CE 322 - Foundation Engineering I: Online Lecture Notes For Soil Mechanics

11.04.
2023
CE 322 – Foundation
Engineering I
INS TRU CTOR: DR. ZE YN E P ÖZKUL BİRGÖRE N
RES EARCH ASS İS TAN T: DU YGU DE MİRTÜRK
Y IL DIRIM BE YAZIT Ü NİVE RSİTES İ
Online Lecture Notes for Soil Mechanics

Geoengineer.org
By: Athanasopoulos, G. A. (2021)
•Rankine Theory
•Coulomb Theory
•Retaining Structures (Gravity, Cantilever Walls, Diaphram walls)
•Example problems
https://www.geoengineer.org/education/online-lecture-notes-on-soil-mechanics/chapter-7-
earth-pressures
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Other Interesting Websites
ISSMGE International Journal of Geoengineering Case Histories

https://www.geocasehistoriesjournal.org/pub
Crowdsourcing magazine for the geotechnical Engineering Community
https://www.mygeoworld.com/geotrends/issues/18-february-
2022?token=6sDWWAZpFykc5wgFBOk89JcSapbYKcT6&utm_source=geoworld&utm_medium=e
mail&utm_campaign=geotrends-feb-2022&utm_content=image
Captivating Geotechnical Engineering News in 2021:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lg20sOdJrEE
Lateral Earth Pressure

Earth Pressure
– The force which is on the retaining wall
when the soil is retained at a slope steeper
than it can sustain by virtue of its shearing
strength. K=
At rest: In active state: In passive state:

𝜎′ 𝜎′ 𝜎′
𝐾 = 𝐾 = 𝐾 =
𝜎′ 𝜎′ 𝜎′
Assuming wall is frictionless:

Wedge will be in a state of plastic
equilibrium and move as shown
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Condition in the case of ACTIVE Condition in the case of PASSIVE

earth pressure earth pressure
Effect of Wall Movement

on Earth Pressure
The Earth Pressure At Rest
– The earth pressure that the soil mass
is in is a state of rest and there are no
deformations or displacements.
– The magnitude of earth pressure is

a function of the magnitude and
nature of the absolute and relative
movements of the soil and the
structure.
Movement away from fill   Movement toward fill
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How much deformation is needed?

Typical deformation
ratios needed to attain
active and passive
conditions. Assume
H=10m, then:
For loose sand,
DLa = 0.01 m = 1 cm
DLp = 0.1 m = 10 cm
For soft clay,
DLa = 0.2 m = 20 cm Note: It takes a much smaller deformation to fully mobilize the shear
strength in the active condition than in the passive condition
DLp = 0.4 m = 40 cm
Kp > K0 > Ka
Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest

At a depth z:
Vertical stress = sv’ = g z
Horizontal stress = sh’ = K0 g z
Empirical rel. by Jaky (1944)  𝐾 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑′ 𝛾
(good for loose sand)
Dense compacted sand backfill, (Sheri, Fang, and Sheriff
(1984) 
𝐾 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 + 5.5 −1
𝛾 = 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒
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Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest

Empirical rel. by Jaky (1944)  𝐾 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑′ For fine grained, normally consolidated (NC
clays), Massarsch (1979) suggested:
(good for loose sand)
%
Dense compacted sand backfill, (Sheri, Fang, and Sheriff 𝐾 = 0.440 + 0.42
(1984) 
For overconsolidated clays (OC clays):
𝐾 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 + 5.5 −1 𝐾 =𝐾

𝑂𝐶𝑅
𝛾 = 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒
Overconsolidated soils, Mayne and Kulhawy (1984)
𝐾 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑′ 𝑂𝐶𝑅
Earth Pressure at Rest: Pressure

Distribution
Resultant of the triangular stress distribution, P:
𝑃 = 𝛾𝐻
What if there is ground water table?
𝑃 = 𝛾𝐻
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Earth Pressure at Rest: Pressure

Distribution
Resultant of the triangular stress distribution, P:
𝑃 = 𝛾𝐻
What if there is ground water table?
𝑃 = 𝛾𝐻
Earth Pressure at Rest for Partially

