Energy Conversion and Management 144 (2017) 388–398

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Thermodynamic analysis of thermoelectric generator including influence

of Thomson effect and leg geometry configuration
Ravita Lamba ⇑, S.C. Kaushik ⇑
Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: To improve the power output and efficiency of the thermoelectric generator system, the variation in the
Received 4 August 2016 thermoelectric leg configuration is another option. In this paper, the thermodynamic analysis of exore-
Received in revised form 8 November 2016 versible thermoelectric generator including influence of Thomson effect as well as influence of leg geom-
Accepted 22 April 2017
etry on the power output and efficiency of the device has been carried out. The modified expressions for
Available online 3 May 2017
dimensionless figure of merit, power output, irreversibilities, energy and exergy efficiency considering
Thomson effect have been derived analytically. The effects of various parameters such as dimensionless
Keywords:
temperature ratio (h), shape parameter (RA), Thomson effect and load resistance ratio (RL/R0) on the power
Thomson effect
Leg geometry
output, energy and exergy efficiency have been studied. The operating range for shape parameter has
Exergy efficiency been found which improves the power output, energy and exergy efficiency of the device, however,
Shape parameter the optimum operating point corresponding to maximum power output is different from that of the max-
Thermoelectric generator imum energy and exergy efficiency. The results of this study shows that when the shape parameter is
increased from 1 (flat plate TEG) to 2 (trapezoidal TEG), then the energy and exergy efficiency improve
by 2.32% and 2.31% respectively with a 1.3% decrease in power output at RL/R0 = 10 and h = 0.5. This study
will help in designing of the improved thermoelectric generator systems for different leg geometries.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction thermoelectric material and due to the external irreversible heat

transfer from heat source to hot side and from cold side to heat
The increasing imbalance between demand and supply of sink. This relatively low heat to electricity conversion efficiency
energy and continuous environmental degradation leads the limits the wide applications of thermoelectric devices as a power
researchers to investigate environment friendly, clean renewable generator. Therefore, thermoelectric devices are used efficiently
energy resources. Thermoelectric (TE) devices are one of the most for low power applications compared to conventional thermody-
promising and cost effective renewable energy resource. Thermo- namic devices for power generation [9].
electric devices, being solid state direct energy conversion device The performance of thermoelectric devices can be improved by
convert thermal energy into electrical energy directly or vice- two pathways [10]. One is by improving the intrinsic efficiency of
versa using the reversible Seebeck and Peltier phenomena [1–5]. thermoelectric material and another is by improving the ways of
Thermoelectric devices work as a heat engine operating between use of existing thermoelectric systems. To improve the efficiency
two heat reservoirs. Thermoelectric devices offer the features of of thermoelectric devices, the research efforts in materials are
noiseless operation, light weight, absence of moving parts which underway. By changing the leg geometry of thermoelectric ele-
results in increased system life, increased reliability and very less ment comes under the way of improving the performance of exist-
maintenance [6–8]. The absence of working fluid removes the ing thermoelectric devices. The flat plate single and multistage
problem of environmentally dangerous greenhouse emission. thermoelectric generators have been investigated thermodynami-
These features motivate the researchers to work more in the direc- cally by many researchers [11–15]. Sahin and Yilbas [16] analysed
tion of thermoelectric devices. However, the thermoelectric the performance of thermoelectric power generator and influence
devices have lower efficiency due to the irreversible heat conduc- of thermoelectric leg geometry on the device performance theoret-
tion and Joule heating caused by thermoelectric properties of ically. They concluded that the shape parameter of the device has
favourable effect on efficiency and adverse effect on the power out-
⇑ Corresponding authors. put. Ali et al. [17] performed the thermodynamic analysis of ther-
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (R. Lamba), kaushik@ moelectric power generator with influence of pin leg geometry on
ces.iitd.ac.in (S.C. Kaushik). the device performance and found out that the system efficiency is

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.04.069
0196-8904/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 R. Lamba, S.C. Kaushik / Energy Conversion and Management 144 (2017) 388–398 389

Nomenclature

A area (m2) s Thomson coefficient (V/K)

Ex exergy (W)
EQh exergy associated to heat input (W) Subscripts
I electrical current (A) a environment
Irr irreversibility (W) c cold side of TEG
k thermal conductivity (W/m K) d destroyed
K thermal conductance (W/K) dr infinitesimal
L length of TE element leg (m) eff effective
P electrical power (W) gen generation
Q heat (W) h hot side of TEG
R electrical resistance (X) in input
RA geometric/shape parameter Irr irreversibilities
S entropy (W/K) k thermal conductivity
T temperature (K) loss loss
Z figure of merit (1/K) L load
m mean
Greek letters n n type material
h dimensionless temperature o reference
a Seebeck coefficient (V/K) out output
g energy efficiency p p type material
q electrical resistivity (X-m) storage storage
r electrical conductivity (S/m) t total
D difference r electrical conductivity
w exergy efficiency

