Mechanics of Unsaturated Soils for Engineering

EFFECTIVE STRESSES

Antonio Gens
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona
 OUTLINE
 Introduction
 Effective stress for saturated geomaterials
 Effective stress for unsaturated soils
 Proposals for a single effective stress
 Two independent stress variables
 Work-conjugate stress and strain variables
 Examples of stress variables for constitutive
models
 Conclusions
 Unsaturated soils: a bit of history
 1950’s, 1960’s
 Relevance of suction recognized
 Interpretation in terms of single ‘effective stress’
 Late1960’s, 1970’s
 Unsaturated soils as ‘difficult soils’, `special soils’, ‘regional soils’
 Late1970’s, 1980’s
 Recognition of need for two stress variables
 State surface approach
 Late 1980’s onwards
 Large expansion of research
 Suction control and measurement
 Elastoplastic models
 Incorporation into mainstream Soil Mechanics
Tensiones significativas

σ’ij ???
e
e Sr
Funciones de estado

σ’ij =σ’ij - uw
Saturated soils
 Two variables:
 Total stresses: σ
 Water pressure: uw

All the measurable effects of a change of stress, such as

compression, distortion and a change in the shearing resistance
are exclusively due to changes in effective stress…every
investigation of the stability of a saturated body of earth requires
the knowledge of both the total and the neutral stresses
(Terzaghi, 1936)

σ′ = σ − uw
Tensiones intergranulares (suelo saturado)

=
Fc σ Ac Ac
= = σ − (1 − ) pw
At At At
Effective stress for for saturated geomaterials

Sand Granite
Effective stress for for saturated geomaterials

(Lade & De Boer, 1997)

σ '= σ − β u I σ =' σ − B u
 Effective stress for saturated geomaterials
Cs
Poroelasticity σ ' = σ − (1 − )u Cs= Grain Compressibility
C = Skeleton Compressibility
C

Cs
σ − (1 − )u
σ σ−u C

Tests on Weber
sandstone (Nur & Byerlee, 1971)
 Effective stress for saturated geomaterials
Skempton on effective stress for saturated soil, rock &
concrete

• Theory I: Intergranular stress

σ ' = σ − (1 − a )u
• Theory II: Terzaghi’s expression
σ' = σ −u
• Theory III: Micromechanical variables
a tan ψ
shear strength: σ ' = σ − (1 − )u
tan φ '
Cs
volume change: σ ' = σ − (1 − )u
C
Effective stress for saturated geomaterials
σ’= σ - β Pw
β Reference Comment
1 Terzaghi (1923)
n Hoffman (1928) (n: porosity)
Biot (1955)
Pietruszczak & Pande Saturated cemented material
(1995)
1-a Skempton & Bishop (1954) (a: contact area ratio)
De Buhan & Dormieux Porous rock
(1999)
1- Cs/C Biot & Willis (1957) Cs: compressibility of grains
Geertsma (1957) C: compressibility of skeleton
Nur & Byerlee (1971)
Bishop (1973)
1-(1-n) Cs/C Suklje (1969)
1-(1-n) Lade & De Boer (1997) Granular material
Cgu/Csks
1- Cgu/Csks Lade & De Boer (1997) Solid rock with interconnected
pores
Cgu: compressibility of grains due
to a pore pressure change
Csks: compressibility of skeleton
due to a confining pressure change
 Effective stress for saturated geomaterials
Poroplasticity (Coussy, 1995)
 Tensor B is constant in perfect plasticity but not in
hardening plasticity
 Plastic ‘effective stress’ does not necessarily coincide
with elastic ‘effective stress’
 It is not required that some aspects of the plastic model
(e.g. yield surface) depends on plastic ‘effective stress’

