Silly Linguistics December 2019 Issue 19

TEACHING
METHODS
MAMA
THE UNIVERSAL
WORD
WATCH
AND
LEARN
The Magazine for Language Lovers : Issue #18 : November 19
2 to
Contents
3 S is for … Shilly-Shally 15 The Universal Mama

By Chris Davy By Gabrielle Désaulniers
6 Language Teaching Methods 18 Speech Community

By Gill Cohen By Valen�n Pradelou
9 Krashen’s Language Learning 22 Peas & Potatoes

By Simone Villano By Stefano Nunes
12 So Much to Watch, So Much

to Learn
By Inés de la Viña
November 2019, Issue #18 Silly Linguistics: The Magazine for Language Lovers
tre 3
F o r. . .
S is Shilly-Shally
By Chris Davy
Basically, I wanted to write about hesita�on, delibera�on, and stalling. Because I know a lot of
whether or not we actually learn something is basically down to that; especially when it comes to
the self-taught stuff, we o�en find a reason to put something off. Naturally, being the wordsmith
that I am, I couldn’t just se�le for S is for...Stalling. I mean, I nearly did, but one thing I frequently do
as a writer is look towards the almighty S is for...Synonyms. Because it makes things varied, exci�ng,
and engaging. So, whilst surfing through the synonyms I came across shilly-shally. I’m familiar with
the term. I’ve seen it before. And it stuck out, because in this day and age it’s so random.
Shilly-Shally is an old term and by most accounts is basically a play on the phrase ‘Shall I?’.
So, here’s the deal with avoiding the shilly-shallying business; so that you can actually learn and put
all this language you’ve been absorbing to good use. You don’t want to. Let me make that clearer,
you don’t want to avoid shilly-shallying. You do want to shilly-shally. I mean, think about it, it’s very
very important to shilly-shally. It’s part of the reason you’ve managed to stay alive for so long. What
you do want to do however, is not get consumed by the shilly-shally. Which is dis�nctly different to
avoiding the shilly-shally altogether.
Ha! It’s such a good term. Shilly-shally! Shhaaaaalllllllyy!!
4fire
t . W ai �n g
stre e
g the the
c ro s s i n
d ri v ing in
re ilst gas o
ff
w a y s befo o u g o wh th e
th ey turne
d t
o o k i ng bo gh t befor a l l y o u h aven’
L en l i ct u re y
r t h e gre u h ave a a k i n g su al m
edia
fo g yo e . M s o c i
hecki
n ou s us o
n
endin
g
car. C a v e the h a g e o p . S p
le utr du e
e fo r e you n g too o u b ange h a t you’v
b i ty o es t
t e d anyth g to ge cs ar�cl ow li
ke
po s g o i n g u i s� n d k n
is in a o
that Silly L efore em s
today rea d i n g
on c e b
o v e th
m e �me re than u s e you l h e sh i l l y
-
s o dm o bec a of t
re a d y rea u r h an d , x e c u �o n
al yo de
b a c k of
k! A ll goo
the or
h . N ice w
muc
!
sh al l y BUT, we
are tryin
to learnin g to lear
n ab o u t
g we wan language
shilly-sha t t o find a wa here. An
lly. Othe y to succ d when it
r w ise we w e s sf u lly naviga comes
done. So o n ’t make a t e through
, how do ny progr the
say – jus we do th e s
t go out a t ? WELL, s or get an
and do it this is th ything
are doin m a t e tricky p
g , an d D e ! Just pack a rt. I’d lov
O IT! It b up, drop e to
However, e in g t h w h a te v
we know e thing tha er it is you
responsib it isn’t as t you wa
ili�es an s im ple as th n t to work
d need t at. You p on .
office, liv o s urvive. S ro b a bly have
ing off th o, wheth some
or drop- e land, o er it ’s wo
shipping r m a s tering th r king in t
en�rely , chance e worlds he
from soc s a re you ca o f c ryptocur
iety and n’t simp rency
learning. d e d ic ly separa
It ’s simply ate wak t e yourse
not prac� ing seco lf
cal for m nd of th
ost of us e day to
So, you a .
re going
to have t
o S is for
…Schedu
Cold hard le and S
facts. Th is for…S�
a t ck to it.
are only ’s what I
just slid t r y to give yo
everythin ing into u. But fo
th e S is f r those o
g I give y o r… f you tha
much no o u begins w S li pstream a t
excuses. ith the le t t h is point,
You can’t �er S. Be
99% of t really ea cause th
he �me sily forge e n it ’s pre�y
mate. it norma t what I’m
lly begin ta lk
s with th ing abou
e le�er S t.
. It ’s mne
monics
But esse
n�ally, t
hat ’s it.
Set a sc
hedule.
If you w
ant to le
arn
fem 5
something that bad you will make �me for it. But to save you from turning your Please visit
life into a dizzy spiralling mess, where you are making �me for everything but are www.sisforsometh
ing.com for more
always late to half of it, make a schedule. Whatever resources, methods and tools S based ar�cles.
it is that you use to learn your chosen language(s), book some �me in with Find
@sisforsomething
yourself. Monday morning 7:00am – 30minutes. Saturday evening 10:00pm – 30 on Facebook,
minutes. Whatever it is, book it in. If you find that it isn’t working with your Twi�er, and
Instagram.
schedule, then CHANGE IT! MAKE IT WORK!
Listen, I’ll just go straight out there and say it. Schedules are cool. There I said it. Be a nerd, be a geek.
Whatever it is. You have to have a schedule. It’s simply part of an S is for…Sustainable Strategy.
Maybe, the shilly-shallying you are doing somewhere else in your life is ge�ng in the way of this whole
learning language thing we’ve got going on. Maybe it isn’t that you are shilly-shallying over learning
language at all. But you know what…yeah…you’ve guessed it! Set a schedule and S is for…Sort it out!
Now listen, you won’t always hit 100% a�endance and success rate. I don’t expect you to. But I do
expect that by se�ng a schedule you will be ac�vely trying more and all in all more successful. It’s just
how it works. Hold yourself accountable. You can thank yourself for it later.
Oooh, I’ve just checked and you’ve got a slot in about an hours �me where you will be free to do just
that!
S is for…Succes!
(That’s good luck in Dutch! HOW COOL!)
6 seks
Methods of
Teaching Language
in
Class
Studying languages is hard, right? There are many methods for teaching language in a class, but I will
write about the different aspects of two of them, the old school method and the more modern method.
By Gil Cohen material. A�erwards, they give into order.