improved by increasing the dimensionless geometric parameter. panels. Chen et al. [25] studied the performance of thermoelectric
Shen et al. [18] proposed a different configuration called annular generator at different operating conditions experimentally and
thermoelectric generator in which annular shaped legs have been concluded that the heat source temperature affects the perfor-
used and found out that the efficiency of annular thermoelectric mance of the device significantly. The influence of Thomson effect
generator is lower than that of flat plate thermoelectric generator. on the power output and energy efficiency of flat plate thermoelec-
Al-Merbati et al. [19] performed the thermodynamic and stress tric generator has been studied by Chen et al. [26]. The influence of
analysis of thermoelectric generator with influence of thermoelec- Thomson effect on the thermoelectric cooler has been studied by
tric leg geometry on thermal stress, power output and thermal effi- different authors time by time [27–29]. The theory of finite time
ciency. The performance of thermoelectric devices depends on the thermodynamics or entropy generation minimization is a powerful
operating temperature, figure of merit of thermoelectric element tool for the performance analysis of thermodynamic systems. The
material and geometric configuration. The efficiency of thermo- performance of thermoelectric devices has also been analysed
electric devices is lower due to inherent irreversibilities in the using finite time thermodynamics and non-equilibrium thermody-
thermoelectric material which results in figure of merit of order namics. The feasibility and performance analysis of a single and
of 1. two sage thermoelectric refrigerator or heat pump driven by a sin-
The geometric configuration of thermoelectric legs affects the gle or two stage thermoelectric generator have been carried out by
device performance; therefore it is essential to investigate the Chen et al. [30,31] and Meng et al. [32–35]. Wang et al. [36] have
influence of leg geometry on the power output and thermal effi- carried out the performance analysis of thermoelectric systems
ciency of the device. Lavric [20] carried out the one dimensional based on entropy generation minimization method analytically.
thermal analysis of thermoelectric devices with effect of geometry Kaushik and Manikandan [37] carried out the energy and exergy
for practical applications and concluded that by reducing the analysis of annular thermoelectric generator including Thomson
length of the thermoelectric element leg reduces the electrical effect and concluded the Thomson effect lowers the performance
resistance while larger legs result in high temperature difference of thermoelectric generator. Kaushik and Manikandan [38,39] car-
between the two ends of the legs. Vatcharasathien et al. [21] car- ried out the influence of Thomson effect on the performance opti-
ried out the design and thermal analysis of solar thermoelectric mization of two stage thermoelectric generator and two stage
generator by considering truncated parabolic collectors with flat thermoelectric cooler.
receiver, conventional flat plate collectors. Gou et al. [22] devel- Based on the literature survey, it is clear that the thermody-
oped a thermodynamic model and performed experimental study namic analysis of thermoelectric device including Thomson effect
of thermoelectric devices for low temperature waste heat applica- has been presented extensively. There are some studies in the lit-
tions and suggested that by enhancing cold side heat transfer coef- erature which considers the effect of leg geometry on the perfor-
ficient by increasing heat sink surface area improve the mance of the device [16,17,19,40]. However, these studies do not
performance of thermoelectric devices. Amatya and Ram [23] pre- consider the influence of Thomson effects on the power output
sented the thermodynamic analysis of solar thermoelectric gener- and efficiency of the pin geometry (trapezoidal) TE device. In the
ator to predict the thermal to electricity conversion efficiency for present study, the thermodynamic analysis of thermoelectric gen-
micro power applications. Suzuki and Tanaka [24] carried out the erator including influence of Thomson effect as well as influence of
simulation study for the performance analysis of multi panel ther- leg geometry on the performance of the device has been carried
moelectric generators and concluded that the TE device area can be out theoretically. It is assumed that half of the Thomson heat,
reduced significantly by proper arrangement of thermoelectric generated within the thermoelectric generator flows towards hot
390 R. Lamba, S.C. Kaushik / Energy Conversion and Management 144 (2017) 388–398

 
junction and remaining half flows towards cold junction. The effect kn ¼ kp ¼ 62605:0  277:7T m þ 0:4131T 2m  104 ð3Þ
of leg geometry on the device performance has been discussed by
defining a dimensionless geometric parameter called as shape
  
parameter. The effect of other parameters such as temperature s ¼ sp  ðsn Þ ¼ 2  930:6T m  1:981T 2m  109 ð4Þ
ratio, internal resistance of the device and load resistance on the
device performance has been discussed as well. The energy balance equation, based on the first law of thermo-
dynamics, for an infinitesimal element (dx) of the thermoelectric
couple leg shown in Fig. 2(b) can be written as [19]:
2. Thermodynamic modelling
Q storage ¼ Q x  Q xþdx þ Q gen  Q loss ð5Þ
The schematic of thermoelectric generator consisting of trape-
Based on the assumptions, Qstorgae and Qloss has been taken as
zoidal shaped p and n type thermoelectric legs sandwiched
zero and thermal energy stored in the infinitesimal length of ther-
between heat source and heat sink and having variable cross sec-
moelectric leg has also been considered to zero due to small length.
tional area has been shown in Fig. 1. The following assumptions
Qx and Qx+dx are the Fourier’s heat input and Fourier’s heat output
have been considered in thermodynamic modelling to simply the
of the infinitesimal element and Qgen consists of heat generated in
analysis:
the infinitesimal element due to both Joule heating and Thomson
heating. After putting the expression for all terms, Eq. (5) can be

One dimensional steady state heat transfer along the thermo-
written as follows:
electric legs has been considered.
 

Convective and radiative heat losses from the sides of thermo- dT  I2 qdx dT 
electric couples to the environment have been neglected.
kAðxÞ  þ  sI dT ¼ kAðxÞ  ð6Þ
dx x AðxÞ dx xþdx

There is no other mode of heat transfer present other than Four-
ier’s heat conduction phenomena from the hot junction to the where A(x) is the cross sectional area of the trapezoidal leg of ther-
cold junction of TEG which is due to the inherent thermal con- moelectric generator, varying along the length of the leg which is
ductivity of thermoelectric materials. given as [19]:

The Thomson effect is assumed to be symmetrically distributed
 

RA  1 x 1
(which means half of the Thomson heat, generated within the AðxÞ ¼ A0 1 þ 2  ð7Þ
RA þ 1 L 2
TEG flows towards hot junction and remaining half flows
towards cold junction similar to the Joule heat term) between where RA = Ah/Ac, is the ratio of cross sectional area of top side of the
hot and cold junctions. leg (Ah) to that of bottom side of the leg (Ac), A0 is the cross sectional

The electrical and thermal resistances of the junction contacts area of the uniform leg and L is the length of the leg. The geometric
and conducting metal are assumed to be negligible. configuration of a leg of the trapezoidal thermoelectric generator
has been shown in Fig. 2(a). After substituting the expression for
The Thomson effect has been considered in this analysis, there- A(x), Eq. (6) can be rearranged as follows:
fore the temperature dependent properties of thermoelectric  

2
d T 1 2A0 RA  1 sI dT qI2
material (Bi2Te3) as given by Xuan et al. [41] are following: þ  ¼ ð8Þ
  dx
2 AðxÞ L RA þ 1 k dx kðAðxÞÞ2


s ¼ sp  ðsn Þ ¼ 2  22224:0 þ 930:6T m  0:9905T 2m  109
The solution of Eq. (8) can be given as:
ð1Þ
C 2 ðL  ð1  aÞ þ 2axÞð12aÞ
Lb

  TðxÞ ¼ C 1 þ
ð2a  LbÞ
qn ¼ qp ¼ 5112:0 þ 163:4T m þ 0:6279T 2m  1010 ð2Þ
L2 cflogðL  ð1  aÞ þ 2axÞg
þ
ð4a2  2LabÞ
Q L2 cðL  ð1  aÞ þ 2axÞ
h  ð9Þ
½f2a  Lbg  fðLbð1  aÞðLb  2aÞÞ  4a2 x þ 2Labxg
where
   
