Geography

Skills Workbook Answers

Working with maps and satellite
images
1 a 3541 h The coastal area is flat and low-lying.
However, in the background of the photo
b 3340
mountains are visible and there is higher
c Kaibab Suspension Bridge ground on the right-hand side. The map
shows that Vancouver has a large amount of
d East to west
open space (mainly Stanley Park), but there
e 2400–2600 m are also a number of wooded areas/parks,
especially on the waterfront, e.g. Sunset
f 5000 m
Beach Park and Vanier Park.
g 8.5 km
3 a The satellite images show that the Aral Sea
h Plateau shrank dramatically between 1989 and 2014.
The northern part of the 2014 image shows
i In 3239 the contours are very widely spaced,
less change, but the main Aral Sea in the
suggesting the land is relatively flat. In
southern part has become more like a linear
contrast, in 3743 the contours are very close
sliver, rather than a broad sea, as it was
together, suggesting that the land is very
in 1989.
steep.
b The satellite photos show a very dramatic
j A butte has a flat summit, and extremely
image of the shrinking of the Aral Sea.
steep (cliff-like) sides.
However, they only show the size of the
2 a 2012 sea, and to a certain extent they hint at the
depth of the sea (shallow areas may appear
b Stanley Park
sandier than deep areas). The images do not
c South-east to north-west tell us anything about the water chemistry or
temperature of the sea, as e.g. Figure 1.27 on
d They were built at relatively narrow parts of
page 19 of the Cambridge International A and
the bay, where the construction costs would
AS Level Geography textbook (second edition),
be much less.
which shows salinity and depth. It is easier
e South/south-east to update satellite images rather than to
produce and publish new maps.
f 2310
g Extensive/large; good rail access; available
parking; flat land; contains a range of
different-sized boats/ships

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
Paper 1 Core Physical
Geography
Topic 1 Hydrology and b Other factors include the monsoon rains,
tropical cyclones (hurricanes), uplift of the
fluvial geomorphology Himalayas (increasing gradient), global
warming (causing ice melt to increase),
1 a The drop in the water table is vary varied.
urbanisation and agricultural developments.
The figures range from over 9 m in Manila
to less than 1 m in Beijing. Most of the areas c Flooding may destroy farms, farm products,
shown are in NICs – it may be that rapid factories and infrastructure such as roads
economic growth and/or population growth and bridges. It reduces social development
is increasing the demand for water. Some of because poor people go hungry, become ill
the areas are quite dry (north China, north- and cannot afford medicines, and families
east Iran and Mexico) but some are quite lose important family members.
wet, such as Manila. The decline in the water
d Floods in Bangladesh may result from factors
table is worrying as population growth is
occurring outside of Bangladesh, e.g. in India
likely to continue in all these areas, making
or Nepal. The Bangladeshi government has
life more difficult in the decades to come.
limited impact over events or conditions in
b Generally, the extraction of water causes other countries, therefore it cannot control
little problem unless the aquifer is near to all of the factors that contribute to flooding
the surface; then there is subsidence. This in Bangladesh. In addition, it is a poor
has long been the case in Mexico City, Venice country and therefore might not be able to
and Long Beach, California (although rates afford to implement the plans that it would
of subsidence in Venice are quite small). like to follow.
Rates in Mexico City and California are high.
e The headlines tend to suggest that the floods
Subsidence can have a major impact on
are all due to human activities. Deforestation
buildings. Near the sea, the risk of saline
seems to be the main culprit. On the other
intrusion into groundwater is great.
hand, the annual floods caused by the
Groundwater may have accumulated over monsoon rains are not mentioned. Some of
thousands of years, but has been extracted in the headlines are sensationalist, and some
just decades. The Oglala Aquifer beneath the are simplistic. However, a headline is meant
High Plains of the USA was severely depleted to grab attention. These do this but they
in the 1950s and 1960s, leading to the rise of appear to put the blame on Bangladeshi and
sprinkler irrigation as a conservation measure. Asian people for the cause of the floods.

Subsidence means that the land sinks. 3 a Likely to be a simple bar graph or a
At first, subsidence is localised. It is dispersion diagram.
especially marked in urban areas due to
b i 1974, 1987, 1988, 1998, 2004
the high withdrawal of water, the results
being especially marked if the bedrock is ii 1982, 1990, 1992, 1994, 2001
saturated. Mexico City was partly built on an
It would appear that the size of floods is
ancient lake bed and massive groundwater
becoming more variable.
extraction has caused the ground to sink.
c The annual floods are becoming more
2 a While trees are in place, they will intercept
variable. The overall trend in flood-affected
rainfall and decrease overland flow, and
areas is downward (slightly), but there are
therefore decrease flooding. Once trees
many examples of times when a large flood
are removed, the amount of interception
has been followed by a small flood or vice
is decreased, the amount of overland flow
versa, e.g. 1986–87 and 1998–99.
increases and the risk of flooding increases
also.

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
 d The recurrence interval of a flood is the time 5 a Chemical denudation: any wearing away of
(in years) that you would expect a flood of the Earth’s surface by a chemical process, e.g.
a certain magnitude to happen a second carbonation-solution/acidification.
time, e.g. a 100-year recurrence interval
b i Yangtze
would produce a flood of that magnitude, on
average, once every 100 years. ii Lena
e i 20 % c i Scatter graph should identify the points,
label the axes, include a line of best fit.
ii 37 %
ii In general, there appears to be a
iii 52 %
weak negative correlation: when total
4 a denudation is low, chemical denudation
(as a percentage of the total denudation)
Method Advantage Disadvantage is high, e.g. for the Yenisei, Ob and Lena
Atlas map Shows location well Very large scale and only drainage basins. As total denudation
Gives a good visual shows length – relief/
increases, the chemical denudation
prompt climate would be useful
Shows the lengths of here generally decreases, e.g. Mississippi,
the rivers Amazon and Yangtze. However, the Nile
Flow lines Provide a good visual Precise measurement is and the Amur are anomalies to this
impression of the difficult general pattern.
differences between They do not follow the
the rivers exact route of the rivers iii There are many reasons why some rivers
Pie charts Easy to produce Only two rock minerals have a very high rate of denudation.
Give a clear contrast are shown – if more
These include mean annual runoff,
between the four were shown the pie
rivers charts would look very seasonality of flow, total rainfall,
cluttered vegetation cover, nature of bedrock, relief
and human impact, e.g. where runoff is
b The White Nile contributes about 30–35 % low there is unlikely to be much load.
of the flow of the Nile, the Blue Nile about High rates of denudation are found in the
50–60 % and the Atbara about 10–15 %. areas of high relief; they generally have
c Although the White Nile contributes some high levels of rainfall too.
30–35 % of the Nile’s discharge, it only
accounts for less than 5 % of its sediment. In
contrast, the Blue Nile contributes some 50–
Topic 2 Atmosphere and
60 % of the discharge but about 70–75 % of its weather
sediment. Similarly, the Atbara only accounts
for 10–15 % of the discharge but supplies up 1 a i Carbon dioxide
to about 25 % of the load. ii Cloud reflective effect
d The White Nile has 97 % amphibole and just iii Ozone production and land use
3 % pyroxene, whereas the Blue Nile has
around 80 % amphibole and 20 % pyroxene. In iv Tropospheric ozone
contrast, the Atbara has over 90 % pyroxene. v Total net human influence has been
Overall, the Nile has nearly 60 % amphibole much greater, accounting for more than
and almost 40 % pyroxene. 1.5 watts per square metre, whereas solar
e The White Nile has its source near the output has been lower with less than 0.5
equator/Lake Victoria. It has a relatively watts per square metre.
constant year-round flow due to its b i Cloud reflective effect
equatorial climate regime. In contrast,
the Blue Nile and the Atbara experience ii Clouds operate on a global scale; there
seasonal/monsoonal rainfall and have a dry are high and low clouds; large areas
season. The Blue Nile and Atbara valleys are (over oceans/deserts/mountains) are
more likely to have bare ground (seasonal not monitored closely, so it is difficult to
rainfall), hence overland flow is more know exactly what is happening
common, leading to a greater sediment yield. iii Volcanic eruptions