Submerged Soils
Groundwater located at depth, H1 below
surface.
No water on the other side to compensate.
Above GWT  depth 0 to H1 Lateral EP
from Triangle ACE, sh1=K0gH1
Below GWT  use effective stresses
• Bouyant wt of soil, g’  slope of pressure
dist changes (EFG)
• Pressure due to water  acts equally in all
directions, u=gwH2
• So, sH=K0(gH1 +g’H2)+gwH2
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Earth Pressure at Rest for Partially

Submerged Soils
Below GWT  use effective stresses
• Bouyant wt of soil, g’  slope of pressure dist changes (EFG)
• Pressure due to water  acts equally in all directions, u=gwH2
• So, sH=K0(gH1 +g’H2)+gwH2
At any depth, the total lateral pressure from the earth is
𝜎 = 𝜎 +𝑢
𝜎 = 𝐾 𝛾𝐻 + 𝛾 𝑧 − 𝐻 +𝛾 𝑧−𝐻
So, the total pressure P0:
𝑃 = 𝐾 𝛾𝐻 + 𝐾 𝛾𝐻 𝐻 + 𝐾 𝛾 +𝛾 𝐻
Example 12.1: Retaining wall at Rest

The 15 ft high wall is restrained from yielding.
Calculate the lateral force P0 per unit length of
the wall. Also, determine the location of the
resultant force. Assume that for sand OCR =2.
Solution:
𝐾 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑′ 𝑂𝐶𝑅
K0 = (1-sin30)(2)sin30 =0.707
@ z= 0: 𝜎 = 0; 𝜎 = 0; 𝑢 = 0
@ z= 10: 𝜎 = 1000 lb/ft2;
𝜎 = 𝐾 𝜎 = 0.707(1000)=707 lb/ft2; u=0
@ z= 15: 𝜎 = 10 100 + 5 122.4 − 62.4 = 13000 lb/ft2;

𝜎 = 𝐾 𝜎 = 0.707(1300)=919.1 lb/ft2
u=5x 62.4 = 312 lb/ft2
Copyright © 2006 by Nelson, a division of

Thomson Canada Limited
1-14
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Ex 12.1 (cont.)
Lateral force P0 = Area 1 + Area 2 + Area 3
P0 = ½(10)(707)+5(707)+½(5)(919.1-707)+½(5)(312)
P0 = 3535 + 3535 + 530.3 + 780 = 8380.3 lb/ft
The location of the resultant:

∑
𝑧̅ =
( ) ( ) . ( ) ( )
𝑧̅ = = 4.83 ft
.
Rankine’s Lateral Earth Pressure: Active State

1-16
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Assumptions of Rankine’s Theory

•Failure surface is a plane
•Backfill is linearly sloping or level
•Friction between the wall and soil is
zero (d=0)
•Soil is homogeneous and isotropic
Rankine Active State
𝝋 𝝋
𝝈𝒂 = 𝜸𝒛𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝟒𝟓 − − 𝟐𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟒𝟓 −
𝟐 𝟐
𝝈𝒂 𝝋
𝑲𝒂 = = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝟒𝟓 −
𝝈𝒐 𝟐
𝝈𝒂 = 𝜸𝒛𝑲𝒂 − 𝟐𝒄 𝑲𝒂
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Rankine’s Theory: Active Pressure

𝜑 𝜑
𝜎 = 𝛾𝑧𝑡𝑎𝑛 45 − − 2𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 45 −
2 2
𝜎 𝜑
𝜎 = 𝛾𝑧𝐾 − 2𝑐 𝐾 𝐾 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 45 −
𝜎 2
At z=0  1st term=0 so 𝜎 = -2c 𝐾

At z=z (or H)  𝜎 = 𝛾𝑧𝐾 − 2𝑐 𝐾
If you plot the pressure diagram, it is as shown

1-19
Tensile Cracking in Cohesive soils

𝜑 𝜑
𝜎 = 𝛾𝑧𝑡𝑎𝑛 45 − − 2𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 45 −
2 2
2𝑐
𝑧 =
𝛾 𝐾 To determine the depth of cracking,
set sa=0 and solve for z:
0 = 𝛾𝑧 𝐾 − 2𝑐 𝐾
2𝑐
𝑧 =
𝛾 𝐾
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Copyright © 2006 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 1-21
Rankine’s Lateral Earth Pressure: Passive State

