*TOPICS TO BE COVERED:

Paper to scopus, The language of

research, how to get research
published,

MEASUREMENT
Ÿ It is the assignment of scores to
individuals so that the scores
represent some characteristic of?
the individuals.
Ÿ This very general definition is
consistent with the kinds of
measurement that everyone is?
familiar with—for example,
weighing oneself by stepping
onto a bathroom scale, or
checking the internal?
 temperature of a roasting food .
Ÿ It is also consistent with
measurement?in the other
sciences.
Ÿ In physics, for example, one
might
Ÿ measure the potential energy of
an object in Earth’s?gravitational
field by finding its mass and
height (which of course requires
measuring those variables) and?
then multiplying them together
along with the gravitational
acceleration of Earth (9.8 m/s2).
Ÿ The result of?this procedure is a
score that represents the object’s
potential energy.
Ÿ Psychological measurement is
often referred to as
psychometrics
Ÿ For example, that a cognitive
psychologist wants to measure a
person’s working memory
capacity—his or her ability to hold
in mind and think about several
pieces of information all at the
same time. To do this, she might
use a backward digit span task, in
which she reads a
Ÿ list of two digits to the person and
asks him or her to repeat them in
reverse order. She then repeats
this several times, increasing the
length of the list by one digit each
time, until the person makes an
error. The length of the longest
list for which the person responds
correctly is the score and
represents his or her working
memory capacity.

PSYCHOLOGICAL
CONSTRUCTS
Ÿ Many variables studied by
psychologists are straightforward
and simple to measure.
Ÿ These include sex, age, height,
weight, and birth order.
Ÿ You can often tell whether
someone is male or female just
by looking.
Ÿ You can ask people how old they
are and be reasonably sure that
they
Ÿ know and will tell you.
Ÿ Although people might not know
or want to tell you how much they
weigh, you can have them step
onto a bathroom scale.?
Ÿ Other variables studied by
psychologists perhaps the
majority are not so
straightforward or simple to
measure, for example,
intelligence by looking at them,
and we certainly cannot put their
self-esteem on a bathroom scale.
These kinds of variables are?
called constructs (pronounced
CON-structs) and include
personality traits (e.g.,
extraversion), emotional?states
(e.g., fear), attitudes (e.g., toward
 taxes), and abilities (e.g.,
athleticism).
Ÿ Fir example, a clinical
psychologist who is interested in
how depressed a person is. He
administers the Beck
Ÿ Depression Inventory, which is a
21-item self-report questionnaire
in which the person rates the
extent to which he or she has felt
sad, lost energy, and experienced
other symptoms of depression
over the past 2 weeks. The sum
of these 21 ratings is the score
and represents his or her current
level of depression

CAUSALITY
Psychologist illuminates one of
humanity’s most fundamental
concepts: cause and effect.
Ÿ Causation (Causality), relates to
"cause and effect" relationship.
Ÿ Causation is the demonstration of
how one variable influences (or
the effect of a variable) another
variable or other variables. When
one variable does have an effect
on another, you
Ÿ can say that you have
"causation". ?
Ÿ

GENERALIZATION
The process of deriving a
concept, judgment, principle, or
theory from a limited number of
specific cases and applying it
more widely, often to an entire
class of objects, events, or
people.See inductive reasoning.
A judgment or principle derived
and applied in this way. ?
Ÿ In conditioning, see stimulus
generalization. ?
Ÿ

Ÿ REPLICATION
The repetition of an original
experiment or research study to
verify or bolster confidence in its
results.
In exact replication (or literal
replication), a researcher uses
 procedures that are identical to
the original experiment or
duplicated as closely as possible.
Ÿ In modified replication, a
researcher incorporates
alternative procedures and
additional conditions.
Ÿ In conceptual replication, a
researcher introduces different
techniques and manipulations to
gain theoretical information.
Ÿ H INDEX
Ÿ The h-index is calculated by
counting the number of
publications for which an author
has been cited by other authors
at least that same number.
The h-index is an author-level
metric that measures both the
productivity and citation impact of
the publications, initially used for
an individual scientist or
scholar. ?
Ÿ CITESCORE???
Ÿ CiteScore is the number of
citations received by a journal in
one year to documents published
in the three previous years,
divided by the number of
documents indexed in Scopus
published in those same three
years??
SJR INDICATOR
A journal's SJR indicator is a
numeric value representing the
average number of weighted
citations received during a
selected year per
 document published in that
journal during the previous three
years, as indexed by Scopus.
Ÿ Higher SJR indicator values are
meant to indicate greater journal
prestige.??