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
 iv Volcanic eruptions are relatively small iv They are either very rich countries, e.g.
scale and they generally eject a limited USA; oil producers, e.g. Saudi Arabia/
amount of material into the atmosphere. Canada; producers of raw materials (all
The effects of eruptions generally only four); or a combination of these factors.
last a few years, so overall their impact is
b i China is the largest emitter (in terms of
limited.
billions of tonnes); however, it is relatively
2 a Bar chart/climograph to show rainfall; low in terms of emissions per person. The
shading to suggest gradient/relief/altitude/ USA has the second largest emissions
slope angle. of CO2, and has high emissions per
person. India produces low emissions
b
per person, although its total emissions
Technique Advantage Disadvantage are high. In contrast, Australia, Saudi
Bar charts/ Easy to construct/ Scale can be a Arabia and Canada all produce high rates
climograph easy to read/good problem if there of emissions per person. The highest
visual comparison are very large and
emissions per person are from HICs and
very small readings,
e.g. vertical scale oil-rich countries. The lowest emissions
for Cherrapunjee is per person are from NICs. No LICs are
different from the rest listed either in total emissions or per
of the stations
person emissions.
Shading (for Good for Subjective – no
relief) suggesting relief, absolute values ii The relationship is very skewed. Most
e.g. Ganges valley
vs Nepal/Tibet
countries produce less than 2 billion
(Himalayas) tonnes of carbon dioxide, but China
produces over 12 billion and the USA over
c All rivers have a maximum in summer. 5 billion.
It is wetter in the east than the west, e.g.
iii China has the world’s largest population
Cherrapunjee 11 117 mm vs Delhi 712 mm. It
and has industrialised rapidly over the
is generally wetter in uplands than lowlands,
last thirty years. The USA has a large
although the wettest location, Cherrapunjee,
population, is very wealthy and has
is located in the Meghalaya Hills rather
an important manufacturing sector. In
than the Himalayas. There should be some
contrast, other countries are far less
reference to the figures to obtain marks.
wealthy (e.g. India) or are smaller (e.g.
d Maximum flooding is in summer – rivers the UK).
cannot contain all the water so they break
iv One strength is the clear visual impact.
their banks. Sites in and close to Bangladesh
China, and to a lesser extent the USA, are
have very high rates of rainfall. Flooding is
very dominant in total CO2 emissions. A
more likely at the eastern side of the map,
weakness is that all the other countries
e.g. Bangladesh, due to higher rainfall in the
are clustered with total CO2 emissions of
summer, e.g. Cherrapunjee (just north of
2 billion tonnes or less.
Bangladesh) has well over 1800 mm in June
and July, while Sylhet has over about 600 mm v One possibility is to use a logarithmic
in June and July. scale for total energy emissions – this
would expand the scale for below 2 billion
3 a i Answer should have two sets of
tonnes but compress the scale for the
horizontal bars with the names of the
larger producers, thereby giving a greater
countries in the middle; total emissions
spread of points.
on the left and emissions per person on
the right. 4 a Proportional symbols
ii China, USA, India, Russia and Japan are b It shows very clearly the main sources of
either large countries/large populations/ energy gain/loss during winter and summer./
very large industrialised economies or a The size of the arrows is proportional to the
combination of these. relative importance of each component in
the energy budget.
iii Australia, Saudi Arabia, USA and Canada.

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
 c It has used different colours for the same g Either side of the mid-ocean ridge, there
component in summer and winter. are pairs of corresponding white and green
symbols indicating normal and reversed
d It represents the ground surface; arrows
magnetism, which suggests the rocks were
either point towards the ground surface – a
formed at the mid-ocean ridge, cooled and
positive budget/flux; or they point away from
were forced apart by convection currents in
the surface – a negative budget/flux.
the Earth’s mantle. There appear to be two
e During summer, the main energy source is major periods of normal magnetism and
incoming short-wave radiation (122 Wm–2). a series of minor normal magnetism. The
Outgoing long-wave radiation accounts pattern appears to be roughly mirrored (the
for 43 Wm–2. In addition, the sensible heat same) on either side of the mid-ocean ridge.
transfer (movement of air) and latent heat
2 a At least 8 °C and mean annual precipitation
flux (evaporation) each account for 22.5 Wm–2.
of over 1350 mm.
A further 12 Wm–2 is transferred to the ground.
In contrast, in winter, the dominant flow is b There is a large amount of water, so many
outgoing long-wave radiation, 28 Wm–2. The dissolved chemicals, and the presence
incoming short-wave radiation is very small, of vegetation produces large amounts of
just 0.4 Wm–2. The gain from air transfers organic acids.
(sensible heat flux) is far greater (16 Wm–2)
c Less than 1000 mm at about 30 °C, falling to
than short-wave radiation. Evaporation losses
about 500 mm at 10 °C, and less than 250 mm
are relatively small: 2.5 Wm–2. The supply of
below 0 °C.
heat from snow/the ground is greater than
the supply from short-wave radiation. d CO2 is more soluble in cold conditions, hence
snow/rainfall at low temperatures may
contain a high rate of dissolved CO2.
Topic 3 Rocks and e Moderate chemical weathering with frost
weathering action.
1 a African, South American, North American, f Strong mechanical weathering covers
Eurasian, Australian–Indian, Pacific and regions with a mean annual temperature of
Antarctic about –3 °C with a rainfall of about 1250 mm,
to areas of about –12 °C and 900 mm, down to
b Juan de Fuca, Cocos and Caribbean
about –15 °C and 250 mm.
c Magma is rising at the mid-ocean ridge
g It is too cold: when the temperature is below
and cooling to form solidified lava. The
freezing for long periods of time, there are
rising magma is pushing/forcing apart lava
few cycles of freeze–thaw.
on either side of the ocean ridge, thereby
leading to sea-floor spreading. h The number of freeze–thaw cycles per year.
d A less dense continental plate and a denser i Some forms of mechanical weathering do
ocean plate are converging. The denser not require cycles of freeze–thaw; salt crystal
ocean plate subducts (plunges) beneath the growth requires cycles above/below 26 °C,
continental plate, forming a deep ocean while disintegration requires large diurnal
trench. The continental plate is buckled/ changes, not necessarily above/below 0 °C.
folded into fold mountains. Earthquake
3 a Triangular graph
activity is common (deep focus) and there is
volcanic activity. b Qualitative – there are no numeric values
e Should be similar to Figure 3.5a on page 63 c Slides are fast and dry; flows are fast and wet
of the Cambridge International AS and A Level
d A fairly slow movement of quite wet material
Geography textbook (second edition).
e A very slow to extremely slow movement,
f Should be similar to Figure 3.5b on page 63 of
varying from about 1 cm/year to 1 cm/day
the textbook.
f Logarithmic