The old school method is you an exercise in which you
probably how you were taught have to apply what you’ve just But can language really be put
languages in school: at the first learned. What language were into order, or is to too darn
few lessons, the teacher they speaking? It would usually complicated? How have we
teaches you on how to read be your na�ve tongue (or the learned to speak our na�ve
and write the new language common language in your tongue, which is not less
(perhaps a new alphabet is area/school), right? Sounds complex than any language
taught). Then, every lesson, familiar? we’re trying to learn? We most
the teacher explains a new definitely did not walk around
gramma�cal concept, like the What do you think about this with a pen and a notebook,
conjuga�on of a verb, the method? Is it a good one? As a wri�ng the different irregular
inflec�on of a noun or how to language learner, you are conjuga�ons, because we
create the compara�ve and probably craving order: (usually) learn to speak before
superla�ve forms of an “Teacher, please tell me how to we learn how to write! In
adjec�ve. More o�en than not, conjugate the irregular verb X”, addi�on, what are you going to
the teacher writes a big table and this method does try to do if the class you’re teaching
on the board with the new put the chaos that is language is comprised of people who
syv 7
can’t speak the same language? How different is that than the way we speak to
li�le children, especially before they start to
These ques�ons lead me to the other method, speak? I guess that’s the idea that stands
the one I called the modern method. Let’s behind this method.
start with a li�le bit of history: when Israel
declared its independence in 1948, many Jews Is this method be�er or worse than the old
from all over the world came to the newly school one? How do you measure these
founded country: from Germany, France, Italy, methods?
Greece, Turkey, Poland, Egypt, Morocco, I study at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem,
Lebanon, and many more. So far, so good, but and many language classes have changed their
the official language of the country was method to the modern one, instead of the old
Hebrew, the newly revitalized language of the school one. A year ago, a friend of mine
ancient Hebrew people, and the new referred to me someone who takes German
immigrants had to learn the language. So, I ask classes in the modern method, because she
you this ques�on, as the teacher of these new had some ques�ons about German and I know
immigrants: what language are you going to a li�le bit about German. Her ques�ons had to
teach in? French? Italian? Arabic? If so, which do with the inflec�on of the determiner der
variety of Arabic, the Moroccan one or the (“the” in English) to its different forms, which
Lebanese one? The answer was none other depend on the case, the number and the
than Hebrew! But wait, the students don’t gender of the relevant noun. So I started
understand Hebrew, at all! Yes, it is a very talking about cases and giving her examples of
complicated situa�on, but these immigrants sentences with the different inflec�ons, and
had to be taught Hebrew. And that’s the idea that’s when she said: “Oh, so that’s why the
my great grandfather had come up, the inflec�on is so and so!” You see, the teacher
concept of “Hebrew in Hebrew”; you teach has never said the word “case” in their class,
Hebrew, using only Hebrew. just like a parent doesn’t use that word with
their child, either.
Obviously, you can’t explain the
The different gramma�cal rules are laid down
grammar and syntax of Hebrew this
implicitly in this method, instead of explicitly
way. You can’t even tell the students
in the old school method. The problem is that
the meaning of basic words! What do the students are not children anymore, they’re
you do? Well, you have to be very not surrounded by the language everywhere
“unteacherlike”: you have to speak they go, and they differ in their cogni�ve
loudly, use your intona�on very abili�es from children.
clearly, move around, point, make

