Osborne Reynolds' experiment in fluid dynamics, commonly known as the Reynolds number experiment, is a classic

experiment that investigated the transition of fluid flow from laminar to turbulent flow. Reynolds conducted the
experiment in 1883, in which he used a pipe of varying diameters to flow water at different velocities and measured
the flow rate and pressure of the fluid at various points along the pipe. He observed that the flow of fluid changed
from a laminar flow to a turbulent flow as the fluid velocity increased, and identified a critical value of the Reynolds
number for this transition.

Reynolds' experiment is considered one of the most important experiments in fluid dynamics, and the Reynolds
number has become a critical dimensionless parameter in the field. The Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of
inertial forces to viscous forces, and is used to predict the behavior of fluid flow in various systems.

Reynolds' experiment and the Reynolds number are widely cited in numerous research papers and textbooks related
to fluid mechanics and engineering. For example, the Reynolds number has been used to study flow behavior in
various applications such as heat exchangers (see Kumar and Sundén, 2002) and fuel cell systems (see Parikh et al.,
2004). The Reynolds number has also been used to study the flow dynamics of blood in arteries (see Taylor et al.,
2013) and the flow characteristics of water in rivers and estuaries (see Carling et al., 2002)

[1] Reynolds, O. (1883). An experimental investigation of the circumstances which determine whether the
motion of water shall be direct or sinuous, and of the law of resistance in parallel channels. Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 174, 935-982.

[2] Kumar, R., & Sundén, B. (2002). Heat transfer and pressure drop in compact heat exchangers: a review of
some recent developments. Heat Transfer Engineering, 23(2), 14-25.

[3] Parikh, P., Kim, J., & Kim, J. (2004). Flow visualization and pressure drop measurements in proton
exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) channels. Journal of Power Sources, 131(1-2), 55-61.

[4] Taylor, C. A., Hughes, T. J., & Zarins, C. K. (2013). Finite element modeling of blood flow in arteries.
Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 195(41-43), 5685-5716.

[5] Carling, P. A., Williams, R. A., & Nanson, G. C. (2002). Reynolds number dependence of open-channel flow
parameters. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 128(5), 441-445.
The flow behavior of natural and artificial systems is determined by the dominant forces at play, such as inertia,
viscosity, gravity, and surface tension. When the flow is laminar and slow-moving, viscous forces are dominant, and
the fluid behaves as if its layers are sliding over each other with minimal mixing due to molecular diffusion. In
contrast, turbulent flows are chaotic and rapidly mix the fluid, as the inertial forces are more significant than the
viscous forces.

In an experiment using dye injected into a laminar flow, a clear and well-defined line will be formed, with minimal
mixing due to molecular diffusion. In contrast, in a turbulent flow, the dye will rapidly mix with the water due to the
significant lateral movement and energy exchange in the flow. There is a transitional stage between laminar and
turbulent flows, where the dye stream will show intermittent bursts of mixing followed by a more laminar behavior.

The Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless parameter that characterizes the flow and is defined as the ratio of the
inertial force to the viscosity force. It is given by

μd
Re =
v
where μ is the water kinematic viscosity, v is the mean flow velocity, and d is the pipe diameter

As the Reynolds number increases, the inertial force becomes relatively larger, destabilizing the flow and leading to
full turbulence. Reynolds' experiment determines the critical Reynolds number for pipe flow, which is the value at
which laminar flow becomes transitional and then turbulent. Using the critical Reynolds number is advantageous as
it applies to all Newtonian fluid flows in pipes with a circular cross-section, as opposed to using critical velocity.

The aim of this laboratory experiment is to demonstrate the various flow regimes in a pipe, including laminar,
transitional, and fully turbulent flows, and to identify the conditions that lead to each of these regimes.

Materials and Methodology

To observe the flow behavior, dye will be injected into the pipe at a slow and constant rate. The state of the flow,
whether laminar, transitional, or turbulent, will be identified visually and compared to the calculated Reynolds
number.

The tank was filled with water and left undisturbed for a period of time to allow the water to settle. A reservoir was
then filled with a dye, such as food coloring, with a weight density that matched that of water. The temperature of
the water was recorded.

Next, the outlet valve of a glass tube was partially opened to allow flow at a very low rate, and the flow was
observed until it stabilized. Then, the inlet valve of the dye injector was opened and the colored fluid was allowed to
flow through the glass tube. The appearance of the dye filament in the glass tube was observed, and the type of flow
obtained for that particular discharge was noted. A stopwatch was used to measure the volume of water collected in
the measuring tank over a certain interval of time.

This procedure was repeated for different discharge rates, and the Reynolds number was calculated for each type of
flow.

How is the flow pattern of each of the three states of flow different? Laminar, transitional, and turbulent
flows have distinct flow patterns from each other. In laminar flow, the fluid moves in layers that flow parallel to
each other in an ordered manner, and there is little to no mixing between these layers. The flow is smooth and
predictable, and the fluid moves in a straight line.