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
 g It allows very large readings, such as those b 2: constructive/divergent plate boundary; 5:
for debris avalanches, to be shown on the convergent/destructive plate boundary
same scale as very small readings, such as
c 2: basaltic, runny, hot lava; 5: acidic, viscous,
those for soil creep, e.g. debris avalanches
slow-moving lava flows
have a maximum speed of 360 km/hour and
can be shown on the same graph as soil d 5 and 6 are continental crust: thicker, older,
creep (0.1 mm/year). It would be impractical/ but less dense at 2.6 g/cm than the oceanic
impossible to show these using a ‘normal’ crust (3.0 g/cm)
scale.
e Diagram should show two plates, both
h Earthflows/mudflows range between about continental and moving at different speeds
1 m/second and about 5 cm/day; landslides: in different directions. There should be no
5 mm/day–10 cm/day. volcanic activity but there may be reference
to earthquakes (shallow focus). Should
i Slides and flows are shown as having the
resemble Figure 3.5c on page 63 of the
same speed on Figure 3.17, but Figure 3.18
textbook.
shows flows as generally much faster.
j Increase the axis for speed, and show flows
as being faster than slides.
4 a i 6
ii 1 & 3
iii 4
iv 5
v 2

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
Paper 2 Core Human
Geography
g The bars for Canada, the USA and Singapore
Topic 4 Population will be 4 cm, 1.5 cm and 6 cm respectively
1 a The total number of births or deaths above the median line. The bars for Ireland,
recorded in a country in a year is divided Spain and Greece will be 3.5 cm, 2 cm and
by the total population of that country. This 2 cm respectively below the median line.
figure is then multiplied by 1000 to give the h Birth rate: 12/1000; death rate: 9/1000
number of births or deaths per thousand
population per year. 2 a The dependency ratio is the relationship
between the working or economically active
b While the registration of births and deaths population and the non-working population.
is required by law in virtually all countries,
% population aged 0–14 + %
in some developing countries the rate of population aged 65 and over
registration of births and deaths by parents/ The dependency ratio =
relatives is low; in some cases below 50 %. % population aged 15–64
This raises concerns about the accuracy of This figure is then multiplied by 100.
data, as a considerable degree of estimation
is required to reach a figure for the birth rate b The age limits for the dependency ratio do
and the death rate in some countries. not fit well with what happens in many
countries, e.g. in HICs few people leave
c education before the age of 18 and thus
Country Rate of natural change (%)
remain dependants. In addition, while some
people will retire before the age of 65, others
Canada 0.4
will go on working beyond this age. In some
USA 0.5
LICs and MICs, many children are working
Singapore 0.4
before the age of 15.
Ireland 0.8
Spain 0.1 c
Greece –0.2
Country Dependency ratio
Niger 113
d Net migration is the difference between the
number of people coming into a country Tanzania 92

(immigration) and the number of people Bolivia 67

leaving a country (emigration). Canada 45
France 56
e The rate of net migration is expressed as the
Bulgaria 52
difference between the rates of immigration
and emigration per thousand population, e.g. d For every 100 people in the economically
4 per 1000. active population, there are 70 people
f dependent on them.

Country Population change per year (%)

e The dependency ratio is the combination
of two elements: youth dependency and
Canada 1.2
aged dependency. The needs of the young
USA 0.8
dependent population, e.g. education, are
Singapore 1.6
very different from those of the elderly
Ireland 0.1
dependent population, e.g. medical care and
Spain –0.3
public pensions.
Greece –0.6

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
 f i Many countries with a high youth e For example, the French type where the
dependency have developed family- decline in the death rate was matched by
planning policies over the last 50 years or the decline in the birth rate; thus there was
so. Such policies have reduced the birth no period of high natural increase as the gap
rate substantially in many LICs and MICs. between the birth and death rates remained
broadly similar over time.
ii A small but increasing number of
countries have taken measures to f Each stage of demographic transition in
increase their birth rates. This can help England and Wales was more complex that
counteract a rising elderly dependency the simplifications shown in the model. This
ratio. Allowing a high rate of immigration is what you would expect when comparing
can also help in this respect as most a model with reality. Some unexpected
migrants tend to be young adults, with or changes occurred in England and Wales,
without children. e.g. the increase in the death rate in the
latter part of Stage 2, for the reasons given
3 a A geographical model is a generalised
on Figure 4.22 on page 97 of the textbook.
statement, often in the form of a diagram,
England and Wales are in Stage 4 of
which simplifies a more complex
demographic transition. The question is: will
geographical situation or issue.
they eventually move into Stage 5 or remain
b Models in physical geography include the in Stage 4?
global hydrological cycle and the general
4 a 5 years
circulation of the atmosphere. Models in
human geography include urban land-use b More detailed diagrams contain a bar for
models such as the Burgess concentric zone each year of age.
model, and distance decay models such
c The male population is shown on the left-
as that showing the relationship between
hand side and the female population on
economic rent and distance from the market.
the right-hand side of an age/sex structure
c A diagram of the model is shown in Figure diagram.
4.18 on page 94 of Cambridge International
d i 3.45 million
AS and A Level Geography textbook (second
edition). Appropriate annotations include: ii 17.5 million
Stage 1: High and stable birth rate; high and iii 3.85 million
fluctuating death rate
iv 5.5 million
Stage 2: The death rate declines significantly;
e i Stage 2
the birth rate remains at a high level
ii Stage 3
Stage 3: The birth rate declines steeply; the
decline in the death rate gradually slows iii Stage 4
down
iv Stage 5
Stage 4: Both birth and death rates are
f Absolute data gives the actual figures, e.g. in
low; the birth rate is generally slightly
thousands or millions. Relative data is given
higher, fluctuating with changing economic
as a proportion, e.g. as a percentage or per
conditions
thousand.
Stage 5: The birth rate has fallen below the
g The use of relative data means that direct
death rate; natural decrease is now occurring
comparisons can be made between countries
d The standard model of demographic of widely differing population sizes. Such
transition is seen as too Eurocentric comparisons are difficult to make with
and thus not necessarily relevant to the absolute data.
experience of other countries. Some LICs
5 a For a HIC, a shape resembling the age/sex
may not follow the sequence set out in the
structure diagram shown in Figure 4.14 on
model. It fails to take into account changes
page 91 of the textbook for either Niger or
due to migration.

