Clinical MX - Data
Clinical MX - Data
Clinical MX - Data
CONSENT
This provides the legal justification for the provision of treatment to a patient ranging from
physical contact, ingestion of medication to surgical operations
No such treatment may be administered without the patient’s valid consent or that of another
lawful authority
Consent obtained on the basis of inadequate information about the risks / benefits of treatment
will not be a defence against liability for failure to provide adequate information
The following principles are paramount:
Capacity to consent to or refuse treatment
A patient can only provide consent if they are deemed to have the capacity to consent to
treatment. 'Capacity' pertains to the ability to make decisions, not the quality of the decisions
taken
Any adult (over the age of 18 years) is presumed to have the capacity to consent. An adult will
lack capacity if they are unable to understand and retain information, believe in it or weigh the
options to reach a decision
The consent of anyone aged 16 years or over has the same legal status as that of an adult
An individual lacks capacity if some impairment or disturbance of mental function (permanent /
temporary) renders them unable to make decisions to consent to or refuse treatment. This will
occur when:
1) person is unable to understand and retain information which is material to the decision especially in
relation to the consequences of having or not having the treatment and / or
2) The person is unable to weigh the information in order to arrive at a decision. If the person has a
mental disorder (including phobia) which affects their belief in the information they have been given
then they will lack capacity.
Temporary factors such ac confusion, pain, fatigue, drugs may remove capacity but the clinician
must be satisfied that these factors are present to such an extent as to remove the ability to
decide.
Children under the age of 16 may have capacity to consent but such capacity is not presumed.
The clinician would need to demonstrate that the child can understand treatment information,
retain such information and weigh the options to reach a decision (Gillick / Fraser competence).
Otherwise consent will be provided by someone with parental responsibility including:
1) Mother
2) Father if married to the mother or has obtained parental responsibility by a formal agreement /
court order or was registered as the child’s father after 1st Dec 2003
3) Local authority who have a care order
4) Person with a residence order made by the court
5) courtappointed guardian or person appointed by parents in the event of a death
A child’s refusal to undergo treatment may be overridden by someone with parental
responsibility. However, legal advice should be obtained as this may be subject to challenge
under the Human Rights Act
A patient having legal capacity may refuse to have treatment for good / bad reasons or no
reason at all and cannot be compelled to have treatment
The degree of capacity required varies with the seriousness of the decision being taken, for
instance, taking blood for tests or consenting to major heart surgery
Proposal of treatment & information
An explanation of the nature and purpose of treatment is the first step in obtaining consent.
Such explanations must be accurate and detailed enough to enable the patient understand the
nature of treatment and make a decision on whether or not to consent to the treatment
Such information will include
1) Information about the condition for which treatment is proposed
2) Different options for investigation / treatment
3) The risks and benefits of these options
4) The risks and benefits of not having treatment
Communication of the proposal can be verbal, in writing, by conduct or a combination of these.
The extent of information provided will be a matter for clinical judgement and the patient is not
entitled to know everything about the proposed treatment.
The clinician may provide different levels of information to different patients undergoing the
same treatment. For instance, the risk of voice changes with danazol will be explained
differently to an opra singer compared to a lorry driver.
The information should be presented in the way that the patient will understand and interpreters
should be used when English is not the patient’s first language
Responsibility for consent
Consent does not necessarily have to be taken by the person performing the treatment
However, it is the responsibility of the clinician providing treatment to ensure that treatment has
been discussed with the patient and consent obtained
This responsibility may be delegated but the clinician responsible for the treatment (usually the
consultant) must ensure that the person taking consent is:
1) Suitably trained and qualified
2) Has sufficient knowledge of the proposed treatment and the risks involve
The more junior the person taking consent the higher the risks that the patient will be provided
with inadequate or incorrect information
Undue influence
Consent is not valid if it is provided under undue influence from family members, religious
leaders or other third parties
Communication and documentation of consent
Communication of consent may be verbal (patient saying ‘yes’), in writing, by conduct (patient
holding out their arm so you can take blood) or a combination of these. The more complex / the
greater the risks of the procedure the higher the need for written consent.
In addition to the signed consent form, the medical records should detail the discussion
including the risks and benefits that were explained, any information leaflets that were provided
and any questions / concerns raised by the patient
Irrespective of how consent is communicated, it is invalid if any of the three essential elements
is absent (Capacity, proposal of treatment / information and absence of undue influence).
Revocation of consent
Consent may be revoked at any time before the treatment is given, provided the patient retains
the capacity to do so
Revocation may be communicated in any form in which consent is communicated
Duration of authority
Consent is given in advance of treatment and remains valid unless revoked by the patient or
circumstances change to remove the basis on which treatment was agreed
Factors nullifying consent
Lack of legal capacity
Fraud, duress or undue influence by a third party
Inadequate / inaccurate information
Advance treatment directives
Patients may determine in advance that they do not wish to have certain treatments in all or
specified circumstances for instance, blood transfusion. These directives ensure that the
patient’s wishes will be respected even if they lose the capacity to make decisions
Such directives may be communicated verbally or in writing although most institutions have
formal procedures and documentation
These directives apply to patients refusing treatment and cannot be used by patients to specify
or demand a particular treatment
To be valid and binding, the directive must be:
1) Made by someone with the necessary capacity
2) Understood by the patient who should fully appreciate the consequences of refusing such treatment
3) Applicable to specific circumstances – if circumstances change, the directive may no longer apply
4) Made without duress
These directives may be revoked at any time by a competent patient
Treatment of adults unable / unwilling to provide consent
An adult who has lost capacity to make treatment decisions and who has not made a valid
advance directive may receive treatment as is immediately required to safeguard life, prevent a
deterioration in health or is otherwise in the patient's best interest
In determining the patient's best interest, the professional must act in accordance with accepted
competent and responsible medical practice
Where appropriate, a second opinion should be obtained and a relative or partner should be
consulted
However, no relative or partner has legal power to consent to treatment of an adult under any
circumstances
It is unlawful to provide treatment simply because it is convenient, when it is possible to wait
until the patient regains the capacity to provide consent
In cases of controversial treatments such as sterilisation / termination of pregnancy or a dispute
between interested parties, an application must be made to the court for a declaration that
treatment is in the patient’s best interest
DYSMENORRHOEA & ENDOMETRIOSIS *****
DYSMENORRHOEA *
Dysmenorrhoea is painful menstruation of sufficient severity to disrupt a woman’s functional
capacity
Primary dysmenorrhoea: onset around menarche once ovulatory cycles are established and no
underlying pathology can be identified. Thought to be due to myometrial contractions induced
by endometrial factors produced during menstruation such as PGF2alpha
Secondary dysmenorrhoea: secondary to pelvic pathology and usually occurs in a woman
whose periods were initially relatively painless
Dysmenorrhoea may present on a background of chronic pelvic pain
Causes of secondary dysmenorrhoea / chronic pelvic pain include:
Gynaecological causes
1) Endometriosis
2) Chronic pelvic inflammatory disease / pelvic adhesions
3) Adenomyosis – islands of endometrial tissue within the myometrium. Bleeding during
menstruation causes pain
4) Cervical stenosis
5) Uterine fibroids in particular submucous fibroids and fibroid polyps
6) IUCD
Nongynaecological causes
1) Inflammatory bowel disease
2) Irritable bowel syndrome
3) Interstitial cystitis
4) Psychosexual problems associated with sexual abuse
History
LMP, cycle regularity and menstrual loss
Duration and severity of pain. Impact on quality of life
Nature of pain – constant / colicky, radiation, associated symptoms like nausea & vomiting
Presence of pain during sexual intercourse (dyspareunia – deep or superficial), pain on
defecation or micturiction (superficial dyspareunia, usually on penetration will suggest local
vulval / vaginal conditions including poor lubrication and psychosexual problems)
Detailed bowel history to exclude inflammatory bowel disease / IBS
Urinary symptoms – frequency, haematuria, bladder pain
Exacerbating factors including dietary factors
Psychosexual history and history of pelvic infection
Contraceptive history
History of subfertility and plans for future fertility
Symptoms of depressive illness
Previous abdominal / pelvic surgery – adhesions
Examination
Abdominal examination – distension, mass, tenderness, guarding
Pelvic examination – uterine size, tenderness, mobility, cervical excitation, adnexal masses and
adnexal tenderness. Presence of pelvic nodules will indicate deeply infiltrating endometriosis
Rectal examination if lower GI symptoms
Investigation
· Urethral and endocervical swabs for culture and Chlamydia ELISA / PCR. A positive swab for
Chlamydia is not diagnostic of PID and a negative swab does not exclude PID
· MSU dipstix for blood, microscopy and culture
· FBC & CRP may identify evidence of an inflammatory process
· Pelvic ultrasound scan if pelvic pathology suspected on clinical examination or inconclusive
assessment
· Refer for assessment and laparoscopy if resistant to empirical therapy or abnormal pelvic
examination. Risks of laparoscopy include a 1 in 1000 risk of visceral injury.
Treatment
There is a tendency for symptoms of chronic diseases (such as IBS, inflammatory bowel
disease) to be worse during menstruation
Pelvic pain does not imply gynaecological disease and GI, urinary and psychosexual
conditions should be identified and treated
Secondary dysmenorrhoea treat underlying pathology
Provide detailed explanation and reassure about the absence of pathology where appropriate
NSAIDS and COCP are the most effective first line therapies for primary dysmenorrhoea
symptom relief in >80% of women. Commence NSAID therapy on the first day of menstruation
There is some evidence that the levonorgestrel releasing intrauterine device is effective in
reducing pain in women with secondary dysmenorrhoea, especially endometriosis associated
pain
Women who do not improve on these treatments should be referred to a specialist
ENDOMETRIOSIS *
The presence of functioning endometrial tissue outside the uterine cavity, with the ovary,
uterosacral ligaments, pouch of Douglas and broad ligament being common sites. Other
affected sites include the rectum and sigmoid colon, urinary bladder, appendix, cervix and
umbilicus.
Prevalence 20% in women undergoing investigation for infertility, 15% in women
investigated for chronic pelvic pain, up to 25% in women undergoing abdominal hysterectomy
and 6% at laparoscopic sterilisation
Endometriosis found incidentally does not constitute a disease and should only be treated when
associated with symptoms
Aetiology
Uncertain, but may be due to a combination of retrograde menstruation, immunological mechanisms
preventing the clearance of endometrial cells from the peritoneal cavity and genetic predisposition
the prevalence of endometriosis is up to 15% in the sisters of women with severe disease compared to
1% in the general population
Risk factors
Family history
Age 90% diagnosed between 2050 years
Ethnic background commoner in Caucasians
Socioeconomic class diagnosed more commonly in higher social classes – may be related to
delayed childbaring
Environmental factors the combined oral contraceptive pill protective
Presentation
Clinical diagnosis unreliable as symptoms such as dysmenorrhoea and pelvic pain are common and
there is a considerable overlap with conditions such as irritable bowel syndrome and chronic PID
Symptoms include:
1) Secondary dysmenorrhoea
2) Deep dyspareunia
3) Chronic Pelvic pain
4) Infertility
5) Cyclical premenstrual bowel or bladder symptoms with or without abnormal bleeding
6) Pelvic mass
7) Chronic fatigue
8) Ovulatory pain
9) Pain on defecation
Differential diagnosis
Irritable bowel syndrome
PID
Adenomyosis
Ovarian neoplasm
Colorectal neoplasm
Rupture of endometriotic cyst may present with acute abdominopelvic pain that should be
distinguished from ectopic pregnancy, adnexal torsion, haemorrhage into an ovarian cyst, acute
salpingitis and surgical acute abdomen
Management
History, examination & investigations as for dysmenorrhoea. Women with suspected endometriosis
should be referred to a specialist.
Treatment pelvic pain *
If a woman wants pain symptoms suggestive of endometriosis to be treated without a definitive
diagnosis, a therapeutic trial of a hormonal drug to reduce menstrual flow is appropriate after
appropriate counseling
1) NSAIDs may be effective in some patients. NSAIDs can cause gastric ulceration and have an anti
ovulatory effect if taken midcycle.
2) The Combined oral contraceptive pill is as effective as other hormonal treatments in relieving
endometriosisrelated pain with a better sideeffect profile and is more costeffective. Effective when
taken conventionally but may be more effective if taken continuously or tricycling. Most suitable for
women with menstrual symptoms who are not trying to conceive
3) Progestogens in sufficient doses to induce amenorrhoea effective in relieving pain. Sideeffects:
weight gain, mood change / depression, acne, bloating; prolonged use may lead to hypo
oestrogenaemia and loss of bone mineral density. Depoprovera may be used longterm but is
associated with irregular bleeding
4) GnRH agonists – should be used by specialists. Associated with menopausal sideeffects and
treatment should be limited to 6 months as there is loss of 6% of bone mineral density after a 6
months course.
Prognosis
The above drugs are equally effective in relieving endometriosis related pain but with different
sideeffect profiles. Pain relief is not always complete and some patients may fail to respond
Symptom recurrence is common following medical therapy, the recurrence rate at 5 years after
cessation of GnRH therapy being 37% for minimal disease and 74% for severe disease.
