0 A
b. land rotation.
c. organic farming. 132. Steel is preferred to pure iron for
d. shifting cultivation. constructional work because
A. steel is more shiny that iron.
129. Which of the following statements B. iron possess more health hazard
about the absorption of heat by a than steel.
substance are correct? C. steel is malleable while iron is
I. The quantity of heat in the substance brittle.
increases. D. steel is cheaper than iron.
II. The molecules of the substance move
faster. 133. Which of the following
III. The volume of the substance relationships represents a food chain in
changes. a fish pond?
A. Phytoplankton→zooplankton→
A. I and II only B. I and III only tilapia→catfish
C. II and III only D. I, II and III B. Zooplankton→phytoplankton→
tilapia→catfish
130. A homozygous black rabbit is C. Phytoplankton→zooplankkton→
mated to a white mouse. If the black catfish→tilapia
colour is dominant to white colour, D. Zooplankton→phytoplankton→
determine the colour of the young catfish→tilapia
rabbit.
A. All will be black.
B. All will be white.
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Use the illustration of the hazard A. 840 B. 3,700 4,000 D. 9,000

symbol below to answer questions 134
and 135. 138. Heat is generated in the human
body during the process of
A. defraction. B.
expiration.
C. shivering. D. sweating.
139. Water is heated in a sauce pan from 20

o
134. If the hazard symbol is shown on a C to 80 oC. The heating results in
bottle of a regeant bottle, it implies that increase in the
the content is A. rate of evaporation.
A. corrosive. B. irritant. B. mass of water.
C. density of water.
C. oxidizing. D. radioactive. D. number of water molecules.
135. An example of a chemical 140. Fingerlings are stored for 24 hours

substance that is associated with this before transportation in order to
symbol is A. reduce faecal contamination.
A. ethanol. B. reduce overcrowding.
C. ensure healthy growth.
B. calcium oxide.
D. enhance pond fertilization.
C. mercury.
D. potassium hydroxide. 141. An observer sees a distant flash of
lightening before hearing the
136. A sharp knife cuts deeper into a accompanying thunder because
piece meat than a A. light travels at a faster speed than
blunt one because the sound.
A. sharp knife exerts less pressure. B. light waves have lower frequency
B. sharp knife has a greater area of than sound
contact. Waves
C. blunt knife has a smaller area oof C. sound waves experience resistance
contact. in the cloud.
D. blunt knife exerts less pressure. D. the source of the thunder is farther
away from the observer.
137. If the cock to hen ratio on a farm is
1:15, determine the number of cocks
required to serve 60,000 hens.
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142.Which of the following substances is A. Ammonia B. Carbon dioxide

present in both glomerular filtrate and C. citric acid D. Hydrochloric
urine of a healthy person? acid
A. amino acids B. blood protein
C. glucose D. urea 148. The level of classification that
embraces the largest number of
143.A solution of 250 cm3 HCl has a organisms is the
concentration of 2 mol dm-3. A. class. B. genus.
Determine the number oof moles of C. order. D. phylum.
the acid.
A. 0.25 moles B. 0.50 moles 149. All the following characteristics of a
C. 1.00 moles D. 1.50 moles poultry egg are determined by the feed
except the
144.A soft magnet is the type which A. shape. B. shell colour.
A. maintains its magnetism C. size. D. yolk colour.
permanently.
B. can be demagnetize with ease. 150. Carbon monoxide is poisonous to
C. can easily be cut into smaller humans when inhaled because it
pieces. A. enters the brain and kills the nerves.
D. attracts other magnetic materials. B. enters the stomach and induces
vomiting.
145.Which of the following conditions in C. blocks the path of oxygen with the
humans is a symptom of blood.
schistosomiasis? D. causes severe headache.
A. Blood in urine B. Cataract
C. chest pains D. Constipation 151. When ammonium salt is heated
gently, it changes from
146.Seed is the planting material for the A. gas to liquid. B. liquid to gas.
propagation of all the following crops C. solid to gas. D. solid to liquid.
except
A. citrus. B. cocoa. 152. An important factor that influences
C. oil palm. D. plantain. the choice of site for a fish pond is
A. Nature of the soil.
147. Which of the following substances is B. Gradient of the landscape.
a anaturally occurring weak acid? C. availability of shade.
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D. nearness to the settlement. A. esterification. B. fermentation.

153. A quantity of water of mass 4.0 g at a C. hydrogenation. D. neutralization.
temperature 50 oC was mixed
thoroughly with 6.0 g water at 15 oC. 159. Which of the following layers of soil
Determine the final temperature of the contains the largest population of
mixture. living organisms?
[Specific heat capacity of water is A. Top soil B. Subsoil
4200 J kg-1 oC-1] C. Parent material D. Bedrock.
A. 29oC B. 35oC C. 44oC D. 55 oC
160. If the temperature of a substance is
154. Which of the following statements 30oC, determine the equivalent
about anaerobic respiration is correct? temperature on the Kelvin scale.
A. Carbon dioxide and water are [Take absolute temperature to be
produced. 273K]
B. Oxygen gas is released. A. 240K B. 270K C. 300 K
C. Oxygen gas is used up. D.330K
D. Glucose is broken down.
161. The part of the brain responsible for
155. Soap may produce an etching effect involuntary activities is
on the skin when it contains excess A. cerebral cortex. B. hypothalamus.
A. alkali. B. alkanol. C. optic lobe. D. pituitary gland.
C. glycerol. D. oil.
162. Which of the following conditions is
156. The level of classification that embraces likely to cause an epidemic in a
the largest number of organisms is the community?
A. class. B. genus.
C. order. D. phylum. I,. Poor ventilation
II. living in a room with pests
157.Aluminium is used in III. poor sanitation
A. the extraction of gold.
B. making coins. A. I and II only B. I and III only
C. the manufacture of ammonia. C. II and III only D. I, II and III
D. making household utensils.
163. Water is heated in a sauce pan from
158. An example of biotechnological 20 oC to 80 oC. The heating results in
process is increase in the
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A. rate of evaporation. 167. The main reason for conducting

B. mass of water. blood tests on patients before carrying
C. density of water. out blood transfusion is to
D. number of water molecules. A. Select blood which has enough
antibodies.
164. When a potted seedling is stored in a B. determine the percentage of active
cupboard for 12 hours, it loses all the red blood cells.
starch in its leaves because C. avoid giving them incompatible
A. the starch is converted to glucose in blood.
the dark. D. diagnose the disease in them.
B. the starch is oxidized to liberate
energy. 168. When a cube of sugar is treated with
C. heat in the cupboard causes the concentrated sulphuric acid, a black
starch to melt. product is formed due to
D. darkness destroys the starch A. dehydration. B. esterification.
completely. C. oxidization. D.
neutralization.
165. Immunization of farm animals results
in the production of 169. Poor sanitation enhances the spread
A. antibodies. of the disease known as the
B. antigens. A. asthma. B. bilharzias.
C. red blood cells. C. cholera. D. onchocerciasis.
D. white blood cells
170. Which of the following services are
166. Which of the following factors will provided by farm animals?
affect the boiling and freezing points I. Traction for farmwork
of water? II. raw material for shoe factory
A. Adhesive forces molecules and III. raw material for herbicides
container
B. density of water A. I and II only B. I and III only
C. atmospheric pressure C. II and III only D. I, II and III
D. surface tension
171. A wave of wavelength 40.0 m moves
at a speed of 440 ms-1. Determine the
frequency of the wave.
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A. 0.01 Hz B. 11.00 Hz 177. Which of the following conditions is a

C. 99.00 Hz D. 440.00 Hz symptom of food poisoning?
A. Worm infestation
B. Stomach ache
172. Which of the following diseases is C. Presence of blood in urine
associated with the liver in humans? D. Reduction in body temperature
A. Appendicitis B. Arteriosclerosis
C. Bronchitis D. Cirrhosis 178. The hedge plant can be made to
grow more lateral branches by
173. A metal block is raised to a height A. watering the plant regularly.
above ground level. The type of B. applying fertilizer to the plant.
energy possessed by the block at that C. erecting a fence to support the
height is plant.
A. chemical. B. kinetic. D. pruning the plant regularly.
C. heat. D. Potential.
179. Which of the following characteristics
174. Given that Avogadro constant is 6.02 is an example of continuous variation?
 1023, determine the number of atoms A. Blood group B. Sickle cell
in 0.01 mole of a substance. C. Skin colour D. Tongue rolling
A. 6.02 x 1020 atoms
B. 6.02 x 1021 atoms 180. The electron configuration of sodium
C. 6.02 x 1023 atoms is
D. 6.02 x 1026 atoms A. 2, 1, 8 B. 2, 2, 7
C. 2, 7, 2 D. 2, 8, 1
175. The gestation period in the
reproduction cycle refers to the period 181. The group to which reptiles is an
between example of is
A. ejaculation and fertilization. A. an order. B. a family.
B. fertilization and birth. C. a class. D. a genus.
C. birth and lactation.
D. fertilization and implantation. 182.The chemical compound that can
remove both types of hardness in
176. Which of the following compounds is water is
a hydrocarbon? A. NaCO3 B. NaHCO3
C. Ca(OH)2 D. Na2SO4
A. C2H6 B. C6H12O6
C. C2H5OH D. CHCOOH
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183.A liquid has relative density of 12.2. C. vanadium (V) oxide.