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
 Bangladesh. For a LIC, a shape resembling available. It can present a good, but rather
the population pyramid for either the UK or broad, analysis of the relationship between
Japan. two variables. This is often the best starting
point for a more detailed analysis. Graphical
b Each population pyramid should be divided
analysis can add significantly to what has
into:
already been achieved through written
1 The young dependent population, <15 (qualitative) analysis. Exact measurements
2 The economically active population, 15–64 can be made from various types of graph
and trend lines can be drawn and quoted.
3 The elderly dependent population, 65 and
Statistical analysis takes the exercise even
over
further, giving the ability to produce (an)
c LICs and MICs have a very high young overall figure(s) for the relationship between
dependent population. The economically the two variables in question.
active population in such countries has far
b A scatter graph
fewer people in each age group compared to
the young dependent population, but because c A line of best fit
there are more five-year age groups in this
d The best-fit line shows the overall trend of
category, the total population may be higher
the data. It helps considerably when trying to
than the younger cohort. The proportion of
establish the degree of correlation between
people in the elderly dependent population is
two variables.
very low, usually under 5 %.
e This is a strong negative correlation. As the
HICs have a much smaller proportion of
percentage of girls enrolled in secondary
their populations in the young dependent
school increases, the total fertility rate
population. The number of people in each
declines. While there is a reasonable spread
age group in the economically active
above and around the line of best fit, there
population is frequently higher than that
are no major anomalies.
in the younger cohort. The total population
in the economically active age range is f ‘Isolated’ plots are known as anomalies.
much higher than the younger cohort.
g A perfect positive correlation will be shown
The proportion of people in the elderly
by a simple drawing of a scatter graph with a
dependent population, usually over 15 %, is
line of best fit rising from lower left to upper
much higher than in LICs and MICs.
right at an angle of 45 °. A perfect negative
d The diagram should show clear indentation correlation will be shown by a line of best fit
(i.e. much fewer than expected) in the young descending from upper left to lower right at
adult age groups, 15–19 to 30–34 in particular. an angle of 45 °.
This may also affect the young dependent
h Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient
population if a significant number of young
is the most straightforward statistical
migrants take children with them. In some
technique to use for this purpose.
rural areas in LICs and MICs, out-migration
may be gender selective, but in many there is i It provides an overall figure for the
little difference between the number of male relationship between the two variables in
and female out-migrants. question, using an internationally accepted
statistical technique.
e There will be considerably more people than
expected in the young adult age groups, and 7 a The divided bar graphs in Figure 4.11 on page
to a lesser extent in the young dependent 90 of the textbook are percentage bar graphs.
population; thus, the bars for these age With data for each major cause of death as a
groups will be wider than expected. It is percentage, the bar is divided to show these
possible that there will be a noticeable percentage figures, starting with the largest
difference between the male and female bars figure first for the LICs. For ease of direct
in the young adult population. comparison, the same sequence with regard
to the cause of death has been kept for the
6 a Qualitative analysis is description and
HICs.
explanation in writing that picks out general
trends and that may quote from the data

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
 b This technique gives good visual e The great majority of migrants in LICs/
representation, particularly when there MICs will be from these regions themselves
is a clear contrast in colouring. With clear where birth rates are likely to be higher than
percentage numbering along the side of the global average, and in the case of Africa
each graph, it is relatively straightforward to birth rates will be substantially higher. In
calculate the percentage contribution of each LICs/MICs, many migrants will have crossed
section using a ruler. into neighbouring countries and are more
likely to take children with them compared
c The total number of deaths each year in
to migrants who move a very long distance
LICs is much greater than in HICs because
from one continent to another.
of a much larger population in LICs as well
as a higher average death rate; thus, using 2 a This is a linear scale with equal divisions for
absolute data, the divided bar for LICs would equal values. It begins at 0.5 of the earnings
be much larger than that for HICs, making of Canadian-born, full-time male employees
comparison difficult to show on a standard as none of the values fall below this level.
page of a textbook. The maximum value on the scale is the
average earnings for Canadian-born, full-
d In LICs, infectious and parasitic diseases
time male employees.
account for over 40 % of all deaths, followed
by diseases of the circulatory system (heart b The horizontal scale is in five sections
disease). In contrast, in HICs infectious according to the length of time male
and parasitic diseases have a relatively low immigrants have been in Canada. These
impact. In HICs, diseases of the circulatory sections range from 1–5 years to 21–25 years.
system and cancer are the big killers. c The differing length of the lines on the graph
e Simple bar charts for both HICs and LICs indicates the length of time for which data is
would be an appropriate method. There available. In general, the longer immigrants
would be six bars for each world region. have been in Canada, the longer the time
period for which earnings data is available.

Topic 5 Migration d There are two clear trends:

1 For the five significant time periods
1 a The horizontal scale is organised in five-year
on the graph, each shows that male
age groups apart from the final bar, which
immigrant earnings increase over time.
shows the population aged 65 and over.
This is the standard way of showing the age 2 The longer the time period since arrival
distribution of a population. The vertical axis in Canada, the closer male immigrant
has a linear scale in millions. earnings get to comparable Canadian-
born employees.
b The data is illustrated by the use of bars.
For each age group there are two bars, one e Immigrants often have little choice but to
representing the number of international take the jobs that more established residents
migrants in the LICs/MICs and the other the can afford to avoid. Such jobs are often
number of international migrants in HICs. unskilled or semi-skilled, paying low wages.
Over time, many immigrants improve their
c An alternative way of organising the vertical employment skills, and language skills
scale would be to show the data as a where applicable, and are able to obtain jobs
percentage (relative data). that pay higher wages.
d The number of international migrants in
LICs/MICs is higher than in HICs for all four
age groups under 20. The largest gap is for
Topic 6 Settlement dynamics
the youngest age group (0–4), with the gap 1 a & b The most likely sites for village location
narrowing thereafter. The 20–24 age group is would be:
the first where there are more international 1 alongside West Brook and East Brook,
migrants in HICs, and this trend continues which are sources of water supply
for all the remaining age groups.
2 on low, relatively flat land below the 50 m
contour.

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
 c The villages would most probably extend c A uniform land surface; free competition for
along the modern road (A215) in a linear space; universal access to a single-centred
fashion because of the desire for maximum city; continuing in-migration to the city;
accessibility. Settlement away from the road development taking place outward from the
would generally avoid steeper slopes and central core.
might be attracted to locate along West and
d Burgess observed that no city fits perfectly
East Brook, provided that flooding was not a
into this ideal scheme. Complications are
problem.
introduced by physical geography, major
d Rural depopulation generally occurs communication routes, historical factors in
in isolated regions where employment the location of industry, and other factors.
prospects are very restricted and the The main advantage of the model is that it is
provision of services is limited. In such relatively easy to understand and it provides
circumstances, young people in particular a structure with which to compare land use
are likely to move out in search of in any urban area.
employment and a higher quality of life in
e The model could be improved in a number of
general. In addition, there is little to attract
ways. Firstly, this model was produced a long
newcomers to such regions.
time ago and patterns of land use in urban
e Rural areas within reasonable commuting areas have changed significantly since then.
distance of large urban areas are most An updated model might look very different.
likely to be affected by counterurbanisation Analysis of a larger number of cities could
as people move away from large cities improve accuracy and provide more detail.
and towns to seek a better quality of life. An example might be Figure 6.36, The spatial
This will be to avoid urban problems structure of the post-industrial American
such as congestion, pollution, crime and city, on page 174 of the Cambridge International
other negative aspects of urban living. AS and A Level Geography textbook (second
Areas further from large urban areas that edition).
are attractive retirement regions may
3 a A logarithmic scale
show considerable population growth. As
population grows, more money will circulate b A logarithmic scale is an ideal way to show
in the local economy, attracting a larger data that have a particularly wide range of
range of services. This process is likely to values. The logarithmic scale compresses the
attract even more people to the region. range of values. It gives more space to the
smaller values and reduces the amount of
2 a This model was produced by E.W. Burgess
space for the larger values. On the scale there
in the 1920s. He had studied the patterns
are ‘cycles’ of values. Each cycle increases by
of land use in a number of American cities
a larger amount, usually to the power of 10
and noticed that there were considerable
(10, 100, 1000, and so on).
similarities between them. The model was
designed to show these similarities. c A linear scale with equal divisions for equal
values.
b The CBD is centrally located at the point of
maximum accessibility for the urban area d The year 1980 has been placed at the centre
as a whole. Surrounding the CBD is an area of the horizontal scale, with a 30-year period
of light manufacturing. This is followed by to the left, from 1950, and only a 20-year
residential areas of increasing affluence period to the right, to 2000. It could be argued
as the quality of the urban environment that ‘1980’ should be placed three-fifths of the
improves towards the edge of the urban area. way along the horizontal axis (from 1950).
Beyond this is the commuters’ zone, where
e Three years
people travel considerable distances to get to
work in the CBD. f 1950, 1980 and 2000