Theory of porous media (De Boer & Ehlers, 1990, De Boer, 1996)
 Classical mixture theory + volume fractions
 An ‘effective’ or ‘extra’ stress arises naturally
 Unfortunately, the effective stresses depends on the
constitutive hypothesis
 Effective stress for saturated geomaterials
Some conclusions:
 The effective stress definition depends on the
hypothesis made:
 Constitutive law
 Micromechanical model
 Material parameters appear in the effective stress
definition
 It is highly unlikely that an universal effective stress
expression will be ever found for the full range of
porous geomaterials
 However, Terzaghi´s expression is always recovered
when grain compressibility can be neglected (soils)
σ′ = σ − uw
Tensiones intergranulares (suelo no saturado)
Propuestas de tensiones efectivas en suelos no saturados

Fredlund & Morgenstern (1977)

 Effective stress for unsaturated soils
Skempton on effective stress for unsaturated soil

• Bishop’s expression
σ ' = σ − ua + χ(ua − uw )

χ coefficient may be different for shear strength or

consolidation
Obtencion experimental de χ

2
 Effective stresses for unsaturated soils

 Bishop’s (1959) expression

σ ' = σ − ua + χ(ua − uw )

χ = Sr
 Effective stresses for unsaturated soils

 Average skeleton stress

σ ' = σ − ua + S r (ua − uw ) = σ − (1 − S r )ua − S r uw
 Entropy inequality + Coleman.Noll procedure (Hassanizadeh & Gray,
1980)

 Volume averaging (Lewis & Schrefler, 1987)

 Mixture theory (Hutter et al., 1999)

 Average skeleton stress + additional terms

 Energy approach to extend Biot’s theory of poroelasticity (Dangla &
Coussy, 1998; Cousssy & Dangla, 1992)
 Macroscale thermodynamic approach, solid phase surface in contact
with water as weighing parameter (Gray & Schrefler, 2001)
 Effective stresses for unsaturated soils

 Suction term, should it be a scalar quantity? (Li, 2003)

 Fabric dependent (tensorial quantity?)

σ 'ij =σij − ua δij + Fij (ua − uw )

Fij= S r δij + ξ′ij + ξ′′ïj

ξ′ij : distribution of pore fluid on particle surfaces

ξ′′ij : effect of the contractile skin
 Effective stresses for unsaturated soils

 Effective stress from water menisci forces (Fleureau et al., 2003)

σ 'ij =σij − pu′ δij ; pu′ =

πγ 

4R +
(3 3γ − 9 γ 2
+ 8γ R (ua − uw ) ) 
2 g ( e) R 2  (ua − uw ) 
 

γ = Surface tension (F/L)

 Effective stresses for unsaturated soils

 Effective stress from water menisci forces (Fleureau et al., 1995)

(a) (b)
(Escario & Saez, 1986)

(Wheeler & Sivakumar,

1992)

(c) (d)
 Effective stresses for unsaturated soils

 Effective stress from shear strength data (Khalili & Khabbaz, 1998)

σ ' = σ − ua + χ(ua − uw ) compacted

kaolin

−m
 (ua − uw ) 
χ = 
 a
(u − u w b 
)
sand.-clay
mixture
 Effective stresses for unsaturated soils

 Effective stress from shear strength data (Khalili & Khabbaz, 1998)

σ ' = σ − ua + χ(ua − uw )
−0.55
 (ua − uw ) 
χ = 
 a
(u − u w b 
)
 Stress variables for unsaturated soils

 Effect of intergranular forces due to external stresses

and suction
 Effective stresses for unsaturated soils

 A single effective stress?

σ ' = σ − ua + χ(ua − uw )

∆σ >0 ∆σ’>0
∆σ’>0 ∆εν >0

∆s <0 ∆σ’<0
∆σ’<0 ∆εν >0

(Jennings and Burland 1962)

 Stress variables for unsaturated soils

 Two sets of stress variables are required

σ − ua : Net stress s = ( ua − uw ) : Matric suction
(Coleman, 1962; Bishop & Blight, 1963; Matyas & Radhakrishna, 1968)

 Any two of the following stress variables (Fredlund & Morgenstern, 1977):

σ − ua =
s (ua − uw ) σ − uw
Stress variables for unsaturated soils
 Stress variables for unsaturated soils

 Null tests σ − ua =
s (ua − uw )

(Tarantino et al., 2000)

 Stress variables for unsaturated soils

 Null tests σ − ua =
s (ua − uw )

(Tarantino et al., 2000)

 Stress variables for unsaturated soils
 The full description of the behaviour of unsaturated soils
require the use of two independent stress variables
Which ones?