No evidence that medical treatment affects the primary biological mechanisms involved in the
disease
5) Levonorgestrel IUS
Effective in reducing endometriosis related pain with effect maintained for up to 3 years
6) Surgical treatment of endometriosisrelated pain
Ideally, the diagnosis of endometriosis should be confirmed by laparoscopy, and depending on
the severity of disease, treated at the same time provided the woman has been appropriately
counseled and consented
Laparoscopic ablation of minimalmoderate endometriosis is effective in relieving pain at 6
months followup
TAH + BSO should be considered in women with severe symptoms, failed medical /
conservative surgical treatment and for whom fertility is not an issue.
FETAL MONITORING IN LABOUR
Intermittent auscultation
· There is evidence that women monitored with CTG associated with lower rates of spontaneous
vaginal birth and higher rates of instrumental vaginal birth and caesarean section for fetal distress than
intermittent auscultation.
· There is evidence of a higher risk of seizures in babies born to women monitored with
intermittent auscultation, but no evidence of a difference in other neonatal outcomes, including:
mortality, cerebral palsy, hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy, intraventricular haemorrhage,
respiratory distress, abnormal neurologic symptoms or signs, admission to neonatal intensive care
unit, and low umbilical artery or venous pH at birth
· Offer intermittent auscultation to lowrisk women in established first stage of labour in all birth
settings usingeither a Pinard stethoscope or Doppler ultrasound.
· Carry out intermittent auscultation immediately after a contraction for at least 1 minute, at least
every 15 minutes, and record it as a single rate.
· Record accelerations and decelerations if heard.
· Palpate the maternal pulse if a fetal heart rate abnormality is suspected, to differentiate between
the two heart rates.
· Do not perform cardiotocography for lowrisk women in established labour.
Continuous fetal heart rate monitoring
· If continuous cardiotocography has been used because of concerns arising from
intermittent auscultation but there are no nonreassuring or abnormal features on the
cardiotocograph trace after 20 minutes, remove the cardiotocograph and return to intermittent
auscultation.
· Advise continuous cardiotocography if any of the following risk factors are present or
arise during labour
1. Suspected chorioamnionitis or sepsis, or a temperature of 38°C or above
2. Severe hypertension (160/110 mmHg or higher).
3. Oxytocin use
4. The presence of significant meconium
5. Fresh vaginal bleeding that develops in labour
If any one of the following risk factors is present or arises during labour, perform a full assessment of
all factors listed in recommendation 163.
1. Prolonged rupture of membranes (24 hours or more)
2. Moderate hypertension (150/100 to 159/109 mmHg
3. Confirmed delay in the first or second stage of labour
4. The presence of nonsignificant meconium.
Do not regard amniotomy alone for suspected delay in the established first stage of labour as an
indication to start continuous cardiotocography
Information for women
· Explain that continuous cardiotocography is used to monitor the baby's heartbeat and the
labour contractions.
· Give details of the types of findings that may occur.
· Explain that a normal trace is reassuring and indicates that the baby is coping well with
labour, but if the trace is not normal there is less certainty about the condition of the baby and
further continuous monitoring will be advised.
· Explain that decisions about whether to take any further action will be based on an
assessment of several factors, including the findings from cardiotocography.
· Explain that CTG tracing will restrict her mobility, particularly if conventional monitoring
is used. Encourage and help the woman to be as mobile as possible and to change position as
often as she wishes
·
CTG and meconium
· Women with meconiumstained liquor who received continuous CTG during labour were less
likely to have a spontaneous vaginal birth than those who received intermittent auscultation, with this
difference being explained by a higher caesarean rate in the continuous CTG group.
· There were no significant differences observed between the 2 groups in perinatal mortality and
neonatal seizure rate, but the rate of NICU admission was higher in the intermittent auscultation group
when compared with the continuous CTG group.
Fetal heart rate, bradycardia, tachycardia
· Fetal baseline tachycardia or bradycardia has moderately useful to not useful positive and
negative likelihood ratios for poor neonatal outcome or neonatal acidosis at birth, with most studies
showing a moderate or high specificity and low sensitivity.
Baseline variability
· Reduced baseline variability has moderate or high specificity for poor neonatal outcome and
neonatal acidosis.
· It also has not useful positive and negative likelihood ratios for neonatal acidosis.
Accelerations
· The diagnostic value of absence of accelerations is low for poor neonatal outcomes
(across all diagnostic parameters).
· Fewer than 3 sporadic accelerations in the first 30 minutes of electronic fetal monitoring
may be associated with neonatal mortality in women at high risk of adverse neonatal
outcomes.
Late decelerations
· Findings for the diagnostic value of late decelerations are conflicting for specificity for poor
neonatal outcomes.
· There is a moderate or low degree of association between late decelerations and neonatal
acidosis, but a low degree of association with poor neonatal outcome.
Variable decelerations
· Variable decelerations have mostly low diagnostic value for neonatal acidosis
· Variable decelerations classified as severe or with a minimum below 70 bpm have varied
association with neonatal acidosis (ranging from no association to moderate association) but there is
no association with poor neonatal outcome.
· Variable decelerations not defined as severe or with a minimum of 70 bpm or higher are not
associated with neonatal acidosis or poor neonatal outcome.
· CTG has a good negative likelihood ratio; that is, when it is normal there is a very low
chance of hypoxia (and therefore acidosis).
· However, the use of CTG is only moderately useful at best in predicting poor
fetal/neonatal outcomes.
· There is some evidence supporting the usefulness of the following features of CTG in
predicting neonatal outcome or low umbilical cord blood pH:
1. Prolonged or severe bradycardia – some evidence of association with poor outcomes/low
pH
2. Normal variability more than 5 bpm – associated with absence of poor outcomes/low pH
3. Decreased variability – some evidence of association with low pH
4. Decreased variability with no accelerations – associated with low pH
5. Decreased variability – associated with variable or late decelerations and no accelerations
some evidence of association with low pH
6. Presence of accelerations – some evidence of association with good neonatal outcomes
7. Recurrent late decelerations with decreased variability – predictive of low pH
8. Presence of late decelerations – associated with low pH and adverse neonatal outcomes
9. Presence of variable decelerations – associated with low pH.
Using CTG for clinical decisions
Any decision about changes to a woman’s care in labour when she is on a cardiotocograph monitor
should also take into account the following:
1. The woman’s report of how she is feeling
2. The woman’s report of the baby’s movements
3. Assessment of the woman’s wellbeing and behaviour
4. The woman’s temperature, pulse and blood pressure
5. Whether there is meconium or blood in the amniotic fluid
6. Any signs of vaginal bleeding
7. Any medication the woman is taking
8. The frequency of contractions
9. The stage and progress of labour
10. The woman’s parity
11. The results of fetal blood sampling if undertaken
12. The fetal response to scalp stimulation if performed
· When reviewing the CTG trace, assess and document all 4 features (baseline fetal heart
rate, baseline variability, presence or absence of decelerations, and presence of accelerations)
· Supplement ongoing care with a documented systematic assessment of the condition of
the woman and unborn baby (including any cardiotocography findings) every hour. If there are
concerns about cardiotocography findings, undertake this assessment more frequently.
· If the cardiotocography parameters of baseline fetal heart rate and baseline variability are
normal, the risk of fetal acidosis is low.
Baseline fetal heart rate
· This will usually be between 110 and 160 beats/minute.
Low baseline
· A baseline fetal heart rate between 100 and 109 beats/minute (having confirmed that this
is not the maternal heart rate) with normal baseline variability and no variable or late
decelerations is normal and should not prompt further action
· A stable baseline fetal heart rate between 90 and 99 beats/minute with normal baseline
variability (having confirmed that this is not the maternal heart rate) may be a normal
variation; obtain a senior obstetric opinion if uncertain.
High baseline
· If the baseline fetal heart rate is between 161 and 180 beats/minute with no other non
reassuring or abnormal features on the CTG, consider underlying causes (such as infection).
Check the woman’s temperature and pulse; if either are raised, offer fluids and paracetomol
and start conservative measures
· If the baseline fetal heart rate is between 161 and 180 beats/minute with no other non
reassuring or abnormal features on the cardiotocograph and the woman’s temperature and
pulse are normal, continue cardiotocography and normal care, since the risk of fetal acidosis is
low.
· If the baseline fetal heart rate is above 180 beats/minute with no other nonreassuring or
abnormal features on the cardiotocograph, conservative measures should be started and FBS
offered once underlying causes such as infection have been excluded and the FHR remains
above 180 beats / minute despite conservative measures
High / low baseline plus nonreassuring feature
· If the baseline fetal heart rate is between 100 and 109 beats/minute or above 160
beats/minute and there is 1 other nonreassuring feature, start conservative measures
· If there is a bradycardia or a single prolonged deceleration with the fetal heart rate below
100 beats/minute for 3 minutes or more:
1. Start conservative measures
2. Urgently seek obstetric help
3. Make preparations for urgent birth
4. Expedite the birth if the bradycardia persists for 9 minutes.
· If the fetal heart rate recovers at any time up to 9 minutes, reassess any decision to
expedite the birth, in discussion with the woman.
Baseline variability
· Normal baseline variability is 5 beats/minute or more
· Intermittent periods of reduced baseline variability are normal, especially during periods
of quiescence
· Mild or minor pseudosinusoidal patterns (oscillations of amplitude 515 beats/minute)
are of no significance.
· If there is reduced baseline variability of less than 5 beats/minute with a normal baseline
fetal heart rate and no variable or late decelerations:
1. Start conservative measures if this persists for over 30 minutes and
2. Offer fetal blood sampling to measure lactate or pH if it persists for over 90 minutes
· If there is reduced baseline variability of less than 5 beats/minute for over 30 minutes
together with 1 or more of tachycardia (baseline fetal heart rate above 160 beats/minute), a
baseline fetal heart rate below 100 beats/minute or variable or late decelerations:
1. Start conservative measures and
2. Offer fetal blood sampling to measure lactate or pH
Decelerations
· When describing decelerations in fetal heart rate, specify:
1. The depth and duration of the individual decelerations
2. Their timing in relation to the peaks of the contractions
3. Whether or not the fetal heart rate returns to baseline
4. How long they have been present for
5. Whether they occur with over 50% of contractions.
· Describe decelerations as ‘early’, ‘variable’ or ‘late’. Do not use the terms ‘typical’ and
‘atypical’ because they can cause confusion.
· Take the following into account when assessing decelerations in fetal heart rate:
1. Early decelerations are uncommon, benign and usually associated with head compression
2. Early decelerations with no nonreassuring or abnormal features on the cardiotocograph
trace should not prompt further action.
· If variable decelerations are observed that begin with the onset of a contraction:
1. Be aware that these are very common, can be a normal feature and are usually a result of
cord compression
2. Think about asking the woman to change position or mobilise
· Start conservative measures if variable decelerations are observed with a normal baseline
fetal heart rate and normal baseline variability that are:
1. Dropping from baseline by 60 beats/minute or less and taking 60 seconds or less to recover
2. Present for over 90 minutes
3. Occurring with over 50% of contractions
· Start conservative measures if variable decelerations are observed with a normal baseline
fetal heart rate and normal baseline variability that are:
1. Dropping from baseline by more than 60 beats/minute or taking over 60 seconds to recover
2. Present for up to 30 minutes
3. Occurring with over 50% of contractions
· Offer fetal blood sampling to measure lactate or pH if nonreassuring variable
decelerations are:
1. Still observed 30 minutes after starting conservative measures or
2. Accompanied by tachycardia (baseline fetal heart rate above 160 beats/minute) and/or
reduced baseline variability (less than 5 beats/minute).
· If late decelerations (start after a contraction and often have a slow return to baseline) are
observed:
1. Start conservative measures if the late decelerations occur with over 50% of contractions
2. Offer fetal blood sampling to measure lactate or pH and/or
3. Expedite the birth if the late decelerations persist for over 30 minutes and occur with over
50% of contractions
4. Take action sooner if the late decelerations are accompanied by an abnormal baseline fetal
heart rate and/or reduced baseline variability.
· The longer, the later and the deeper the individual decelerations, the more likely the
presence of fetal acidosis (particularly if the decelerations are accompanied by tachycardia
and/or reduced baseline variability), and take action sooner than 30 minutes if there is concern
about fetal wellbeing.
Conservative measures
· Encourage the woman to mobilise or adopt a leftlateral position. Avoid supine position
· Offer oral or intravenous fluids
· Offer paracetamol if the woman has a raised temperature
· Reduce contraction frequency by:
1. Stopping oxytocin if it is being used (the consultant obstetrician should decide whether and
when to restart oxytocin) and/or
2. Offering a tocolytic drug (a suggested regimen is subcutaneous terbutaline 0.25 mg).
· Do not use maternal facial oxygen therapy for intrauterine fetal resuscitation, because it
may harm the baby (but it can be used where it is administered for maternal indications such
as hypoxia or as part of preoxygenation before a potential anaesthetic)
· Inform the coordinating midwife and an obstetrician whenever conservative measures are
implemented.