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Rankine’s Theory: Passive Pressure
𝜑 𝜑
𝜎 = 𝛾𝑧𝑡𝑎𝑛 45 + + 2𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 45 +
2 2
𝜎 𝜑
𝜎 = 𝛾𝑧𝐾 + 2𝑐 𝐾 𝐾 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 45 +
𝜎 2
At z=0  1st term=0 so 𝜎 =2c 𝐾

At z=z 
𝜎 = 𝛾𝑧𝐾 + 2𝑐 𝐾
The change in passive earth pressure with depth is shown.
1-23
Potential Slip Planes
1-24
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Rankine Active and

Passive Failure Wedges
1-25
Yielding of a wall of Limited Height
Shear strength is
mobilized in a
direction opposite to
movement  lat.
pressure is < at rest

1-26
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Generalized Case for Rankine Active Pressure

Generalized case:
◦ (a) back of wall is inclined at an angle q to the vertical
◦ (b) granular fill is inclined at an angle a to the horizontal
The lateral earth pressure is then (Chu, 1991):

𝛾𝑧𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜓
𝜎 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
𝜓 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 𝛼 + 2𝜃
Where:
The resultant, Pa is inclined at an angle b .
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜓
𝛽 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜓 𝑃 =

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝜃 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜓
𝐾 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼

1-27
Rankine Active State: Special Case –

Granular Backfill with Vertical Back Face
The q angle = 0  eqns for the generalized
case simplify to:

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
𝐾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
𝑃 = 𝜎 = 𝛾𝑧𝐾
Note: the resultant Pa is inclined at an

angle equal to the angle of the slope, a.
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Rankine Active State: Special Case – c’ & f’ Backfill with Vertical Back Face
Ka’ = f(f’, c’, a)  can look up value in tables

Pa is inclined at an angle a.
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Coulomb’s Active
Pressure Theory
Includes friction along the wall face!!!
Geometry  slope of fill a, inclined wall
backface, b, interface friction angle d’, internal
friction angle of soil, f’
Uses a force polygon to determine the angle of
the failure wedge.
Forces acting on the wedge:
1. Weight of the wedge
2. Resultant R, of the resisting normal and shear
forces along the surface BC1.
3. The active force per unit length of wall, Pa,
inclined at an angle d’ to the normal drawn to
the back face of the wall
Coulomb’s Active Earth Pressure Theory

Rankine does not account for
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 + 𝜑 friction behind the wall. Coulomb’s
𝐾 = theory does.

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 − 𝛿 1 + Position of the failure plane is
different for Coulomb
For a smooth wall with level backfill
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 − 𝜑 both Rankine and Coulomb’s
𝐾 = theories will give the same results.

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 + 𝛿 1− Where:
d = angle of wall friction;
b = angle of backfill with respect to wall
𝑃 = f = internal friction angle of soil
𝑃 =
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Retaining Walls
a) Gravity R. Wall
b) Semigravity R. Wall
c) Cantilever R. Wall
Retaining Walls
d) Counterfort R. Wall
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Proportioning & Retaining Wall Checks

Checks for Stability of
Retaining Walls:
1. Overturning
2. Sliding
3. Bearing Capacity
4. Global failure
Application of Earth Pressure Theory
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Application
of EP theory
In Coulomb’s theory we need to know the
interface friction angle, d, between the wall
(i.e. concrete) and the backfill material.
Generally:
𝛿= to
Overturning & Sliding Failure

A) Overturning about
toe of wall
B) Sliding along the

base of wall
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Bearing Capacity & Deep Seated Shear

Failure
C) The bearing
capacity of the
underlying soil must
not be exceeded
D) Deep seated
shear failure (if
weak layer exists
close to base)
Check for
Overturning
Overturning about point C. Identify all forces
in diagram.
Which forces produce overturning moments?