I RA  1 2R sI qI 2
T
h
T
h a¼ ; b¼  and c ¼ 2 ð10Þ
RA þ 1 L kA0 kA0
The constants in Eq. (9) can be found out by taking following
boundary conditions:
n p
TðxÞjx¼0 ¼ T c ð11Þ

TðxÞjx¼L ¼ T h ð12Þ

C 2 ðLð1  aÞÞð12aÞ L2 cflogðLð1  aÞÞg

Lb

C1 ¼ T c  
T T
ð2a  LbÞ ð4a2  2LabÞ
c c
L3 c
þ ð13Þ
I Q
c
I ðLaðL  2Þð2a  LbÞÞ

R 2
  2L3 ðabÞc
L ½ð2a  LbÞðT h  T c Þ  L2ac log 1þa
1a
 ½ð1þaÞðLb2aÞðL2Þ 
C2 ¼ ð14Þ
ðL  ð1  aÞ þ 2aLÞð12aÞ  ðLð1  aÞÞð12aÞ
Lb Lb
Fig. 1. Schematic of trapezoidal thermoelectric generator.
 R. Lamba, S.C. Kaushik / Energy Conversion and Management 144 (2017) 388–398 391

Qh

Th Ah

A0
L

Tc
Ac
0

Qc

(a)
Qx

Th
Ah

dx

Tc Ac

Qx+dx

(b)
Fig. 2. (a) Geometric configuration of a leg, rectangular area is shown in red color and (b) cross-sectional view of the trapezoidal thermoelectric generator.

The geometric dimensions such as cross sectional area, length L

R0 ¼ ð17Þ
and thickness of the p and n type thermoelectric legs have been A0 r n
considered equal. Therefore, the distribution of temperature in
both p and n-type thermoelectric legs will be similar. The electrical A0 kn
K0 ¼ ð18Þ
resistance and thermal conductance of the thermoelectric genera- L
tor is sum of electrical resistance and thermal resistance of both p The temperature of hot and cold junction can be calculated from
and n-type thermoelectric legs which are given respectively as Eq. (9) using the boundary conditions of Eqs. (11) and (12). Now,
derived by [19]: using the hot and cold junction temperature, the expressions for
rp þ rn  heat absorbed from the heat source at hot junction and the heat
R¼ lnðRA Þ ð15Þ
2rp rn AL0 RRAA 1 rejected to the heat sink at cold junction of thermoelectric genera-
þ1
tor including Thomson effect can be written based on the first law
  of thermodynamics as follows [26–28,37,42–45]:
A0 RA 1

K ¼ 2ðkp þ kn Þ
L RA þ1
ð16Þ I2 R sIðT h  T c Þ
lnðRA Þ Q h ¼ ah IT h  þ KðT h  T c Þ  ð19Þ
2 2
The reference electrical conductance, R0 and reference thermal
I2 R sIðT h  T c Þ
conductance, K0, based on the cross sectional area, A0 and length, Q c ¼ ac IT c þ þ KðT h  T c Þ þ ð20Þ
L of the uniform leg can be given as derived by [19]: 2 2
392 R. Lamba, S.C. Kaushik / Energy Conversion and Management 144 (2017) 388–398

These equations can also be derived by further simplification of It should be noted that this dimensionless figure of merit with
Eqs. (11) and (12) of Ref. [26] using the Taylor series approxima- considering Thomson effect is same for any type of cross section
tion for the exponential terms (derivation provided in Appendix of thermoelectric generator such as flat plate, annular or trape-
A) and following the assumption of Refs. [42–44] that half of the zoidal except the expressions for thermal conductance, K and elec-
Thomson heat, generated within the TEG flows towards hot junc- trical resistance, R. This dimensionless figure of merit with
tion and remaining half flows towards cold junction similar to considering Thomson effect reduces to the conventional figure of
the Joule heat term. merit without considering Thomson effect if s = 0 which means
The power output and energy efficiency of the thermoelectric the Seebeck coefficient is constant or if the Seebeck coefficients
generator with variable cross sectional area of the legs can be for hot junction and cold junction are same (ah = ac).
expressed respectively as: The dimensionless overall electrical resistance and thermal con-
ductance are given as [19]:
Pout ¼ Q h  Q c ¼ ðah T h  ac T c ÞI  I2 R  sIðT h  T c Þ ¼ I2 RL ð21Þ
 
K ð1 þ rk Þ RA  1
¼2 ð30Þ
Pout ðah T h  ac T c ÞI  I2 R  sIðT h  T c Þ K0 lnðRA Þ RA þ 1
g¼ ¼ ð22Þ
ah IT h  I 2R þ KðT h  T c Þ  sIðT h2T c Þ
2
Qh
 
R 1 þ rr lnðRA Þ
The electrical current generated in the thermoelectric generator ¼   ð31Þ
R0 rr 2 RA 1
depends on the temperature of hot and cold junction, thermoelec- RA þ1

tric characteristics of the thermoelectric element, electrical resis-

The dimensionless power output and energy efficiency can be
tance of thermoelectric generator and external load resistance
obtained by substituting the expressions for the dimensionless
which can be obtained by solving Eq. (21) for I and can be given as:
overall electrical conductance, thermal conductance and figure of
ðah T h  ac T c Þ  sðT h  T c Þ merit in Eqs. (21) and (22) respectively which can be given as:
I¼ ð23Þ
R þ RL
 qffiffiffiffi2  
The power output and energy efficiency depend on the current Pout 2ZT m ½ðah  ac hÞ  sð1  hÞð1  hÞ 1 þ rrrk RL
R0
as given in Eqs. (21) and (22) respectively. Therefore, the currents ¼ h i2 ð32Þ
K0Tc
at which maximum power output and maximum energy efficiency hðah þ ac hÞ RR0 þ RR0L
occurs, can be obtained respectively by differentiating Eqs. (21)

 qffiffiffiffi2  
2ZT m ½ðah  ac hÞ  sð1  hÞ 1 þ rrrk RL
R0
g¼  qffiffiffiffi2 h i h i2   ð33Þ
ZT m 1 þ rrrk ðah þ ac hÞ RR0 þ ð2ah  sð1  hÞÞ RR0L þ ðah þ ac hÞ RR0 þ RR0L K
K0