SUMMARY:
CTG interpretation
Baseline Variability
Description Decelerations
bpm bpm
Normal
100 – 160 None / Early 5 or more
Reassuring
Variable decelerations
Dropping by 60 bpm or less and
taking 60s or less to recover
Present for over 90 minutes
Occurring with over 50% of
contractions
OR
Variable decelerations
Dropping by more than 60 bpm
Nonreassuring or taking over 60s to recover Less than 5 for
161 – 180
30 – 90 minutes
Present for up to 30 minutes
Occurring with over 50% of
contractions
OR
Late decelerations
Present for up to 30 minutes
Occurring with over 50% of
contractions
Nonreassuring variable
decelerations
Still observed 30 minutes after
starting conservative measures
Occurring with over 50% of
contractions
OR
Late decelerations
Above 180
Less than 5 for
Abnormal
over 90 minutes
Present for over 30 minutes
Below 100
Do not improve with
conservative measures
Occurring with over 50% of
contractions
OR
Bradycardia or single prolonged
deceleration lasting 3 minutes or
more
MANAGEMENT BASED ON CTG INTERPRETATION
· Baseline over 180 bpm, check maternal P and
Temp. If raised offer fluids and paracetamol
1 abnormal
feature · Start conservative measures
Abnormal · Offer FBS or expedite birth if FBS cannot be
obtained and no accelerations as a result of fetal
2 nonreassuring scalp stimulation
features
· Inform consultant if FBS is abnormal
· Inform consultant if FBS cannot be obtained
or third FBS is needed
Bradycardia or · Start conservative measures
Abnormal and single prolonged
urgent deceleration · Make preparations for urgent birth
intervention below 100 bpm
· Expedite birth if persists for 9 minutes
needed for 3 minutes or
more · Reassess if FHR recovers before 9 minutes
Umbilical cord prolapse*****
Umbilical cord prolapse is defined as the descent of the umbilical cord through the cervix along
side or past the presenting part in the presence of ruptured membranes.
Incidence is 0.1 – 0.6% in cephalic presentation and 1% in breech presentation.
Cord presentation is the presence of the umbilical cord between the fetal presenting part and the
cervix with or without membrane rupture.
Why is this important?
Cord prolapse is associated with a perinatal mortality rate of up to 90 per 1000 and also a risk of
hypoxiainduced cerebral palsy. Prompt intervention is needed to expedite delivery.
Risk factors for umbilical cord prolapse*
Maternal
Multiparity
Fetal
Low birth weight (less than 2.5kg)
Primaturity
Breech presentation / malpresentation
Polyhydraminos
High presenting part
Fetal congenital anomalies
Second twin
Low lying placenta
Obstetric interventions
Stabilising induction of labour
Amniotomy
External cephalic version
Internal podalic version
Vaginal manipulation of fetus with ruptured membranes
Diagnosis
Cord prolapsed and presentation can occur without any obvious sign or fetal heart rate
abnormality.
The cord should therefore be checked for during intrapartum vaginal examination.
If risk factors are present or if FHR anomalies occur after rupture of membranes, a vaginal
exam can be done to asses for cord presentation and prolapsed.
At preterm gestations, a speculum exam and / or digital examination should be done when cord
prolapsed is suspected.
Always exclude a cord prolapsed if FHR abnormalities occur after rupture of membranes.
Management
Hospital setting
Call for help and preparations made to expedite delivery
Inform paediatric team and a practitioner skilled at neonatal resuscitation should be present at
delivery
Ensure senior obstetrician, anaesthetist and midwife are present.
Adopt kneechest position or head down tilt while preparations are made for delivery
Consider tocolysis if fetal heart rate anomalies are present while plans are made for delivery
Manual replacement of cord is not recommended. Excessive handling of loops of cord will
cause vasospasm
Delivery should not be delayed while the above measures are undertaken
Delivery should be by the quickest and safest route which in most cases is by caesarean section.
Vaginal delivery can be attempted at full dilatation if it is deemed to be the quickest route
Community setting
Call for help and patient should assume the kneechest position until the ambulance arrives.
Patient should be in the left lateral position while being transferred to a consultant led delivery
unit.
The presenting part should be elevated either manually or by filling the bladder while patient is
being transferred to hospital for urgent delivery.
Prevention
Antenatal:
Offer admission to patients with ruptured membranes and non cephalic presentation. Encourage senior
input into the decision for delivery.
In labour:
Avoid amniotomy if presenting part is not engaged. If cord presentation is diagnosed in labour,
caesarean section should be offered immediately.
Shoulder dystocia
This is failure to release the shoulders after gentle downward traction during delivery. It occurs
when the anterior or less commonly the posterior fetal shoulder impacts on the maternal
symphisis (or sacral promontory in the case of posterior fetal shoulder).
Shoulder dystocia requires additional obstetric manoeuvres to deliver the shoulders.
The incidence is about 0.6% in the UK and is associated with a much higher perinatal morbidity
and mortality.
Factors associated with shoulder dystocia
Prelabour factors
Previous shoulder dystocia
Macrosomia
Diabetes mellitus
Maternal BMI greater than 30 kg/m2
Induction of labour
Intrapartum factors
Prolonged 1st stage of labour
Secondary arrest
Prolonged 2nd stage of labour
Oxytocin augmentation
Assisted vaginal delivery (forceps / ventouse)
Diagnosis
The following may suggest shoulder dystocia.
Difficulty with delivery of the face and chin
Fetal head remaining tightly applied to the vulva
Fetal head retracting into the vagina
Failure of restitution of the fetal head
Failure of shoulders to descend on gentle traction
Common complications of shoulder dystocia
Fetal
Brachial plexus injury (416%). (the single most common cause of litigation related to shoulder
dystocia)
Maternal
Postpartum haemorrhage (11%)
Fourthdegree tears (3.8%)
Psychological trauma
Management
The HELPERR mnemonic is helpful in the management of shoulder dystocia as follows:
H = call for Help.
Call for help or press emergency buzzer and preparations made to expedite delivery.
Inform paediatric team and a practitioner skilled at neonatal resuscitation should be present at
delivery.
Ensure senior obstetrician, anaesthetist and midwife are present.
E = evaluate for Episiotomy
Not necessary in all cases but should be considered especially when internal manoeuvres are
carried out.
L = Legs (McRoberts position)
This is the most effective intervention in shoulder dystocia and should be done as quickly as
possible when the problem is diagnosed. Success rates of 90% have been reported.
P = suprapubic Pressure
If McRoberts procedure fails, suprapubic pressure can be employed together with McRoberts to
help improve success rates. No more than 30 seconds should be spent doing suprapubic
pressure.
E = Enter manoeuvres (internal rotation)
This includes rotation of the fetal shoulders into an oblique diameter or by a full 180degree
rotation of the fetal trunk.
R = Remove posterior arm
Removal of the posterior arm can also be done. It is associated with a high complication rate
with 12% of humeral fractures reported.
R = Roll the patient on all “fours”
The patient can be roll over on all “fours” if all else fails. Rarely extreme measures such as
symphisiotomy, zavanelli procedures may be necessary.
Always document all procedures undertaken into the patient notes.
Prevention
Consider caesarean section in cases of suspected fetal macrosomia (estimated fetal weight of
greater than 4.5kg) complicated by diabetes mellitus.
Routine induction of labour or caesarean section to prevent shoulder dystocia in not
recommended.
THE USE OF ANTID IMMUNOGLOBULIN IN OBSTETRICS &
GYNAECOLOGY*****
Pathophysiology Rhesus blood group and antiD antibodies
There are three pairs of Rhesus antigens: Cc, Dd, Ee, with one of each pair inherited from each
parent
The presence or absence of the D antigen determines whether an individual is Rh positive or Rh
negative. The incidence of Haemolytic Disease of the Newborn depends on the proportion of
the population that is RhD negative and this varies between ethnic groups (highest in the white
population).
In the UK, ~16% of the white population is RhD negative.
Following exposure of a Rhesus D negative individual to the D antigen (sensitisation), the
primary response is usually weak, occurs over 6 weeks to 12 months and is mainly an IgM
response (does not cross placenta)
The response following a second antigenic challenge is rapid and mainly an IgG response. IgG
crosses the placenta
The longer the interval between exposures the higher the quantity of antibody produced and the
better the binding of the antibody to red cells. So the longer the interval between a first and
second Rhesus D positive pregnancy in a Rhesus D negative woman, the higher the risk of
severe fetal disease
Sensitisation can happen at any time during pregnancy, but is most common in the third
trimester and during childbirth.
The process of sensitisation has no adverse health effects for the mother and usually does not
affect the pregnancy during which it occurs. However, if the mother is exposed to the RhD
antigen during a subsequent pregnancy, the immune response is quicker and much greater.
The antiD antibodies produced by the mother can cross the placenta and bind to RhD antigen
on the surface of fetal red blood cells. These antibodycoated fetal red blood cells are removed
from the fetal circulation resulting in fetal anaemia.
Consequences of fetal anaemia include:
1) Hydrops
2) Metabolic acidosis red cells are the principal fetal buffer
3) Hyper lactaemia
4) Fetal cardiac dysfunction secondary to hypoxaemia
5) Hyperbilirubinaemia this is predominantly unconjugated as the fetus and neonate have low levels
of glucoronyl transferase, the enzyme responsible for conjugation.
After birth the neonatal liver cannot cope with the excess production of bilirubin, and this leads to
jaundice (haemolytic disease of the newborn or HDN). Low levels of jaundice are not harmful but, if
left untreated, higher levels can result in damage to specific areas of the neonatal brain, causing
permanent brain damage (kernicterus). This can lead to a range of neurodevelopmental problems,
such as cerebral palsy, deafness, and motor and speech delay.
Use of antiD immunoglobulin
Potentially sensitising events introduce a quantity of fetal RhD antigen into the maternal
circulation.
The antiD immunoglobulin administered therapeutically neutralises this fetal antigen,
preventing stimulation of the maternal immune system. The woman therefore does not develop
antiD antibodies.
The development of antiD antibodies results from fetomaternal haemorrhages (FMH)
occurring in Rh negative mothers who carry an Rh positive fetus. 99.2% of women have a FMH
of less than 4ml at delivery. The standard dose of antiD immunoglobulin is designed to cover 4
ml of fetomaternal haemorrhage
However, the following are associated with larger FMH.
traumatic deliveries including caesarean section
manual removal of the placenta
stillbirths and intrauterine deaths
abdominal trauma during the third trimester
twin pregnancies (at delivery)
unexplained hydrops fetalis
For successful immunoprophylaxis, antiD immunoglobulin should be given as soon as possible after
the sensitising event and within 72 hrs. If given beyond 72 hrs (up to 10 days), some protection may
still be obtained.
Women who are already sensitised (i.e. have antiD antibodies) should not be given antiD
immunoglobulin.
Prophylaxis following early pregnancy events
Termination of pregnancy:
AntiD immunoglobulin should be given to all nonsensitised Rh negative women undergoing
termination of pregnancy. This includes both surgical and medical termination irrespective of
gestational age. *
Ectopic pregnancy
AntiD immunoglobulin should be given to all nonsensitised Rh negative women who have an
ectopic pregnancy.*
Spontaneous miscarriage
AntiD immunoglobulin should be given to all nonsensitised Rh negative women who have a
spontaneous complete or incomplete miscarriage after 12 weeks of pregnancy or when there is
instrumentation of the uterus.*
Threatened miscarriage
AntiD immunoglobulin should be given to all nonsensitised Rh negative women presenting
with threatened miscarriage after 12 weeks of gestation. If pregnancy is less than 12 weeks but
associated with heavy bleeding or associated abdominal pain, antiD should be given. If
bleeding continues intermittently beyond 12 weeks gestation, antiD should be given at 6
weekly intervals.*
Prophylaxis following antenatal sensitising events*
AntiD immunoglobulin should be given to all nonsensitised Rh negative women after the following
potentially sensitising events during pregnancy:
invasive prenatal diagnosis (amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, fetal blood sampling)
other intrauterine procedures (e.g. insertion of shunts, embryo reduction)
antepartum haemorrhage
external cephalic version
closed abdominal injury
intrauterine death
Postnatal prophylaxis
AntiD must be given to every nonsensitised Rh negative woman within 72 hours following the
delivery of a Rh positive infant. A test to detect FMH (usually the Kleihauer test) greater than
4ml must also be undertaken, so that additional antiD can be given as appropriate.
Routine antenatal antiD prophylaxis
AntiD immunoglobulin can be administered routinely in the third trimester as prophylaxis
against small amounts of FMH that can occur in the absence of observable sensitising events.
This is known as routine antenatal antiD prophylaxis (RAADP).
The use of antiD immunoglobulin for RAADP is in addition to the administration of antiD
immunoglobulin following potentially sensitising events, and its use in either indication is not
affected by prior use in the other.
This means that women given antiD for sensitising events should still be given routine
prophylaxis even if this is due on the following day. Women who have been given routine anti
D should still be treated for sensitising events even if these occur on the following day.
RAADP can be given as two doses of antiD immunoglobulin of 500 IU (one at 28 weeks and
one at 34 weeks gestation), as two doses of antiD immunoglobulin of 1000–1650 IU (one at 28
weeks and one at 34 weeks gestation), or as a single dose of 1500 IU either at 28 weeks or
between 28 and 30 weeks gestation.