Calculate its density. (Density of D. nickel.
water = 1.0  103 kgm-3)
A. 1.220 kgm-3 B. 12.20 kgm-3 188.An object has a mass of 220.0 kg.
C. 122.00 kgm-3 D. 12200 kgm-3 Calculate its weight. (g = 10.0 ms-2)
A. 2200.0 N B. 220.0 N
184.The correct order used in classifying C. 2.20 N D. 0.22 N
organisms is
A. phylum, species, class, genus. 189.The causative organism of
B. phylum, class, genus, species. poliomyelitis is
C. phylum genus, species, class. A. worm. B. bacterium.
D. phylum, class, species, genus. C. protozoan D. virus.
185.The component of air used by welders 190.Ash from cocoa pod or baobab tree
is fruit, tastes bitter because it contains
A. N2. B. C2H2. C. CO2. D. O2. A. acid. B. alkali.
C. alcohol. D. salt.
186.When a hydrometer floats in a liquid,
it means that the 191.Objects are weightless in space, because
A. weight of the liquid displaced is A. the force of gravity exactly
equal to the weight of the balances weight of the objects.
hydrometer. B. there is no air.
B. density of hydrometer is equal to C. there is negligible force of gravity.
the density of the liquid. D. the upthrust on the objects is equal
C. upthrust on the hydrometer is less to the weight of the objects.
than the volume of the
hydrometer. 192.Germs enter the human body through all
D. volume of the portion of the the following except
hydrometer in the liquid is equal A. cuts in the skin. B. breathing.
to the volume of the liquid C. bites of animals. D. sneezing.
displaced.
193.The centre of gravity of a body is the
187.The catalyst used in the manufacture point
of H2SO4 in the contact process is A. where its original weight acts.
A. platinum. B. where the body can be stable.
B. iron (III) oxide. C. where the total mass of body acts.
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D. which divides the body into two 198.Gastric juice contains the enzyme
equal parts. known as
A. pepsin. B. lipase.
194.A reversible reaction attains
C. ptyalin. D. erepsin.
equilibrium when
A. the forward reaction is faster.
199.The pressure at any point in a liquid
B. both the forward and backward
A. is not affected by acceleration due
reactions are at the same rate.
to gravity.
C. the backward reaction is faster.
B. depends on its depth below the
D. a catalyst is used.
surface of the liquid.
C. is proportional to the cross
195.Lack of thyroxin in children results in
sectional area of the liquid at that
A. albinism. B. gigantism.
point.
C. cretinism. D. obesity.
D. depends on the shape of the
container.
196.Which of the following statements is
correct?
200.The ore of aluminium is called
A. Wheel barrow is an example of first
A. magnetic. B. aluminate.
class lever.
C. bauxite. D. duralumin.
B. Sugar tong is an example of third
class lever.
The table below shows the functions
C. In the second class lever the fulcrum
of four cell organelles E, F, G and H.
is in the middle.
Structure Function
D. The higher the centre of gravity of a E Connected with oxidation
the more stable it is. of food in the cell
F Site for protein synthesis
197.Large scale preparation of NH3 is G Provides support
based on the reaction: H Site for the synthesis of
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) carbohydrate
Which of the following will increase the Use it to answer questions 201 to 203.
yield of NH3?
A. Decreasing the pressure 201.The letter in the table which represents
B. decreasing the volume of H2 mitochondria is
C. Using catalyst A. E B. F C. G D. H
D. Decreasing the volume of the
reaction vessel.
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202.Which letter in the table represents A. sodium hydroxide. B. ammonia.

chloroplast? C. potassium hydroxide. D. methane.
A. H B. G C. F D. E
208.A leaf was heated in alcohol before
203.Which of the structures from the table testing it for the presence of starch. This
are found only in a plant cell? was to
A. E and H B. E and F A. give the leaf a large surface area.
C. G and F D. G and H B. remove chlorophyll.
C. soften the leaf.
204.A body moves with a velocity of 30.0 D. ‗kill‘ the leaf.
ms-1. This speed is increased to 40.0
ms-1 in 4.0 s. Calculates the average 209.A boy pushes a stationary car. The car
acceleration of the body. moves reluctantly. This is because the
A. 17.5 ms-2 B. 8.8 ms-2 car has
C. 4.4 ms-2 D. 2.5 ms-2 A. a momentum. B. a moment.
C. an inertia. D. an impulse.
205.The following equation represents the
laboratory preparation of oxygen from 210.The general formula for alkanes is
KClO3 using MnO2 as catalyst. A. CnH2n B. CnH2n-2
2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2 C. CnH2n+1 D. CnH2n+2
The oxygen produced comes from the 211.The following features adapts a leaf for
A. KCl produced. photosynthesis except
B. The reaction between KClO3 and A. possessing of sunken stomata.
MnO2. B. having many stomata.
C. KClO3 used. C. being thin.
D. MnO2 used. D. Being flat and broad.
206.Which of the following components is 212.A hydrocarbon contains

not found in the bicycle pump? A. hydrogen and any other element.
A. Washer B. plunger B. only carbon and hydrogen.
C. Barrel D. Pivot. C. carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
D. carbon and calcium.
207.One useful bi-product from large scale E.
production of chlorine is 213.The main process by which living
things release the energy from food is
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known as 220.The purpose of the kink in the clinical

A. assimilation. B. digestion. thermometer is to
C. oxidation. D. fermentation. A. allow the expansion of the
mercury.
214.A machine does 212.0 J of work in B. compensate for the expansion of
40.0 s. calculate the power developed. the gas.
A. 8480.0 W B. 5300.0 W C. prevent the mercury from falling
C. 8.40 W D. 5.30 W back into the bulb.
D. prevent the mercury from forcing
215.Which of the following is produced the glass to crack.
from vegetable oil?
A. Cheese B. Ethanol 221.Which of the following apparatus is
C. Margarine D. Vinegar used to investigate a sample of various
plant species growing in a field?
216.A major constituent of haemoglobin is A. Pooter B. Quadrant
A. iron. B. magnesium. C. Secchi disk D. Wicker-work trap
C. phosphorus. D. sodium.
222.Which of the following is not found in
217.A lever system has a velocity ratio 4. the soil?
If an effort of 100.0 N is applied to the A. Air B. Ammonia
system to raise a load of 200.0 N, C. Mineral D. Water
calculate the efficiency of the system.
A. 50.0% B. 25.0% 223.Sand of mass 0.4 kg is heated from
C. 8.0 % D. 2.0 % 0oC to 75oC. Calculate the amount of
heat stored in the sand.
218.Which of the following is a plant (specific heat capacity of sand 800 Jkg-1
pigment? o -1
C )
A. Bile B. Chlorophyll A. 2.4 x 107 J B. 2.4 x 106 J
C. Haemoglobin D. Melanin C. 2.4 x 105 J D. 2.4 x 104 J
219.Bush fire can increase the amount of 224.The structure of capillary blood vessel is
atmospheric related to its function by being
A. carbon (IV) oxide. A. Thick walled. B. thick and elastic.
B. chlorofluorocarbons. C. Thin walled. D. Very large.
C. hydrogen.
D. oxygen.
680
225.Which of the following statements is/ 229.A ball and socket joint in the body
are correct? allows for
I. Mercury thermometers cannot be A. circular movement.
used below -40 oC. B. gliding movement.
II. Alcohol thermometers cannot be C. side of side movement.
used in conditions below -40 oC. D. up and down movement only.
III. Mercury expands six times as
alcohol. 230.Nitrogen from the atmosphere gets
into the soil by the action of
A. I only B. II only A. burning. B. fungi.
C. III only D. I and II only C. microbes D. rain.
226.Burning wood in limited supply of air is 231.A object is placed vertically on the
likely to produce axis of a converging lens of focal
A. carbon (II) oxide. length 20.0 cm. If the object distance
B. carbon (IV) oxide. is 30.0 cm, calculate the
C. nitrogen dioxide. magnification of the image.
D. sulphur (IV) oxide. A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4
227.Which of the following methods is not 232.Carbon dioxide is transported in the

internationally recommended for the blood in the form of
control of population growth? A. bicarbonate ions.
A. Use of condom B. carbon (IV) oxide.
B. Abortion C. carbonate ions.
C. Intra-uterine devise D. carboxy-haemoglobin.
D. Coitus interrupt
233.Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is
228.At times, during the eclipse, the tip of obtained from crude petroleum by
the umbra fails to reach the earth‘s A. chromatography.
surface. In such a case we have B. crystallization.
A. eclipse of the sun. C. distillation.
B. eclipse of the moon. D. filtration.
B. partial eclipse.
C. annular eclipse. 234.The result of mixing red light and
green light is
A. yellow light. B. cyan light.
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C. blue light. D. magenta light. 239.Which of the following is a property