 Work input rate to an unsaturated granular material

W ≡ ua n(1 − Sr )ρ a / ρa − (ua − uw ) n Sr + σij − ( Sr uw + (1 − Sr )ua ) δij  ε ij

(Houlsby,1997)

 On average, contractile skin will move with the soil skeleton

 Work dissipated by flow of fluids is not included in the expression

 Stress variables for unsaturated soils
 Work input rate to an unsaturated granular material

W ≡ ua n(1 − Sr )ρ a / ρa − (ua − uw ) n Sr + σij − ( Sr uw + (1 − Sr )ua ) δij  ε ij

(Houlsby,1997)

 Neglecting air compressibility term

W ≡ σij − ( Sr uw + (1 − Sr )ua ) δij  ε ij − (ua − uw ) n Sr

Bishop’s σij − ( Sr uw + (1 − Sr )ua ) δij ε ij

stress:
Modified suction: n (ua − uw ) − Sr
 Stress variables for unsaturated soils
 Work input rate to an unsaturated granular material

W ≡ ua n(1 − Sr )ρ a / ρa − (ua − uw ) n Sr + σij − ( Sr uw + (1 − Sr )ua ) δij  ε ij

(Houlsby,1997)
 Neglecting air compressibility term

W ≡ (σij − δij ua )ε ij + sSr ε v + snSr

W ≡ (σij − δij ua )ε ij + sε w (ε w = nSr )

Net (σ − ua ) ε ij
stress: (u − u )
Suction: a w ε w = (−n Sr + Sr ε v )
 Stress variables for unsaturated soils
 The full description of the behaviour of unsaturated soils
require the use of two independent stress variables

W ≡ ua n(1 − Sr )ρ a / ρa − (ua − uw ) n Sr + σij − ( Sr uw + (1 − Sr )ua ) δij  ε ij

(Houlsby,1997)
Net (σ − ua ) ε ij
stress: (u − u )
Suction: a w ε w = (−n Sr + Sr ε v )
Bishop´s σij − ( Sr uw + (1 − Sr )ua ) δij ε ij
stress:
Modified suction: n (ua − uw ) − Sr
Other stress σ − ua + µ1 ( s, Sr )
combinations are
possible…
µ 2 ( s, S r )
(Gens,1995)
 Stress variables for unsaturated soils
 Class I

σ − ua (µ1 = 0) Alonso et al.(1990); Josa et al.(1992), Wheeler and

Sivakumar (1995), Cui et al (1995)

(s)
 Easy representation of µ 2 ( s, S r )
conventional stress paths
 Difficulties in the transition
saturated-unsaturated
 Hysteresis and hydraulic effects
difficult to incorporate
 Independent function required to
model the increase of strength σ − ua + µ1 ( s, S r )
with suction (σ-ua)
 Stress variables for unsaturated soils
 Class II
Kohgo et al. (1993), Modaressi and Abou Bekr (1994),
σ − ua + µ1 ( s ) Pakzad (1995), Geiser et al. (2000), Loret and Khalili
(2002)

 Representation of conventional µ 2 ( s, S r )
stress paths not straightforward
 Difficulties in the transition
saturated-unsaturated (even
when incorporating desaturation
suction)
 Hysteresis and hydraulic effects
difficult to incorporate
σ − ua + µ1 ( s, S r )
 The increase of strength with
suction results from stress
variable definition
 Stress variables for unsaturated soils
 Class III
Jommi and de Prisco (1994), Bolzon et al. (1996),

σ − ua + µ1 ( s, Sr )
Jommi (2000) , Wheeler et al, (2003), Gallipoli et al.
(2003), Sheng et al. (2004)