RAADP is not used uniformly throughout the NHS. In 2005, a survey of obstetric units reported
that 75% offered RAADP, and of these 81% used one of the twodose regimens. RAADP is
usually administered by community midwives or at antenatal clinics.
ANTEPARTUM HAEMORRHAGE *****
Bleeding from the genital tract after the gestation age for fetal viability (24 weeks). Incidence is
between 25% of all pregnancies.
CAUSES
• Placenta praevia (~30%)
• Placental abruption (~20%)
• Other causes vasa praevia, trauma, cervical polyp /ectropion, 'show', vulvovaginal varices, genital
tract malignancy, infection. In some cases, the cause is undetermined.
PLACENTA PRAEVIA
• Placenta implanted wholly or partially in the lower uterine segment. 28% of women scanned before
24 weeks gestation have a low lying placenta but only ~ 3% at term. Transvaginal scanning improves
accuracy of diagnosis of placenta praevia especially with posterior placenta.
• If the placenta encroaches or covers the internal cervical os then there is MAJOR placenta praevia
otherwise there is MINOR placenta praevia. This has replaced grades I IV.
Risk factors for placenta praevia
Increasing maternal age
Smoking
Previous caesarean section
Previous placenta praevia ~ 48% recurrence risk
Multiple pregnancy
Increasing parity
Maternal risks
Haemorrhage related mortality
PPH
Complications of caesarean section
Postpartum sepsis
Placenta accreta (up to 15% of placenta praevia)
Recurrence risk
Fetal risks
Prematurity
IUGR
Congenital malformations (double risk of serious malformation)
Malpresentation
MANAGEMENT OF PLACENTA PRAEVIA
Diagnosis
History
• Clinical suspicion bleeding during pregnancy, typically presents with painless vaginal bleeding. If
pain, suspect labour (contractions) or abruption.
Examination
• General – BP, pulse, SO2 – commence resuscitation if compromised
• Abdominal exam: Abnormal lie / presentation, high presenting part at term.
• Speculum / vaginal examination: AVOID if placental location is unknown
Auscultate fetal heart
Investigations / Screening
• Ultrasound screening remains the optimal mode of diagnosis. Transvaginal ultrasound is safe and
more accurate than transabdominal scanning.
• Initial screening should be during the anomaly scan in the second trimester. As the lower segment is
not fully formed, there is a high false positive rate. Transvaginal scanning is recommended in all
women with a suspected lowlying placenta on transabdominal scanning in the second trimester to
reduce the number needing followup scans
• In asymptomatic suspected minor placenta praevia, repeat TV scan at 36 weeks
• In asymptomatic suspected major placenta praevia, repeat TV scan at 32 weeks
• Women with a previous C/S and placenta praevia are at an increased risk of placenta accrete or
percreta. MRI may be useful in determining whether the placenta is accreta or percreta.
• Bloods – FBC, cross match
Antenatal Care
• There is a risk of sudden heavy bleeding in women with major placenta praevia
• Women with symptomatic major placenta praevia should be managed as inpatients. The pattern is
for recurrent bleeds which are unpredictable in their frequency or volume and there is no objective
way of deciding when such women can be managed as outpatients once bleeding has occurred
• Women with asymptomatic major placenta praevia should be managed as inpatients during the late
third trimester (3236 weeks). The decision on when to admit will depend on proximity to hospital,
the constant presence of a companion and the woman's wishes. These women should be advised to
attend hospital immediately if any bleeding, contractions or abdominal pain
• The risk of VTE should be assessed during admission and in high risk women, LMW heparin is
recommended. Mobilisation and TED stockings should be used by all women.
• Prior to delivery, the mode of delivery, risk of haemorrhage, requirement of blood transfusion and
major surgical interventions like hysterectomy should be discussed and documented
• Blood should be available during inpatient stay based on local guidelines and the haematologist
should be involved in women with atypical antibodies
• Tocolysis is contraindicated in antepartum haemorrhage.
Delivery
• Mode of delivery dependent on clinical presentation and ultrasound findings
• If the placental edge is < 2cm (3cm in a posterior placenta) from the internal os, caesarean section is
recommended.
• Timing of delivery is dependent on clinical circumstances but in asymptomatic women, elective
delivery should be at 38 weeks to minimise neonatal morbidity
• Blood should be crossmatched based on local guidelines
• The consultant anaesthetist and obstetrician should be involved in the delivery of women with
placenta praevia
Morbidly adherent placenta
• Delivery should be planned and by the most senior staff (Consultant) available. Other specialists
(haematologist, ITU) should be alerted to assist if needed
• The risk of massive haemorrhage, blood transfusion and hysterectomy should be discussed with the
woman and her partner before delivery.
• Management options include:
1) Leaving the placenta insitu after C/S
2) Prophylactic / therapeutic uterine artery embolisation
3) Internal iliac artery ligation
4) Medical treatment with methotrexate
5) Hysterectomy
PLACENTAL ABRUPTION *
• Bleeding from premature separation of a normally cited placenta.
Incidence 0.5 1.8%. 2035% is concealed associated with more severe complications.
~50% of women with placental abruption are in established labour associated with frequent
contractions > 5 in 10.
Coincident placenta praevia present in 10% of cases.
Risk factors
Increasing parity
Smoking
Uterine trauma (ECV)
Sudden uterine decompression
Previous abruption (817% recurrence risk)
Multiple pregnancy
Hypertension / preeclampsia
Placental abnormalities (circumvallate placenta).
Maternal risks
Maternal mortality
Hypovolaemic shock
Renal failure
DIC
PPH
Recurrence
Rhesus sensitisation
Complications of massive transfusion (thrombocytopaenia, coagulopathy, hyperkalaemia,
hypocalcaemia).
Fetal risks
Fetal death
Hypoxic brain injury
IUGR
Neonatal anaemia / transient coagulopathy
Congenital malformations (double risk, mainly CNS)
MANAGEMENT OF PLACENTAL ABRUPTION
Diagnosis
History
• Clinical suspicion Abruption causes vaginal bleeding, abdominal pain, uterine contractions and
tenderness. Abdominal pain is less common in posteriorly sited placentas.
Examination
• General – BP, pulse, O2 sats. If blood loss is significant, the patient may have signs of shock
(tachycardia predominates).
• Abdominal exam: The uterus is typically described as woody hard in severe abruption and in such
cases, the fetus is difficult to palpate. In mild or moderate abruption, abdominal tenderness and
vaginal bleeding may be the only sign.
Investigations / Screening
• Usually made on clinical grounds.
Ultrasound may help to exclude placenta praevia .
Treatment
• Depends on severity, associated complications, the condition of the mother & fetus and gestational
age.
Options include
1) Immediate delivery:
Resuscitate mother.
If fetus is dead, then aim for vaginal delivery. If fetus is alive but compromised, caesarean section
must be performed immediately.
In mild to moderate abruption, and if maternal and fetal conditions are stable, vaginal delivery can be
aimed for. Any abnormal fetal heart rate pattern will be an indication for caesarean section.
2) Expectant:
Goal is to prolong pregnancy in abruption before 37 weeks gestation. This is an option if:
mother is Cardiovascularly stable
abdominal pain is mild
vaginal bleeding is slight and
fetus is preterm and not compromised
3) Management of complication:
The major complications are haemorrhagic shock, DIC, ischaemic necrosis of distal organs (kidneys,
brain) and PPH. Management should be tailored to each specific complication.
OTHER CAUSES OF ANTEPARTUM HAEMORRHAGE
Causes include:
Cervix: polyps, infection, ectropium, cervical cancer
Vagina / vulva: vulvovaginal varices, vulval/vaginal cancer, trauma
Others: vasa praevia, ‘show’,
Management depends on the cause.
Criteria for referral to secondary care
All APH should be urgently referred to hospital for further assessment.
NORMAL PUERPERIUM
The puerperium is the period between delivery and 6 weeks postpartum.
Physiological changes
Temperature: normal but a slight rise may occur during the early puerperium due to
engorgement of the breasts.
After pains: suckling releases oxytocin from the posterior pituitary. This causes painful uterine
contractions. Simple analgesia would help.
Breasts: Colostrum is secreted in the first 23 days. Breast engorgement can occur.Encourage
suckling.
Bowel: Women may complain of constipation. Contributory factors include effects of
progesterone on the intestines, laxity of abdomen wall and perineum, dietary factors
Cardiovascular: usually back to pre pregnant state by 6 weeks
Renal: usually back to pre pregnant state by 6 weeks except for the renal collecting system
which can take up to 12 weeks.
Blood: increased blood coagulability continues during the first two weeks despite the decrease
in a number of coagulation factors. Encourage mobility and adequate hydration.
Menstruation: if not breastfeeding, menstruation starts by 6th 8th weeks after delivery. In
breastfeeding women, a variable period of amenorrhoea is seen. Consider contraception.
The uterus undergoes significant changes. Obliteration of blood vessels and autolysis of
myometrium occurs. Weight (about 1,000 g just after delivery) decreases to almost pre pregnant
size (50 – 70g) by 6 weeks.
Lochia: this refers to the discharge from the genital tract following delivery. Consists of blood,
cervical mucous, decidual fragments. The normal transition is from:
Lochia rubra (red) which consists mainly of blood and decidua, to
Lochia serosa: (pale): due to relative decrease in RBCs and predominance of leukocytes, and
then to
Lochia alba (white): consists mainly of leukocytes and mucus.
Each stage can last up to 45 days. Offensive lochia suggests endometritis.
Cervix: usually closed by 7 days.
Perineum: tone is generally regained by the end of puerperium while persistence of its laxity
predisposes to prolapse.
Management of the normal puerperium
Perineum
Keep perineum clean. Encourage pelvic floor exercises.
Diet
Encourage a balanced diet including high fibre diet and fluids.
Care of the bowel
Constipation is prevented by plenty of green vegetables and fruits and sufficient fluids. Laxatives can
be offered if needed.
Care of the bladder
Patient is encouraged to void frequently. If there is retention a catheter is inserted.
Care of the breasts
Keep breasts clean in between feeds.
THE 6 WEEK POSTNATAL REVIEW
Time
This is generally done by GPs at the end of the 6th week postpartum, but should occur earlier if
pregnancy or delivery was complicated. The aims of this visit are:
· Detection and / or follow up of complications of pregnancy or labour.
· To ensure involution of the genital tract.
· Discuss contraception and ensure future pregnancies are planned
· To assess wellbeing of the infant
· To discuss impact on and plans for future pregnancies
History
Enquire about:
Genital tract symptoms – onset of menstruation, vaginal bleeding, offensive discharge,
dyspareunia
Breast disorders – pain, swelling, redness,
Urinary or gastrointestinal symptoms – dysuria, constipation, urinary or faecal incontinence
Infants feeding habits and general health
Discussion of future pregnancies if needed
Contraception.
Physical examination
Basics pulse, temperature, BP
Breasts
Only if symptoms present
Abdominal examination
To assess for involution of the uterus. If high, exclude retained products, infection or other
gynaecological pathology e.g. fibroids
Pelvic examination
Vulva / vagina / perineum: healing of perineal or vaginal tears, tone of pelvic floor, uterine size
and tenderness
Primary Postpartum Haemorrhage *****
Primary or early PPH is defined as blood loss of at least 500 mls from the genital tract within 24 hours
of the birth of a baby. PPH can be divided into minor (500 to 1,000 mls) and major (greater than 1,000
mls). Major PPH can be further subdivided into moderate (1,000 to 2,000 mls) and severe (greater
than 2,000 mls)
A caveat is added in that if blood loss is less than 500 mls but is sufficient to cause haemodynamic
compromise, then it is classified as PPH.
At caesarean section, blood loss of over 1,000 mls is considered to be significant.
Primary PPH
Incidence is about 5% of all deliveries in developed world.
Causes of primary PPH
Remember: 4 T’s – tone, trauma, tissue, thrombin.
1) TONE uterine atony – 70%
2) TRAUMA genital tract trauma 20%
3) TISSUE retained products of conception 10%
4) THROMBIN coagulopathy / DIC 1%
5) Other – uterine inversion
Risk factors
Antenatal
Factors that increase risk of operative delivery Nulliparity
Factors that increase risk of uterine atony Grand multiparity, Multiple pregnancy, Polyhydraminos,
Factors that increase risk of coagulopathy APH in current pregnancy / Placental abruption,
Preeclampsia
Other factors Placenta preavia, Previous PPH, Maternal obesity (BMI > 35), Asian ethnicity,
Anaemia, Big baby (> 4kg)
Intrapartum
Operative delivery Emergency caesarean section, Instrumental delivery, Mediolateral episiotomy
Factors associated with uterine atony Prolonged labour both 1st & 2nd stage of labour, Obstructed
labour
Retained placenta
Pyrexia in labour
Induction of labour
Precipitate labour
Pre existing conditions
Von willibrands disease
Haemophilia A & B
Prevention
Antenatal
Ensure adequate haemoglobin levels prior to delivery. Supplement iron if appropriate. Identify risk
factors and plan appropriately for delivery.