of X-ray that is used in medical
235.The main advantage of sexual diagnosis?
reproduction over asexual A. Ionizing power
reproduction is that sexual B. Magnetizing power
reproduction C. Penetrating power
A. is quicker than asexual D. Diffracting power.
reproduction.
B. provides more offspring than 240.Which of the following statements
asexual reproduction. about fertilization in humans is true?
C. brings about more variation than A. Only one egg is fertilized at a time.
asexual reproduction. B. It can occur at anytime
D. takes place at all times. C. Many sperms fertilize the ovum.
D. It always occurs inside the female.
not correct? 241. Capping is practised in yam
A. Te resistance of a semiconductor production in order to
varies with temperature. A. Prevent damage to the yam.
B. Semiconductors can be used as B. Reduce soil temperature in the
transistors. yam mould.
C. Semiconductors do not obey C. Prevent the vines from tailing on
Ohm‘s law. the ground.
D. Copper is an example of D. Increase evaporation of excess
semiconductor. water from the yam mould.
237.A by-product obtained from the 242.Which of the following devices is

manufacture of soap is indigenous?
A. glycerol. B. nylon. A. Gear wheel B. Loom
C. polythene. D. vegetable oil. C. Pulley D. Wheel barrow
238.Which of the following statements 243.An adaptation of leaves which ensures

about x-ray is not correct? They efficient photosynthesis in plants is the
A. do not affect photographic. possession of
B. travel in straight line. A. A small number of chlorophyll in
C. can detect cracks in metal. the mesophyll cells.
D. cause substances to fluoresce.
682
B. Narrow leaves with a small A. bottle will crack.

surface area for the absorption of B. bottle will warm up.
light. C. stopper would get stuck.
C. Thick leaves to store sufficient an- D. stopper would prevent the sodium
mount of water. hydroxide from absorbing moisture.
D. Thin leaves to allow easy
diffusion of carbon dioxide into 249.The crowding of chick around the
the mesophyll cells. sources of heat in a brooder house is an
indication that
244. A block and tackle pulley system has A. There is an outbreak of disease.
three fixed pulleys and two moving B. The temperature of the brooding
ones. Determine the velocity ration of house is low.
the system. C. A foreign object has come into the
A. 2 B. 3 C. 5 D. 6 brooding house.
D. There is insufficient illumination in
245.Information is fed into the computer the brooding house.
with the help of
A. hard disk drive. B. keyboard. 250.An example of a biotic factor is
C. memory. D. program A. altitude. B. humidity.
C. predation. D. rainfall.
246.Which of the following structures can
be classified as organs? 251.A human diet rich in roughage helps
A. Leaf B. Muscle prevent
C. Palisade layer D. Spermatozoa A. constipation. B. rickets.
C. scurvy. D. skin rashes.
247.Which of the following factors may
lead to early parenthood? 252.The contraction of the biceps
A. High literacy A. strengthens the arm.
B. Improved medical care B. bends the arm.
C. Poverty C. rotates the arm.
D. Sex education D. raises the arm.
248.It is not advisable to cover a glass 253.The S.I unit of work is

bottle containing sodium hydroxide A. A B. J C. N D. W
with a glass stopper because the
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254.A disadvantage of artificial B. glucose and oxygen.

insemination in livestock production is C. Oxygen and carbon dioxide.
that D. water and glucose.
A. the growth and development of
offspring is retarded. 259.A collection of data that can
B. there could be high rate of immediately be assessed and operated
vulnerable diseases. by a data processing system for a
C. the cost of storage and specific purpose is called
transportation of semen may be A. database. B. data series.
high. C. data store D. data time.
D. the cost of transporting animals to
the farm may be high. 260.Large scale tree planting can be used
to reduce air pollution brought about
255.Which of the following organisms can by
act on carbohydrate to produce A. CO2. B. CO.
alcohol? C. dust particles. D. sulphur dioxide.
A. Algae B. Bacteria
C. Maggot D. Yeast 261.A body of mass 2 kg floats on water. If
the density of water is 1000 kgm-3,
256.Which of the following substances is a calculate the volume of the body
common household chemical? immersed.
A. Chloroform A. 2.0 x 10-3 m3 B. 2.0 x 10-2 m3
B. Hydrochloric acid B. 5.0 x 103 m3 D. 2.0 x 102 m3
C. Iodine tincture
D. Potassium chloride 262.Which of the devices listed below are
used for harvesting fish?
257.The main function of gizzard in a I. Seine net II. Basket
domestic fowl is to III. Hook and line IV. Scoop net
A. store the feed.
B. synthesize vitamin B A. I, II and III only
C. grind the feed. B. I, III and IV only
D. secret digestive juice. C. II, III and IV only
D. I, II, III and IV
258.The products of photosynthesis are
A. Carbon dioxide and water.
684
263.An atom is said to be electrically 268.Blinking of the eye is a reflex action

neutral if because it is
A. Neutrons are in the nucleus. A. A delayed response.
B. Protons are in the nucleus. B. initiated from the cerebrum.
C. The number of protons and C. An automatic response.
neutrons in the nucleus are equal. D. under the control of the cerebellum.
D. The number of protons and
electrons are equal. 269.An example of a plant used for hedge is
A. eucalyptus.
264.Under which of the following B. pride of Barbados.
conditions will maize germinate? If they C. purple bauhinia.
are placed on D. royal palm.
A. moist cotton wool in a test tube.
B. dry cotton wool in a test tube. 270.One disadvantage in the use of steal for
C. cotton wool covered with water construction is that it
having oil at the surface. A. is ductile. B. is malleable.
D. moist cotton wool in a test tube C. rusts. D. shines.
immerses in ice cubes.
271. Which of the following pieces of
265.Exhaled air may readily put off a evidence supports evolution?
burning candle because it contains high A. Body structure of organisms.
levels of B. existence of amphibians.
A. oxygen and nitrogen. C. Fossil records of organisms
B. nitrogen and heat. D. legends of the different races.
C. heat and oxygen.
D. carbon dioxide and moisture. 272. An athlete of mass 60 kg runs at a
velocity of 8 ms-1. Calculate the
266.A gas which gives off a ‗pop sound with kinetic energy of the athlete.
a glowing splint is A. 4.90 x 102 J B. 1.92 x 103 J
A. ammonia. B. carbon dioxide. C. 7.84 x 103 J D. 1.44 x 1024 J
C. oxygen. D. hydrogen.
273.An important characteristic usually
267.The substance present in food which considered when selecting grass for
makes the tooth strong is lawn is its ability to
A. calcium. B. carbohydrate. A. Withstand regular cutting.
C. protein. D. vitamin B.
685
B. withstand flooding. A. consists of naturally occurring

C. Produce many seeds. monomers.
D. resist pest attack. B. is found in most local food
substances.
274.The rate at which green plants release C. is not easily digestible.
carbon dioxide during the night is D. can be converted into glucose.
higher than that during the day
because 279.Which of the following solvents may
A. Light inhibits respiration. be used as an antiseptic?
B. stomata are closed during the day. A. Ammonia solution
C. Darkness is required for B. Kerosene
respiration. C. Methylated spirit
D. The carbon dioxide produced D. Turpentine
during the day is used up.
280.The head of the humerus is connected
275.Which of the following food to the scapula by
substances will react with iodine A. hinge joint.
solution to produce blue-black colour? B. pivot joint.
A. Cassava B. Meat C. gliding joint.
C. Orange D. Vegetable oil D. ball and socket joint.
276.The binomial system of nomenclature 281.Which of the following materials is

was developed by magnetic?
A. Aristotle. B. Linnaeus A. Brass B. Copper
C. Mendel D. Watson. C. Glass D. Nickel
277.The directory of a computer contains 282.Which of the following factors is

A. names, sizes and dates of files. usually considered when selecting a
B. names, sizes and uses of files. site for a fish pond?
C. names make-up and dates of files. A. Presence of tall trees to provide
D. names, make-up and uses of files. shade for the fish.
B. Presence of loam in the soil at the
278.Starch is an example of a natural site.
polymer because it C. Proximity to a source of market.
D. Proximity to a feed mill.
686
283.The frequency of a sound wave is 20 287.Which of the following diseases can be