and (22) with respect to current, I and then checking the conditions It is clear from Eqs. (32) and (33) that the above expressions for
for maximum power output and maximum energy efficiency gives dimensionless power output and energy efficiency reduces to the
the optimum currents at maximum power output and maximum conventional expressions for dimensionless power output and
energy efficiency which can be given as: energy efficiency derived by Al-Merbati et al. [19] if s = 0 or ah = ac.
The exergy efficiency of the thermoelectric generator can be
T h ½ðah  ac hÞ  sð1  hÞ
Ipout ¼ ð24Þ determined by calculating the exergy input, entropy generation
2R
and irreversibility in the generator. Based on first and second laws
T h ½ðah  ac hÞ  sð1  hÞ of thermodynamics, the exergy balance equation at steady state
Ienergy ¼  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð25Þ conditions in a thermodynamic system can be expressed as:
R 1 þ 1 þ ZT m
where ZT⁄m is the dimensionless figure of merit of thermoelectric Exinput ¼ Exoutput þ Exlost þ Irrev ersibilities ð34Þ
material with considering Thomson effect which can be expresses
Here, Exinput is the exergy input associated with heat input to
as follows.
the thermoelectric generator which is the thermal exergy and
T h ½ðah  ac hÞ  sð1  hÞðah þ ac hÞ rknn Exoutput is the exergy output of the generator which is electrical
ZT m ¼  qffiffiffiffi2 ð26Þ power having pure exergy. In this analysis, exoreversible thermo-
2 1 þ rrrk ð1  hÞ electric generator has been considered in which heat source tem-
perature and hot junction temperature are assumed to be equal.
where h, rk and rr are the dimensionless temperature ratio, thermal
Similarly, heat sink temperature and cold junction temperature
conductivity ratio and electrical conductivity ratio respectively
are assumed to be equal. Therefore, external irreversibilities are
which are defines as [19]:
absent. The entropy generated in the thermoelectric generator
Tc can be obtained by writing entropy balance equation based on sec-
h¼ ð27Þ
Th ond law of thermodynamic which can be expressed as:

kp Sgen ¼ DSsysetm þ DSsurrounding P 0 ð35Þ

rk ¼ ð28Þ
kn
Qh Qc
rp Or; Sgen ¼  þ P0 ð36Þ
rr ¼ ð29Þ Th Tc
rn
 R. Lamba, S.C. Kaushik / Energy Conversion and Management 144 (2017) 388–398 393

The exergy input associated with heat input and exergy associ- Exergy out Pout T 0 Sgen
w¼ ¼ ¼1 ð45Þ
ated with heat rejected at cold junction can be given respectively Exergy in EQh EQh
as:
  The optimum current corresponding to maximum exergy effi-
T0 ciency can be obtained by substituting expression of irreversibility
EQh ¼ Q h 1  ð37Þ
Th from Eq. (43) into Eq. (45) and differentiating Eq. (45) with respect
  to current, I and then checking the conditions for maximum exergy
T0
EQc ¼ Q c 1  ð38Þ efficiency gives the optimum current at maximum exergy effi-
Tc ciency which is same as the expression for optimum current at
where T0 is the environment temperature and it will be same as maximum energy efficiency given in Eq. (25).
cold side temperature, Tc for an exoreversible thermoelectric gener- The dimensionless exergy efficiency can be obtained by substi-
ator. After substituting the expressions for various terms in Eq. (34), tuting the expressions for the dimensionless overall electrical con-
the exergy balance equation for the thermoelectric generator can be ductance, thermal conductance and figure of merit in Eq. (45)
expressed as: which can be given as:

 qffiffiffiffi2  
2ZT m ½ðah  ac hÞ  sð1  hÞ 1 þ rrrk RL
R0
w¼ qffiffiffiffi 2 h i h i2  
ð46Þ
ð1  hÞ ZT m ð1 þ rrrk Þ ðah þ ac hÞ RR0 þ ð2ah  sð1  hÞÞ RR0L þ ðah þ ac hÞ RR0 þ RR0L K
K0

   
T0 T0
Qh 1  ¼ Pout þ Irr þ Q c 1  ð39Þ 3. Results and discussion
Th Tc
    Thermodynamic analysis of thermoelectric generator has been
T0 T0
Or; Irr ¼ Q c  Qh  ðQ h  Q c Þ þ Q h  Q c ð40Þ carried out to analyse the influence of Thomson effect and leg
Tc Th geometry on the performance of the device for various operating
After simplification, Eq. (40) can be expressed as: parameters in MATLAB Simulink environment. The TE leg area
  has been varied linearly along the length of the leg. The effect of
Qc Qh RA, RL/R0 and h on the power output, energy efficiency, exergy effi-
Irr ¼ T 0  ð41Þ
Tc Th ciency and irreversibilities have been studied. The results of this
From Eqs. (36) and (41), the irreversibilities in the thermoelec- study have been compared with previous results of Al-Merbati
tric generator can be given as: et al. [19] which shows that trapezoidal geometry improves the
energy and exergy efficiency of the device while the power output
Irr ¼ T 0 Sgen ð42Þ decreases. The Thomson effect degrades the device performance
Now, substituting the expressions for Qh and Qc from Eqs. (19) which is not considered in the above study.
and (20), the irreversibilities in the thermoelectric generator can The effect of RA and h on the dimensionless power output of
be expressed as: thermoelectric generator with and without considering Thomson
effect for RL/R0 = 2 which correspond to maximum power output
I2 RðT h þ T c Þ KðT h  T c Þ2 sIðT h þ T c ÞðT h  T c Þ conditions, have been shown in Fig. 3. It is clear from Eq. (32) that
Irr ¼ þ þ ð43Þ
2T h Th 2T h RA does not have direct effect on dimensionless power output.
However, the resistance of the leg (R) depends on RA which is
It is clear from Eq. (43) that the irreversibilities in the exore-
included in Eq. (32). The leg resistance is optimum at RA = 1 which
versible thermoelectric generator which are only internal irre-
results in maximum power output at RA = 1. Thus, the power out-
versibilities, consists of the irreversibilities caused by Joule
heating, Fourier’s heat conduction and Thomson heating in the
thermoelectric material. The irreversibilities in the exoreversible
thermoelectric generator depend on the electrical resistance and
thermal conductance of the thermoelectric materials. Therefore,
these irreversibilities can be reduced by increasing figure of merit
of thermoelectric materials. The dimensionless irreversibilities can
be obtained by substituting the expressions for the dimensionless
overall electrical conductance, thermal conductance and figure of
merit in Eq. (43) which can be given as:
2  qffiffiffiffi2 3
ZT  ð1  h2 Þ 1 þ rrrk