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
g Europe, United States, former Soviet Union where the largest city has a population of
about 35 million. As expected, the number of
h In Figure 6.3, a log scale is used for both axes.
urban areas in both countries increases with
Such a graph is known as a double-log (log–
decreasing urban size. At a population of
log) graph.
10 000, there are about 350 urban areas of this
i A double-log graph is appropriate when both size in South Africa, while in China there are
sets of data have large ranges. about 7000.
j Reading from the graph, the population of
South Africa’s largest city is between 7 and
8 million, much smaller than that of China

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
Paper 3 Advanced Physical
Geography Options
f In the savanna, the store of nutrients in
Topic 7 Tropical environments the biomass is less than in the tropical
1 a Likely to be either a bar graph (vertical or rainforest due to the shorter growing season/
horizontal bars) or a scatter graph. lower precipitation. Similarly, the store in
the litter is small because of fire. Owing to
b Easy to construct/striking visual impact/ fire, many of the nutrients are stored in the
shows clearly the relationship between the soil so are not burnt. Growth of vegetation
two variables/putting the altitude on the during the wet season coincides with uptake
vertical axis gives a good visual suggestion of of nutrients by plants, so loss through
altitude. leaching is reduced. Inputs from weathering
c There is a negative relationship/correlation are lower than in the rainforest because
between the number of Dipterocarp species of lower rainfall totals. Runoff is high due
and altitude. There are more species at low to the seasonal nature of rainfall and the
altitude – over 130 species – whereas there discontinuous vegetation cover.
is just one type of Dipterocarp species over 3 a Qualitative
1500 m. There are no anomalies, but there is
a big drop in the number of species found b Qualitative: a non-measurement statement
over 400 m and again at 600 m. about some data

d There are fewer species at high altitude Quantitative: a numeric/measurement value

because it is more extreme – colder, shorter of the data
growing period and less land available at c Ecosystem services: the benefits provided to
high altitude. However, there may be more humanity by ecosystems. Some of these are
individuals of each species at higher altitude direct services (e.g. food production), some
due to less competition (fewer species). At are indirect (e.g. climate regulation) and
lower altitude, there is more heat, more some can be spiritual.
nutrients (more chemical weathering), more
deposition by rivers, more available land d Ecosystem services are generally declining;
and so greater potential for more species to this includes most provisioning services,
develop. most regulating services, and cultural
services too.
2 a Proportional circles and flow lines
e Crops, livestock, aquaculture and global
b Biomass climate regulation
c Litter f Timber, cotton, hemp, silk, water regulation
d Biomass to litter (degradation and and disease regulation
mineralisation) and loss through leaching. 4 a 24 m
e The biomass store becomes much smaller; b Vegetation acts like a blanket absorbing
the litter store remains small; the stores and reflecting radiation. Loss of heat by
in the soil may be increased initially if conduction and convection is minimised
the vegetation is burnt (slash-and-burn because the thick forest undergrowth
agriculture) but the nutrients are rapidly reduces heat gradient. At greater height
taken up by the growing crops or leached there is less cover, and so greater extremes of
away by rainfall; many of the nutrients are temperature.
taken out of the system to feed people/
animals; the flow of nutrients is much c Dry season
reduced.

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
 d In the dry season, there is less vegetation, so b The majority of sediments for the beach are
more heat reaches the surface. There is less medium sand (about 70 %). There are more
loss of heat by conduction and convection. particles of coarse sand (about 10 %) and fine
Therefore, the temperatures are higher. In sand (about 7 %). There are very few grains
contrast, in the wet season there is more of sand that are very fine or very coarse. In
vegetation growth and so the loss of heat contrast, on the sand dune there is a very
by conduction and convection increases, clear majority of fine sand (70 %) and the
reducing air temperatures. next most frequent category is very fine
sand (nearly 20 %). This contrasts markedly
e 24 m
with the medium/coarse sand found on the
f At 24 m there is less vegetation density, so by beach.
day there is less loss of heat by conduction and
c This may be largely due to the higher wind
convection and the temperatures are higher.
speeds required to transport material on
At ground level, the greater vegetation density
land compared with waves, currents and tide
increases the loss of heat by conduction, and
that affect beaches. Many beaches receive
convection increases, reducing daytime air
sediments from cliff failure and sediments
temperatures, but it releases more absorbed
are broken down over time. Hence sediments
energy by night, thereby reducing the
on beaches are likely to be larger in size
minimum night-time temperatures.
compared with sand dunes.
g Generally, equatorial rainforests have a year-
2 a West
round wet season. Seasonality increases
with distance from the equator. Tropical b Accept 4–5 km
rainforests are located within the tropics – the
c Vasco Dagamapiek, 266 m
further away from the equator, the greater
the seasonal differences. This location must d Contours on the east side are very close
therefore be a tropical rainforest rather than together, suggesting very steep/near-vertical
an equatorial rainforest. cliffs. Contours on the west side are spaced
further apart, suggesting less steep slopes.
5 a Very tall/layered/diverse/many species/dense
e Cliffs, geos, caves, and so on
b Shallow rooted as there is no shortage of
water; buttress roots to anchor the tall f Kaap die Goeie Hoop
vegetation; drip-tips to shed excess moisture;
g Kaap die Goeie Hoop has a cliff at its end,
evergreen to make use of year-round
whereas there appears to be a long slope
sunshine; some plants are carnivorous to
leading down to Kaappunt. The photo shows
gain their nutrients; some plants are adapted
a cliff.
to shade (sciophytes), while others are
adapted to light (heliophytes) h The sketch should include vertical cliffs,
layers of sedimentary rock, flat-topped slope,
c Emergent layer; canopy layer; understorey/
waves crashing at base of cliff.
ground layer
3 a A simple bar graph (without the sides; it is
d Top: full sunlight (favours heliophytes);
not a line graph as it shows no change in sea
higher wind speeds; may be covered in
level over time, just a comparison between
clouds; much water available
different places).
Ground: shaded (favours sciophytes); less
b It is easy to compare the relative changes of
windy; cooler; drier
sea level between different locations.
c It does not show any locations – there may
Topic 8 Coastal be important geographic patterns that are
environments not shown by the graph.
d The locations that are covered in blue
1 a The two histograms should be labelled:
suggest that they have been covered by the
one ‘Beach’ and the other ‘Sand dune’, and
sea.
the vertical scale labelled ‘Percentage of
sediment’.