funny faces, and much more.
8
I study French in the modern method at the I believe that both methods are good and bad
university, and I think that it does have its at the same �me, and that people should be
upsides: You hear the language much more taught language in a different method, one that
than the old school method, because the is a mix of both, and hopefully has more
teacher doesn’t speak any other language (most upsides than downsides: the teacher should
of the �me) and, the teacher is usually a na�ve speak the language they’re teaching and have
speaker, which is a huge bonus, and you speak the students speak the language as much as
it much much more than you would otherwise! possible, while s�ll teaching grammar concepts
and trying to put order into the language.
ni 9
Krashen's Way to
Language Learning
Stephen Krashen is one of the most important scholars in contemporary language learning theory.
He and his colleague Tracy Terrell came up with the so-called Natural Approach (from the name of
their work, published in 1983), which contains many theories and elements that, according to the
scholars, should be the focal point of every language lesson, and more in general in every learning
process.
By Simone Villano ac�vely and consciously The learning-acquisi�on

performs, but this works only dichotomy is closely �ed to
SECOND LANGUAGE as a support to acquisi�on, the Monitor hypothesis. This

which instead happens is a different take on
ACQUISITION THEORY
unconsciously when the Chomsky’s LAD (Language
The basis of the Natural
student tries to communicate Acquisi�on Device): instead
Approach is found in the
with others, and it’s through of being the innate ability of
Second Language Acquisi�on
acquisi�on that rules, words our brain to “do” language,
Theory, or SLAT for short.
and concepts become fixed Krashen’s Monitor is
The SLAT encompasses many
in the mind of the student. responsible for the linguis�c
different parts of the learning
This naturally leads to a produc�on’s formal accuracy,
process. And speaking of
teaching method based on and if it’s not accurate
learning, one of the most
interac�on, on “doing stuff” enough, it “stops” us from
important points of the SLAT
with the language that the u�ering. This way, people
is the learning-acquisi�on
students are learning, not whose monitor is par�cularly
dichotomy. According to
just endless grammar drills ac�ve experience slower, but
Krashen, learning is
and readings. more precise acquisi�on
something that the student
than in other individuals with
10 ti
a weaker Monitor. This is one of the most and makes it harder to do the same thing again,
controversial hypotheses, cri�cized by scholars thus crea�ng a sort of psychological barrier.
like McLaughlin and Gregg for a lack of evidence
and being too vague to be proven. What this means in language learning is, for
example, that a student becomes too afraid to try
A MATTER OF PSYCHOLOGY complex structures or words, because when they
Be it for shyness, lack of confidence, or simply previously tried that, they were immediately
not remembering the correct word to use, corrected or even scolded by the professor,
students o�en find themselves incapable of which caused them to feel nega�ve emo�ons,
communica�ng in the foreign language when the like shame. But if the student doesn’t try new
situa�on requires so. This, according to Krashen, things, they will never be able to use them
happens because of the affec�ve filter, which is correctly, because acquisi�on only comes with
much more linked to psychology than other parts prac�ce. Trial and error become, according to
of this theory. An affec�ve filter is not just �ed to Krashen, just a natural part of the learning
language learning but can be applied to a process, and instead of being looked down on,
number of ac�vi�es. Basically, whenever we errors should be “encouraged” in the sense that
receive a nega�ve emo�on as a reac�on when we can only acquire things when we make
we are doing something, our brain records that mistakes.
This also leads to the Natural Order hypothesis:

according to this assump�on, students o�en
learn in a predictable order that is linked to their
needs, both as students and as human beings.
For example, the third person ending “-s” in
English is conceptually very simple, but many
students acquire and use it correctly in later
stages. If you think of kids, for example, what
they are most interested in is simple but effec�ve
u�erances like “give!”: they learn what is most
useful to them. The Natural Order also stresses
the importance of not emphasizing errors when
they happen. Krashen believes that, through
prac�ce and exposure, the student will be able to
adjust his mistakes by himself.
elleve 11
Another important piece of Krashen’s SLAT is the to the migra�on of workers inside the con�nent.
comprehensible input hypothesis. This is pre�y In the same period other scholars came up with
straigh�orward: people can only learn what they their theories, like the Communica�ve Approach,
understand, but if they already understand based on interac�on as well as flexibility in
everything, there’s no space for improvement. In methods, or the Humanis�c Educa�on, that put
one of his most famous lectures, Krashen the student at the centre of the learning process,
explained this subject through two types of and other less orthodox methods, like the
lessons: in the first one, he started talking in Suggestopaedia, or the Total Physical Response.
German about German as a language and what However, Krashen’s approach has been the only
the thinks of it and, unsurprisingly, most people one to have such a las�ng influence on
didn’t understand a thing of what he said (he was educators, especially in North America.
broadcas�ng from an American tv studio with a
live audience), so he switched to the second
lesson, as he started drawing a face on a piece of
paper, and said the German word for every body
part he was drawing. This, of course, was much
more comprehensible to the audience, because
he gave understandable inputs that most people
watching could grasp, even if they lacked any
kind of proficiency in German.
This could even be translated into a kind of

formula: every lesson should have a
comprehensible input + 1, where “1” is the
obstacle to overcome, the syntac�cal structure,
grammar rule or word to acquire in order to
understand everything.
Krashen’s Second Language Acquisi�on Theory is

just that: a theory, and a controversial one at
that. It was born at a �me of great ferment in
educa�onal research, a �me where even the
Council of Europe looked for ways to improve
and standardize language teaching, as a response
12 tolv
So Much to Watch
,
So Much to Learn
By Inés de la Viña pronuncia�on, etc. This on the Internet, is the