Irr 6 m R RL 7
¼4 h i2 ðah  ac hÞ þ sð1  hÞ 5
K0T c R0 R0
hðah þ ac hÞ RR0 þ RR0L
 
ð1  hÞ2 K
þ
h K0
ð44Þ
After calculating the exergy input, entropy generation and irre-
versibilities, the exergy efficiency of the thermoelectric generator Fig. 3. Effect of RA and h on the dimensionless power output with and without
can be given as: considering Thomson effect.
394 R. Lamba, S.C. Kaushik / Energy Conversion and Management 144 (2017) 388–398

put is inversely proportional to leg resistance. The power output efficiency is higher than the energy efficiency. The optimum value
first increases with RA and then decreases with further increase of shape parameter with and without considering Thomson effect
in RA. The power output is maximum at RA = 1 which represents is same for maximum energy and exergy efficiency.
the flat plate thermoelectric generator. Therefore, to get the maxi-
mum power output, the shape parameter, RA plays an important
role. The power output of the generator increases with decrease
in temperature ratio as expected. It is clear that decreasing temper-
ature ratio results in increased temperature difference between hot
and cold side of the thermoelectric generator which results in
increased power output of the device. The power output of the
TE generator is reduced due to Thomson effect. The Thomson effect
does not shifts the optimum value of shape parameter. However,
the optimum temperature ratio is influenced by Thomson effect.
The optimum value of temperature ratio increases by considering
Thomson effect.
The effect of RA and h on the energy efficiency of thermoelectric
generator with and without considering Thomson effect for
RL/R0 = 2 which correspond to maximum power output conditions,
have been shown in Fig. 4. The energy efficiency first increases
with increase in RA and attains its maximum value, then decreases
with further increase in RA. However, the variation in energy effi-
ciency with RA is very small at lower values of RL/R0 as compared
Fig. 5. Effect of RA and h on the exergy efficiency with and without considering
to higher values. Therefore, the shape parameter should be opti- Thomson effect.
mized to get the maximum energy efficiency. The variation in h
does not affect the behaviour of energy efficiency variation with
RA and only the efficiency value changes by changing h. Thus, the
energy efficiency improves with RA which is more effective at
higher values of RL/Ro and h lower values. The variation of energy
efficiency of the generator with temperature ratio follows the same
trend as that of with RA at lower RL/Ro and it decreases continu-
ously with h for higher RL/Ro. However, the rate of variation of
energy efficiency is different for RA and h. The optimum value of
RA corresponding to maximum energy efficiency is 1. The energy
efficiency with considering Thomson effect is lower than that of
without Thomson effect as expected.
The variation of exergy efficiency with RA and h have been
shown in Fig. 5 with and without considering Thomson effect for
RL/R0 = 2 which correspond to maximum power output conditions.
The exergy efficiency follows the same trend of energy efficiency
with RA and h. However, the rate of change of exergy efficiency
with RA and h is different as compared to rate of change of energy
efficiency. The energy efficiency considering Thomson effect is
Fig. 6. Effect of RA and h on the dimensionless irreversibilities with and without
lower than that of without Thomson effect. As the thermal exergy considering Thomson effect.
input is lower than the heat input by the Carnot factor, (1  h) and
the exergy output is same as energy output, therefore, the exergy

Fig. 4. Effect of RA and h on the energy efficiency with and without considering Fig. 7. Effect of RL/R0 and RA on the dimensionless power output, with and without
Thomson effect. considering Thomson effect.
 R. Lamba, S.C. Kaushik / Energy Conversion and Management 144 (2017) 388–398 395

The effect of RA and h on the dimensionless irreversibilities of mance should be considered. It is clear from Fig. 7 that the dimen-
thermoelectric generator with and without considering Thomson sionless power output initially increases with RL/R0 and then gets
effect for RL/R0 = 2 which correspond to maximum power output its maximum value. The further increases in RL/R0 decreases the
conditions, have been shown in Fig. 6. The figure shows that the power output. The dimensionless power output is maximum at
dimensionless irreversibilities decreases non-linearly with RL/R0 = 2 for a constant RA. The variation of dimensionless power
increase in h as given in Eq. (44). The effect of RA on the irreversibil- output with RA follows the same trend as that of with RL/R0. The
ities is more pronounced at lower h. The lower h is associated with optimum values of RL/R0 and RA corresponding to the maximum
higher temperature difference and thus higher entropy generation power output with and without considering Thomson effect are
and higher irreversibilities in the system. The irreversibilities are same. The dimensionless power output is maximum at RA = 1 for
maximum at RA = 1 because at RA = 1, the TE leg resistance is min- a constant RL/R0. The Thomson effect reduces the power output
imum and it is inversely proportional to irreversibilities as given by of the device.
Eq. (44). It should be noted from Fig. 6 and Eq. (44) that the Thom- Fig. 8 shows the variation of energy efficiency with RL/R0 and RA
son effect increases the irreversibilities in the system. for h = 0.5. The energy efficiency first decreases with RA and attains
The variation of dimensionless power output with RL/R0 and RA its minimum value at RA = 1. With further increase in RA, the effi-
for h = 0.5 have been shown in Fig. 7 with and without considering ciency increases again. RA = 1 corresponds to flat plate thermoelec-
Thomson effect. In the theoretical studies of thermoelectric gener- tric generator (FTEG). The energy efficiency increases with increase
ator, the RL/R0 ratio has been considered constant. However, in the in RL/R0 and reaches at its maximum point and again decreases
practical thermoelectric generators, the load resistance is always with further increase in RL/R0. Therefore, the optimum value of
not constant. Therefore, the effect of RL/R0 on the device perfor- RL/R0 should be selected to get maximum energy efficiency. The

Fig. 10. Effect of RL/R0 and RA on the dimensionless irreversibilities with and
Fig. 8. Effect of RL/R0 and RA on the energy efficiency with and without considering
without considering Thomson effect.
Thomson effect.