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
 e A map of the USA (including Alaska) with
located bars either rising (for land becoming
Topic 9 Hazardous
higher) or falling (for land being covered environments
with water). Bars can be made proportional
1 a In both cases, the emergency aid lasts for
to the amount of rising/falling that has
less than one week.
taken place.
b Restoration aid in Antigua was over after
f The areas that have experienced a rise in
one week. In contrast, in Montserrat it lasted
the level of the land compared with the sea
up to ten weeks. In addition, there were
are in the north-west (Alaska) and along
more categories/types of restoration aid in
the west coast (California). The changes in
Montserrat compared with Antigua.
Alaska are much greater than in California.
In contrast, the east coast has seen a decline c There are a number of possible reasons,
in the level of the land/rising sea levels. The including: Monserrat is situated closer to
areas along the Gulf of Mexico have had the the eye of the hurricane; it was more badly
greatest relative rise in sea level/fall in level affected; the people were less well prepared;
of the land. it is a poorer country; the infrastructure is
not as strong as in Antigua.
4 a Coral reefs are mainly located in the tropics,
between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic d The development phase attempts to provide
of Capricorn. However, some are located long-term improvement to the area. This
outside the tropics. These are mainly in the may include rebuilding of infrastructure,
northern hemisphere. The largest area of new farming methods, greater access to
coral appears to be in the western Pacific. sanitation, and so on. Many of these are
There is relatively little coral in the eastern projects that require considerable amounts
Pacific. The Caribbean has a large amount of time. They can only be started once all the
of coral. There is coral along the east coast emergency relief has finished.
of Africa but relatively little along the west
2 a It is very uneven: the Haiti earthquake
coast.
with the second lowest magnitude on the
b Temperature: no reefs develop when the Richter Scale had the highest death toll. In
mean annual temperature is below 20 °C; contrast, the Bam earthquake had the lowest
the optimal temperature for coral growth is magnitude on the Richer Scale and the third
between 23 °C and 25 °C. lowest number of deaths. The fourth largest
earthquake, Gorkha, Nepal, had the lowest
c Both areas are affected by high pressure, and
number of deaths.
so there is limited wind speed. This reduces
wave action, which means less transport of b A scatter graph should be drawn.
microscopic plankton to the coral, and so
c The timescale is limited to post-2000; it only
less food for coral growth.
includes earthquakes with a magnitude
d Coral prefers shallow water since the greater than 6.5. A longer time scale and a
photosynthetic algae that live in the coral greater range of earthquake magnitudes may
require light. In the open ocean, it is too deep have given a more accurate picture.
and dark for coral to form. However, on the
d Whether there has been any change over
continental shelves there is sufficient light
time (level of development cannot be
for coral to develop.
investigated as all the countries are LICs).
e Off the east coast of South America, the
e Bar chart
Amazon delivers so much fresh water
that the salinity of sea water is reduced. f July 1965
In contrast, in the Red Sea (off the coast of
g September 1965
north-east Africa) there is very little fresh
water entering, hence the water is saline and h There were three months with more than
coral reefs develop. ten earthquakes per month, but for most
of the time there were fewer than five
earthquakes per month.

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
 i March 1962–April 1963 and July 1965– c Hurricanes/tornadoes
September 1965
d Volcanic eruptions
3 a Choropleth to show the frequency of tropical
e 2004: Over 240 000 deaths, over 90 % due to
storms; trip lines to show the direction of the
earthquakes and tsunamis (the South Asian
storms.
tsunami occurred in this year). This was more
b They are mainly located within the tropics, than 25 times greater than in 2012 (about 9500
but many persist into sub-tropical areas, e.g. deaths), where 37 % of deaths were caused by
the east coast of Asia and the east coast of floods and 32 % by hurricanes and tornadoes.
North America. There are very few tropical
f Proportional pie charts is most likely, or else
storms at the equator. Tropical storms
bar charts.
generally move from east to west. The highest
frequencies are found in south-east Asia/the g It appears to be decreasing – there were
western Pacific and in the eastern Pacific. peaks in 2004, 2008 and 2010. However, the
time scale is too short to make a significant
c There are a number of paths. Some tropical
judgement. What is clear is that the impact
storms travel almost due west, while others
of natural hazards varies dramatically from
veer north-west. About half of the routes
year to year.
veer to the north, and some even veer north-
north-east. 5 a The volcanoes could be colour coded, or –
more difficult but better – use proportional
d The paths in the southern Indian Ocean
symbols to suggest the number of deaths.
are generally shorter. They begin by moving
south-westwards and then some veer b About two-thirds of the volcanoes are
towards the south and some towards the located in the Pacific Ring of Fire. The
south-south-east. majority of volcanoes are located in
Indonesia. None of the 12 volcanoes with the
e The tornadoes are located inland. The whole
biggest impacts is located in North America,
area affected by tornadoes is generally quite
Africa or Australia. The distribution of
broad but there appears to be a linear stretch
volcanoes with the largest impacts appears
away from the coast, generally south to
to be quite localised.
north, with high frequencies per year (five or
more per year). c Years should be plotted on the horizontal axis,
and number of deaths on the vertical axis.
f Scale: tropical storms are much larger than
tornadoes d Most of the volcanoes are concentrated since
1800. The biggest impacts are all between
Location: tropical storms are in the tropics;
1792 and 1902. Nevado del Ruiz is an
tornadoes are in temperate regions
exception.
Location: tropical storms form over sea;
e The time line would be improved by using a
tornadoes form over land
logarithmic scale for the number of deaths/
4 a removing the Vesuvius eruption of 79.

Total f The number of deaths from earthquakes

generally exceeds that of the number of
Earthquakes and tsunamis 650 330
deaths from volcanoes.
Floods 63 390
Mass movements 9 000
Volcanic eruptions 363 Topic 10 Hot arid and
Hurricanes/tornadoes 183 460
Total natural disasters (including others) 979 600 semi-arid environments
1 a Ephemeral: a plant that lives only for a very
b Earthquakes and tsunamis: 65 033
short time, e.g. following a flood/wet season.
Floods: 6339
b They grow in the wet season. During the dry
Mass movements: 900 season, they remain as seeds, and the seeds
Volcanic eruptions: 52 only germinate once they have received
some moisture.
Hurricanes/tornadoes: 18 346