A long-las�ng obsession of belief is true but it does not prevalent medium used by
language learners is the lack tell the whole story. It is �me EU ci�zens, with 84%
of exposure to the foreign to untangle it. watching television almost
language. In the world of every day. Watching TV is
language folklore, one hears TV and internet video also a popular ac�vity among
many ideas on how to pla�orms are an undeniable foreign language learners.
address this issue. Popular phenomenon a�rac�ng Whether you are subscribed
beliefs about language millions of viewers to Ne�lix, Hulu or HBO, you
learning include watching worldwide. A 2017 report on will be able to turn on the
foreign films and TV series to media usage across EU sub�tles. Streaming
boost different linguis�c member states (2018) pla�orms are tearing down
skills: overall comprehension, reveals that television, language barriers while
lexical knowledge, watched either on a TV set or providing a rich source of
tretten 13
language input. Firstly, TV is a rich source of colloquial lexis,

which explains how people can enlarge their
However, if you are thinking on si�ng down in vocabulary. TV discourse makes use of low-
front of your TV, hoping for a miracle to turn frequency words, i.e. words that uncommonly
you into a fluent speaker of Spanish a�er 60 occur in the language, such as “balaclava” in
minutes of watching Narcos, I regret to tell English. Beyond single words, the language of
you that it does not work like that. It is not as films and series is rich in phraseology as it
easy as just pressing play. Watching films and resembles “natural” language. Phraseology is
TV series can only help you if you go about it an interes�ng area of linguis�cs that studies
the right way. Before ge�ng comfy on your “chunks of words” such as idioms (“you are
couch, ask yourself: what is my level of the apple of my eye”), colloca�ons (“murder
proficiency in the foreign language? Should I weapon”) or binomials (“bride and groom”).
go for foreign-language sub�tles or do I s�ck Overall, sub�tles appear to be an efficient
to na�ve-language sub�tles? Am I able to channel to familiarise yourself with new words
understand anything at all? Do I have a for two main reasons: 1) they facilitate
preference for a specific genre (drama, sitcom, meaning recogni�on, and 2) words and
docu-series)? expressions appear context-embedded so we
are capable of guessing ambiguous meanings.
Now, listen up. In general, research in the area
of second language acquisi�on (SLA) shows Apart from that, recent evidence also suggests
that it is be�er to use foreign-language that the rela�vely high amount of visual
sub�tles when you are watching foreign- support (images, scenes) in films and series
language material. However, if your level of might be helpful in decoding the foreign
proficiency in the language is limited, it might language (Sydorenko, 2010). Another fun fact
be a good idea to use sub�tles in your mother is that some genres might provide more
tongue first, un�l you feel comfortable with favourable condi�ons for language learning.
foreign-language sub�tles. This is no rocket As an example, a study by Rodgers (2018)
science. In terms of learning, a handful of compared a fantasy/adventure genre series
empirical studies have shown that people can and a documentary, in order to test how well
pick up new words through TV exposure images supported word learning. Findings
(Sydorenko, 2010; Peters & Webb, 2018; suggested that documentaries may provide
Rodgers & Webb, 2019). Sub�tled video has more suppor�ve imagery than other fic�onal
mostly been a�ested in its poten�al for programmes. It seems relevant to note that
language learning in terms of comprehension documentaries are o�en narrated by a slow-
and vocabulary learning (Rodgers & Webb, paced and smooth voice over with very clear
2017; Montero et al. 2013). There is some dic�on, which might as well influence the
logic behind this. (ease of) learning.
14 fjorten
In line with Rodgers, there is depending on your