Ÿ ?
Ÿ HUMAN REASONING
Deduction: reasoning from
general premises, which are
known or presumed to be known,
to more specific, certain
conclusions.
Induction: reasoning from specific
cases to more general, but
uncertain, conclusions.
Both deductive and inductive
arguments occur frequently and
naturally, both forms of reasoning
can be equally compelling and
persuasive, and neither form is
 preferred over the other (Hollihan
& Baske, 1994).
Ÿ

Ÿ DEDUCTION
It is commonly associated with
“formal logic.”
Involves reasoning from known
premises, or premises presumed
to be true, to a certain conclusion.
Ÿ The conclusions reached are
certain, inevitable, inescapable.
It is the form or structure of a
deductive argument that
determines its validity
The fundamental property of a
valid, deductive argument is that
if the premises are true, then the
conclusion necessarily follows.
The conclusion is said to be
“entailed” in, or contained in, the
premises.
Example: use of DNA testing to
establish paternity

Example of Deduction major

premise: All tortoises are
vegetarians; minor premise:
Bessie is a tortoise; conclusion:
Therefore, Bessie is a vegetarian.
Ÿ Deductive reasoning is either
“valid” or “invalid.” A deductive
argument can’t be “sort of” valid.
 If the reasoning employed in an
argument is valid and the
argument’s premises are true,
then the argument is said to be
sound.
valid reasoning + true premises =
sound argument
Deductive reasoning is commonly
found in the natural sciences or
“hard” sciences, less so in
everyday arguments
Occasionally, everyday
arguments do involve deductive
reasoning:
Ÿ Example: “Two or more persons
are required to drive in the
diamond lane. You don’t have
two or more persons. Therefore
you may not drive in the diamond
 lane”
Ÿ

INDUCTION
Ÿ Commonly known as “informal
logic,” or “everyday argument”
 Involves drawing uncertain
inferences, based on
probabalistic reasoning.
Ÿ The conclusions reached are
probable, reasonable, plausible,
believable.
The form or structure of an
inductive argument has little to do
with its perceived believability or
credibility, apart from making the
argument seem more clear or
more well organized.
The receiver (or a 3rd party)
determines the worth of an
inductive argument
Example of Induction, Boss to
employee: “Biff has a tattoo of an
anchor on his arm. He probably
served in the Navy.”
Ÿ Inductive reasoning enjoys a wide
range of probability; it can be
 plausible, possible, reasonable,
credible, etc.
Ÿ the inferences drawn may be
placed on a continuum ranging
from cogent at one end to
fallacious at the other.
Inductive reasoning is found in
the courtroom, the boardroom,
the classroom, and throughout
the media
Most, but not all everyday
arguments are based on
induction
Ÿ Examples: The “reasonable
person” standard in civil law, and
the “beyond a reasonable doubt”
standard in criminal law
Ÿ

THEORY
Ÿ There is an interesting debate
one could have regarding the
term theory, which is reminiscent
of the age-old argument: Which
came first, the
Ÿ chicken or the egg? With respect
to theory one side of the debate
argues that theories drive the m
search (theory-then-research) or
deductive logic. The other side
would argue that research
creates the theory (research-
then-theory) (Berg 2004) or
inductive logic.
Ÿ In reality, the two types of logic
are actually extensions of one
another.
Ÿ Observation may lead to theory
construction, which then leads to
more observation in order to test
the theory.
Ÿ Therefore, even research that is
initially inductive in nature
ultimately becomes deductive in
 that the theory that is generated
is tested by observation.
Ÿ In short, all criminal-justice
practice is grounded in
criminological theory.
Ÿ Theory is defined here as an
explanation that offers to classify
organize, explain, predict, and/or
understand the occurrence of
specific phenomena.
Ÿ A theory is a statement that
attempts to make sense of reality.
Ÿ Reality consists of those
phenomena that we can identify,
recognize, and observe. For
example, in criminology, criminal
behavior is observed. Therefore,
people breaking the law are a
reality.
A question that arises from this
reality is, What causes people to
break the law? It is here that
theory comes into the picture,
Criminology is replete with
criminal behavior theories that
focus on causes that include
biological, psychological, and
sociological factors
 Research is conducted to
determine if theories have any
merit or are truly applicable.
Proving that a theory is valid is a
common goal of criminological
and criminal-justice researchers.
Ÿ However, in order to research a
theory, the first step is to focus on
a concept.