Hz. If it has a wavelength of 0.4 m, controlled by injecting patient with
calculate the speed of the wave. insulin?
A. 50.0 ms-1 B. 40.0 ms-1 A. Asthma B. Diabetes
C. 20.0 ms-1 D. 8.0 ms-1 C. Goitre D. Pneumonia
Use the information below to answer 288.The main reason for providing vents,
questions 284 and 285. high in the walls of buildings is to
The following are metabolic waste allow
products: A. a warm humid air in the room to
I. water II. Mineral salt escape.
III. Urea IV. Carbon dioxide B. fresh cool air to flow into the
room.
284.Which of the products above are C. more light to enter the room.
excreted through the skin? D. bad odour in the room to escape.
A. I and II only
B. I and III only 289.In the computer science, DOS stands
C. I, II and III only for
D. II, III and Iv only A. digital operating system.
B. direct operating system.
285.The product resulting from the C. disk operating system.
breakdown of protein is D. distinct operating system.
A. I B. II C. III D. IV
290.Which of the following methods is a
286.When detecting the odour of a substance chemical means of birth control?
it is not advisable to bring the substance A. Condom B. Diaphragm
very close to the nose because some C. The pill D. Vasectomy
chemicals
A. are highly flammable. 291.The function of the cervical vertebrae
B. are poisonous. is to
C. are volatile. A. allow the sliding movement.
D. have some pungent smell. B. protect the heart and lung.
C. provide support for the skull.
D. provide surface for attachment of
thoracic muscles.
687
292.Which of the following industries can 296.To which of the following kingdoms
be termed as a large scale industry? do microscopic unicellular organism
A. Leather tanning with nucleus enclosed in a membrane
B. Local soap production belong?
C. Kente weaving A. Animalia B. Plantae
D. production of tetraoxosulphate C. Prokaryotae D. Protoctista
(VI) acid
297.Which of the following are the reasons
293.Which of the following statements for growing ornamental plants?
about mercury as a thermometric A. Provision of shade
liquid is true? B. Serving as wind break
A. It has a low heat capacity. C. Improvement of the nutrient status
B. It is colourless. of the soil
C. It does not vaporize. D. Beautification of the environment
D. It has high density.
298.The kidneys are connected to the
294.Which of the following tools is a urinary bladder by the
second class lever? A. renal artery. B. sphincter muscle
A. A pair of tongs C. ureter D. urethra
B. Bread knife
C. Claw hammer 299.Which of the following statements
D. Nut cracker about artificial satellites is true? They
are
295.When diluting concentrated A. Used to transmit visible light to
tetraoxoxulphate (VI) acid, it is other countries.
advisable to add the acid slowly to the B. Used occasionally as weapons of
water while stirring continuously mass destruction.
because C. Used to transmit information from
A. the acid does not dissolve easily in one place to another.
water. D. Filled occasionally with fossil
B. the acid and water mixture can fuel.
explode.
C. heat is absorbed during the 300.Which of the following cultural
reaction. practices conserves the soil?
D. the water has a low density. A. Cover cropping
688
B. Crop rotation 307.Silicon is an example of elements that

C. Mechanised farming can be used for
D. Shifting cultivation A. electrolytes. B. insulators.
C. thermostats. D. transistors
301.Which of the following activities is a
reflex action? 308.Hairs found on the epidermis of leaves
A. Reading a book are meant for
B. Shedding of tears A. absorbing water vapour.
C. Singing B. breathing.
D. Talking C. preventing water loss.
D. resisting bush fires.
302.The leghorn is a breed of
A. cattle. B. fowl. 309.Which of the following
C. pig. D. rabbit. electromagnetic radiations has the
lowest frequency?
303.Which of the following factors affect A. γ – ray
the loudness of sound? B. X – ray
A. Amplitude B. Frequency C. Ultra-violet ray
C. Velocity D. Wavelength D. Radio wave
304.A suitable method of reducing erosion 310.Which of the following diseases is

on hilly lands is by caused by bacteria?
A. applying organic manure. A. Cerebrospinal meningitis
B. erecting barriers B. Measles
C. creating wind breaks. C. Poliomyelitis
D. terracing. D. Yellow fever
305.One characteristic of fungi is the 311.All the following statements in

possession of Dalton‘s atomic theory have been
A. chlorophyll. B. mycelia. modifies in recent years except
C. roots. D. stem. A. All elements are made up of tiny
indivisible particles called atoms.
306.Anaemia in piglets is caused by B. Atoms cannot be created,
deficiency in destroyed or sub-divided.
A. calcium. B. iodine.
C. iron. D. sodium.
689
C. Atoms of the same element have C. reticulum D. rumen.

the same mass.
D. Atoms of different elements have 316.The true stomach is labelled
different properties and different A. I B. II C. III D. IV
masses.
317.The function of the part labelled II is to
312.When ammonium chloride salt is A. mix the ingested food with saliva.
heated gently, it changes from B. digest cellulose in blood.
A. gas to liquid. B. liquid to gas. C. absorb the digested food.
C. solid to gas. D. solid to liquid. D. store excess carbohydrates as
glycogen.
313.Land breeze is a result of
A. Conduction. B. convection. 318.An open place around a house when
C. Evaporation. D. radiation. grass is established is referred to as
A. bed. B. border.
314.The type of erosion in which large C. garden. D. lawn
channels form on the soil surface is
referred to as 319.Isotopes of the same element have all
A. Gully erosion. the following characteristic in common
B. rill erosion. except having the same
C. Sheet erosion. A. number of protons.
D. splash erosion. B. number of electrons.
C. number of neutrons.
The diagram below illustrates a part D. atomic number.
of the digestive system of a goat. Study
it carefully and answer the questions 320.During the formation of rainbow, the
315 to 318. rain droplets that hung in the sky serve
as
A. a screen against poisonous gas.
B. a medium of dispersing light.
C. a screen against ultra-violet rays.
D. the source of colour for the
rainbow.
315.The part labelled III is the
A. abomasums B. omasum. 321.Mastitis disease of cattle is caused by
690
A. bacteria. B. fungi 327.It is advisable to use the slit method of

C. protozoa. D. viruses. fertilizer application in very humid
regions in order to
322.A fruit in which the pappus has been A. facilitate the absorption of
modified into a parachute is likely to nutrients by plants.
be dispersed by B. meet with the seasonal rainfall.
A. Explosion. B. mammal. C. reduce the rate of fertilizer
C. Water. D. wind. leaching.
323.Which of the following services are D. ensure early maturation of crops.
supplied by farm animals?
I. Tractor for farm work. 328.Which of the following devices
II. Raw material for shoe industry. employ lenses for its function?
III. Raw material for herbicides. A. Driving mirrors
A. I and II only B. I and III only B. Microscope
C. II and III only D. I, II and III C. Periscope
D. Pinhole camera
324.Which of the following substances is
formed when an alkanoic acid reacts 329.Which of the following substances is
with an alkanol? an example of naturally occurring
A. Alkane B. Alkanoate weak acid?
B. Alkene D. Alkyne A. Ammonia
B. Citric acid
325.Anthrax disease is caused by C. Hydrochloric acid
A. bacteria. B. fungi D. Sulphuric acid
C. protozoa D. Viruses
330.Fast moving vehicles overturn when
326.Programmes that sneakily copy negotiating curves because of
themselves onto disks used in the A. adhesive force.
floppy disk drive and cause damage to B. centripetal force.
other programmes are referred to as C. frictional force.
A. database. B. graphics. D. tensional force.
C. spreadsheet D. viruses.
331.Which of the following substances is
present in both glomerular and urine of
a healthy person?
691
A. Amino acids B. Blood proteins 336.A crane scoops up a tonne of gravels

C. Glucose D. Urea and moves it to a height of 40.0 m in 10
s. determine the power of the crane.
332.Which of the following peripherals of [Take g = 10 ms-2]
a computer is an input device? A. 0.40 kW B. 4.0 kW
A. Scanner B Speaker C. 40.0 kW D. 400.0 kW
C. Plotter D. Printer
337.Which of the following compounds will
333.Which of the following reasons does not accept hydrogen ion in solution?
account for the ability of carbon to form A. H2SO4 B. CH3COOH
numerous compounds? C. NH3 D. NaCl
A. The exhibition of allotropes
B. The exhibition of isomerism. 338.Which of the following crops require a
C. Formation of covalent linkage with sufficient supply of shade for it young
other elements. plantation?
D. Formation of carbon-carbon A. Cocoa B. Oil palm
linkage. C. Pawpaw D. Pineapple
334.Which of the following relationships 339.The mass of an object is 24.0 g on earth.