Intrapartum
Active management of third stage of labour with routine use of prophylactic oxytocics (oxytocin or
oxytocin + ergometrine).
Others
Systematic training of healthcare professionals in the identification and treatment of common causes
of PPH may help. This includes guidelines, simulated training exercises / drills
Management *
PPH is an obstetric emergency
Call for help
Assess airway, breathing, circulation
Brief explanation of events and need for intervention to the woman / her partner
Rubup a contraction – will stop / reduce bleeding in the majority of cases
Obtain venous access with two widebore cannulae
Blood for FBC, Group & save / crossmatch, clotting
Administer uterotonic agents to induce contraction: Ergometrine plus oxytocin infusion
Commence iv fluids – options are crystalloid, colloid, O Rh negative blood depending on
severity of loss
History to identify potential causes – any predisposing factors, delivery of the placenta and
whether it appeared complete
Examination – P, BP, Temp, uterine size, position, tone; systematic genital tract examination to
identify trauma: beginning with the vulva, vagina then cervix. Repair any injury
If bleeding does not settle obtain informed consent for examination under anaesthesia which
will include exploration of the uterine cavity for retained products
In severe cases, laparotomy and hysterectomy may be necessary. Conservative measures such a
balloon tamponade and use of brace sutures may also be used.
Ensure that the woman and her partner are fully informed of events
Note:
Once PPH has been identified, management involves 4 components all of which must be
undertaken simultaneously: communication, resuscitation, monitoring and investigation,
arresting the bleeding.
Secondary PPH *****
Secondary PPH is abnormal or excessive bleeding from the genital tract after 24 hrs and up to 12
weeks postpartum. Secondary PPH is more likely to present in the community when most patients
would have been discharged from the hospital.
Causes
Common causes
Infection – endometritis / PID,
Retained placental tissue
Other causes
Trauma – dehiscence of episiotomy, rupture of vulval / vaginal haematoma
Pre existing uterine disease – e.g. fibroids, polyps
Sideeffects of contraception such as depotmedroxyprogesterone acetate / IUCD
Risk factors for endometritis
Antenatal
Prolonged rupture of membranes
Low socio economic status
Anaemia, diabetes
Intrapartum
Caesarean section
Manual removal of placenta
Severe meconium staining of liquor
Multiple vaginal examinations in labour
Uterine instrumentation e.g. ERPC
Management
When secondary PPH presents with heavy bleeding, the woman should be asked to dial 999 and
request paramedic assistance and transfer to the hospital via ambulance
When secondary PPH presents with slight – moderate / intermittent bleeding, assessment and initial
treatment in the community is appropriate
History
Amount and frequency of bleeding – presence of clots / tissue
Duration since delivery
Change in lochia since delivery including offensive vaginal loss
Use of contraception
Intrapartum events – mode of delivery, any difficulties delivering the placenta, primary PPH
Presence of fever / rigors
Examination
Pulse, BP, Temperature, respiratory rate
Abdominal palpation – size of uterus (enlarged uterus with delayed involution is consistent with
retained products), uterine tenderness (suggests endometritis)
Speculum examination to assess blood loss, state of the cervical os and presence of tissue. Any suture
lines should also be inspected
Digital vaginal examination may be necessary to assess uterine tenderness, state of the cervical os and
presence of cervical excitation which occurs in pelvic cellulitis
Investigations
FBC, CRP, group and save / cross match
Swabs – high and low vaginal swabs
MSU dipstix +/ culture
Blood cultures if temp > 38 C or history of rigors
The value of pelvic ultrasound scan is questionable
Treatment
If bleeding is light and the woman is systemically well, initial treatment should be undertaken in the
community with oral broadspectrum antibiotics (including anaerobic cover). A combination of
ampicillin (or clindamycin if penicillin allergy) and metronidazole is recommended. In cases of
endomyometritis, (tender uterus) or overt sepsis, then addition of Gentamycin is recommended.
Criteria for referral to hospital include:
a) Heavy bleeding
b) Clinical evidence of sepsis
c) Tissue passed PV
d) Failure to improve after 4872h treatment with antibiotics
e) Recurrence after initial ‘successful’ treatment
· In hospital, women will be treated with iv antibiotics for at least 24h +/ evacuation of retained
products of conception
References
RCOG greentop guidelines #52, Prevention and management of postpartum haemorrhage May 2009
PRIMARY AMENORRHOEA & PREMATURE OVARIAN FAILURE
PRIMARY AMENORRHOEA
Absence of menstruation by the age of 14 years in the absence of pubertal growth spurt and
secondary sexual characteristics OR
Absence of menstruation by the age of 16 years in the presence of normal growth and
development and normal secondary sexual characteristics
Secondary sexual characteristics include the development of breasts, pubic and axillary hair
The first sign of puberty is the appearance of breast buds which occurs at ~9 years of age
followed within a few months by the appearance of pubic hair. Axillary hair development
begins at ~13 years
Constitutional delay is the commonest cause of primary amenorrhoea / delayed puberty this
diagnosis should only be made after exclusion of other causes.
The establishment of normal menstruation is therefore dependent on:
1) Normal karyotype / gene complement regulate development of the internal and external genitalia
in utero.
2) Normal CNShypothalamic response and production of GnRH
3) Normal pituitary response to GnRH with production of gonadotrophins (FSH & LH)
4) Anatomically and biochemically normal ovaries (and adrenals), with a normal response to
gonadotrophins
5) The presence of normal uterus, patent vagina and normal endorgan response to ovarian / adrenal
steroids
CAUSES OF PRIMARY AMENORRHOEA
Abnormal karyotype
Turners syndrome
45X (1:2000 – 1:3000 live births)
Streak gonads with absent secondary sexual characteristics
Short stature, webbed neck, wide carrying angle and short 4th metacarpal
Gonadotrophin levels markedly elevated hypergonadotrophic hypogonadism
Mosaics 45X/46XX have fewer anatomical anomalies, 20% have sufficient oestrogen to
menstruate. Ovulation may occasionally occur.
Abnormal CNShypothalamic response
Absent hypothalamic GnRH production
Developmental abnormality. When associated with absent sense of smell = Kallmans syndrome
Weight loss / anorexia nervosa
Anorexia nervosa may occur in prepubertal girls
Excessive exercise ballet dancers / gymnasts increased muscle mass with a reduction in body fat
Abnormal pituitary function
Pituitary tumours
Prolactinomas, chromophobe adenomas (nonprolactin secreting), craniopharingiomas, empty
sella turcica
All individuals with primary amenorrhoea + low gonadotrophin levels should have CT / MRI of
pituitary hypothalamic region to exclude mass lesion
Gonadal / adrenal abnormalities
Late onset congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Associated with hirsutism and virilisation
Premature ovarian failure
Secondary to chemotherapy / radiotherapy in childhood or idiopathic premature ovarian failure
Gonadal agenesis / dysgenesis
46XX or XY karyotype with complete failure of gonadal development
Female phenotype develops by default
XYkaryotype increased risk of malignant transformation in dysgenetic gonad gonadectomy
recommended in childhood
Menstruation occurs if oestrogen is administered and oestrogen + progestogen treatment
required at puberty
Abnormal endorgans / endorgan response
Androgen insensitivity syndrome / 5alpha reductase deficiency – end organs insensitive to androgens
and female phenotype develops inutero by default
Vaginal atresia / transverse vaginal septum
Presents with cyclical abdominal pain and primary amenorrhoea. Menstrual blood fills the
occluded vagina and uterus resulting in an abdominopelvic mass (called haematocolpos [blood
in vagina] or haematometra [blood in uterus])
Absent vagina and nonfunctioning uterus (Rokitanski syndrome) second only to Turners syndrome
as a cause of primary amenorrhoea. 40% have renal anomalies. There is an association with skeletal
abnormalities.
MANAGEMENT OF PRIMARY AMENORRHOEA
History
Age
Development of secondary sexual characteristics
Presence of hirsutism + virilisation
Cyclical abdominal pain
Exercise / eating habits
Sense of smell
Visual symptoms / headache suggestive of pituitary tumour. Galactorrhoea
Family history of delayed puberty / hirsutism + virilisation
History of chemotherapy / radiotherapy
Sexual history if sexually active
Examination
Weight and height for age, BMI
Breast / pubic + axillary hair development
Features of Turners syndrome
Visual fields
Presence of abdominopelvic mass
External genitalia exclude the presence of testes within the inguinal canal / labia
*No indication for pelvic examination in women who are not sexually active. Determine
presence of ovaries / uterus / vagina using transabdominal ultrasound scan*
Investigations
Exclude pregnancy if sexually active
Pelvic ultrasound scan presence of uterus / haematocolpos / haematometra
Further investigations should be directed by history, findings on clinical examination and the
presence / absence of a uterus.
Treatment
Majority have constitutional delay and no treatment is required
Woman / parents may require substantial reassurance and support
Otherwise underlying cause should be treated by a specialist
PREMATURE OVARIAN FAILURE
Ovarian failure with cessation of menstruation before the age of 40 years
Prevalence ~1% and 0.1% between the ages of 1529 years
Prevalence 1028% in women with primary amenorrhoea
Associated with increased risk of osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease
Spontaneous resumption of ovulation may occur in up to 20% of patients with normal
karyotype
Aetiology
Unknown in most cases
Genetic up to 40% of cases. Karyotypic abnormalities commonest being 45X and 47XXY
Autoimmune disorder in some cases and associated with increased risk of other autoimmune
diseases such as thyroid disease and pernicious anaemia
Infections mumps
Irradiation / chemotherapy
History
Menopausal symptoms – hot flushes, vaginal dryness, infrequent / irregular periods
Subfertility
Amenorrhoea may be primary with lack of sexual development or secondary with varying
degrees of sexual development
Symptoms (or family history) of other autoimmune diseases
History of radiotherapy / chemotherapy
Identify the woman’s needs – fertility or menopausal symptoms
Examination
Usually normal although evidence of oestrogen deficiency, Turners syndrome, autoimmune
(thyroid, adrenal, vitiligo) disease may be present
Investigations
Pregnancy test
FSH, LH – raised levels indicate ovarian failure. Levels fluctuate and normal levels may need
to be repeated
Transvaginal scan exclude polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and genital track anomalies if
primary amenorrhoea
Further investigations to identify underlying cause should be undertaken by a specialist
Once diagnosis is confirmed, women should be screened for autoimmune disorders including
thyroid & adrenal disorders and pernicious anaemia
Bone density scan to screen for osteoporosis
Treatment
Inform woman of diagnosis, nature of disease and support groups
Oestrogen replacement COCP recommended if pregnancy not desired. However, due to
elevated gonadotrophin levels, COCP may not be effective in preventing pregnancy.
Ensure osteoprotective dose of HRT – continue until average age of menopause (~51 years)
Fertility egg donation after appropriate counseling
POSTPARTUM PROBLEMS III: Postpartum pyrexia *****
The definition of Puerperal pyrexia used for reporting rates of puerperal morbidity is a temperature of
38o or more on any two of the first 10 days postpartum, or 38.7o or higher during the first 24 hrs
postpartum.
Incidence: 13% of women having a vaginal delivery will develop endometritis and about 24% will
develop urinary tract infections.
Causes
1) Pelvic / Genitourinary causes
Urinary tract infection
Endometritis
Pelvic abscess
Septic pelvic vein thrombophlebitis
2) Breast
Breast engorgement
Mastitis
3) Wound
Wound infection – episiotomy, caesarean section wound, haematoma,
4) Chest
Respiratory tract infections
5) Non infective causes
Pulmonary embolism
DVT
Drug fevers
Uterine infection – usually polymicrobial in origin. Caused by organisms normally present in the
normal vaginal flora that ascend into the upper genital tract. Common ones include group B
streptococcus, anaerobic streptococci, aerobic and anaerobic gram negative bacilli. Haemolytic group
A streptococcus generally causes severe infections.
Urinary tract infections – factors such as vaginal examinations in labour, catheterisations,
asymptomatic bacteruria increase risk of UTIs. Pyelonephritis is particularly serious.
Management of Puerperal Pyrexia
History
Symptoms of genital tract infections – offensive lochia, vaginal discharge, abdominal pain,
diarrhoea
Symptoms of breast disease e.g. pain, redness
Symptoms of urinary tract infections frequency, dysuria, loin pain
Symptoms of respiratory infections sore throat, cough, sputum
Symptoms of DVT / PE – calf pain / swelling; pleurytic chest pain & haemoptysis
Antenatal risk factors e.g. prolonged PROM
Intrapartum events – method of delivery, trauma to perineum, manual removal of placenta,
caesarean section.
Examination
Pulse, BP, Temperature, respiratory rate
Examine chest, heart, skin to look for signs of infection
Examine abdomen – including abdominal wound, uterine / renal angle tenderness
Speculum / Bimanual exam – Look at episiotomy site, offensive lochia, cervical excitation present,
open Os, uterus – size, tenderness,
Legs – signs of DVT
Investigations
FBC, CRP
Blood cultures particularly at peak of pyrexia
Swabs – high vaginal, endocervical and Chlamydia swabs
MSU
Wound swabs
Chest xray & sputum for culture and sensitivity if chest infection suspected.