Ÿ CONCEPTUALIZATION
Ÿ

Ÿ Concept is best defined as an

abstract label that represents an
aspect of reality (usually in the
form of an object, policy, issue,
problem, or phenomenon). Every
discipline
Ÿ has its own concepts.
Ÿ For example, common concepts
in criminal justice and criminology
include criminality, law,
rehabilitation, and punishment.
Ÿ Concepts are viewed as the
beginning point for all research
endeavors, and are often very
broad in nature.
Ÿ They are the bases of theories,
and serve as a means to
communicate, introduce, classify,
and build thoughts and ideas.
Ÿ To conduct research, the concept
must first be taken from its
conceptual or theoretical level to
an observational level. In other
words, one must go from the
abstract to the concrete.
Ÿ To achieve the second part of the
conceptualization model the
Ÿ research phase the concepts
must now be measured. Although
concepts can be qualitative, they
are most often converted into
variables through a process
called operationalization.

OPERATIONALIZATION
The act of operationalizing is the
describing of how a concept is
measured. This process is best
defined as the conversion of the
abstract idea or notion into a
 measurable item.
Ÿ In other words, it involves taking
something that is conceptual and
making it observable, or going
from abstract to concrete.
Ÿ The primary focus of the
operationalization process is the
creation of variables and the
subsequent development of a
measurement instrument to
assess those variables.
Ÿ Operationalization is one of the
more important tasks prior to
conducting any research.
Ÿ However, there is no one right
way to go about operationalizing:
how this is accomplished is up to
the researcher.
Ÿ Unfortunately, it is common for
researchers to publish their
results without ever explaining
how their con-
Ÿ cepts were operationalized. As a
result, many students have
difficulty fully comprehending the
notions of conceptualizing and
operationalizing variables.
Ÿ

Ÿ CONCEPTUALIZATION
PROCESS MODEL
Ÿ

Ÿ Theoretical Phase
Ÿ

Ÿ Conceptual Level-The main

concept or theory
Conceptual Components-
Concepts that are part of the
main concept
Conceptual Definitions- Terms
that describe and differentiate the
concept
Ÿ Research Phase
Ÿ Operational Definitions-
Procedures
Ÿ that describe activities to be
undertaken
Ÿ Observational Level - Responses
to the operational definitions
Ÿ

Ÿ VARIABLES
Ÿ The primary focus of the
operationalization process is the
creation of variables and the
subsequent development of a
measurement instrument to
assess those variables.
Variables are concepts that may
be divided into two or more
categories or group ings known
as attributes. The ability to divide
the variables into categories
enables us to study their
relationships with other variables.
Attributes are the grouping into
which variables may be divided.
As an example. "male" is an
attribute of
 the variable "gender"
Ÿ There are two types of variables:
dependent and independent
Ÿ 1)Dependent Variables-
Ÿ A dependent variable is a factor
that requires other factors to
cause or influence change.
Ÿ Dependent variables are factors
over which the researcher has
no control.
Ÿ Basically, the dependent variable
is the outcome factor or that
which is beong predicted.
Ÿ In criminal justice and
criminology, criminal behavior is
a dependent
2) INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
The independent variable is the
influential or the predictor factor.
These are the variables believed
to cause the change or outcome
of the dependent variable, and
are something the researcher can
control.
Some better-known independent
variables used in criminal-justice
and criminological research are
gender, race, marital status, and
education. Identifying and
recognizing the difference
between the variables is
important in research, but
sometimes may get lost.
Therefore, it is important for
research to specifically call
attention to the variables. The key
to any research is to be able to
operationalize the concepts into
un-derstandable and measurable
variables. Failing to complete this
task will make the creation and
testing of the hypothesis more
 difficult.
Ÿ