represent food chain in a fish pond? What will be its mass on the moon, it
A. Phytoplankton → zooplankton the acceleration due to gravity on the
→tilapia → catfish 1
moon is that on the earth?
6
B. Zooplankton → phytoplankton →
A. 114.0 kg B. 96.0 kg
tilapia →catfish
C. 24.0 kg D. 4.0 kg
C. Phytoplankton →zooplankton
→catfish → tilapia
340.The concentration of industries in urban
D. Zooplankton → phytoplankton →
areas may
catfish → tilapia
A. lead to decreased supply of goods
335.The structural formula of propane is
and services.
B. lead to high population growth in
those areas.
C. affect the energy requirement of the
country
D. disturb the ecosystem of the country.
692
341.By what process is aluminium D. surface area and depth of the

extracted from its ore? liquid.
A. Distillation
B. Electrolysis 345.Which of the following solvents is best
C. Reduction for removing dry ink stain from a
D. Washing under gravity fabric?
A. Lemon juice
342.A step-down transformer has B. Kerosene
A. equal number of coils in the C. Oxalic acid
secondary coil and primary coil. D. Warm water
B. a greater number of coils in the
primary coil than the secondary 346.A coin placed in a beaker filled with
coil. water appears to be raised 3.0 cm from
C. a greater number of coils in the the bottom. If the refractive index of
secondary coil than the primary water is 4, determine the depth of the
coil water in the beaker.
D. the number of primary coli A. 4.0 cm B. 6.0 cm
reduced by half. C. 8.0 cm D. 12.0 cm
343.In an experiment to determine the 347.A floating balloon may eventually

amount of water retained by a soil burst because
sample, 50.0 cm3 of water was poured A. its density has increased.
on the soil. It was observed that 38.0 B. the buoyant force on it increases.
cm3 of water drained through the soil. C. the magnetic force on it due to
Determine the percentage water surroundings increases
holding capacity of the soil. D. its internal pressure become
A. 24 % B. 38 % greater than that of the
B. 76 % D. 88 % surroundings.
344.The pressure in any part of a fluid 348.Which of the following factors

depends on the influence soil formation?
A. weight and volume of the liquid. I. Soil organisms
B. height and density of the liquid. II. Topography
C. mass and volume of the liquid. III. Climate
A. I and II only
693
B. I and III only 354.The bending of light at the boundary

C. II and III only between two optically different media is
D. I, II and III only caused by the
A. difference in the speed of light in
349.Calculate the mass of sodium chloride the two media concerned.
(NaCl) required to prepare 0.25 M B. inability of the light to travel from
NaCl solution in 100.0 cm3 solution. the first media to the second media.
[Na = 23, Cl = 35.5] C. rejection of the light when entering
A. 1.46 g B. 5.85 g the second media.
C. 58.5 g D. 58.75 g D. non-existence of a permanent
boundary between the two media.
350.The silvery surfaces in thermos flasks
prevent heat loss by 355.Stagnant water bodies with weeds are
A. Conduction. B. convection. potential source of the vector of the
C. Evaporation. D. radiation. organism that cause
A. cholera.
351.Using a mating ration of 1: 50, B. river blindness.
determine the number of male goats C. schistosomiasis.
required to serve 800 female goats. D. typhoid fever.
A. 6 B. 15 C. 16 D. 60
356.An object is placed 40.0 cm from a
352.The need to provide fuse and earth wire plane mirror. If the mirror is moved
when wiring houses is to 10.0 cm toward the object, through
A. protect ourselves and equipment. what distance does the object move?
B. allow current to flow in the wires. A. 40.0 cm B. 30.0 cm
C. control current flow in the wires. C. 20.0 cm D. 10.0 cm
D. enable electric bulb to light
brightly. 357.Which of the following conditions are
likely to cause an epidemic in a
353.Combustion, respiration and rusting are community?
similar processes because they all I. Poor ventilation
involve II. Living in rooms with pets
A. burning. B. corrosion III. Poor sanitation
C. oxidation D. reduction. A. I and II only
B. I and III only
694
C. II and III only A. drinking a lot of water.

D. I, II and III B. taking unbalanced diet.
C. improper chewing of food.
358.Night blindness can be prevented by D. inadequate intake of food.
A. providing enough carbohydrates. 364.The best way to get the cursor of the
B. taking in vitamin A. mouse to the next line when using the
C. injecting iron preparation. computer is to press the
D. vaccinating periodically. A. enter key. B. escape key.
C. shift key. D. tab key.
359.The non-metal among the following
element is 365.An example of a biological polymer is
A. argon. B. manganese. A. cellulose. B. Dacron.
C. mercury. D. sodium. C. nylon. D. polythene
360.Which of the following processes 366. Lime is added to soil mainly to

brings about the disintegration of a A. increase water permeability.
rock? B. destroy micro-organisms.
A. Dissociation C. remove carbonates.
B. Metamorphosis D. reduce acidity.
C. Moulting
D. Weathering 367.The heart is divided into left and right
valves by the
361.The organelle responsible for A. cardiac muscles.
respiration is B. papillary muscle.
A. endoplasmic reticulum. C. septum.
B. mitochondrion. D. tendon.
C. plasma membrane.
D. ribosome. 368.Which of the following characteristics
determine the colour of light?
362.An allow containing copper and zinc A. Amplitude B. Frequency
as it constituent elements is C. Intensity D. Velocity
A. brass. B. bronze.
C. duralumin. D. steel 369.An aqueous solution of an acid
A. liberates hydrogen with active
363.Indigestion is caused by acid.
695
B. turns red litmus blue. 375.Safety devices used in chemistry

C. has a soapy feel laboratory include
D. has a bitter taste. I. A pair of goggles
II. Nose guard
370.Sexual reproduction has more III. Crash helmet
advantages compared with asexual IV. Hand gloves
reproduction mainly because it
A. is quicker than asexual A. I, II and III only
reproduction. B. I, II and IV only
B. provides more offspring than C. II, III and IV only
asexual reproduction. D. I, II, III and IV
C. brings about variation.
D. takes place all the time. 376.All the following preparations are
required by poultry farmer before his
371.Calculate the kinetic energy of an chickens arrive except
athlete of mass 60 kg running at 8 ms-1. A. putting litter in brooder house.
A. 2.4 x 103 J B. 2.6 x 103 J B. putting feed in the feeder three days
B. 1.92 x 103 J D. 3.84 x 103 J before the chickens arrive.
C. washing the brooder house.
372.What is the value of x in the equation D. cleaning and drying the equipment in
CaCO? the brooder house.
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4
377.Organisms with their material diffused
373.Exhaled air may readily put off a in the cytoplasm belong to the
burning candle because it contains high kingdom
levels of A. animalia. B. fungi.
A. carbon dioxide and moisture. C. prokaryotae. D. protoctista.
B. heat and oxygen.
C. nitrogen 378.The struggle for survival among
D. oxygen and nitrogen. individuals of the same species arises
because
374.Which of the following crosses is a test- A. they exhibit cannibalism.
cross? B. they share the same limited
A. WW x WW B. WW x Ww resources together.
C. Ww x ww D. Ww x Ww
696
C. each individual produces a large B. an image is formed outside a plane

number of offspring. mirror.
D. each individual has an equal C. the left hand of an object becomes
chance of survival. the right hand of its image in a
plane mirror.
379.Which of the following compounds D. an image can be projected onto a
does not show covalent screen using a converging lens.
characteristics?
A. Ammonia gas 383.The organisation that provides
B. Ethanol humanitarian assistance to victims of
C. Hydrogen chloride war is the
D. Sodium chloride A. Food and agricultural
organisation.
380.Which of the following statements is B. Red cross
not true about boiling and C. United Nations Children‘s fund.
evaporation? D. World health Organisation.
A. Boling takes place throughout the
liquid. 384.A fruit that has a fibrous mesocarp
B. Evaporation takes place at the with air spaces is likely to be dispersed
surface of the liquid. by
C. Both boiling and evaporation take A. animals.
place at specific temperatures. B. explosive mechanism.
D. Evaporation results in cooling. C. water.
D. wind.
381. The tissue which is likely to stain red
when a herbaceous plant is placed in a 385.Which of the following statements is
red solution for about two hours is the not correct about X-rays?
A. cambium. B. parenehyma. A. They cause fluorescence
C. phloem. D. xylem. B. They are deflected by electric
field.
382.Lateral inversion is a phenomenon in C. They can produce ionization.
the reflection of light where D. They can be diffracted.
A. an image is turned upside down a
plane mirror. 386.Fish can be stored longest when
A. salted wet.
697
B. salted and dried. 391.In Ghana, laws and regulations which

C. smoked. prohibit abuse of the environment
D. frozen. include
A. legislation on land tenure.
387.Ornamental plants are grown for all B. legislation on soil conservation.
the following reasons except C. convention on the ozone layer.
A. beautification. B. pasture. D. laws on bush fires.
C. pleasure. D. shade.
392.Ventilation is essential in the
388.Which of the following factors construction of houses because it
influences the availability of nutrients A. creates conditions that favour the
in the soil? growth of fungi.
A. Soil depth B. Soil colour B. allows cool air to circulate in the
C. Soil consistency D. Soil pH room.
C. replaces humid stagnant air with
389.Asbestos suits are used by fire fighter dry air.
because they are D. allows bad odour in the room to
I. Heat-resistant escape.
II. Non-combustible
III. Poor conductors 393.The addition of lime (CaOH)2 in the
water treatment process is to
A. I and II only B. I and III only A. kill bacteria and other micro-
C. II and III only D. I, II and III organisms.
B. aid sedimentation of suspended
390.A poultry stockman tests his eggs at particles.
the beginning of the incubation period C. adjust the pH of the water and
in order to partially remove hardness.
A. eliminate infertile eggs. D. insure effective filtration of raw
B. know the stage of development of water.
the embryo.
C. eliminate eggs that are 394.Which of the following ingredients are
underweight. sources of protein for poultry?
D. eliminate eggs that will not hatch A. Soya bean cake and cassava meal.
in time. B. Blood meal and soya bean cake.
C. Cassava meal and blood meal.
698
D. Wheat bran and fish meal. 399.A reflex action