also some evidence experience with the foreign In sum, watching TV is not a
demonstra�ng the benefits language. Another example golden �cket to mastering
of visual support on word could be alterna�ng between the language, but it does
learning. Peters (2019) different language varie�es. provide a rich source of
looked at the effects of visual As a na�ve speaker of authen�c input which can, if
support under three Spanish I can tell you that done well, help you learn
condi�ons: na�ve-language Spanish from Chile has vocabulary and polish your
sub�tles, foreign-language nothing to do with Spanish comprehension skills. The
sub�tles, and no sub�tles. from Spain. ul�mate goal is to help you
Her findings indicated that improve your command of a
words with pictorial support To help you learn while foreign language in a more
are almost three �mes most watching, a very prac�cal enjoyable way, but make sure
likely to be learnt than those Chrome extension has been you choose a programme
without any visual imagery. developed by Ne�lix. that keeps you engaged. If
In very basic terms, what “Language Learning with you do not engage with the
these studies suggest is that Ne�lix” lets you watch series series, then you will not be
people learn be�er from with two sub�tles on at the able to learn the foreign
words and pictures than same �me so you can visually language. Now, choose what
from words alone. Pre�y pair transla�ons with to watch and how to watch
basic, right? dialogue and learn some new it, but choose wisely!
vocabulary in the process.
An important thing to bear in This can be seen as a more
mind is that the language of deliberate way of learning, as
films and series varies a huge you are able to pause the
deal. Intrinsic linguis�c video, translate words, or
phenomena, such as even alter the speech rate of
different accents, a specific the series. If you do not feel
dialect or even the foreign- like using this service, just try
language speech rate, can pausing the series to make a
either boost or constrain quick note of any new word
your learning journey. For or expression you encounter.
example, the character of You can do it on your phone.
Tommy Shelby in Peaky This is something that has
Blinders changes his accent worked for me as I prefer
from Irish to Brummie to play watching the whole episode
the iconic gangster. These without lengthy
nuances can be hard to get, interrup�ons.
femten 15
WHY IS
“MAMA”
SUCH A
UNIVERSAL
WORD?
By Gabrielle Désaulniers
Language is a curious thing: it varies and adapts according to
its speakers and their reali�es and is always evolving. In the
same way that a language can go through so many changes
that its “original” form becomes almost unrecognizable to
modern speakers; we can safely presume that the way we
talk today will be very difficult to be understood by
genera�ons years from now. However, no ma�er how much
a language evolves or how different a language is from
another, one thing seems consistent: many of them have a
word for mother that looks very similar. How did this come
to be?
The development of sounds in babies
Babies are learning to communicate from the moment they
are born. Whether it be with what is called language
precursors (such as eye contact, turn taking and smiles) or by
trying to imitate what they hear, the sounds that babies
16 seksten
make are not random. Indeed, they have a very

specific purpose: to test out their
ar�culatory systems, to prac�ce
sound produc�ons and to try and
learn to communicate using the
languages that surround them.
With that in mind, it is also important

to remember that babies are
beginners when it comes to speech.
This means that they start out with
the easiest sounds: vowels. If you pay
a�en�on to a baby’s vocaliza�ons,
you might no�ce a pa�ern. Indeed,
the first sounds produced by children
are always vowels, and more
frequently the sound /a/.
When parents interact with their

children as early as the first sounds,
babies get more confident in their abili�es to That is the exact series of movement that babies
communicate and in the will of adults around usually test out first when they start combining
them to respond to those communica�on sounds, most probably because they are the
a�empts. Therefore, they try to produce different easiest and most natural to combine.
sounds to mimic what they hear. The next most
logical and easiest movement to try out for a Mama, mom, maman, oumi…
baby who produces the /a/ sound (where the With that in mind, it’s interes�ng to think about
mouth is wide open and the tongue is at its the dynamic of mother and child dyads over the
lowest point in the vocalic space) is thus to close evolu�on of humanity. Indeed, it is important to
the mouth. remember that the affec�onate words used
across cultures for “mother” and “father” all date
Now, you can try and experiment it for yourself: back thousands of years, to when social rela�ons
start by holding an /a/ sound and, in the same were dictated by very different priori�es. Being
exhale, close your mouth. You should now be the first source of food and warmth for the baby,
making a humming sound. Then, if you open your a mother was also, vmore o�en than not, the
mouth to an /a/ again and repeat the process a main care provider and the most present adult
li�le faster, you will start hearing a series of figure in the child’s early days.
/mamamamama/.
sytten 17
Sound combina�ons being the

first step towards words, iden�cal
repe��ons of two syllables are
usually what form the very first
words of children’s vocabulary:
think about “booboo” instead of
“hurt”, for example. Logically,
when hearing a child’s first
combina�on of sounds, the
mother would assume that her
baby is trying to say a word, and
thus would encourage that
behavior by reinforcing it.
This leads to a dynamic observed

across cultures and languages:
mothers responding to the first
/mamama/ sounds of their babies
by considering them as a word
used to address them. Thus,
almost every language developed
a word based on an /m/ and
vowel sound structure as an
affec�ve way to address mothers:
mommy in English, maman in
French, oumi in Arabic, mama in
Chinese, and the list goes on.
No ma�er where you are on the

planet, chances are you have used
in some way or form “mama”
when addressing a motherly
figure in your life. Now, you know
why!
The Speech
18
Community:
Theoretical Issues
By Valentin Pradelou conceptualisa�on of this no�on. I even

The no�on of “speech community” seems to be a encourage any interested reader to give it a try.
pain to precisely define in the field of Linguis�cs.
This ar�cle has the purpose of examining some of Several defini�ons
the relevant ques�ons that could exist to make Let’s get back to the no�on. Several researchers
the defini�on thorough. Then, we will try to give proposed a concrete defini�on, trying to clearly
elements of an answer, in order to draw our demarcate the “speech community” and make it
precise conceptualisa�on. viable to define any speaker’s situa�on.
Of course, every linguist, every reader, every Thus, to William Labov¹, a group of individuals
individual is able to have different belongs to a speech community if they share the
nitten 19
same norms, towards the individual defines the speech there would not be any
concerned language. Here, community. iden�fica�on problems.
the individual is the center Moreover, these
point of the defini�on. Daniel Baggioni³ brings a communi�es would coincide
Louis-Jean Calvet², an major element in the with human groups,
eminent French linguist, conceptualisa�on of the geographically and socially
claims that a “speech “speech community”, and defined by the usage of a
community” consists of the personal iden�ty as well. language. Unfortunately, this
individuals understanding To his mind, if it was possible is not the case at all. Indeed,
each other through a same to tes�fy the unicity of a linguis�c fron�ers are always
linguis�c code, or language. language, and by this way, porous.
In this conceptualisa�on , the create speech communi�es,
Theore�cal elements numerous elements in mind, be considered on the same