Ÿ HYPOTHESES
Ÿ

Once the concept has been

operationalized into variables that
fit the theory in question, most
research focuses on testing the
validity of a statement called a
hypothesis.
The hypothesis is a specific
statement describing the
expected relation- ship between
the independent and dependent
variables.
Ÿ There are three common types of
hypotheses: research, null, and
rival.
Ÿ

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

Ÿ The foundation of a research

project is the research
 hypothesis.
Ÿ This is a state- ment of the
expected relationship between
the dependent and independent
variables.
Ÿ The statement may be specified
as either a positive (as one
increases, the other increases) or
a negative (as one increases, the
other decreases) relationship.
Ÿ The hypothesis is not always
clearly delineated, but it is
preferable for it
 to be.
Ÿ NULL HYPOTHESIS

Ÿ Some would argue that the

results of the research should
support the research hypothesis.
Others will claim that the goal is
to disprove the null hypothesis,
which is a statement indicating
that no relationship exists
between the dependent and
independent variables.
Ÿ For example, in Colomb and
Damphouse (2004). although
their research hypothesis is not
made clear to the reader, the null
hy z pothesis is: A moral panic did
not
Ÿ occur in the late 1990s regarding
hate crimes because of the
disproportionate amount of media
attention given to the issue (149).
Ÿ By rejecting the null hypothesis,
the research goal has been
fulfilled.
Ÿ However, rejecting the null
hypothesis does not necessarily
mean that the results have es-
tablished the validity of the
research hypothesis.

Ÿ RIVAL HYPOTHESIS
Ÿ

Ÿ Prior to starting the research, it is

customary to establish the
research hypothesis, which is
generally what the researcher
 hopes to validate or demonstrate
Ÿ However, sometimes the results
may reject both the null
hypothesis and
Ÿ the research hypothesis. This
allows for the creation of what is
called a rival hypothesis. The rival
hypothesis is a statement offering
an alternate prediction for the
research findings
For example, the research
hypothesis of Holcomb, Williams,
and Demuth (2004) that
"defendants convicted of killing
white females are significantly
more likely to receive death
sentences than are killers of
victims with other race- gender
characteristics" might call for a
rival hypothesis, perhaps along
the lines of "Nonwhite defendants
convicted of killing white females
are signifi- cantly more likely to
receive death sentences than are
white killers of white females."

ASSUMPTIONS
Ÿ Hypotheses are educated
guesses about the relationship
between variables. These
educated guesses must be
proved by the research.
Ÿ An assumption is a statement
accepted as true with little
supporting evidence. From a
research perspective,
assumptions are problematic. It is
expected that statements of
inquiry or fact be backed up by
research to substantiate them.
Ÿ Fortunately, assumptions can
often lead to research. For
example, a researcher might
assume, based on the perceived
natural caring instincts of women,
that women would make better
police officers than would males.
Since there is little evidence to
validate this assumption, and it
would not be a read- ily accepted
Ÿ statement, at least among males,
there would be a need to
research this assumption. In this
situation, the researcher could
move beyond the untestable
assumption that women would be
better officers because they are
more caring by converting it into
hypotheses that can be tested.
Variables could be created to
mea- sure what is meant by
"caring" and what is meant by
"officer performance."

*Theory, concept, operationalize,

variable, hypothesis, and
assumption are all key words in
the language of research. Still,
they are just the building blocks
 and causes for other terms with
which the student should be
familiar.
Ÿ

Ÿ *Once the researcher has

managed to
Ÿ conceptualize and operationalize
his or her research, it is then time
to choose who will be targeted to
respond to the de- pendent
variables. A unit of analysis is the
level at which the researcher will
fo- cus his or her attention. It
could be individuals, groups,
communities, or even entire
societies, depending on the
nature of the research. The
researcher then se- lects samples
from the population that is being
studied
Ÿ

Ÿ POPULATION

A population is the complete

group or class from which
information is to be gathered.
For example, police officers,
probation officers, and
correctional officers are each a
population. For every member of
a population to
 provide the information sought
would in most cases be
logistically immoral, not to
mention inefficient and wasteful
of the researcher's time and
reherefore, most researchers
choose to obtain a sample from
the targeted population.
Ÿ