A. can be controlled.
395.The importance of a fuse in an electric B. depends on previous experience.
circuit is to C. depends on memory
A. provide protection against electric D. is spontaneous.
shock.
B. protect electrical appliances from 400.Which of the following statements is
being damaged. correct?
C. control electrical leakage. A. Light travels faster in water than
D. protect the house from thunder in air.
and lightening. B. Sound travels faster in air than in
wood.
396.A brooder covering 15 m2 can C. Sound waves have elastic rate
accommodate 100 chicks. How many
chicks can be kept comfortably in a 401.During a hot day, the receptors in
brooder of area 3000 m2? human skin cause
A. 300 B. 450 A. dilation of superficial blood
C. 20,000 D. 31,000 vessels.
B. constriction of superficial blood
397.Which of the following processes make vessels.
use of the beneficial effects of C. lowering of hairs on the skin.
microbes? D. a decrease in metabolic rate.
I. Baking of bread
II. Manufacturing of antibiotics 402.A system of levers has a velocity ratio
III. Brewing of beer of 5. If an effort of 10 N overcomes a
load of 40 N, what will be the
A. I and II only B. I and III only efficiency of the system?
C. II and III only D. I, II and III A. 25 % B. 60 %
C. 80 % D. 100 %
398.Determine the relative molecular mass
of Ca(OH)2. 403.The phenotypic ratio selecting the
[H = 1.0; Ca = 40.0; O = 16] offspring of a cross between
A. 42 B. 57 C. 74 D. homozygous tall and homozygous
87 short orange plant is
A. 1:1 B. 3:1
699
C. 1:2:1 D. 1:1:2 408.A block ad tackle system has fixed

pulleys and four moving ones. What is
404.A clinical thermometer is not sterilized the velocity ration of the system?
in hot water because A. 1 B. 4 C. 5 D. 9
A. a vector may contaminate it.
B. it has a narrow bore. 409.The pituitary gland is referred to as
C. water has lower boiling point. master gland because
D. it has short range of temperature. A. it secretes a lot of hormones.
405.The eradication of malaria is proving B. it secretes growth hormones.
almost impossible in the tropics C. it controls the other members of
because of the the endocrine system.
A. wide area of breeding ground for D. its hormones may cause giantism.
vector.
B. ineffectiveness of insecticides in 410.A body moves with a velocity of 30.0
use against the vector. ms-1. If the speed is increased to 40.0
C. absence of natural enemy against ms-1 in 4 seconds, calculate the
the vector. acceleration of the body.
D. presence of thick cuticle that A. 2.5 ms-2 B. 4.4 ms-2
protects the parasite. B. 8.8 ms-2 D. 17.5 ms-2
406.The point in an object where all forces 411.Which of the following substances can
acting on its particle pass is the cause temporary hardness in water?
object‘s A. Calcium hydrogen
A. centre of curvature. trioxocarbonate (IV)
B. centre of gravity. B. Calcium trioxocarbonate (IV)
C. centre of mass. C. Potassium trioxocarbonate (IV)
D. midpoint. D. Sodium trioxocarbonate (IV)
407.Which of the following chemical 412.Which of the following bores through

formulae represents lead (II) oxide? grains?
A. Pb2O B. PbO A. Aphids B. Army worms
B. PbO2. D. Pb2O4 C. Mealy bugs D. Weevils
413.If 4.52 x 105 J of heat energy was used

to vaporize 200.0 g of boiling water,
700
calculate the specific heat of A. traps heat from the solar radiation.
vaporization of the water. B. converts heat energy from solar
radiation into electrical energy.
A. 2.26 x 105 Jkg-1 C. use radiant energy to heat water.
B. 2.26 x 106 Jkg-1 D. stores solar energy.
C. 22.6 x 106 Jkg-1
D. 226 x 106 Jkg-1 420. The main sources of greenhouse gases
are
A. ammonia gas, water vapour and carbon
414.Which of the following is not associated monoxide.
with a classification system? B. carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and
A. Aristotle B. Linnaeus nitrous oxide.
C. aerosol propellants, burning of fossil
C. Mendel D. Mendeleev fuels
and methane.
415.Which of the following methods cannot D. water vapour, methane and hydrogen
be used to protect iron against rust? sulphide.
A. Enamelling B. Galvanisation
421. chromosomes of living cells are
C. Painting D. Riveting
located in the
A. cytoplasm. B. genes.
416.One advantage steel has over iron in
C. nucleus. D. ribosomes
construction is that it is
A. ductile. B. malleable.
422. friction in engines can be reduced
C. elastic. D. shiny
through
A. lubrication B. overhauling
417.The S.I unit of the moment of a force is
C. spraying D. vulcanizing
A. Kg/m B. kg m/s
C. N/m D. Nn
423. which of the following parts of the
computer is an output device? The
418. When the number of pulleys in the
block and tackle system is increased the A. plotter B. printer
I. Velocity ratio is increased. C. monitor D. scanner
II. Mechanical advantage is increased.
III. Efficiency is decreased.
424. A farming practice that promotes
Which of the statements above are correct? soil erosion is
A. I and II only B. I and III only A. bush burning.
C. II and III only D. I, II and III B. contour ploughing
419. The photovoltaic module of a solar
C. mulching
panel D. strip cropping
701
425. structures in mammals used for C. reflection of the light when entering
gaseous exchange have into the second media.
A. large volumes and well supplied D. non-existence of a permanent
with blood boundary between the two media.
vessels. 429. Which of the following practices are
B. moist surface and well supplied required in the regular maintenance of
with blood lawns?
vessels. A. cutting, rolling and pruning
C. thin walls with small surface areas. B. cutting, weeding and rolling
D. moist surface and small surface C. weeding, pruning and staking
areas. D. staking, rolling and pruning
426. The electron configuration of Use the activities listed below to

chlorine is answer questions 430 and 431.
A. 2, 7 ,8 B. 2, 7, 7 I. Incineration
C. 2, 8, 7 D. 2, 8, 2 II. biogas production
III. recycling of waste products
427. Which of the following groups of IV. Compost preparation
crops has been correctly matched to it
examples? 430. Which of the activities results in the
A. fruits → pawpaw → cashew and production of manure?
carrot A. I B. II
B. Grain legumes → soyabeans → C. III D. IV
groundnut and millet
C. cereal → maize → rice and 431. Electric power can be generated by
sorghum A. I only B. II only
D. tree crops → cocoa → cassava and C. I and III only D. II and III only
coconut
432. The malpighian body of the
428. The bending of light at the mammalian kidney consists of the
boundaries between two optically A. cortex and medulla.
different media is caused by B. glomerulus and Bowman‘s capsule.
A. inability of the light to travel. C. collecting tubules and pyramid.
B. difference in the speed of light in D. glomerulus and loop of Henlé
the two media concerned.
702
433. The IUPAC name for the compound D. presence of bacteria in the water.
437. An ecosystem can be constituted by

A. animals, non-living elements and
A. 2 – methylbromopentane. decomposers.
B. 2 – bromo – 2 – ethylpropane. B. animals, plants and non-living
C. 2 – methyl – bromobutane elements.
D. 2 – methylbutane. C. plants, decomposers and non-living
elements.
434. Which of the following factors would D. decomposers, living things and
favour the siting of an industry in a parasites.
locality?
I. ease of transportation 438. A solution with pH 9 is a
II. nearness to the market A. strong acid. B. strong base.
III. availability of raw materials C. weak acid. D. weak base.
A. I and II only B. I and III only 439. Which of the following features must
C. II and III only D. I. II and III only be present in a good fishpond?
I. an outlet
435. During bread making, yeast is added to II. grassed walls
the dough as an ingredient because it III. a screen
A. produces carbon dioxide, which causes
the dough to rise. A. I and II only B. I and III
B. gives the bread a peculiar flavour. only
C. helps to preserve the bread. C. II and III only D. I, II and III
D. reduces the sugar content to an
acceptable level. 440. Offspring tend to have the same
characteristics of their parents because
436. It is advisable to add washing soda to A. they feed on the same food as their
hard water when washing with soap parents.
because of the B. a different appearance will result in
A. dirt in the water. extinction.
B. acidity of the water. C. they inherit their genes for the
C. presence of dissolved magnesium traits.
salts. D. they must replace their like.
703
441.Which of the following safety symbols II. decrease in temperature

warns against risk of electric shock? III. increase in pressure
IV. decrease in pressure
A. I and II only B. I and III only
C. II and III only D. II and IV only
445. During the formation of rainbow, the

rain droplets that hung in the sky serve
as
A. the source of colour for the rainbow
B. a screen against ultra-violet rays.
C. a medium of dispersing light.
D. a screen against poisonous gases.
446. Pollination is the