Fig. 9. Effect of RL/R0 and RA on the exergy efficiency with and without considering
Thomson effect. Fig. 11. Effect of RL/R0 on the variation of energy efficiency with RA.
396 R. Lamba, S.C. Kaushik / Energy Conversion and Management 144 (2017) 388–398

maximum value. The further increases in RA decreases the irre-

versibilities. The irreversibilities are maximum at RA = 1 because
at RA = 1 for a constant RL/R0, the leg resistance is minimum and
the leg resistance is inversely proportional to irreversibilities as
given by Eq. (44). The irreversibilities decreases non-linearly with
increase in RL/R0 for a constant RA. It should be noted from
Fig. 10 and Eq. (44) that the Thomson effect increases the irre-
versibilities in the system.
The effect of RL/R0 on the variation of energy and exergy effi-
ciencies with RA for different RL/R0 and h = 0.5 have been shown
in Figs. 11 and 12 respectively with and without considering
Thomson effect. RL/R0 = 2 corresponds to maximum power output
conditions and RL/R0 = 3 corresponds to maximum energy and
exergy efficiency conditions. The energy and exergy efficiencies
are smaller at maximum power output conditions as compared
maximum energy and exergy efficiency conditions. For maximum
power output condition of RL/R0 = 2, the energy and exergy effi-
ciencies first increases with increase in RA and attains its maximum
value at RA = 1. The further increase in RA decreases the energy and
exergy efficiency. But the trend is reversed for maximum energy
and exergy efficiency conditions. For maximum energy and exergy
Fig. 12. Effect of RL/R0 on the variation of exergy efficiency with RA. efficiency condition of RL/R0 = 3, the energy and exergy efficiencies
initially decreases with increase in RA and attains its minimum
value at RA = 1. The further increase in RA increases the energy
energy efficiency is maximum at RL/R0 = 3 for a constant RA which and exergy efficiencies. Thus, for RL/R0 values smaller than or equal
is different from maximum power output condition value of to maximum power output conditions, which is RL/R0 = 2 in this
RL/R0 = 2. Thus, the effect of RA is more pronounced at higher values study, the flat plate thermoelectric generator is more efficient as
of RL/R0. The Thomson effect has adverse effect on the energy effi- compared to trapezoidal thermoelectric generator. For RL/R0 val-
ciency of the device. ues, greater than or equal to maximum energy and exergy effi-
The effect of RL/R0 and RA on the exergy efficiency with and ciency conditions, which is RL/R0 = 3 in this study, the trapezoidal
without considering Thomson effect for h = 0.5 has been shown thermoelectric generator is more efficient as compared to flat plate
in Fig. 9. The exergy efficiency follows the same behaviour of thermoelectric generator as given by Ali et al. [17]. The energy and
energy efficiency of Fig. 8 except that the rate of variation is differ- exergy efficiencies reduce as the leg geometry tends to flat plate
ent and the exergy efficiency is higher as compared to energy effi- leg geometry which corresponds to RA = 1 for RL/R0 greater than
ciency keeping all other parameters same. The exergy efficiency is or equal to 3. The Thomson effect reduces the energy and exergy
higher than the energy efficiency because of the reason discussed efficiency of the device. The exergy efficiency is higher than the
earlier. energy efficiency by the Carnot factor as described earlier.
The variation of dimensionless irreversibilities with RL/R0 and RA Table 1 represents the comparison of the results of the present
for h = 0.5 have been shown in Fig. 10 with and without consider- study which considers the Thomson effect with the results of Al-
ing Thomson effect. The figure shows that the dimensionless irre- Merbati et al. [19] which do not consider the Thomson effect for
versibilities initially increases with RA and then reaches its h = 0.5 and RL/R0 = 10. It is clear from the table that the power out-

Table 1
Comparison of the performance parameters of the present study (considering Thomson effect) with the study of Al-Merbati et al. [19] (without considering Thomson effect) for
h = 0.5 and RL/R0 = 10.

SI. no. Parameter Al-Merbati et al. [19] Present study

RA = 1 RA = 2 RA = 1 RA = 2
1 Dimensionless figure of merit 0.5936 0.5936 0.4930 0.4930
2 Dimensionless power output 0.1099 0.1084 0.0905 0.0893
3 Energy efficiency 0.0488 0.0499 0.0410 0.0419
4 Exergy efficiency Not evaluated Not evaluated 0.0819 0.0839
5 Dimensionless irreversibility Not evaluated Not evaluated 0.8204 0.7891

Table 2
Comparison of the performance parameters of the flat plate TEG (RA = 1) and trapezoidal TEG (RA = 1) at maximum power output condition (RL/R0 = 2) with and without
considering Thomson effect for h = 0.5.

SI. no. Parameter Flat plate TEG (RA = 1) Trapezoidal TEG (RA = 2)
Without Thomson effect With Thomson effect Without Thomson effect With Thomson effect
1 Dimensionless figure of merit 0.5936 0.4930 0.5936 0.4930
2 Dimensionless power output 0.1979 0.1629 0.1901 0.1564
3 Energy efficiency 0.0735 0.0633 0.0731 0.0630
4 Exergy efficiency 0.1470 0.1265 0.1463 0.1260
5 Dimensionless irreversibility 0.9087 0.9181 0.8776 0.8864
 R. Lamba, S.C. Kaushik / Energy Conversion and Management 144 (2017) 388–398 397

Table 3
Comparison of the performance parameters of the flat plate TEG (RA = 1) and trapezoidal TEG (RA = 1) at maximum energy efficiency condition (RL/R0 = 3) with and without
considering Thomson effect for h = 0.5.