Ÿ SAMPLE
Ÿ A sample is a group chosen from
within a target population to
provide information sought.
Choosing this group is referred to
as sampling, and may take one of
several forms.
Ÿ Sampling is important enough to
warrant an entire chapter of its
own later in the text. Some
examples of samples follow-

1) Random: A random sample is

one in which all members of a
given population
 have the same chances of being
selected. Furthermore, the
selection of each member must
be independent from the
selection of any other members
2) Stratified Random: This is a
sample that has been chosen
from a population that has been
divided into subgroups called
strata. The sample is composed
equally of members representing
each stratum.
Ÿ 3)Cluster:The sample comprises
randomly selected groups rather
than individuals
Ÿ 4) Snowball: This sample begins
with an individual or individuals
who provide names of other
people for the sample.
Ÿ 5) Purposive: Individuals are
chosen to provide information
based on the researcher's belief
that they will provide the
necessary information. This type
of sample is also known as a
judgmental
Ÿ or convenience sample.

Once the sample has been

identified, the information is
collected. In collecting this
information, two concerns for the
researcher are the validity and
the reliability of the data-
collection device.
Ÿ

Ÿ VALIDITY
Ÿ

Ÿ Validity is a term describing

whether the measure used
accurately represents the concept
it is meant to measure. There are
four types of validity: face,
content, construct, and criterion.
Validity can also be categorized
as either internal (truth- fulness of
the findings with respect to the
individuals in the sample) or
external
(truthfulness of the findings with
respect to individuals not in the
sample).
Face Validity: This is the simplest
form of validity, and basically
refers to whether the measuring
device appears, on its face, to
measure what the researcher
wants to measure. This is
primarily a judgmental decision.
Content Validity: Each item of the
measuring device is examined to
determine whether the element
measures the concept in
question.
Construct Validity: This validity
inquires as to whether the
measur ing device does indeed
measure what it has been
designed to measure. It refers to
the fit between theoretical and
operational definitions of the
concept.
 Criterion (or Pragmatic) Validity:
This type of validity represents
the degree to which the measure
relates to external criteria. It be
either concurrent or predictive
(the ability to accurately foretell
future events or conditions)

RELIABILITY
Ÿ

Ÿ Reliability refers to how

consistent the measuring device
would be over time.
In other words, if the study is
replicated, will the measuring
device provide consistent results?
The two key components of
reliability are stability and
consistency
Ÿ Stability means the ability to
retain accuracy and resist
change.
Ÿ Consistency is the ability to yield
similar results when replicated.
Having established the validity
and reliability of the measuring
device, the sample can now be
approached for information. The
information gathered is known as
data.

DATA

Data are simply pieces of

information gathered from the
sample.
The pieces may describe events,
beliefs, characteristics, people, or
other phenomena.
These data may exist at one of
four levels:
Ÿ 1. Nominal Data: These data are
categorical based on some
defined characteristic. The
categories are
Ÿ exclusive and have no logical
order. For
example, gender is a nominal-
level data form.
2. Ordinal Data: Ordinal data are
also categorical, but their
characteristics may be rank-
ordered. These data categories
are also exclusive, but are scaled
in a manner representative of the
amount of characteristics in
question, along some dimension.
For example, types of prisons
may be broken down into the
categories of minimum, medium,
and maximum.
3. Interval Data: Categorical data
for which there is a distinctive, yet
equal difference among the
characteristics measured are
interval data. The categories
have order and represent equal
units on a scale with no set zero
starting point (for example, the IQ
of person)
Ÿ 4. Ratio Data: This type of data is
ordered units of distance, and a
true zero starting point (for
example, a height, income).
Ÿ

Ÿ THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Ÿ This model begins with a theory
usually identifying some concept.
Ÿ The concept is then
conceptualized and
operationalized to create
dependent variables.
Ÿ Completing the identification of
both the independent and
dependent variables leads then to
developing the hypothesis or
hypotheses.
Finally, a sample is chosen,
measurement or information is
gathered from the sample, the
information is converted into the
proper data for analysis, and the
results are reported.
Ÿ THE RESEARCH PROCESS IN
BRIEF
Ÿ