442. Blood is returned from the lungs to A. fusion of pollen grains and the
the heart through the stigma
A. hepatic artery. B. transfer of pollen grains from the
B. hepatic portal vein. anther to the stigma.
C. pulmonary arteries. C. formation of pollen grains in the
D. pulmonary veins. anther.
D. attracting of insects and birds to the
443. An alcohol thermometer is not flower.
suitable for the determination of
boiling point of water because alcohol 447. Which of the following nutrients
A. vaporizes into the bore. B. improves the quality of the egg shell
molecules have high cohesive force. when added to the poultry feed?
C. is a transparent liquid. D has high A. calcium B. iron
specific heat capacity. C. Magnesium D. nitrogen
444. Consider the chemical equation: 448. An effort of 100.0 N is applied to a

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) + heat machine to raise a load of 400.0 N.
energy. Calculate the mechanical advantage of
the machine.
I. increase in temperature A. 0.25 B. 0.40
704
C. 2.50 D. 4.00 453. Which of the following pairs of

diseases is caused by insanitary
449. During land and sea breezes, warm air surroundings?
rises and cool air replaces it because A. bilharziasis and dysentery.
warm air B. dysentery and measles.
A. is denser than cool air. C. cholera and chicken pox.
B. has the same density as cool air. D. malaria and cholera.
C. is less dense than cold air.
D. contains more water vapour than cold 454. The use of soda lime in a
air. photosynthesis experiment is to
A. de-starch the plant.
B. absorb carbon dioxide.
450. Saliva performs the following major C. soften the plant.
functions during digestion of food except D. decolourise the leaf.
A. Making food soft and easy to swallow.
B. converting starch to maltose. 455. A ball and socket joint in the skeletal
C. providing appropriate pH medium for system of humans allows for
salivary amylase. A. circular movement.
D. enabling easy passage of food down B. gliding movement.
the oesophagus. C. side and side movement
D. up and down movement.
451. Which of the following materials is
magnetic? 456. In the electrical circuit illustrated,
A. Brass B. Copper calculate the effective resistance of the
C. Glass D. Nickel resistors.
452. Screening of blood is important before

transfusion in order to
A. determine the nutrient level of the
blood.
B. avoid giving contaminated blood. A. 60 Ω B. 90 Ω
C. purify the blood. C. 180 Ω D. 270 Ω
D. determine the concentration of oxygen
in the blood. 457. Which of the following organic
compounds undergo polymerization?
A. C2H6 B. C2H4Br2
C. C2H4 D. C3H8
705
463. Which of the following substances is

458. Bronze is preferred to copper in necessary for the manufacture of starch
making ornamental objects because it by aquatic plants?
A. is harder than copper. A. Carbon dioxide B. Mineral salts
B. is more resistant to corrosion. C. Nitrogen D. Oxygen
C. has a higher density than copper.
D. is a better conductor of electricity. 464. The concentration of industries in
urban areas of a country may
459. Which of the following A. disturb the ecosystem.
characteristics can be used to B. lead to high population growth.
distinguish between the same note C. affect the country‘s energy
played on a piano and an organ? requirement.
A. Beat B. Loudness D. lead to a decrease in the supply of
C. Pitch D. Quality goods and services
460. The vertical section through the soil 465. Using the ting ration of 1:60,
showing the distinct layers is known as determine the number if male goats
A. erosion. B. fertility. required to serve 720 female goats.
C. profile. D. structure. A. 6 B. 12 C. 15 D. 70
461. Which of the following statements 466. The number of hydrogen atoms used
about antagonistic muscles are in the hydrogenation of ethyne to
correct? They produce ethane is
A. contract and relax alternatively. A. 1. B. 2. C. 3. D. 4.
B. are resistant to stimuli.
C. relax at the same time. 467. X-rays are produced when a metal
D. react fast to stimuli. target is hit by
A. fast-moving protons.
462. A force of 30.0 N moves a body B. slow-moving electrons.
through a distance of 1.5 m in the C. fast-moving electrons.
direction of the force. Calculate the D. electromagnetic radiation.
work done.
A. 20.0 J B. 28.5 J 468. A stagnant water body with weeds is a
C. 31.5 J D. 45.0 J potential habitat of the vector that
causes
706
A. cholera. B. river blindness. D. Poor thermal conductivity

C. schistosomiasis. D. typhoid fever
474. The movement of water into a cell
469. A quantity of sand of mass 0.6 kg is causes the cell to
heated from 20oC to 75oC. Calculate the A. become flaccid.
amount of heat stored in the sand. B. become turgid.
[Specific heat capacity of sand is 800 J C. burst its cell wall.
kg-1 C-1] D. become plasmolysed.
A. 30.2kJ B. 26.4kJ
C. 42.0kJ D. 50.2 kJ 475. A boy stands 7 m away from a
vertical plane mirror and sees his
470. Which of the following compounds is image. What is the distance between
not ionic? the boy and his image?
A. magnesium oxide A. 3.5 m B. 7.0 m
B. potassium trioxonitrate (V) C. 10.5 m D. 14.0 m
C. sodium tetraoxosulphate (IV)
D. sulphur (IV) oxide 476. The part of the tooth that may be
damaged when vry hot food is put into
471. A piece of evidence that support the mouth is known as
evolution is A. dentine. B. enamel.
A. body structure of organisms. C. Gum. D. pulp cavity.
B. existence of amphibians.
C. fossil records of organisms. 477. Which of the following organs in
D. legends of the different races. human body are involved in excretion?
I. lungs
472. A small fruit whose pericarp is II. heart
expanded to form wings is likely to be III kidney
dispersed by IV. skin
A. I and II only
A. birds. B. insects.
B. II and III only
C. water. D. wind.
C. I, III and IV only
D. II, III and IV only
473. Which of the following properties is
a characteristic of a pure metal?
478. A floating balloon may eventually
A. Low melting point
burst because
B. Malleable
A. its density is increased.
C. Non-lustrous
707
B. the upthrust on it due to the 484.Which of the following structures

surrounding increases. controls the passage of substances in
C. its internal pressure becomes and out of cell?
greater than that A. Nuclear membrane
of the surroundings. B. Plasma membrane
D. the buoyant force on it increases. C. Cell wall
D. Endoplasmic reticulum
479. The unit of measurement of the
amount of substance is the 485.Pipe borne water contains chlorine
A. gram. B. kilogramme. which
C. molar mass. D. mole. A. destroys bacteria.
B. makes the water clean.
480. Diamond and graphite are C. gives taste to water.
A. allotropes. B. hydrocarbons D. neutralizes the base in water.
C. isotopes. D. polymers
486.A uniform beam of rod is pivoted in
horizontal equilibrium as shown
481.Which of the following structures do below.
all cells possess?
A. Nucleus B. Centrioles
C. Cell wall D. Large vacuole
482.Which of the following is not a Which of the following equation is

component of air? correct?
A. Oxygen A. m1y = m2x B. m1m2 = xy
B. Water vapour C. m1x = m2y D. (x+y)m = (x-y)m
C. Carbon (IV) oxide
D. Carbon (II) oxide
487.Which of the following compounds is
483.The statement, to every action there an an acid salt?
equal and opposite reaction is A. NaHSO4 B. Al2(SO4)3
A. the law of inertia. C. Mg(OH)Cl D. KAl(SO4).12H2O
B. Newton‘s first law of motion.
C. Newton‘s second law of motion. 488.Bacteria belongs to the kingsdom
D. Newton‘s third law of motion. A. animalia B. prokaryotae
C. protoctista D. Fungi
708
489.Which of the following devices does B. Kinetic energy is energy due to

not employ the application of position.
pressure? C. Light energy is measured in hertz.
A. Hydraulic press B. Siphon D. Electrical power is measured in
C. Bicycle pump D. Hydrometer Watts.
490.A salt used as a fertilizer is 494.Combustion of organic fuel increases