Such defini�ons lead one to in order to approach a viable plan? It seems obvious to
think this no�on seems defini�on of the “speech assert that a scholarly
subjec�ve, as there exists community”. acknowledgement only, is
one defini�on for one First of all, the na�ve not enough to be fluent. A
individual discussing the language seems to be gramma�cal knowledge,
no�on. It seems complicated preponderant in order to even thorough, is clearly not
to trace clear and objec�ve belong to a speech enough to understand all
limits to discriminate two community. However, this pragma�c u�erances in one
close, but different, linguis�c creates the problem of the language. Henceforth,
situa�ons. To my mind, it fluent speaker, able to pragma�c skills imply living
remains important to bear handle any discussion, as
much a na�ve. Are both to
20 tyve
in the related country, or having lived close to community. However, what about situa�ons in
the related culture. which the speaker does not want to be part of
a certain speech community? Let’s imagine a
However, these elements remain related to case of schizoglossia as defined by Einar
the linguis�c plan. Another issue thus arises: is Haugen⁵ (a language complex about one’s
the “speech community” only to be based on na�ve language), or another situa�on where a
the linguis�c plan? Being fluent is one speaker’s na�ve language is related to
important element, but what about values, childhood bad memories? In these cases, in
history, and cultural patrimony a�ached to a spite of the language skills, does the speaker
language? belong to the related community (thus out of
his will)?
Obviously, we can assert that cultural
elements are to be considered in the no�on. We could even raise another ques�on. What
They remain hard to comprehend though; it is about an individual, not being a certain
possible for nobody to know everything of a language speaker, but showing a certain
culture. If we choose to take cultural elements a�achment to this language? The ques�on is,
into account in the “speech community”, does will alone make one part of a speech
which knowledge degree could jus�fy community, not taking into account language
belonging to one community? Does a na�ve skills?
speaker, having learnt history, cultural values
and so on, have the logical right to belong the I would like to ask one last ques�on. Is it
related speech community? decently possible to be, or not be a part of
some speech community, because of another
This issue arises for unilingual countries or individual’s desire? Could some people act
communi�es. Ethnocentrism is not acceptable like, or be considered as guarantors of a
to define a universal no�on as this one. In certain community? Is an old individual, very
Nigeria, (according to SIL interna�onal a�ached to his language, able to refuse the
website⁴), there are 522 languages spoken. belonging of another one?
Young kids could even speak 5 to 6 languages.
In this case, speech communi�es seem close, Personal opinion on the “speech
even adjacent. community”
My opinion on this theore�cal no�on follows
Beyond the linguis�c plan and values plan, a three major criteria. Those are: linguis�c skills,
last side of the no�on sounds preponderant to cultural a�achment (implying cultural
me: personal and interpersonal will. knowledge), and individual will.
As we’ve seen earlier, being a na�ve/fluent

speaker is one huge element of a speech
enogtyve 21
To me, belonging to a “speech community” implies a certain a�achment, the 1 Labov W.,1976,
Sociolinguistique,
expression of a certain likeness to the language and the culture, even the Paris, Minuit, p. 338.
country, the region, and so on. Hence, having lived in the country, or close to 2 Calvet L.-J., 2005,
the concerned cultured seems inherent. In other words, be part of a speech La Sociolinguistique,
Coll. Que sais-je ?,
community requires a desire, having the “cultural capacity” to do so. Moreover, PUF.
to my mind, someone else’s will cannot change anything about belonging to a 3 Baggioni D. et al,
speech community. 1997, « Communauté
linguistique », in
Moreau
(éd.) Sociolinguistique
Conversa�onal skills, and language skills in general sound inherently related : les concepts de
base, Sprimont,
with a speech community. Having a C2 level following the CEFR frame and Editeur Pierre
proving fluency in any conversa�on seems important. Reaching these level of Mardaga, p. 89.
skills remain perennial: losing some skills, losing vocabulary, forge�ng some 4 https://www.sil.org/
syntax par�culari�es are not, according to me, able to eject an individual out of 5 Haugen, Einar, 1962,
the speech community. Once you belong to a certain speech community with Schizoglossia and the
Linguistic Norm,
the criteria defined above, it remains perennial. Except if there’s an opposite Monograph Series on
Languages and
will. Linguistics, Georgetown
University. Number 15
1962.
In the Dordogne (A French Department situated in the south west of France),
many Occitan speakers were fluent in their youth. With �me passing, they can
lose some skills and even not be able to discuss fluently any more. According to
the criteria I used, they s�ll remain a part of the Occitan’s speech community.
To conclude
At the beginning of this ar�cle, it seemed obvious to study the “speech
community” by the filters of linguis�c and social criteria “community” is related
to the social elements of affilia�ons, as much as “speech” is related to the
linguis�c elements.
I have tried to draw some of the relevant features to take into account for a
defini�on. However, I do not pretend to provide a perfect one, nor were these
elements universally relevant. Through my experience and my vision of the
problem, I have built on the previous defini�on.
I would be happy to hear some other defini�ons based on different criteria, as I
had, un�l now, one defini�on for one individual I discussed with.
Thank you for reading, and feel free to let me know about your defini�ons!
22
Po ta t oe s by an y othe
and r na
e a s me
P
There are a few things I like to do