Ÿ Conceptualization
Ÿ - Identify a relevant social issue
or phenomenon worthy of study
Ÿ -Review prior research regarding
the identified social issue
Ÿ -Decide what the focus of your
research into the social issue is to
be
-Determine the theoretical
orientation/explanation upon
which the research is based
-Determine the various concepts
used within the primary
theoretical explanation
 -Identify the concepts employed
within the theoretical explanation
Ÿ - Define these concepts so that
others can understand their
meanings
Ÿ -Think about how these concepts
may relate to one another
Ÿ

Operationalization

-Create variables that may be

used to measure concepts
-Identify whether the variables
are dependent or independent
-Develop hypotheses that will
enable you to evaluate the
relationships among variables
-Determine how you will collect
data regarding your variables
-Determine how you will analyze
the data that are collected
Ÿ -Determine population to be
studied
Ÿ -Determine how the population is
 to be sampled
Ÿ -Determine what will be done with
the results of the research
Ÿ

ACTION AND APPLIED

RESEARCH
QUANTITATIVE AND
QUALITATIVE
MEASMEASUREMENT
Measurement is the objective
representation of the attributes of
objects and events of the real
world by symbols on the basis of
an objective empirical process, is
a basic tool of modern human
thought.
It is the way in which we describe
and reason about the world.
Measurement has been
developed through the physical
sciences, which serve as a
paradigm. From this basis its
application has been extended to
virtually all domains of human
knowledge and discourse.
However, the concepts and
methods of measurement in this
wider and more diverse range of
disciplines offer significant
conceptual problems, compared
with measurement in the physical
sciences that is the normative
view of much metrological
discourse.” (Finkelstein, 2009, p.
1270)

ISSUES
Problem #1: The theoretical gap?
How much effort have we put into
developing theories of our
constructs??
Problem #2: Objectivity?How
objective can our assessment
processes really be??
Problem #3: Levels of
measurement?What form of
measurement are we using:
nominal, ordinal, interval or
ratio??Problem #4: Appropriate
statistics?How well do we
understand the statistical tools we
are using?
?Problem #5: Levels of analysis?
Can we use the statistical tools to
draw conclusions about
individuals??
RESRESEARCH GAP
It is a problem, which is not
addressed properly. This may be
due to lack of sufficient
information to support their claim
and also literature gap which are
the missing or incomplete piece
of data in the research literature
that is not been
explored or ventured so far.
It can be anything to everything
from a population of samples-
sizes, types, etc.
It may arise due to failure in
understanding the working of
particular instruments, new
technological advances or
studying a new organism that has
been recently discovered.
?Research gaps can be identified
by citation analysis, systematic
reviews and in the introduction
section of research articles and
finally in the discussions and
future research sections in
research papers or journals which
researchers have already
published.
For example
?https://bigthink.com/neuropsych/
great-brain-rewiring-after-age-
40/?utm_source=pocket-
newtab-intl-en
NULL HYPOTHESIS
A null hypothesis H1- is
considering that the new research
findings are not statisticaly
significant than the older one, that
there is no difference between
the two.?
The advantage of null hypothesis
is that, it needs no data.?So, we
can infer that, null hypothesis is a
reference point against which the
research hypothesis is tested.

ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
The alternative hypothesis H1- is
a statement used in statistical
inference experiment.
It is contradictory to the null
hypothesis and denoted by Ha or
H1.
In hypothesis testing, an
alternative
 theory is a statement which a
researcher is testing. This
statement is true from the
researcher’s point of view and
ultimately proves to reject the null
to replace it with an alternative
assumption.
In this hypothesis, the difference
between two or more variables is
predicted by the researchers,
such that the pattern of data
observed in the test is not due to
chance.
Ÿ ADVOCACY VS SCIENCE
Ÿ The advocate will pick up any
piece of apparently useful data
and without doing any analysis,
decide that their pet theory
perfectly explains any anomaly
without consideration of any
alternative explanations. Their
conclusion is always that their
original theory is correct.?
Ÿ The scientist will look at all
possibilities and revise their
thinking based on a thorough
assessment of all issues – data
quality, model quality and
appropriateness of the the
comparison. Their conclusion
follows from the analysis
whatever it points to.?
Ÿ