Ultrasound / CT scan – if indicated e.g. suspicion of pelvic abscess
Venous Dopplers – if DVT suspected
Treatment
Treat underlying cause
Uterine infection – treat with broad spectrum antibiotics
Respiratory/wound/ urinary tract infections – treat with appropriate antibiotics
Abscess – incision & drainage
Thrombophlebitis – treat with NSAIDs
Thrombosis – treat with anticoagulants
POSTPARTUM PROBLEMS IV: Perineal care
Classification of perineal tears:
Perineal tears are common following vaginal delivery. There are classified as follows:
1st degree – tear involving vaginal mucosa or perineal skin only
2nd degree – involves perineal muscles
3rd degree – involves external anal sphincter (EAS). This is further divided into 3A (less than 50% of
EAS), 3B (more than 50% EAS) and 3C (full thickness anal sphincter tear)
4th degree – includes rectal mucosa
Obstetric risk factors for anal sphincter injury include:
Maternal factors
Primiparity
Instrumental delivery – higher with forceps than vacuum extraction
Prolonged second stage of labour
Epidural analgesia
Midline episiotomy
Previous anal sphincter disruption
Fetal factors
Birth weight greater than 4kg
Shoulder dystocia
Persistent occipitoposterior position during labour
In the hospital setting, 3rd and 4th degree tears are repaired in theatre under regional anaesthesia.
Although no firm evidence to support its use, a course of antibiotic and laxatives are usually
prescribed in these circumstances. Give NSAIDS for analgesia if not contraindicated.
Postnatal physiotherapy for 6 – 12 weeks is offered to help prevent incontinence symptoms.
Complications of perineal tears:
Early
Haemorrhage
Pain may interfere with maternalneonate bonding
Wound infection / breakdown
Late
Faecal incontinence
Urinary incontinence
Persistent perineal pain / dyspareunia
Fistula formation
Psychological sequelae
Care of the perineum
Pelvic floor exercises and analgesia are important
Use warm clean water to clean perineum. No difference in healing when alternative remedies
such as adding salt and antiseptics to water are used.
Wash perineum after every visit to the toilet
Do not use hair dryer over perineum. Use of toilet paper to pad dry the stitches is adequate
To help keep area dry, the use of breathable materials e.g. cotton briefs worn on louse trousers
or skirt is better than synthetic materials worn on tight clothing.
If using sanitary pads, change them frequently to help prevent infection
If there is swelling, can use cold ice packs to help reduce swelling and discomfort
Local anaesthetic creams are available at chemists but are expensive
Reference
RCOG green top guideline No 29 – management of 3rd & 4th degree tears
POSTPARTUM PROBLEMS VII: NEONATAL RESUSCITATION
Introduction
Labour is a hypoxic experience for the foetus since a significant respiratory exchange at the placenta
is prevented for the 5075 sec duration of the average contraction.
Most babies tolerate labour well and breathe normally at birth. However, a few may need help with
their breathing and every healthcare professional working with women and children need to know the
basics of neonatal resuscitation.
Neonatal resuscitation algorithm
Term gestation? Yes
Amniotic fluid clear? Dry baby & provide warmth
Baby crying normally? Clear airway if needed
Good muscles tone? Check colour. Provide O2 if needed
No
Provide warmth
Position and clear airway if necessary Airway
Dry, stimulate, reposition
Evaluate breathing, heart rate, colour and tone
Apnoeic or Heart rate less than 100 / min
Give ventilation – positive pressure Breathing
Heart rate less than 60 / min
Ensure effective lung inflation, then add chest Circulation
Compression
Heart rate less than 60 / min
Consider drugs – adrenaline Drugs
Note:
Attempts to aspirate meconium from nose and mouth whilst baby is still in the perineum is no longer
recommended.
If needed, adrenaline should be given by the intravenous or interosseus route as standard doses
given via the endotracheal route is unlikely to be effective.
Ventilatory support can be started with air but provide supplementary support with O2 if there is not
a rapid response to resuscitation.
NEONATAL JAUNDICE
• Occurs when serum bilirubin > 80 micromol/L
• Bilirubin is formed from the breakdown of heme.It isbound to albumin and transported to the liver
where it is conjugated by the enzyme glucuronyl transferase and excreted in bile. Conjugated bilirubin
is water soluble
• About 0.1% of unconjugated bilirubin is unbound and available to cross the bloodbrain barrier
• There is transient immaturity of the glucuronyl transferase system in the neonate, especially in the
preterm neonate
• Jaundice progresses from face to feet
• Prolonged unconjugated hyperbilirubinaemia may occur in the breastfed neonate
Physiological jaundice
• Transient rise in serum bilirubin in all neonates, 3050% of term neonates are jaundiced
unconjugated
• Peak concentration on day 23 in term and preterm neonate. Cleared by day 10. Does not present
within the first 24h of life
• Caused by high haematocrit, shorter lifespan of red cells, immature hepatic enzymes and increased
enterohepatic circulation
Other causes of unconjugated hyperbilirubinaemia
• Increased incidence with prematurity, bruising, instrumental delivery (RCTs show no difference in
need for phototherapy between ventouse and forceps delivery), breastfeeding, polycythaemia
• Urinary tract infection and Hypothyroidism are associated with prolonged unconjugated
hyperbilirubinaemia
• Cold stress, respiratory distress syndrome or respiratory failure and neonatal hypoglycemia
contribute to pathological levels of bilirubin by interfering with albumin binding of bilirubin
• Oxytocin and other drugs such as diazepam, sulphonamides, steroids, and salicylates compete with
bilirubin for binding sites, rendering elimination difficult and are associated with increased risk of
neonatal jaundice
Haemolytic jaundice
• Caused by Rhesus disease, ABO haemolytic disease, glucose6phosphate dehydrogenase
deficiency, hereditary spherocytosis, pyruvate kinase deficiency, , infections
• Usually presents in the first 24h of birth
• Unconjugated bilirubin crosses the blood brain barrier causing kernicterus athetoid cerebral palsy
+ deafness, fits, opisthotonus and neonatal death
• Risk of kernicterus increased in extreme prematurity, sepsis and acidosis
• Jaundice is treated by phototherapy or exchange transfusion decision should be based on
unconjugated bilirubin concentration rather than total bilirubin concentration
Jaundice is pathological if
• Conjugated
• Marked jaundice (bilirubin > 250300micro mol/L). however, bilirubin levels may be high in
preterm babies or in cases where there is increased red cell distruction (bruising, cephalhaematoma)
• Prolonged (>14 days term / 21 days preterm infant)
• Occurs in first 24h
• Associated with other illness
Worldwide, Glucose6phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency is the most important cause of
pathological jaundice Xlinked recessive (females may be mildly affected)
CAUSES OF CONJUGATED HYPERBILIRUBINAEMIA
• Sepsis hepatitis caused by CMV, toxoplasmosis, herpes, syphilis, rubella
• Biliary atresia
• Cystic fibrosis
• alpha1antitrypsin deficiency
• Choledochal cyst
• Prolonged TPN
Conjugated bilirubin does not cross the bloodbrain barrier and therefore does not pose a risk of
kernicterus
POSTPARTUM PROBLEMS VI: BREAST PROBLEMS AND INFANT FEEDING
Basic physiology of lactation.
High levels of progesterone during pregnancy inhibit the action of prolactin on milk production.
After delivery, both prolactin and progesterone levels fall but the rapid fall in progesterone compared
to prolactin allows the full lactogenic action of the residual prolactin to come to effect and milk
secretion begins.
Suckling also stimulates a rise in prolactin levels with resultant effects on milk production.
Suckling stimulates milk ejection by increasing oxytocin release this stimulates contraction of the
myoepithelial cells around the breast alveoli and ducts.
Successful breastfeeding depends on a well mother and infant, motivation by mother to breastfeed and
support from healthcare professional to encourage breastfeeding.
Poor technique, separation of mother and baby has significant impact on establishment of
breastfeeding.
Suppression of lactation
Pharmacologic methods for lactation suppression are available e.g. bromocriptine but are not in
routine use
Symptoms will usually subside with the use of simple analgesia
Breastfeeding vs Bottlefeeding
Breastfeeding
Advantages of breastfeeding include:
1) Free and contains all the nutrients that a baby requires to grow and develop healthily.
2) Improves maternalchild bonding by encouraging a sense of closeness between mother and baby.
3) Breast milk is available at the perfect temperature and there is no need for any special equipment to
heat it to the correct temperature.
4) Protects baby against illnesses such as diarrhoea, vomiting, chest, ear and urine infections, eczema
and wheezing,
5) May help a child's mental development as it has been shown that children who were breastfed were
able to achieve more, and had higher IQ (Intelligence Quotient) scores than those who were given
formula milk.
6) It may help mothers lose weight by getting rid of any excess fat that was stored whilst pregnant.
Disadvantages of breastfeeding include:
1) If the mother has a bloodborne virus, such as Hepatitis B or HIV, or taking certain types of
medication, they may be transmitted or passed from mother to baby.
2) In about 2% of cases, mothers are not able to produce enough breast milk to feed their baby.
Bottle feeding
Advantages of bottle feeding include:
1) The baby may sleep for longer in between feeds,
2) The mother can ask someone else, such as your partner, or a family member, to feed the baby if she
needs a break.
3) Formula milk has added vitamin k which helps the clotting process. The neonate’s ability to store
vitamin k is low and in rare cases (1:10,000), vitamin K deficiency causes haemorrhaigic disease of
the newborn. Risk increased in mothers taking anticonvulsant drugs. Vitamin K (1mg) is given to all
babies at birth with parental consent. This is administered either orally or by intravenous or
intramuscular injections.
Disadvantages of bottle feeding include:
1) Expensive. It has been estimated that it costs about £450 a year to feed a baby using formula milk.
2) Formula fed babies are at increased risk of obesity at least up to the age of six
3) Formula fed babies are more likely to develop illnesses such as diarrhoea, chest or urine infection.
There is also an increased risk of premature babies who are bottle fed developing necrotising
enterocolotis
4) Time consuming to prepare food. Equipment needs to be sterilised and it can be difficult to get the
right mixture for the baby.
Drugs and breastfeeding
· No drug is absolutely contraindicated need to balance potential risks and benefits and the
availability of alternative therapies. The only drugs known to carry a serious risk of harming the
breastfed baby are antithyroid agents. The concentration of propylthiouracil may be higher in milk
than in maternal plasma.
· Amiodarone Present in breast milk in significant amounts, risk of from iodine release
· Androgens Inhibit milk production, masculinise female infant / precocious development in
male.
· Aspirin Possible risk of Reye's syndrome
· Bromocriptine Suppresses lactation
· Cabergolline Suppresses lactation
· Carbimazole May affect neonatal thyroid function, associated with nodular goitre avoid
· Chloramphenicol Theoretical risk of leucopaenia / aplastic anaemia avoid
· COCP Inhibit lactation Progesterone only pill can be used commence 3 weeks postpartum
· Cyclophosphamide Discontinue breastfeeding during and for 36h after treatment
· Cytotoxic agents Avoid
· Diazepam Lethargy / drowsiness / hyperbilirubinaemia
· Dopamine Inhibits prolactin release, interferes with milk production
· Ergotamine Ergotism may occur, may inhibit lactation
· Iodine Concentrated in milk, risk of hypothyroidism
· Lithium Risk of toxicity hypotonia
· Nalidixic acid – associated with haemolytic anaemia
· Oral hypoglycaemics Risk of hypoglycaemia
· Phenindione – associated with haemorrhage Warfarin safe
· Phenytoin – associated with Methaemoglobinaemia rare
· Propylthiouracil Risk of hypothyroidism / agranulocytosis / nodular goitre avoid
· Pyridoxine Inhibits prolactin release, interferes with milk production
· Senna – associated with purgation
· Sulphonamides Interfere with bilirubin binding to albumin (preterm babies especially)
· Tetracyclines risk of dental discolouration
Specific Breast Conditions
Breast engorgement
Breasts may become distended with visible dilated veins and firm during the first day or two after
delivery.
Factors associated with breast engorgement include delayed initiation of feeds, infrequent feeds and
partial breastfeeding.
May be accompanied by a fever in 1015% of women. This is however a diagnosis of exclusion and
infection should be excluded
Treatment – encourage to continue breastfeeding and offer simple analgesia.
Acute Mastitis
Second most common cause of discontinuation of breastfeeding by women in UK.
Irritation from lactation causes local skin inflammation and swelling; this causes obstruction to milk
flow. Bacterial infection causees mastitis.
Commonest organism is Staph aureus – 90% of cases.
Clinical features
Symptoms – pain, (may be worse with breast feeding), swelling, shivering & chills,
Signs – redness, swelling, oedema and tenderness of breast; pyrexia, tachycardia, lymphadenopathy .
Investigations
Empirical treatment without investigations
Consider
FBC, CRP. blood cultures at peak of pyrexia or if septic
Ultrasound scan if abscess suspected
Milk culture if failure to respond
Treatment
Appropriate antibiotics to cover staph aureus. e.g. flucloxacillin
Continued expression of breast milk or breastfeeding.