more than others: ea�ng, traveling, thinking about
language – all three at the same �me. When you sit down to
eat a meal, which happens o�en, I guess, for most people who are able
to read this on a computer, one of the first thoughts that springs to mind is
“What is this? What is it called?” Humans like to name things, and a few dishes around
the world have some pre�y crea�ve names, as I will go into in the first part; but a lot of the
�mes, some dishes forgo such luxuries. Instead, they receive quite a blunt descrip�on, almost a
list of what is on the plate, but the unusual sonority of the language christens them as something
mys�cally foreign and (I hate this word) exo�c.
Quite a few cultures have very special names for certain foods. You can always trust the Brits to give oddball
names to their dishes – take 'faggots' (offal meatballs) for example, or 'spo�ed dick' (steamed fruity cake in
custard), 'toad in the hole' (in the UK, sausage cooked in Yorkshire pudding, in the US, toast with a hole cut in
for an egg), 'bubble and squeak' (mashed potatoes and vegetables usually cabbage all mixed up). The French
have quite a history of giving their foods quite colorful names like “tête de nègre (tête de choco)” (literally black
head, renamed choco head, for obvious reasons, a chocolate ball filled with merengue), “coup de pied au cul”
(kick in the ass, a Norman cheese), “pets de nonne” (nun farts, small puffy donut type things). In the same
vein, the Brazilians and Portuguese have come up with very colorful names, like “vaca atolada” (stuck cow,
manioc and beef mixed together), “escondidinho” (li�le hidden, meat between layers of mashed
manioc), “olho de sogra” (mother in law’s eye, a plum and coconut sweet).
All cultures have specific, playful food names, a�es�ng to the communal, fun, comfor�ng
ac�vity that is breaking bread with our loved ones. Some dishes have names whose
origin has been long forgo�en, or whose etymology is contested, because they
have been part of the culture for so long. This is the crossroads where I
would like to draw your a�en�on to the more ma�er-of-fact
names of food. Some�mes, food doesn’t have a funny
name, some�mes “fish and chips” is
treogtyve 23
By Stefano Nunes happens systema�cally, and