 Representation of conventional µ 2 ( s, S r )
stress paths not straightforward,
sometimes impossible
 No difficulties in the transition
saturated-unsaturated
 Hysteresis and hydraulic effects
can be naturally incorporated
 The increase of strength with σ − ua + µ1 ( s, S r )
suction results from stress
variable definition
Unsaturated soils: features of behaviour
Shear strength

First suction control direct shear cell described by Escario and Sáez, 1980.
Unsaturated soils: features of behaviour
Shear strength

Suction control direct shear cell

Unsaturated soils: features of behaviour
Shear strength increases with suction

Moderate suctions

Escario & Sáez (1986)

Unsaturated soils: features of behaviour
Shear strength increases with suction

Fredlund & Rahardjo

(1985)
Unsaturated soils: features of behaviour
Shear strength increases with suction

High suctions

Escario & Jucá(1990)

Stress variables for unsaturated soils: an example
 An elasto-plastic model for unsaturated soil incorporating the
effects of suction and degree of saturation on mechanical
behaviour
D. Gallipoli, A. Gens, R. Sharma, J. Vaunat (2003) Géotechnique, 53, 123-135

Saturated
domain

Menisci domain

(Buisson & Wheeler,

2000)
 Stress variables for unsaturated soils : an example
• Two stress variables
Average skeleton
stress: σ ' = σ − u + S (u − u )
a r a w
Bonding stress:
=ξ f (ua − uw )(1 − S r )
f (ua − uw ) : variation of interparticle stress with suction
Stress variables for unsaturated soils : an example
Bonding stress: f (s) fuerza adimensional ejercida
por un menisco agua entre dos

=ξ f (ua − uw )(1 − S r )
esferas idénticas de R=1μm
(solución analítica de
1.5 Fisher,1926)

1.4

1.3

f(s)
1.2

1.1

0 1000 2000 3000 4000

s (kPa)
(Fisher, 1926)
 Stress variables for unsaturated soils : an example

= 1 - a ⋅ (1 - exp(b ⋅ ξ ))
e
es

(Sivakumar,
1993)
(Sharma, 1998)
Stress variables for unsaturated soils : an example
= 1 - a ⋅ (1 - exp(b ⋅ ξ ))
Critical state e
es

1.4 1.5

(w/c= 19.6% –
Experimental 21.9%)
Model equation 1.4 Experimental
1.3
Model equation
(w/c= 24.9% –
27.7%) 1.3

1.2
s
e/e

s
e/e
1.2

1.1
1.1

1
1

0.95 0.95
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

ξ ξ
(Toll, 1990)
 Effective stress for unsaturated soils
Some conclusions:
 The description of the behaviour of unsaturated
soils require the use of two independent stress
variables

“in fact, no single stress variable has ever been found

which, substituted for effective stress, allows for a
description of all the aspects of the mechanical behaviour of
a given soil in the unsaturated range”.
(Jommi, 2000)
 Effective stress for unsaturated soils
Géotechnique editorial (Houlsby, 2004):
“The above somewhat over-simplifies the picture. as it is now widely recognized
that the mechanics of unsaturated soil is (almost certainly) not explicable in
terms of a single ‘effective stress’ but that a further variable (e.g. the difference
between the pore air pressure and pore water pressure) is needed too. Even so,
the unequivocal identification of the best choice of two variables on which to
base the hypothesis has not, I believe yet been achieved.
It is a challenge to our readers to achieve the same breakthrough for unsaturated
soils that Terzaghi did for saturated materials. We need clear definitions,
empirical proof that the mechanical behaviour of unsaturated soils does indeed
depend on the chosen variables, and preferably a satisfying ‘explanation’ in
terms of well articulated principles. It is not an easy task.”

 So far, the selection of stress variables for

unsaturated soils is a matter for convenience
(within reason)
 Effective stress

Some final conclusions:

 It is highly unlikely that an universal effective stress

expression will be ever found for the full range of
porous geomaterials

 However, Terzaghi´s expression is always recovered

when the material is saturated and grain
compressibility can be neglected

σ′ = σ − uw
Superficies de estado
Superficies de estado
Trayectorias de carga y descarga ?
Trayectorias de humedecimiento - secado
Trayectorias típicas en suelos no saturados