Analgesia / antipyretics. AVOID aspirin.
Bromocriptine should NOT be used.
Complications
1) Breast Abscess usually confined to one segment or quadrant and may become fluctuant on
examination. Signs and symptoms of acute mastitis may still be present. Suspect an abscess if not
responding to antibiotics. An ultrasound scan may help in the diagnosis.
Treatment – antibiotics + open or US guided drainage.
POSTPARTUM PROBLEMS V: POSTPARTUM PSYCHIATRIC PROBLEMS *****
Pregnancy and child birth are life changing events. Feeling tearful and ‘low’ is common. Postnatal
psychiatric problems are divided into
a) baby blues
b) postnatal depression
c) postnatal psychosis
Screening for postpartum psychiatric disorders
Predicting postpartum psychiatric illness is difficult
Risk factors include:
1) Previous history of postpartum depression or psychosis – recurrence risk up to 90%
2) Personal or family history of mood disorder
3) Depression during the current pregnancy
4) Lack of social support network
5) Relationship problems
6) Recent negative life events such as a death in the family, financial difficulties, or loss of
employment.
There is no association between obstetric factors and risk of postpartum depression
All women should be screened in the postnatal period
Antenatal screening should also be undertaken to identify women at increased risk
The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale is a 10item selfrated questionnaire used
extensively for detection of postpartum depression.
A score of 12 or more or a positive answer on question 10 (presence of suicidal thoughts)
requires more thorough evaluation.
Postpartum blues
Occurs between days 3 – 10 postpartum.
Common cause of feeling low in the immediate postpartum period.
Women may feel tearful and irritable but do not require drug treatment.
Close family support is essential.
Further assessment required if symptoms persist for more than 2 weeks
Postnatal depression *
Affect about 1:10 mothers in UK.
Usually occurs in the first 46 weeks postpartum and in some cases, lasts for several months.
Delayed recognition & treatment places the mother and infant at risk and is associated with
developmental and behavioural problems in the child. Mothers with postpartum depression are more
likely to express negative attitudes about their infant and to view their infant as more demanding or
difficult.
Children of mothers with postpartum depression are more likely than children of nondepressed
mothers to exhibit behavioural problems (sleep and eating difficulties, temper tantrums,
hyperactivity), delays in cognitive development, emotional and social problems, and early onset of
depressive illness.
Symptoms of postnatal depressions
The symptoms usually include one or more of the following:
Low mood for prolonged periods of time (greater than 1 week),
Feeling irritable most time
Tearfulness
Panic attacks
Lack of concentration
Lack of motivation or interest in herself or her baby
Feeling guilty, lonely or unable to cope
Difficulty sleeping
Loss of libido
Thoughts of harming herself or her baby
History
Assess using tools like Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. Symptoms vary from mild mood
symptoms to severe neurovegetative symptoms and marked functional impairment
Identify suicidal ideation and delusions / hallucinations which will indicate psychosis
Examination
Aim is to exclude medical disorders such as anaemia and thyroid disease
Investigations
FBC, thyroid function tests
Treatment options
Nonpharmacologic treatment (like cognitivebehavioural) useful for women with mildto
moderate symptoms. Especially useful in breastfeeding mothers wishing to avoid medication
Support groups may be helpful.
Drug treatment reserved for moderatetosevere depressive symptoms or failed response to non
pharmacological treatment.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are firstline agents. Sideeffects include
insomnia, jitteriness, nausea, appetite suppression, headache, and sexual dysfunction.
Serotoninnoradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are also effective
It takes 24 weeks for symptoms to improve. Treatment should continue for 6 12 in women
with a first episode of depression while longterm therapy may be required for women with
recurrent illness
Early treatment is associated with better prognosis
Inpatient admission may be needed for women with severe symptoms
Women with a history of recurrent depression or postpartum depression may benefit from
prophylactic treatment with antidepressants immediately after delivery
Puerperal psychosis *
A more severe disorder affecting 1:1000 mothers and is a psychiatric emergency
Symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, irritable behaviour and suicidal thoughts or thoughts of
harming the baby
Risk of infanticide up to 4% in untreated cases
History
Identify hallucinations / delusions; suicidal thoughts and any threat to the infant
Identify potential medical causes:
a) Infections – chest, UTI, endometritis
b) Drug use / drug abuse with withdrawal
c) Alcohol use / withdrawal
d) Symptoms of thyroid disease
e) Headache / visual symptoms – raised intracranial pressure
Identify risk factors – previous / family history of psychosis
Examination
Pulse, temp, BP, SO2
Chest, abdominal and lower limb examination (VTE) including any wounds / incisions for evidence
of infection
Minimental state examination
Investigations
FBC, CRP, U&E, glucose, LFT +/ arterial blood gases
Thyroid function tests
Drug screen may be appropriate
Further investigations dictated by clinical findings
Treatment
Psychiatric emergency but organic causes must be excluded
Manage as inpatient and it is usually possible to leave the woman with her baby with appropriate
supervision
Specialist mother & baby units and now very limited and the woman may need to be admitted to an
obstetric or psychiatric ward
Woman and her family will require substantial support and reassurance
Anxyolytics and antipsychotic agents are the mainstay of treatment
Women with a history of psychosis or postpartum psychosis may benefit from prophylactic treatment
with lithium, initiated either prior to or within 24 hours of delivery.
Vertical incisions
Midline incision
The skin is incised in the midline to the level of the fascia between the umbilicus and the pubic
symphysis. This is the least vascular part of the anterior abdominal wall.
The subcutaneous fat should not be dissected from the fascia as this creates unnecessary dead
space
The fascia is incised using a scalpel or diathermy, and the rectus muscles are separated
vertically in the midline
The peritoneum is picked up between two hemostats, opened with a scalpel, and extended the
length of the incision
If necessary, the incision can be extended above the umbilicus. The incision should not be made
through the umbilicus as the risk of wound infection may be increased due to bacterial
colonization of the umbilicus. The incision should be extended to the left of the umbilicus to
avoid cutting through the ligamentum teres
Closure
Two techniques are used to close the incision, the singlelayer mass closure and the internal
mass closure.
The singlelayer mass closure uses a heavy monofilament delayedabsorbable or non
absorbable suture. Closure involves penetrating the fascia, muscle and peritoneum 1.5 cm from
the edge with the sutures placed 1cm apart.
It should be remembered that the posterior rectus sheath is deficient in the lower abdomen
Excessive tension on the suture leads to tissue necrosis and eventual failure of the closure.
Closure should therefore follow Jenkin’s rule (length of suture used to close the wound = 4x
length of the wound). The theoretical risk to mass closure is that a single suture is responsible
for maintaining the integrity of the closure. Benefits to mass closure include decreased cost and
decreased operative time. Mass closure has also been shown in randomised trials to be superior
to layered closure
Closure of the subcutaneous fat will close any potential dead space and reduce the area for
seroma accumulation. However, subcutaneous closure has not been shown to be beneficial.
The skin can be closed using 2,0 or 3,0 absorbable suture in a running subcuticular fashion or
with monofilament nonabsorbable subcuticular or interrupted suture. Staple closure is an
alternative to suturing the skin. In a study comparing scar cosmesis at 6 months, no difference
in appearance existed in patients with suture versus staple skin closure
Internal mass closure uses a farfar, nearnear suturing technique (SmeadJones closure). All
abdominal wall structures are included in the farfar portion. Only the anterior fascia is included
in the nearnear bite. The initial stitch is similar to the singlelayer mass closure. The second
bite only includes the anterior rectus fascia, approximately 0.5 cm from the fascial edge.
Closure can be interrupted or continuous.
Both mass closure techniques require starting from each end of the incision, securing the suture
with 5 knots at each end or passing the needle through the loop if a looped suture is used
Advantages
The midline incision has the presumed advantage of speed of abdominal entry and less
bleeding
The incision can be extended upwards if more space is required for access
Can be used if a caesarean section is planned under local anaesthesia
There is minimum nerve damage
Allows for excellent exposure
Disadvantages
Higher risk of postoperative wound dehiscence – however, more recent studies suggest that the
risk of wound dehiscence is not increased in appropriately closed midline incisions
Higher risk of incisional hernia.
The scar is cosmetically less pleasing.
Paramedian incision
Skin incision made to one side of the midline (usually right)
The anterior rectus sheath is opened
The underlying rectus abdominus muscle is then retracted laterally and the posterior rectus
sheath and peritoneum are opened.
Because of a shutterlike effect of the rectus abdominis muscle, the stress on the scar is
presumed to be less.
The paramedian scar is considered to be stronger than the midline scar but has no cosmetic
advantage.
The tendinous intersections of the rectus abdominis must be dissected off and the falciform
ligament needs to be divided above the umbilicus on the right
If the rectus abdominis is split more than 1cm from its medial border, the intercostal nerves may
be damaged resulting in denervation of the medial rectus. The rectus abdominis should
therefore be retracted rather than split
Low transverse abdominal incisions
Advantages
Adequate for the majority of obstetric and gynaecological operations
The advantages are cosmetic approval and lower risk of wound dehiscence
Less postoperative pain
Less interferance with postoperative respiration
The risks of incisional hernia is lower than for vertical incisions.
Disadvantages
Involve more dissection and may require more surgical skills
Blood loss following dissection may be more
Haematoma formation is more common
The incision may be difficult to make under local anaesthesia
More difficult to extend if increased access is required
Very limited access to upper abdomen
Nerve injury is more common, resulting in paraesthaesia
If a transverse incision is extended laterally beyond the edge of the rectus abdominis muscle and into
the substance of the external and internal oblique muscles, injury to the ilioinguinal and
iliohypogastric nerves can occur. Lateral sutures should only be placed in the external oblique
aponeurosis.
1) Pfannestiel incision (Pfannenstiel, 1900)
Classically located two fingersbreadth (2cm) above the pubic symphysis
Results in good exposure to the central pelvis but limits exposure to the lateral pelvis and upper
abdomen.
The low transverse skin incision curves gently upward laterally and is placed in a natural fold of
skin (the ’smile’ incsion)
The subcutaneous tissue is incised with a scalpel down to the fascia, which is then nicked on
either side of the midline
The exposed fascia is incised in a curvilinear fashion with heavy curved Mayo scissors up to 1
2 cm lateral to the rectus muscle
The superficial epigastric vessels are often near the lateral edges of the incision.
The upper and then the lower fascial edges are next grasped with a heavy toothed clamp
(Kocher or Littlewoods), and elevated
Under continuous tension, the fascia is separated from the underlying muscles by blunt and
sharp dissection
Any bleeding perforating vessel sutured or electrocoagulated
The underlying rectus abdominus muscles areseparated with finger dissection, although sharp
dissection may be needed especially in women with a previous caesarean section
The peritoneum is thenopened in the midline again using finger dissection or sharp dissection.
The initial entry is then widenedsharply with fine scissors or stretched using fingers
During caesarean section, difficulty in delivering the fetus is rare with Pfannenstie incisions
measuring at least 15 cm in length, the length of a standard Allis clamp (Allis clamp test)
Increasing the length of the skin incision usually does not improve exposure due to the rectus
muscles.
During closure, the peritoneum does not need to be closed separately as reepithelization occurs
within 48hours
The rectus muscles should be carefully inspected and any bleeding areas cauterized or ligated.
Bleeding from small perforating vessels through the rectus muscle is a common source of
subfascial hematoma.
The fascia is closed with a delayed absorbable suture ensuring all layers of the anterior rectus
sheath are incorporated.
Unless a large area of dead space exists between the fascia and the skin (> 3cm), closure of the
Scarpa fascia is not needed
The Kustner incision is a modification of the Pfannestiel incision. It is a slightly curved skin
incision begining below the level of the anterior superior iliac spine and extending just below
the pubic hair line. The superficial branches of the inferior epigastric artery or vein may be
encountered.
2) Maylard incision
This is a modification of the Pfannestiel incision, used when greater access to the pelvic side
wall is required
The skin incision is longer than in the Pfannestiel incision and placed 38cm superior to the
pubic symphysis
The anterior rectus sheath is cut transversely and the inferior epigastric vessels are identified
under the lateral edge of each rectus muscle and ligated.
The rectus abdominus muscles are divided transversely to allow greater access to the abdomen
There is greater blood loss and tissue injury than with the Pfannestiel incision
To facilitate closure of a Maylard incision, the operating table should be flexed
The parietal peritoneum should be closed
The inferior epigastric vessel are inspected to ensure haemostasis
The cut edges of the rectus muscles should also be inspected for bleeding
The fascia and underlying rectus muscle should then be closed with a monofilament absorbable
suture.
In patients with lower limb peripheral vascular disease, ligation of the inferior epigastric artery
when performing a Maylard incision may cause lower limb ischaemia
3) Cherney incision
This is a modification of the Pfannestiel incision, allowing excellent surgical exposure to the
cave of Retzius and the pelvic sidewall
The skin and fascia are incised as for the Maylard incision
The lower fascia is reflected exposing the tendinous attachment of the rectus abdominis to the
pubis
One or both muscles are divided as required, as low as possible and the proximal and distal ends
ligated.
The rectus muscles are retracted and the peritoneum opened.