fish served with chips, “mushy regularly, for example, several How much is a dish fixed in our
peas” are peas that have been dishes have the word expecta�ons of it? If it has a
mushed, and “macaroni and “masala” in them, simply very specific name, like
cheese” is, well, macaroni and meaning “spiced”, what we “spo�ed dick”, we might have
cheese. We use these names would call “curried”, as there is quite a good idea of what
every day in our own cultures, no concept of “curry” as it we’re ge�ng when we order
and we think nothing of them, were, in India; there is simply it. Is it the case with a ma�er-
as the signifiers signify pre�y an en�rely different way to of-fact name? I have an
much exactly what we come to conceive spice, texture and American uncle who decided
expect within the context to taste. to make macaroni and cheese
which we are accustomed. Our for his children. He went out,
proximity obfuscates, “Foreignness” gives these bought several types of high-
however, how much these words a “mys�cal” property, quality cheese, found a
simple names actually carry transforming what, in one
within them the fabric of our culture, is simply potatoes and
iden��es and cultures. peas, into an envelope
containing not only the
My parents used to live in New potatoes and the peas, but
Delhi, which I took as an also the spices, the
opportunity to learn how to techniques, the language,
cook Indian food, and I the culture, the people. By
ventured to do it respec�ully. the way, an envelope
Indian food, as a signifier, is containing potatoes, peas,
somewhat empty, because and spices is known as a
India is an en�re con�nent samosa. There is a notable
populated by more than a difference between
billion people with all sorts of “potatoes and peas” and
different cultures. A lot of the “aloo ma�ar”, an essen�al
Indian foods we have come to dis�nc�on, contained in the
know and love in the West “foreignness” of the words
have extremely ma�er-of-fact used, which makes it
names: aloo ma�ar (potatoes necessary, if cooking potatoes
and peas), dal makhani and peas in India to call them
(bu�ery len�ls), channa “Bri�sh potatoes and peas” or
masala (mixed-spice to call aloo ma�ar “Bombay
chickpeas), palak paneer potato and pea curry” when in
(spinach and cheese). This Birmingham.
24 fireogtyve
tradi�onal American recipe, went through a big effort to make truly home made “mac and cheese”,
with a delicious creamy sauce and crispy, golden crust on top. When his children sat down to dinner
they exclaimed “what is this?! How can it be mac and cheese if it’s not even orange?!”
When we cook, we are not simply combining ingredients, but along with those ingredients, we are
leaving a piece of ourselves, our context, and our cultures, in a way that makes what we are cooking,
and its name, a crystalliza�on of those intangible things. While I have chosen the example of India, too
long associated with the word “exo�c”, the same happens with Bri�sh dishes in other cultures. There
is a “right” way to make “fish and chips”, “fish and chips” is a signifier of a specific thing; I could steam
a trout, and serve it with Doritos, and in America, by any defini�on, on the plate, there would be fish,
and there would be chips, but the abomina�on I served could not be called “fish and chips”, if only
because the very word “chips” contains the Bri�shness of calling “French fries” “chips”. It would almost
be blasphemous to a Roman to put black pepper on mac and cheese and to pass it off as “caccio e
pepe”, when in reality, that’s the only thing that it means, “cheese and pepper”.
There is a certain concern I would like to note about “authen�city”. As dishes become popular across
the world, and different cultures adopt and adapt them, the words o�en do not change. There is a
dis�nct difference in recipes between beef stroganoff in St. Petersburg and estrogonofe de carne (beef
stroganoff) you find in São Paulo. If you ask any Brazilian, they will probably say estrogonofe is one of
the most typical dishes in Brazil, so much so that we now call the original recipe “Russian stroganoff”.
More disconcer�ng, is the use of typical-sounding words to describe new-world recipes inspired by
original recipes. There is a dis�nc�on made between American-Chinese food, and Chinese-Chinese
food, and o�en American-Chinese food uses invented Chinese-sounding words to describe American
dishes, like Kung Pow chicken, or Chop Suey (although anthropologist E. N. Anderson, a scholar of
Chinese food, traces the dish to tsap seui (杂碎, "miscellaneous le�overs"). Several Indian dishes were
in fact created by Indian, Pakistani or Bangladeshi immigrants in the UK, or even Bri�sh fans of Indian
flavors in the UK; as I men�oned before, you would be hard pressed to find a dish called “chicken curry”
in any Indian menu, because in fact, the “curry” is a Bri�sh inven�on, and it acts as an umbrella term
for any “Indian-seeming” dish.
Looking at other cultures through our own opens us to the risk of appropria�on and colonialism. As
humans, we constantly try to find terms to “group” certain things, but the par�al understanding of
certain concepts leads us to group together certain things that are only marginally related. Thus, “dum
ka murgh” (slow cooked chicken in yogurt, a Hyderabadi dish) can be easily grouped together with dal
makhani (bu�ery len�ls, a Punjabi dish), just because they are both spiced with flavors that are
“foreign” to us, and geographically close, but culturally quite different.
femogtyve 25
No culture is exo�c, no food is foreign. Every person eats, and food is an essen�al part of how we
communicate, an expression of how we choose to express our communal lives, and the words used to
describe what we eat are far more than just words. Whether they be funny names (spo�ed dick),
whether the dish is named a�er someone (beef stroganoff), whether the name evokes a cultural origin
(scotch egg), or just a ma�er-of-fact descrip�on (aloo ma�ar), the names we give our food are
themselves an expression of our culture.
It is important to reflect, or at least to no�ce, the names of dishes, as they all carry a long history within
them, and to a�empt to understand not only the origins, but the flow of migra�on and exchange that
gave certain dishes their names. It is probably a good idea to understand that some�mes, without
realizing, we apply to other cultures filters of what we come to expect within our own, like Americans
who say Chinese food in China is bad, or Brits who cannot understand why they can’t find a decent
curry in Delhi, or myself, when I found beef stroganoff in St. Petersburg quite bland and distant from
its Brazilian descendent.
What’s in a name? Alloo ma�ar by any other name would s�ll taste as spicy.
26 seksogtyve
Cover AleksKuprFilmz
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2 Sasha Martynov
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syvogtyve 27
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TEACHING

3 S is for … Shilly-Shally 15 The Universal Mama

6 Language Teaching Methods 18 Speech Community

9 Krashen’s Language Learning 22 Peas & Potatoes

12 So Much to Watch, So Much

Ha! It’s such a good term. Shilly-shally! Shhaaaaalllllllyy!!

By Gil Cohen material. A�erwards, they give into order.

clearly, move around, point, make

By Simone Villano ac�vely and consciously The learning-acquisi�on

SECOND LANGUAGE as a support to acquisi�on, the Monitor hypothesis. This

This also leads to the Natural Order hypothesis:

This could even be translated into a kind of

Krashen’s Second Language Acquisi�on Theory is

By Inés de la Viña pronuncia�on, etc. This on the Internet, is the

language input. Firstly, TV is a rich source of colloquial lexis,

In line with Rodgers, there is depending on your

make are not random. Indeed, they have a very

With that in mind, it is also important

When parents interact with their

Sound combina�ons being the

This leads to a dynamic observed

No ma�er where you are on the

By Valentin Pradelou conceptualisa�on of this no�on. I even

Theore�cal elements numerous elements in mind, be considered on the same

As we’ve seen earlier, being a na�ve/fluent

There are a few things I like to do

By Stefano Nunes happens systema�cally, and

Thanks for reading

Send any comments or questions you might have to

Check out Steve the Vagabond on Facebook at:

Silly Linguistics Magazine was brought to you by

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