SI. no. Parameter Flat plate TEG (RA = 1) Trapezoidal TEG (RA = 2)
Without Thomson effect With Thomson effect Without Thomson effect With Thomson effect
1 Dimensionless figure of merit 0.5936 0.4930 0.5936 0.4930
2 Dimensionless power output 0.1899 0.1564 0.1839 0.1514
3 Energy efficiency 0.0739 0.0632 0.0741 0.0635
4 Exergy efficiency 0.1478 0.1265 0.1483 0.1269
5 Dimensionless irreversibility 0.8664 0.8798 0.8359 0.8485

put and energy efficiency of the present study are lower than that Appendix A
of Al-Merbati et al. [19]. Table 2 presents the performance param-
eters of the flat plate TEG having RA = 1 and the trapezoidal TEG The energy balance equations at the hot and cold side of the
having RA = 1 at maximum power output condition with and with- thermoelectric generator are given respectively as [26].
out considering Thomson effect for h = 0.5. Table 3 presents the
same results for the maximum energy efficiency conditions. Q_ h ¼ ah T h I þ ðK 1 þ K 2 ÞðT h  T c Þ  ðs2  s1 ÞðT h  T c ÞI
þ ½R1 þ R2  ðR1 þ R2 ÞI2 ðA-1Þ

4. Conclusions
Q_ c ¼ ac T c I þ ðK 1 þ K 2 ÞðT h  T c Þ þ ðR1 þ R2 ÞI2 ðA-2Þ
" # " #
Thermodynamic model based on first and second laws of ther-
modynamics for an exoreversible trapezoidal thermoelectric gen- where R1 ¼ R1 sK11I  1
s I , R2 ¼ R2 1
s I  sK22I And
expð 1 Þ1 K1
1expð 2K2
Þ
erator including influence of Thomson effect as well as influence s1 I s2 I
of leg geometry on the performance of the device has been devel- K 1 ¼ s I , K 2 ¼ s I
expð K1 Þ1 1expð K2 Þ
1 2
oped. The influence of pin geometry of thermoelectric generator on The Taylor series expansion for the exponential term can be
the power output, irreversibilities, energy and exergy efficiency given as:
has been investigated by introducing a dimensionless geometry/
shape parameter for various operating temperature ratio and x x2 x3
external load resistance ratio. Based on the analysis, the following
ex ¼ 1 þ þ þ þ ...
1! 2! 3!
conclusions have been found:
Using the linear approximation, the Taylor series can be written

The expression for optimum current at maximum power output as:
conditions and maximum energy and exergy efficiency condi- x
ex ’ 1 þ
tions for the trapezoidal thermoelectric generator considering 1!
Thomson effect has been derived.  

The modified expressions for power output, irreversibilities, Similarly, expðsK11IÞ ’ 1 þ sK11I and exp  sK22I ’ 1  sK22I
energy and exergy efficiency considering Thomson effect have Using the Taylor series approximation for exponential term, R⁄1,
also been derived as well. R⁄2, K⁄1 and K⁄2 can be approximated as follows:

The expression for the dimensionless figure of merit for the " # 2 3
trapezoidal shape leg geometry has been derived by considering K1 1 1 K
R1 ¼ 0 and R2 ¼ R2 4

 5¼0
2
¼ R1  
Thomson effect, and it can reduct to the expression of figure of s1 I 1 þ sK1 I  1 1  1  s2 I s2 I
merit given in Ref. [19] if s = 0. K2
1

The effect of various design parameter such as shape parameter

and operating parameter such as operating temperature and sI s1 I s2I
K 1 ¼  1 ¼ s1 I ¼ K 1 and K 2 ¼ 
external load on the performance of the system has been
exp sK11I  1 1 þ K 1  1 1  exp  sK22I
studied.

The optimum values of shape parameter (Ah/Ac) and external sI 
2
¼ ¼ K2
load ratio (RL/R0) for maximum power output are 1 and 2 1  1  sK22I
respectively and for maximum energy and exergy efficiency,
the optimum value of external load ratio (RL/R0) is 3 for h = 0.5. Based on these approximations, the simplified energy balance
equations at the hot and cold side of the thermoelectric generator
This study provides the thermodynamic modelling analysis,
can be written as respectively [26].
entropy generation and irreversibilities occurring in the trape-
zoidal thermoelectric generator and it will be helpful in the design-
Q_ h ¼ ah T h I þ ðK 1 þ K 2 ÞðT h  T c Þ  ðs2  s1 ÞðT h  T c ÞI  ðR1 þ R2 ÞI2
ing of the practical trapezoidal thermoelectric generator system
with improved energy and exergy efficiency. ðA-3Þ

Q_ c ¼ ac T c I þ ðK 2 þ K 2 ÞðT h  T c Þ ðA-4Þ
Acknowledgement
Moreover, by including the assumption of Ref. [42] that the half
The authors wish to thank Mr. S. Manikandan and Mr. Rahul of the Thomson heat, generated within the TEG flows towards hot
Rawat, Ph.D. Research Scholars, Centre for Energy Studies, Indian junction and remaining half flows towards cold junction similar to
Institute of Technology Delhi for their valuable contribution in the Joule heat term and the other Refs. [43,44], Eqs. (A-3) and (A-4)
thermodynamic modelling. can be rewritten as:
398 R. Lamba, S.C. Kaushik / Energy Conversion and Management 144 (2017) 388–398

I2 R sIðT h  T c Þ [24] Suzuki R, Tanaka D. Mathematical simulation of thermoelectric power