USE OF DATA BASE AND

SEARCH ENGINES
Specialized search engines are a
great way to find
information, desired results, and
access the most relevant
academic databases, journal
articles, citations, and so on,
which can be accessed through
various specialized educational
resources that provide additional
ways to get results for
researchers. 
Best Search Engines for
Academic
Researchers- Educational Search
Engines: Google Scholar,
Microsoft Academic, Semantics
scholar, World wide science,
Refseek, Infotoia, Lexis Nexis-
Academic Search Engines:
OJOSE, DMOZ- Meta search
engiens: Carrot2, KartOO- Media
search engines: Radio Locator,
Pixsy, Unspalsh- Social search
engines: PIPL, iSearch, Mahalo
RESEARCH THRUST AREAS
Ÿ GANTT CHART
Ÿ A Gantt chart is a project
management tool assisting in the
planning and scheduling of
projects of all sizes, although they
are particularly useful for
simplifying complex projects.
Ÿ ?Project management timelines
and tasks are converted into a
horizontal bar chart, showing start
and end dates, as well as
dependencies, scheduling and
deadlines, including how much of
the task is completed per stage
and who is the task owner.
Ÿ This is useful to keep tasks on
track when there is a large team
and
Ÿ multiple stakeholders when the
scope changes.
Ÿ ?As it's in a bar chart format it is
possible to check on progress
with a quick glance.

RESEARCH PAPER WRITING

PROCESS
Ÿ Research Writing process
involves Prewriting, Writing and
Post-writing
Ÿ

1)Assignment Clarification
Read the assignment sheet
carefully.
Ÿ Underline directional statements:
define, identify, analyze, argue,
etc.
Ÿ Underline due dates.
Ÿ Identify evaluation criteria.
Ask questions.
Ÿ 2)Time Management
Write down all due dates.
 Break down the research process
into steps.
Assign a due date for each step.
Make weekly and daily priority
lists
3)Topic Selection
Previous knowledge
Course content
Ÿ Personal or professional
experience/interests
Ask questions: who, what,
where, when, why
Ÿ What is it similar to or different
from; what are the causes; what
are the consequences; what is
the essential function; what are
the definitions; what is the history;
what is the present status; what
case can be made for or against
it; how did it happen; why did it
happen; what is my personal
reaction to it?
 Identify subtopics
Ÿ 4)Topic Brainstorm
Brainstorming strategies- List,
Map, Freewrite
5)Library Visit
Browse the Drake Memorial
Library website.
Tour the library.
Meet with a reference librarian.
Learn the difference between
scholarly journals and other
periodicals.
Ÿ Locate sources
Ÿ 6)Locate/Select Sources
7)Survey Sources
Read abstracts, headings and
subheadings.
 Make note of charts, statistics,
graphs.
Read the reference lists.
Read introductory and summary
paragraphs.
Skim body.
Ÿ 8)Topic Focus
Go back to your original subject
and focus it further based upon
the information you gleaned
during the text survey activities.
9)Read Articles
Read once-Read write- Take
notes as you read: Develop a
system of underlining, marking,
and/or paraphrasing in the
margins that is meaningful to you
10)Preliminary Thesis
Form a thesis statement or
question that will guide the rest of
your research and writing.
Focused Topic +
Assertion=Thesis
Discovering Preliminary Thesis-
Topic: Environmental issue
connected to global warming ,
Focused Topic: coal fires - Thesis
Question: How prevalent are coal
fires? In what ways do coal fires
contribute to global warming?
What proof is there that coal fires
in fact contribute to global
warming?
Thesis Statement: “Raging in
mines from Pennsylvania to
China, coal fires threaten towns,
poison air and water, and add to
 global warming (Hacker, 2007, p.
10).”
Ÿ 11)Outline- Make a list of the
main points. These points will
form the
 organizational pattern of your
paper.
Make special note of concepts
from your sources that you wish
to paraphrase in your text. Draft
an outline, moving from main
ideas to details. Revise thesis as
needed.
Ÿ 12)Draft Paper
Begin to write in chunks of text
defined by the parameters of
each main point.
Continuously refer to the thesis in
order to stay on track. Use key
terms from the thesis to thread
each section together.
Integrate information from
sources as you draft, and include
parenthetical citations.
Ÿ Move from point to point rather
than from author to author.
Ÿ *Inntegrating sources-
Ÿ Research papers demand
abundant reference to
professional sources. That is,
your research paper will be
generously populated with the
voices of the published experts.
Your job is to manage those
voices, to synthesize them, to use
them to substantiate your claim.
Use a variety of lead-ins to
introduce concepts or findings
from researchers:
- According to Smith (2001),
the presence of a television set in
the home even changed eating
habits; frozen TV dinners, TV
trays, and TV tables altered the
physical and social contexts of
family meals.
 - By the early 1960’s, “90
percent of all households had at
least one television set” (Bishop
& Marx, 2006, p. 2).
- Television programs and
commercials reinforced rigid
gender roles and promised
consumers material wealth if they
could fit the roles. One social
critic from the era remarked that
“television certainly nurtured both
consumerism and conformity”
(Cole, 1966, p. 24).
13)Revise Paper-
Reread the assignment sheet.
Underline your thesis.
Read aloud.
Label the topic of each paragraph
in the margin.
Revise main ideas; consider
clarity and relevance.
Revise details; consider clarity
and relevance.
Check for cohesion.
Check documentation format.
 Check grammar, punctuation,
word choice, spelling.
14)Sources of Help-
Professors, Librarians, Writing
Tutors, Content Tutors, Models of
Successful Research Papers
Ÿ