𝐻
𝑀 =𝑃
3

Where 𝑃 = 𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
Which forces produce resisting moments
𝑃 = 𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

∑ 𝑀
𝑀 = 𝑃𝑋 𝐹𝑆 =
∑ 𝑀
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Check for Sliding

Sliding at base. Identify all forces in diagram.
Which forces are the driving forces?
𝑃 = 𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
Which forces are the resisting forces?
Strength along base: 𝑠 = 𝜎 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿 + 𝑐
R’=su(area of X-section)= su(Bx1)
∑ 𝐹
𝐹𝑆 =
∑ 𝐹
Direction of Earth Pressure

for Frictionless Vertical Wall
with Sloping Backfill
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Tables for Active Pressure, Ka
Tables for Passive Pressure, Kp
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Rankine’s Active Earth Pressure

Distribution – Partially
Submerged cohesionless soil
backfill supporting a surcharge
Rankine’s Passive Earth

Pressure Distribution –
Partially Submerged
cohesionless soil backfill
supporting a surcharge
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Rankine’s Active Earth Pressure

Distribution –Cohesive soil backfill
The active pressure at any depth below the
ground surface is:
𝜎 = 𝐾 𝛾𝑧 − 2 𝐾 𝑐
The point at which the active pressure
equals zero is: 2𝑐
𝑧 =
𝛾
For the undrained condition f=0, 𝐾 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛 45 = 1 and c=cu : 2𝑐
𝑧 =
𝛾
Rankine’s Passive Earth Pressure

Distribution –Cohesive soil backfill
The passive pressure at any depth below
the ground surface is:

𝜎 = 𝐾 𝛾𝑧 + 2 𝐾 𝑐
For the undrained condition f=0, 𝐾 =

𝑡𝑎𝑛 45 = 1 and c=cu :
1
𝑃 = 𝛾𝐻 + 2𝑐 𝐻
2
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11.04.

Online Lecture Notes for Soil Mechanics

Other Interesting Websites

ISSMGE International Journal of Geoengineering Case Histories

Lateral Earth Pressure

At rest: In active state: In passive state:

Assuming wall is frictionless:

Condition in the case of ACTIVE Condition in the case of PASSIVE

Effect of Wall Movement

– The magnitude of earth pressure is

How much deformation is needed?

Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest

𝛾 = 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒

Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest

Earth Pressure at Rest: Pressure

Earth Pressure at Rest: Pressure

Earth Pressure at Rest for Partially

Earth Pressure at Rest for Partially

So, the total pressure P0:

Example 12.1: Retaining wall at Rest

@ z= 15: 𝜎 = 10 100 + 5 122.4 − 62.4 = 13000 lb/ft2;

Copyright © 2006 by Nelson, a division of

The location of the resultant:

Rankine’s Lateral Earth Pressure: Active State

Copyright © 2006 by Nelson, a division of

Assumptions of Rankine’s Theory

Rankine Active State

Rankine’s Theory: Active Pressure

At z=0  1st term=0 so 𝜎 = -2c 𝐾

Copyright © 2006 by Nelson, a division of

Tensile Cracking in Cohesive soils

Copyright © 2006 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 1-21

Rankine’s Lateral Earth Pressure: Passive State

Copyright © 2006 by Nelson, a division of

Rankine’s Theory: Passive Pressure

At z=0  1st term=0 so 𝜎 =2c 𝐾

The change in passive earth pressure with depth is shown.

Potential Slip Planes

Rankine Active and

Yielding of a wall of Limited Height

Copyright © 2006 by Nelson, a division of

Generalized Case for Rankine Active Pressure

Copyright © 2006 by Nelson, a division of

Rankine Active State: Special Case –

Note: the resultant Pa is inclined at an

Ka’ = f(f’, c’, a)  can look up value in tables

Copyright © 2006 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 1-30

Coulomb’s Active Earth Pressure Theory

Proportioning & Retaining Wall Checks

Application of Earth Pressure Theory

Overturning & Sliding Failure

B) Sliding along the

Bearing Capacity & Deep Seated Shear

Check for Sliding

Direction of Earth Pressure

Copyright © 2006 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 1-42

Tables for Active Pressure, Ka

Copyright © 2006 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 1-43

Tables for Passive Pressure, Kp