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
 c They only enter drought areas following e They are mainly found around the tropics.
rains, when plants have germinated and so The largest area is found in North Africa and
the food supply has improved. the Middle East: the Sahara Desert and the
Thar Desert. There are also extremely arid
d By being widely spaced and having reduced
areas in the southern hemisphere, e.g. the
stem and leaf surfaces.
Atacama in South America, near the Tropic
e By being nocturnal or by burrowing. of Capricorn. Anomalies include an area of
arid desert in continental South America and
f Aestivation: becoming dormant in the dry
in Central Asia.
season (similar to hibernation in the cold
season). 4 a Proportional symbols (the triangles and the
buckets) and symbols to suggest vegetation
2 a Likely to be a range bar or whiskers
type.
b Tamanrasset, Algeria has the highest mean
b The proportional size of the buckets is not in
annual precipitation with 159 mm and a
proportion to their sizes, e.g. the bucket for
minimum precipitation of 6 mm. Alexander
50.4 % is not 100 times greater in size/area/
Bay, South Africa, has the second highest
volume than the bucket for 0.4 %.
maximum with 95 mm and a minimum
of 22 mm. Swakopmund, Namibia has the c With a complete cover of multi-layered
lowest annual maximum with just 29 mm. vegetation, e.g. trees/shrubs/grasses, there
is no soil erosion and runoff is just 0.4 %.
c Likely to be a bar, circle or X
However, when vegetation is converted to
d Tamanrasset, Algeria has the highest grass (single layer), the amount of runoff
maximum annual rainfall and the highest increases to 1.9 %, although soil erosion
maximum 24-hour rainfall. However, remains at 0. If the vegetation is converted to
Alexander Bay has the second highest millet (agricultural crop), runoff increases to
maximum annual rainfall but the third 26 % and soil erosion increases to 31.6 tons/
highest maximum 24-hour rainfall. Cairo has acre. If the vegetation is removed, and the
the fourth highest rainfall but has the second land is left fallow, runoff increases to over
highest 24-hour rainfall. 50 % of rainfall, and the rate of soil erosion
increases to 59.2 tons/acre.
e The textbook shows average annual
temperature. This includes data for a period d While there is vegetation in place, especially
of not less than 30 years. Extremes have been multi-layered vegetation, interception
reduced. rates are high, as is the return through
transpiration, hence overland flow is limited
3 a Bar chart
or absent. When millet is planted, there are
b It is very clear and easy to construct/read gaps in the vegetation cover, and some of the
ground is left bare. Some rain falls onto the
c 33 %
bare ground, compacting the soil, and flows
d It is based on the index of moisture over the surface. As overland flow continues,
availability (Im). Im = (100S – 60D/PE), where soil is eroded from the surface. When there
PE is potential evapotranspiration, S is is no vegetation cover, overland flow is at a
moisture surplus and D is moisture deficit. maximum (there is some infiltration), and so
This is carried out on an annual time scale rates of erosion are also at a maximum.
and takes into account soil moisture. When
precipitation (PPT) = PE throughout the year,
the index is 0. When PPT greatly exceeds PE
throughout the year, the index is 100. When
PPT is 0 throughout the year, the index is –60.

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
Paper 4 Advanced Human
Geography Options
then influenced by economic, political and
Topic 11 Production, location social/cultural factors. A farm may have
and change produced wheat for years, but if the price
of wheat has fallen to a very low level it
1 a The simple flow diagram should show would be natural for a farmer to look at the
inputs, processes and outputs. economics of producing other crops instead.
b The diagram could be usefully expanded e Two examples: ploughing and harvesting
to give examples of inputs, processes and
outputs. It could perhaps refer to a particular f Animals and crops
industry, such as iron and steel or car g If the value of a farm’s outputs is less than
manufacturing. the cost of the inputs, the enterprise will
c A simple systems diagram provides an make a financial loss. This situation may be
essential framework that highlights the bearable in the short term, but will not be
basic components of an industrial system. sustainable in the long term. If the income
This is the starting point of an enquiry into from outputs equals the cost of inputs,
a system. A more advanced study requires a situation of stability is achieved. The
greater detail at each stage of the system. objective of any farming operation is for the
value of outputs to exceed the cost of inputs
d A system is a dynamic rather than a static to create a profitable situation.
entity. Thus, the level of output of a system
can affect the inputs and processes. Positive 3 a Weight loss: the combined weight of the
feedback occurs when disequilibrium occurs, raw materials used to manufacture a
e.g. a loss-making factory may struggle to product usually weighs more than the
pay for vital inputs and the viability of the finished product, as ‘weight’ is lost in the
business enters a cycle of decline. In contrast, manufacturing process.
negative feedback occurs when equilibrium b An example is the sugar-beet industry
is maintained. A profitable factory is able to
reinvest and to innovate. c £1 per tonne per kilometre

2 a An agricultural system can be an individual d Location B

farm or a general type of farming, such as e
wheat farming, with inputs, processes and
outputs. Location A Location B Location C
Cost of £50 £70 £70
b Transport: Good transportation, both on a transporting 2
farm and linking a farm to the outside world, tonnes of raw
material 1 to
is vital to the efficient functioning of an factory
agricultural system.
Cost of £25 £30 £20
transporting 1
c Temperature: Each type of crop requires
tonne of raw
a minimum growing temperature and a material 2 to
minimum length of growing season. The factory
absence of frost is important, e.g. cotton Cost of £35 £25 £35
needs a frost-free period of at least 200 days. transporting 1
tonne of the end
d Physical factors set broad limits as to product on to
market
what a farm can produce. This leaves the
Total £110 £125 £125
farmer with some choices, even in difficult
environments. The farmer’s decisions are

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
 Location A has the lowest transport costs.
Topic 12 Environmental
f The weight-loss triangle is useful in helping
to explain how transport costs influence management
industrial location. However, transport is 1 a The correct labelling can be found on Figure
only one of a number of cost factors that 12.29 on page 393 of Cambridge International
affect the decision of where to locate a AS and A Level Geography textbook (second
factory. In addition, the weight-loss triangle edition).
presented in the Geography Skills Workbook
b Externalities: the side effects, positive or
considers only one form of transport and
negative, of an economic activity that are
assumes uniformity of cost. In the real world,
experienced beyond its site.
there are often alternative forms of transport
and the structure of transport costs may be c An externality field is the geographical area
much more complex. within which externalities are experienced.
4 a Proportional circles An externality gradient shows the decreasing
intensity of an externality from its source to a
b The areas of the three circles are proportional point where it no longer has any effect at all.
to the differences between the three totals of
proven reserves. To achieve this, the square d An additional externality gradient should be
root for each figure is found. The radius of drawn parallel with and to the right of the
each circle is then based on these square original one. The diagram will now show that
roots. By doing this, the area of each of the the externality field has been extended to
circles will be mathematically proportional to show the increase of pollution at the source.
the figures they are representing. For the radii, e Other negative externalities include traffic
any units can be used providing they are the congestion and high-density urbanisation.
same for each of the circles. Major positive externalities include
c Each circle has been divided to illustrate the employment opportunities and an increasing
percentage contribution of each geographical local tax base as more companies locate in a
region shown in the key. region.

d 2004/2014: the percentage contribution of f Figure 12.30 on page 393 of the textbook is an
each geographical area descends in order of example of the environmental Kuznets curve.
importance g In the early stages of economic development,
e i South & Central America environmental degradation increases rapidly
as industry expands and its pollution is
ii South & Central America
largely unchecked. As the problem gets
iii The share remains the same, although worse, but per person incomes rise, pollution
the number of barrels increases. control becomes more necessary but also
f i 22.2 % more affordable. This results in a decreasing
rate of degradation.
ii 52 .1%
iii 24.4 %
g
Topic 13 Global
Year Proven oil reserves (thousand Share of global proven
interdependence
million barrels per year) oil reserves (%) 1 a Merchandise trade: the trade in goods,
1994 664.1 59.4  such as wheat, oil, cars and chemicals. The
2004 651.7 47.7 other main element of trade is the trade in
2014 810.9 47.7  services.
h Proportional circles do not work well when b Both axes have linear scales with equal
the range of values represented by the circles divisions for equal values. The vertical scale
is extremely wide. In such a situation, the shows imports in billions of dollars while the
smallest circle may need to be very small horizontal scale shows exports in billions of
indeed to accommodate the largest circle on dollars.
the page.