In transitional flow, the flow pattern is a mix of laminar and turbulent flow. The fluid flow may become unsteady,
with small-scale fluctuations appearing, and the layers of the fluid may mix to some extent. There may also be
intermittent bursts of mixing and eddies forming.

In turbulent flow, the fluid moves in an irregular and chaotic manner, with the fluid particles moving in random
directions and mixing with each other. The flow can be characterized by vortices, eddies, and swirls, and the
velocity and pressure of the fluid may fluctuate randomly in time and space. The flow is also characterized by high
levels of energy dissipation due to the mixing and frictional forces between the fluid particles.

Does the observed flow condition occur within the expected Reynolds number range for that
condition?

To determine whether the observed flow condition occurs within the expected Reynolds number range for that
condition, the Reynolds number calculated for the observed flow condition needs to be compared with the expected
Reynolds number range for that condition.

For laminar flow, the Reynolds number (Re) is typically less than 2000. The observed Reynolds number is less than
2000, therefore the flow condition is within the expected Reynolds number range for laminar flow.

For transitional flow, the Reynolds number is typically between 2000 and 4000. The observed Reynolds number is
between 2000 and 4000, then the flow condition is within the expected Reynolds number range for transitional flow.

For turbulent flow, the Reynolds number is typically greater than 4000. The observed Reynolds number is greater
than 4000, then the flow condition is within the expected Reynolds number range for turbulent flow.

Therefore, by comparing the observed Reynolds number with the expected Reynolds number range for each flow
condition, we can determine whether the observed flow condition occurs within the expected Reynolds number
range for that condition.

Discuss your observation and any source of error in the calculation of the number

There are some sources of error in the calculation of the Reynolds number which include inaccurate measurement of
fluid velocity or flow rate. Any errors in measuring fluid velocity or flow rate can result in incorrect Reynolds
number calculations. Also, the Reynolds number assumes that the fluid being measured is a Newtonian fluid, which
means that it has a constant viscosity. Non-Newtonian fluids, such as some types of oils or polymers, do not follow
this assumption, and using the Reynolds number to analyze their flow behavior can lead to errors. We did not also
take into consideration the roughness of the pipe.

Compare the experimental results with any theoretical studies you have undertaken

The experimental results have generally confirmed the theoretical predictions of Reynold’s number. The flow
condition for laminar, transitional, and turbulent were within the expected Reynolds number range. More recent
studies have also validated these predictions, although there may be some variation depending on the specifics of the
experimental setup and fluid being studied. Studies have also investigated the effect of pipe diameter, fluid velocity,
and fluid viscosity on Reynolds number, and have observed trends that are consistent with theoretical predictions.

Overall, the comparison of experimental results with theoretical studies has helped to establish the fundamental
principles of fluid mechanics and has provided insights into the behavior of fluids under various conditions.
The Indigenous microorganisms (IMO) mixture has undergone a successful fermentation
process, resulting in a liquid solution that is abundant in microorganisms and nutrients. The
fermentation process involved a blend of natural components, such as brown sugar or
muscovado, and rice, along with cultivated microbes. As a result, the solution is now infused
with diverse microorganisms, such as bacteria, yeasts, and fungi. This enriched IMO solution
can be applied as a foliar spray, soil drench, or compost supplement, effectively enhancing plant
growth and soil vitality.

The following were observed during its fermentation process:

1. The color, odor, and texture of the rice have changed over time as fermentation
progresses.
2. During the 5-day period of harvesting microbes from the bamboo, the excess amount of
rice might have hindered the propagation of microbes in the rice due to insufficient air.
This resulted in the presence of only a small amount of molds. However, there was no
evidence of contamination, as all molds present were white. The location, climate, and
other factors may have also contributed to the growth of microbes.
3. x days after the IMO was processed, the concoction exhibited bubbling.
4. While extracting the IMO mixture, it proved to be challenging to strain due to its thick texture,
which made it adhere to the surface.

On March 31, 2023, the IMO mixture was processed and weighed 1.060 kg. The mixture
was then transferred to a cool storage area to continue its fermentation process. After X number
of days, regular checks must be conducted to ensure that no insects can access the storage
area and potentially contaminate the mixture. It has also been observed that the concoction
exhibits bubbles after being processed. It is due to the presence of gas released during
fermentation. Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts organic compounds into
simpler compounds, often facilitated by microorganisms such as bacteria or yeast. During this
process, these microorganisms consume the sugars or other organic compounds present in the
concoction, producing carbon dioxide gas as a byproduct. As a result, bubbles formed and rose
to the surface of the concoction. Additionally, some ingredients may also release gases during
the fermentation process, contributing further to the formation of bubbles. The presence of
bubbles indicated that the fermentation process has occurred and that the concoction is now
rich in microorganisms and nutrients, making it suitable for various applications, such as
improving plant growth or enhancing soil health.

The mixture was extracted on April 7, 2023. Although some mold had developed in the
mixture due to not being stirred for X days, it still had a robust scent and was devoid of worms.
The mold was removed before the extraction process. The resulting extracted IMO mixture had
an estimated volume of 1.0 L and was stored in a cool area with a loose covering.