Ÿ WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER

Ÿ 1) Choosing Your Topic
Breadth. You may need to start
broad and let your research take
you narrower.
Originality. Choose a topic that
will allow you to contribute to the
field, rather than just regurgitate
facts.
Ÿ Sources. On the other hand, also
choose a topic that has scholarly
grounding.
Ÿ 2) Narrowing Your Topic
Focus on a specific TYPE or
CLASS
Focus on a particular PLACE or
REGION
Focus on a certain TIME PERIOD
Focus on a certain ASPECT-
Social, legal, medical, ethical,
biological, psychological,
economic, political, philosophical,
etc.
Focus on a specific
POPULATION-Gender, age,
occupation, ethnicity, nationality,
educational attainment, species,
etc.
Focus on a RELATIONSHIP with
two or more topics
COMBINE different kinds of
focuses
3)Writing a Thesis Statements
Ÿ Thesis Statement examples:
Ÿ Essay Topic: Compare and
contrast the reasons why the
North and South fought the
Civil War.
Ÿ Poor Example: “The North and
South fought the Civil War for
many reasons, some of which
were the same and some
different.”
Better Example: “While both
sides fought the Civil War over
the issue of slavery, the North
fought for moral reasons while
the South fought to preserve its
own institutions.”
Best Example: “While both
Northerners and Southerners
believed they fought against
tyranny
 and oppression, Northerners
focused on the oppression of
slaves while Southerners
defended their own right to self-
government.”
Ÿ 4)Creating an Outline
Ÿ Outline
Ÿ Draft
Ÿ Revise
Ÿ Edit
Ÿ

Benefits of an Outline
Aids in the process of writing
Helps you organize your ideas
Presents your material in a logical
form
Shows the relationships among
ideas in your writing
Constructs an ordered overview
of your writing
 Defines boundaries and groups
Prevents you from “straying” from
the topic
Ÿ Creating an Outline
Research: Perform initial
research to learn about your
chosen topic.
Brainstorm: List all the ideas that
you want to include in your paper.
Organize: Group related ideas
together.
Order: Arrange material in
subsections from general to
specific or from abstract to
concrete.
Label: Create main and sub
headings.

Outline tips
 Begin early! A strong, detailed
outline is a crucial step of the
writing process.
Ÿ Refer to your outline often. A
strong
 outline provides a consistent
backbone during the writing
process.
Be as specific as possible. This
will be your guide throughout the
entire writing process.
Avoid having too many
subheadings. This may indicate
that you can further narrow the
topic of your paper.
Don’t be afraid to change your
outline. Further research may
provide additional information or
counterpoints.
Ÿ Allow yourself enough time to
make changes. Attempting a
complete overhaul of your paper
the night before it’s due is both
frustrating and often futile.