Q_ h ¼ ah T h I þ KðT h  T c Þ   ðA-5Þ generator with the multi-panels. J Power Sources 2003;122:201–9.
2 2 [25] Chen WH, Liao CY, Hung CI, Huang WL. Experimental study on thermoelectric
modules for power generation at various operating conditions. Energy
I2 R sIðT h  T c Þ 2012;45:874–81.
Q_ c ¼ ac T c I þ KðT h  T c Þ þ þ ðA-6Þ [26] Chen J, Yan Z, Wu L. The influence of Thomson effect on the maximum power
2 2 output and maximum efficiency of a thermoelectric generator. J Appl Phys
1996;79(11):8823–8.
where s ¼ s1  s2 , K ¼ K 1 þ K 2 and R ¼ R1 þ R2 [27] Huang M-J, Yen R-H, Wang A-B. The influence of the Thomson effect on the
performance of a thermoelectric cooler. Int J Heat Mass Transf 2005;48
(2):413–8.
References [28] Chen W-H, Liao C-Y, Hung C-I. A numerical study on the performance of
miniature thermoelectric cooler affected by Thomson effect. Appl Energy
[1] Rowe DM. Thermoelectric CRC handbook. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press; 2005. 2012;89(1):464–73.
[2] Kaushik SC. Solar refrigeration and space conditioning. Divyajyoti Prakashan; [29] Manikandan S, Kaushik SC. Energy and exergy analysis of an annular
1989. thermoelectric cooler. Energy Convers Manage 2015;106:804–14.
[3] Angrist SW. Direct energy conversion; 1965. [30] Chen L, Meng F, Sun F. A novel configuration and performance for a two-stage
[4] Goldsmid HJ. Thermoelectric refrigeration; 1964. thermoelectric heat pump system driven by a two-stage thermoelectric
[5] Rowe DM, editor. CRC handbook of thermoelectrics. CRC Press; 1995. generator. Proc IMechE, Part A, J Power Energy 2009;223(A4):329–39.
[6] Rowe DM, Min G. Evaluation of thermoelectric modules for power generation. J [31] Chen L, Meng F, Sun F. Effect of heat transfer on the performance of a
Power Sources 1998;73(2):193–8. thermoelectric heat pump driven by a thermoelectric generator. Revista
[7] Omer SA, Infield DG. Design optimization of thermoelectric devices for solar- Mexicana de Física 2009;55(4):282–91.
power-generation. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 1998;53(1):67–82. [32] Meng F et al. Thermodynamic analysis and optimization of a new-type
[8] Sisman A, Yavuz H. The effect of Joule losses on the total efficiency of a thermoelectric heat pump driven by thermoelectric generator. Int J Ambient
thermoelectric power-cycle. Energy 1995;20(6):573–6. Energy 2009;30(2):95–101.
[9] Vining CB. An inconvenient truth about thermoelectrics. Nat Mater 2009;8 [33] Meng F, Chen L, Sun F. Performance optimization for two-stage thermoelectric
(2):83–5. refrigerator system driven by two-stage thermoelectric generator. Cryogenics
[10] Bell LE. Cooling, heating, generating power, and recovering waste heat with 2009;49(2):57–65.
thermoelectric systems. Science 2008;321(5895):1457–61. [34] Meng F, Chen L, Sun F. Extreme working temperature differences for
[11] Pan Y, Lin B, Chen J. Performance analysis and parametric optimal design of an thermoelectric refrigerating and heat pumping devices driven by
irreversible multi-couple thermoelectric refrigerator under various operating thermoelectric generator. J Energy Inst 2010;83:108–13.
conditions. Appl Energy 2007;84(9):882–92. [35] Meng F, Chen L, Sun F. Performance analysis for two-stage TEC system driven
[12] Chen J, Lin B, Wang H, Lin G. Optimal design of a multi-couple thermoelectric by two-stage TEG obeying Newton’s heat transfer law. Math Comput Model
generator. Semicond Sci Technol 2000;15(2):184. 2010;52:586–95.
[13] Chen L, Cao D, Huang Y, Peng FZ, editors. Modeling and power conditioning for [36] Wang X, Yu J, Ma M. Optimization of heat sink configuration for thermoelectric
thermoelectric generation. In: Power electronics specialists conference, PESC cooling system based on entropy generation analysis. Int J Heat Mass Transf
2008. IEEE; 2008. 2013;63:361–5.
[14] Wang CC, Hung CI, Chen WH. Design of heat sink for improving the [37] Kaushik SC, Manikandan S. The influence of Thomson effect in the energy and
performance of thermoelectric generator using two-stage optimization. exergy efficiency of an annular thermoelectric generator. Energy Convers
Energy 2012;39(1):236–45. Manage 2015;103:200–7.
[15] Chen L, Sun F, Wu C. Thermoelectric-generator with linear phenomenological [38] Kaushik SC, Manikandan S. The influence of Thomson effect in the
heat-transfer law. Appl Energy 2005;81(4):358–64. performance optimization of a two stage thermoelectric cooler. Cryogenics
[16] Sahin AZ, Yilbas BS. The thermoelement as thermoelectric power generator: 2015;72:57–64.
effect of leg geometry on the efficiency and power generation. Energy Convers [39] Manikandan S, Kaushik SC. The influence of Thomson effect in the
Manage 2013;65:26–32. performance optimization of a two stage thermoelectric generator. Energy
[17] Ali H, Sahin AZ, Yilbas BS. Thermodynamic analysis of a thermoelectric power 2016;100:227–37.
generator in relation to geometric configuration device pins. Energy Convers [40] Yilbas BS, Ali H. Thermoelectric generator performance analysis: influence of
Manage 2014;78:634–40. pin tapering on the first and second law efficiencies. Energy Convers Manage
[18] Shen Z-G, Wu S-Y, Xiao L. Theoretical analysis on the performance of annular 2015;100:138–46.
thermoelectric couple. Energy Convers Manage 2015;89:244–50. [41] Xuan X, Ng K, Yap C, Chua H. The maximum temperature difference and polar
[19] Al-Merbati AS, Yilbas BS, Sahin AZ. Thermodynamics and thermal stress characteristic of two-stage thermoelectric coolers. Cryogenics 2002;42
analysis of thermoelectric power generator: influence of pin geometry on (5):273–8.
device performance. Appl Therm Eng 2013;50(1):683–92. [42] Min G, Rowe DM, Kontostavlakis K. Thermoelectric figure-of-merit under large
[20] Lavric ED. Sensitivity analysis of thermoelectric module performance with temperature differences. J Phys D Appl Phys 2004;37(8):1301–4.
respect to geometry. Energy 2010;21:133–8. [43] Fraisse G, Lazard M, Goupil C, Serrat JY. Study of a thermoelement’s behaviour
[21] Vatcharasathien N, Hirunlabh J, Khedari J, Daguenet M. Design and analysis of through a modelling based on electrical analogy. Int J Heat Mass Transf
solar thermoelectric power generation system. Int J Sustain Energy 2010;53(17):3503–12.
2005;24:115–27. [44] Fraisse G, Ramousse J, Sgorlon D, Goupil C. Comparison of different modeling
[22] Guo X, Xiao H, Yang S. Modeling, experimental study and optimization on low approaches for thermoelectric elements. Energy Convers Manage
temperature waste heat thermoelectric generator system. Appl Energy 2013;65:351–6.
2010;87:3131–6. [45] Lamba Ravita, Kaushik SC. Modeling and performance analysis of a
[23] Amatya R, Ram RJ. Solar thermoelectric generator for micropower concentrated photovoltaic–thermoelectric hybrid power generation system.
applications. J Electron Mater 2010;39:1735–40. Energy Convers Manage 2016;115:288–98.