A. ammonium trioxocarbonate (IV). the
B. potassium trioxosulphate (IV). A. inert gases in the air.
C. ammonium tetraoxosulphate (IV). B. carbon dioxide content in the air.
D. sodium chloride. C. oxygen content in the air.
D. nitrogen content in the air.
correct? 495.Which of the following statements is/
I. Inertia and momentum are are correct about equilibrium reaction?
identical. I. Equilibrium is attained when the
II. The unit of inertia is kilogram rate of both the forward and
metre per second. backward reactions is the same.
III. Momentum is the product of mass II. Equilibrium position shifts when
and velocity. one of the equilibrium factors
change
A. I only B. II only C. III only III. A catalyst increases the rate of
D. I and II only forward and backward reactions
equally.
492.In photosynthesis, light energy is
converted to A. I, II and III B. III only
A. chemical energy. C. II only D. I only
B. heat energy.
C. potential energy. 496.A thermometer is used to measure
D. kinetic energy. A. heat energy of a body.
B. specific heat capacity.
493.Which of the following statements is C. temperature.
corrects? D. latent heat of a body.
A. Sound is a form of energy
measured in Watts.
709
497.A student adds a substance to a 499.Which of the following substances is a

reaction mixture and the rate of conductor of electricity?
reaction increases without any A. Sulphur B. Graphite
chemical change in the substance. The C. Phosphorus D. Diamond
substance added can be called
A. an oxidant. B. an reductant. 500. How much heat is needed to raise the
C. an indicator. D. a catalyst. temperature of 5.0 kg of water by 5.0
o
C?
498.In ecological study, small animals like [specific heat capacity of water is 4200
ants found on leaves and crevices can Jkg-1 oC-1]
be collected by A. 50.0 kJ B. 85.0 kJ
A. sweep net. B. pooter. C. 105.0 kJ D. 115.0 kJ
C. wicker-work trap. D. transect.
710
ANSWERS TO THE OBJECTIVE TEST

1. A 47. B 93. D 139. A 185. D 231. B 277. A 323. A 369. A 415. D 461. D
2. D 48. D 94. D 140. A 186. A 232. B 278. A 324. A 370. C 416. D 462. D
3. D 49. D 95. C 141. A 187. C 233. C 279. C 325. A 371. B 417. D 463. A
4. C 50. C 96. B 142. D 188. A 234. A 280. A 326. D 372. B 418. B 464. B
5. B 51. B 97. D 143. B 189. D 235. C 281. D 327. C 373. C 419. D 465. B
6. B 52. B 98. C 144. B 190. B 236. D 282. C 328. B 374. D 420. A 466. B
7. A 53. A 99. D 145. A 191. C 237. A 283. D 329. B 375. B 421. C 467. C
8. C 54. A 100. D 146. D 192. D 238. A 284. C 330. B 376 C 422. A 468. C
9. C 55. B 101. A 147. C 193. A 239 C 285. C 331. D 377. C 423. B 469. B
10. D 56. D 102. C 148. D 194. B 240. D 286. D 332. A 378. B 424. A 470. D
11. D 57. C 103. A 149. A 195. C 241. B 287. B 333. C 379. D 425. B 471. C
12. B 58. C 104. D 150. C 196. B 242. B 288. B 334. A 380. C 426. C 472. D
13. C 59. C 105. D 151. C 197. B 243. D 289. C 335. B 381. C 427. D 473. B
14. D 60. A 106. C 152. D 198. A 244. C 290. C 336. B 382. C 428. B 474. B
15. A 61. B 107. C 153. D 199 B 245. B 291. C 337. C 383. B 429. B 475. B
16. C 62. C 108. C 154. A 200 C 246. A 292. D 338. A 384. C 430. D 476 B
17. B 63. C 109. B 155. A 201. A 247. C 293. B 339. D 385. D 431. B 477. C
18. D 64. B 110. A 156. D 202. A 248. C 294. D 340. B 386. B 432. B 478. C
19. B 65. B 111. C 157. D 203. D 249. B 295. B 341. B 387. B 433. B 479. D
20. D 66. A 112. A 158. B 204. D 250. C 296. D 342. B 388. D 434. D 480. A
21. D 67. A 113. D 159 A 205. C 251. A 297. D 343. A 389. D 435. A 481. A
22. C 68. A 114. C 160. D 206. D 252. B 298. C 344. D 390. A 436. C 482. D
23. C 69. B 115. C 161. B 207. B 253. B 299. C 345. B 391. B 437. B 483. D
24. D 70. D 116. D 162. B 208. D 254. B 300. B 346. D 392. B 438. D 484. B
25. B 71. C 117. B 163. A 209. C 255. D 301. B 347. D 393. C 439. B 485. A
26. C 72. B 118. A 164. A 210. D 256. C 302. B 348. D 394. B 440. C 486. C
27. C 73. D 119 B 165. A 211. A 257. C 303. B 349. A 395. B 441. B 487. A
28. A 74. B 120. D 166. C 212. B 258. D 304. D 350. D 396. C 442. D 488. B
29. A 75. C 121. B 167. C 213. A 259. A 305. B 351. C 397. D 443. A 489. D
30. B 76. A 122. A 168. C 214. D 260. A 306. C 352. A 398. C 444. B 490. C
31. C 77. B 123. B 169. C 215. C 261. A 307. D 353. C 399 D 445. C 491. C
32. D 78. D 124. C 170. A 216. A 262. A 308. C 354. A 400. C 446. B 492. A
33. B 79 D 125. B 171. B 217. A 263. D 309. D 355. C 401. C 447. A 493. D
34. A 80. A 126. A 172. D 218. B 264. A 310. A 356. B 402. C 448. D 494. B
35. C 81. A 127. C 173. D 219. A 265. D 311. C 357. B 403. A 449. C 495. A
36. A 82. A 128. C 174. B 220. C 266. D 312. C 358. B 404. D 450. C 496. C
37. D 83. B 129. D 175. D 221. B 267. A 313. B 359. A 405. A 451. D 497. D
38. C 84. D 130. C 176. A 222. B 268. C 314. A 360. D 406. B 452. B 498. B
39 A 85. D 131. B 177. B 223. D 269. B 315. B 361. B 407. B 453. A 499 B
40. B 86. D 132. A 178. D 224. C 270. C 316. B 362. A 408. D 454. B 500. C
41. D 87. D 133. A 179. D 225. A 271. C 317. D 363. C 409. A 455. A
42. C 88. A 134. B 180. D 226. A 272. B 318. D 364. A 410. A 456 A
43. D 89. C 135. B 181. C 227. B 273. A 319. C 365. A 411. A 457 B
44. B 90. D 136. D 182. A 228. C 274. D 320. B 366. D 412. B 458 B
45. C 91. A 137. C 183. D 229. A 275. A 321. B 367. C 413. D 459 D
46. A 92. B 138. C 184. B 230. C 276 B 322. D 368. B 414 D 460 C
711

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1

to pursue research simply to satisfy the

Physics: Deals with the fundamental

Biology: This is referred to as the science For example, in controlling a malaria

Groups to display their work in class for

Engineering Technologist, Veterinarian, Zoologist,

Earth & Environmental Science

and development of the Internet  Albert Einstein: He was responsible

 Dr. Isaiah Blankson: Physicist;  Thomas Edison: An American inventor

iv. Test the hypothesis: Perform an Form Hypothesis

 Draw conclusion: The disease stopped The discovery of radioactivity

mould Penicillum notatum.

radioactive, and in 1899 the radioactive

6) Do not touch hot substances with bare

(e) Point the mouth and opening of test

(f) Rinse off any chemical which

system of units measurement known in

BASIC AND DERIVED UNITS

Measurement is the process of calculating

Table 1.0: Base quantities, their corresponding SI

Concept of replication of results Human values that are of importance

beam balance electronic balance lever balance

mercury barometer stop watch ammeter voltmeter

vernier calliper micrometer screw gauge surveyor’s tape

How to obtain the unit of some DENSITY

Density of regular objects

To find the density of a regular object,

Density of a Soil Sample Alternative method

Substituting: = 59.70 kg/m3

Volume of ball bearing = 1.6 m3

3. A sphere of diameter 0.8 m, has a mass

 Mass of powdered solid = M2 –M1 Since relative density =

Mass of alcohol = 7000 – 2000 = 5000g 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔 𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 2. Mention the uses of the measuring

Voltmeter 6. State the S.I unit and an instrument you

Example of non-living things are: rock,

Respiration: The process by which living

4. Helps to differentiate one organism His system is based on natural relationship

(kingdom) have low resemblance whiles General characteristics in biological

Increasing order of resemblance

Fig. 1.9: Classification of organisms

Kingdom Prokaryotae (Monera) Kingdom Fungi

Fig. 2.0: Amoeba Fig. 2.1: Mushroom

Characteristics of organisms in Kingdom Plantae

3. Have definite nucleus Characteristics of organisms in

Fig. 1.9: Classification of organisms

poliomyelitis, yellow fever, ebola, foot and

Classification of social groups

Fig. 2.1: Periodic table of elements

The importance of other organisms TEST QUESTIONS

Specific Objectives STATES / TYPES OF MATTER

Examples of solids are stones, wood,

3. They have fast rate of diffusion

Fig. 2.5: Intermolecular distances between the

Fig. 2.6: Structure of an atom

An atom is made up of smaller particles, the L shell which carries a maximum of 8

 They are found around the nucleus of Protons Electrons

Neutrons Characteristics / Properties of Atom

For an element ‗W‘ there is AZ 𝐖 where A