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
 c The circles are proportional circles. The size this attracts further economic development,
of each circle is proportional to the total creating more employment, services and
merchandise trade, imports plus exports, of wealth.
each country.
g The establishment of major new tourism
d facilities can expand employment
opportunities and attract new business and
Country Imports ($ billion) Exports ($ billion)
capital. This will improve local employment
USA 2 350 1 570
opportunities and attract in-migrants with
China 1 950 2 220
skills in demand. Rising per person incomes
Germany 1 200 1 420 will increase the local tax base, allowing local
Japan 850 700 government to spend more on infrastructure.
France 680 550 This in turn may attract a new cycle of
Netherlands 600 650 investment.

All figures are approximations based on

visual assessment of the graph. Topic 14 Economic transition
e China, Germany and the Netherlands 1 a Near-distance photographs taken at ground
level.
f USA, Japan and France
b These photographs, both taken in southern
g The trade in services
Mongolia, show a low level of development
2 a Economic leakages are the part of the money in terms of both economic and social
a tourist pays for a foreign holiday that does development due to a lack of investment.
not benefit the destination country because Roads, even dirt roads, are few and far
it goes elsewhere. between in this region and the bridge is
an important crossing point along a river.
b For example:
However, it is in a chronic state of disrepair
transport costs paid to airlines and other and it is clear that this has been the case
carriers – these are frequently companies for a long time. The photograph of an open-
owned by HICs, so this significant proportion pit toilet in the textbook is characteristic of
of the total holiday cost rarely reaches LIC sanitation that will have an impact on the
tourist destinations health of people in the region.
payments to foreign owners of hotels – again, c Photographs of housing, schools, water
a considerable proportion of such payments supply, general service provision and other
may not reach LIC and MIC destinations. aspects of infrastructure would add to the
development picture.
c 60–75 %
d Good photographic evidence can do much
d Tourism is an industry that requires a large
to provide an initial general assessment of
amount of labour to provide the services that
development, but a detailed analysis will
people expect when they go on holiday, e.g.
involve a study of all the data available
all the different jobs that are done in a large
for a country or region. Photographs can
hotel.
be used to illustrate points brought out in
e Although tourism may employ large comprehensive analysis of all the available
numbers of people in LICs and MICs, in so data.
many countries the industry is seasonal.
e They provide evidence of development over
This means that many tourism workers only
much wider geographical areas. Such images
have jobs in the industry for part of the year.
allow the interaction between various
In addition, most local jobs in tourism are
aspects of development to be seen, helping
menial and low-paid.
to provide a better understanding of the
f Multiplier effect: a new or expanding overall development situation. Satellites
economic activity in a region creates new use different types of imagery, which can
employment and increases the amount of highlight patterns difficult to discern from
money circulating in that region. In turn, standard photography.

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
2 a Triangular graph is why the UN combines different aspects
of the quality of life to arrive at a figure of
b Triangular graphs are used to show data
human development for each country.
that can be divided into three parts. For
employment, one side (axis) of the triangle e ‘Raw’ or ‘nominal’ GDP data does not take
is used to show the data for each of the into account the way in which the cost of
primary, secondary and tertiary sectors. Each living can vary between countries, e.g. a
axis is scaled from 0 to 100 %. This technique dollar buys much more in China than it does
requires the data to be in the form of a in the USA. To account for this, the GDP at
percentage and that the percentage totals ‘purchasing power parity’ (PPP) is calculated.
100. For an entry on the graph, note the
4 a The Human Development Index was devised
percentage figure for each of the three axes:
by the United Nations in 1990 as a new and
when done correctly, the three figures will
better measure to show the disparities in
total 100 %.
development between countries.
c Triangular graphs can also be used to show
b Figure 14.10 on page 455 of the textbook
for example:
shows the components of the Human
• soil texture in terms of the percentages of Development Index. This diagram should
sand, silt and clay in different types of soil form the basis for the exercise. The Index
contains four indicators of development: life
• the division of populations into young
expectancy at birth; mean years of schooling
dependents, the economically active
for adults aged 25 years; expected years of
population and elderly dependents.
schooling for children of school-entering
d A large amount of data can be shown on a age; and GNI per person (PPP). The actual
triangular graph and groupings are easily figures for each of these three measures
recognisable. However, care needs to be are converted into an index (Figure 14.12),
taken in construction to ensure accuracy, each of which has a maximum value of 1.0.
and care also needs to be taken in terms of The index values are then combined and
interpretation. averaged to give an overall HDI value. This
also has a maximum value of 1.0.
e The diagram of the sector model in Figure
14.3 on page 451 of the Cambridge International c Very high, high, medium and low
AS and A Level Geography textbook (second
d Very high human development: North
edition) should provide the basis for this
America, most of Europe, Australia and New
exercise.
Zealand, southern South America
f A triangular graph could be used to show
Low human development: most of sub-
how employment structure changed for
Saharan Africa and parts of Asia
the three parts of the sector model: pre-
industrial, industrial and post-industrial. e For example, infant mortality rate. The infant
mortality rate is regarded as one of the
3 a Gross domestic product
most sensitive indicators of socio-economic
b Totalling the value of goods and services progress. It is an important measure of
produced in a country in a year health equity, both between and within
countries.
c To take account of the different populations
of countries, the gross domestic product per f Ranking such as the Human Development
person is often used. Here, the total GDP of Index can show broad global patterns.
a country is divided by the total population. Changes in ranking can help to identify
Per person figures allow for more valid important trends.
comparisons between countries when their
g There can be a notable difference between
total populations are very different.
two countries next to each other in ranking.
d Every measure of development has merits
5 a The Gini coefficient
and limitations. No single measure can
provide a complete picture of the differences b The Gini coefficient is defined as a ratio
in development between countries. This with values between 0 and 1.0. A low value

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016
 indicates a more equal income distribution, d A choropleth map would suit this task. Such
while a high value shows more unequal a map can convey a considerable amount of
income distribution. A Gini coefficient of 0 information in a straightforward and visually
would mean that everyone in a country had appealing way. Figure 14.40 on page 472 of
exactly the same income (perfect equality). the textbook is a choropleth map showing
At the other extreme, a Gini coefficient of global variations in the Gini coefficient.
1 would mean that one person had all the
e Figure 14.41 on page 473 of the textbook
income in a country (perfect inequality).
provides a good example of a Lorenz curve.
c Southern Africa is a region of very high This example shows changes in income
income inequality. Europe is the world region inequality in Brazil.
with the lowest income inequality.

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Cambridge International AS and A Level Geography second edition Teacher’s CD © Garrett Nagle and Paul Guinness 2016