Closing a Cherney incision begins with closure of the peritoneum. The cut ends of the rectus
muscle are then attached to the distal end of the anterior rectus sheath with interrupted non
absorbable sutures. Suturing the rectus muscle to the pubis symphysis can result in
osteomyelitis. The rectus sheath is closed with continuous, delayedabsorbable sutures.
4) JoelCohen incision (JoelCohen 1954)
Transverse skin incision described initially for hysterectomy and subsequently adapted for
caesarean section
The skin incision is placed about 3 cm below the line joining the anterior superior iliac spines
higher than the traditional Pfannenstiel incision
Sharp dissection is minimised. The subcutaneous tissue and the anterior rectus sheath are
opened a few centimetres only in the midline then extended laterally by blunt finger dissection
or slightly opened scissor, deep to the subcutaneous tissues
The rectus muscles are separated by blunt dissection
The peritoneum is opened by blunt dissection in a transverse direction and the opening is
widened by traction in a transverse direction.
If exceptional speed is required, the fascia may be incised in the midline and both the fascia and
subcutaneous tissue rapidly divided by blunt finger dissection.
Mathai M, Hofmeyr GJ. Abdominal surgical incisions for caesarean section. Cochrane Database of
Systematic Reviews 2007, Issue 1. Art. No.: CD004453.
Objectives
To determine the benefits and risks of alternative methods of abdominal surgical incisions for
caesarean section.
Selection criteria
Randomised controlled trials of intention to perform caesarean section using different abdominal
incisions.
Main results
Two studies (411 participants) compared the JoelCohen incision with the Pfannenstiel incision.
Overall, there was a 65% reduction in reported postoperative morbidity (relative risk (RR) 0.35,
95% confidence interval (CI) 0.14 to 0.87) with the JoelCohen incision.
One of the trials reported reduced postoperative analgesic requirements (RR 0.55, 95% CI 0.40
to 0.76); operating time (weighted mean difference (WMD) 11.40, 95% CI 16.55 to 6.25
minutes); delivery time (WMD 1.90, 95% CI 2.53 to 1.27); total dose of analgesia in the first
24 hours (WMD 0.89, 95% CI 1.19 to 0.59); estimated blood loss (WMD 58.00, 95% CI
108.51 to 7.49 ml); postoperative hospital stay for the mother (WMD 1.50, 95% CI 2.16 to
0.84); and increased time to the first dose of analgesia (WMD 0.80, 95% CI 0.12 to 1.48)
compared to the Pfannestiel group. No other significant differences were found in either trial.
Two studies compared muscle cutting incisions with Pfannenstiel incision. One study (68
women) comparing Mouchel incision with Pfannenstiel incision did not contribute data to this
review. The other study (97 participants) comparing the Maylard musclecutting incision with
the Pfannenstiel incision, reported no difference in febrile morbidity (RR 1.26, 95% CI 0.08 to
19.50); need for blood transfusion (RR 0.42, 95% CI 0.02 to 9.98); wound infection (RR 1.26,
95% CI 0.27 to 5.91); physical tests on muscle strength at three months postoperative and
postoperative hospital stay (WMD 0.40 days, 95% CI 0.34 to 1.14).
Authors’ conclusions
The JoelCohen incision has advantages compared to the Pfannenstiel incision. These are less
fever, pain and anagesic requirements; less blood loss; shorter duration of surgery and hospital
stay. These advantages for the mother could be extrapolated to savings for the health system.
However, these trials do not provide information on severe or longterm morbidity and
mortality.
McBurney’s / Gridiron incision (Charles McBurney, 1894)
Classic incision for open appendisectomy
McBurney’s point is located in the right iliac fossa at the junction between the outer third and
the middle third of a line joining the anterior superior iliac spine to the umbilicus
The classic incision is made through McBurney’s point at right angle to the line joining the
anterior superior iliac spine to the umbilicus
Many surgeons now use a more horizontal incision along a skin crease (RockeyDavis incision)
If extension of the incision is anticipated then the incision should be placed obliquely
The external oblique aponeurisis is incised in the line of the fibres
Internal oblique muscle is split transversely in the line of the fibres
Transversus abdominis is split transversely in the line of the fibres
Risk of scarring if the incision is not made in a skin crease
Also risk of injury to the iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal nerves and the deep circumflex
artery
The appendix may also be approached through the Lanz incision which is a horizontal incision
located lower on the abdomen and closer to the anterior superior iliac spine than the
McBurney’s incision
The Lanz incision offers better cosmetic results but has a greater tendency to injure the ilio
hypogastric and ilioinguinal nerves. This results in a increased risk of inguinal hernia
The Gridiron incision allows extraperitoneal drainage of abscesses, avoiding peritoneal
contamination. Can be performed in the left lower quadrant to drain abscesses on the left side of
the pelvis
Closed laparoscopy technique
Pneumoperitoneum
Primary incision should be vertical from the base of the umbilicus (not in the skin below the
umbilicus). Care should be taken not to enter the peritoneal cavity.
The Veress needle should be sharp, with a good and tested spring action. A disposable needle is
recommended, as it will fulfill these criteria.
The operating table should be horizontal (not in the Trendelenburg tilt) at the start of the
procedure.
The abdomen should be palpated to check for any masses and for the position of the aorta
before insertion of the Veress needle.
The lower abdominal wall should be stabilised in such a way that the Veress needle can be
inserted at right angles to the skin and should be pushed in just sufficiently to penetrate the
fascia and the peritoneum.
Two audible clicks are usually heard as these layers are penetrated.
Excessive lateral movement of the needle should be avoided, as this may convert a small
needlepoint injury in the wall of the bowel or vessel into a more complex tear.
After two failed attempts to insert the Veress needle, either the open Hasson technique or
Palmer’s point entry should be used.
Tests to check that the tip of the needle is free in the peritoneal cavity are of limited value and
the most useful indicator of needle placement is an initial low insufflation pressure (less than 8
mmHg)and free flow
Intraabdominal pressures
An intraabdominal pressure of 20–25 mmHg should be used for gas insufflation before
inserting the primary trocar.
The distension pressure should be reduced to 12–15 mmHg once the insertion of the trocars is
complete.
If a constant force of 3 kg is applied to the abdominal wall at the umbilicus to an abdominal
cavity insufflated to a pressure of 10 mmHg, the depth under the ‘indented’ umbilicus is only
0.6 cm. When the same force is applied to an abdomen distended to 25 mmHg, the depth is 5.6
cm (range 4–8 cm).
The mean volume of CO2 required to reach this pressure is 5.58 litres
Primary trocars
The primary trocar should be inserted in a controlled manner at 90 degrees to the skin, through
the incision at the thinnest part of the abdominal wall, in the base of the umbilicus.
Insertion should be stopped immediately the trocar is inside the abdominal cavity.
Once the laparoscope has been introduced through the primary cannula, it should be rotated
through 360 degrees to check visually for any adherent bowel. If this is present, it should be
closely inspected for any evidence of haemorrhage, damage or retroperitoneal haematoma.
If there is concern that the bowel may be adherent under the umbilicus, the primary trocar site
should be visualised from a secondary port site, preferably with a 5mm laparoscope.
On completion of the procedure, the laparoscope should be used to check that there has not
been a throughandthrough injury of bowel adherent under the umbilicus by visual control
during removal.
Alternative entry points
Palmer’s point (3 cm below the left costal margin in the midclavicular line)is the preferred
alternative trocar insertion site, except in cases of previous surgery in this area or splenomegaly.
The rate of adhesion formation at the umbilicus may be up to 50% following midline
laparotomy and 23% following low transverse incision.The umbilicus may not, therefore, be the
most appropriate site for primary trocar insertion following previous abdominal surgery.
A small incision is made and a sharp Veress needle inserted vertically.
Testing for correct placement using the pressure/flow test is performed. CO2 is then instilled to
25 mmHg pressure and a 2–5 mm endoscope is used to inspect the undersurface of the anterior
abdominal wall in the area beneath the umbilicus.
Secondary ports
Secondary ports must be inserted under direct vision perpendicular to the skin, while
maintaining the pneumoperitoneum at 20–25 mmHg.
The inferior epigastric vessels should be visualized laparoscopically to ensure the entry point is
away from the vessels.
Once the tip of the trocar has pierced the peritoneum it should be angled towards the anterior
pelvis under careful visual control until the sharp tip has been removed.
Secondary ports must be removed under direct vision to ensure that any haemorrhage can be
observed and treated, if present.
The deep epigastric arteries and the venae comitantes running beside them can be visualised just
lateral to the lateral umbilical ligaments (the obliterated hypogastric arteries). The inferior
epigastric artery runs from the midinguinal point upwards and medially to a point to a point 2
cm inferolateral to the umbilicus
In the obese woman, the incision should be made well lateral to the edge of the rectus sheath,
taking care to avoid injury to vessels on the pelvic side wall
Closure
Any nonmidline port over 7 mm and any midline port greater than 10 mm requires formal deep
sheath closure to avoid the occurrence of port site hernia.
Gases for laparoscopy
The ideal gas for insufflation during laparoscopy must have the following characteristics;
Limited systemic absorption across the peritoneum
Limited systemic effects when absorbed.
Rapid excretion if absorbed
Incapable of supporting combustion
High solubility in blood
Physiological consequences of laparoscopy
Biphasic change in cardiac output. At intraabdominal pressure < 510 mmHg venous return is
increased hence cardiac output is increased
With higher pressures, there is progressive reduction venous return and cardiac output decreases
Compression of the arterial vasculature results in an increase in mean arterial pressure and
systemic vascular resistance. Pulmonary vascular resistance also increased.
Cardiac output is reduced by up to 28% at pressures of 15 mmHg but is maintained at pressures
of 7 mmHg. Animal models suggest that the threshold intraabdominal pressure with minimal
effects on cardiac output is 12 mmHg
Heart rate may initially increase to increase cardiac output bur overall there is minimal change
in heart rate
The increase in intraabdominal pressure causes cephalad displacement of the diaphragm
resulting in reduced lung volumes (vital capacity, functional residual capacity), decreased
pulmonary compliance and increased airway resistance.
Changes in pulmonary blood flow and ventilation will result in adverse changes in pulmonary
ventilation perfusion matching with increased risk of hypoxia and hypercarbia
Cerebral blood flow and intracranial pressure are increased
Renal, hepatic and splanchnic blood flow are decreased and there is decreased urine output
The operation
Surgical removal of the uterus and cervix (but not the ovaries) through an abdominal incision
If the ovaries are to be removed, the operation is TAH + BSO (bilateral salpingooophrectomy)
and additional counseling and consent are needed
Prophylaxis
Broadspectrum iv antibiotics at induction of anaesthesia
TED stockings + LMWH timing dependent on risk profile
Pubic hair should be clipped just before the operation if necessary. Hair should not be shaved as
this is associated with higher risk of infection
The bladder should be catheterized to reduce risk of bladder injury
The skin and vagina should be cleaned with antiseptic solution
Abdominal incision
Options include Pfannestiel and JoelCohen (see abdominal incisions). Midline incision may
be used if there is a large uterine mass
Manipulating & mobilizing the uterus
The omentum and bowel should be protected by packing the abdomen using a wet gauze swab.
This can be aided by a slight headdown tilt. Handling of the bowel should be kept to a
minimum
The uterus is lifter closed to the incision by the surgeon placing their left hand into the pouch of
Douglas and lifting between the uterosacral ligaments
A long straight clamp (Spencer Wells) is placed on each cornua about 1cm from the uterine
wall. Both clamps are then placed in one hand and used by the surgeon or assistant to
manipulate the uterus
First pedicle – round and ovarian ligaments
Place a second straight clamp (Spencer Wells) 12cm lateral to the clamp used to manipulate
the uterus, incorporating the round ligament, fallopian tube and ovarian ligament and extending
a few mm into the broad ligament
The ligaments are then divided at least 1cm from the lateral clamp to facilitate ligation. The
pedicle is then stitch ligatured or simply tied.
This is a vascular pedicle (contains ovarian vessels) and some surgeons prefer to doubletie
vascular pedicles
Other surgeons prefer to clamp and cut all pedicles, remove the uterus and then start tying but
this may result in a large number of clamps in the pelvis and there is a risk of the surgeon /
assistant pulling on or releasing the wrong clamp
Alternative technique:
The round ligament is picked up at its midpoint using a straight clamp, cut and the clamp
handed to the assistant. The anterior leaf of the broad ligament is opened and the areolar tissue
of the retroperitoneal space may be opened to identify the ureter on the pelvic sidewall
The index finger of the left hand is then placed on the posterior surface of the broad ligament
and a window made in the posterior leaf using fine dissecting scissors. This window should be
inferior to the ovarian ligament. If bilateral salpingooophrectomy is to be performed, the ovary
should be mobilized medially and the posterior leaf of the broad ligament opened inferior to the
infundibulopelvic ligament
The pedicle is developed by blunt dissection of the areolar tissue of the broad ligament
The ovarian (or infundibulopelvic) ligament is then clamped, cut and ligated
This is a more versatile technique as it can be readily adapted to remove the ovaries / identify
the ureter
The ureter is located at the base of the infundibulopelvic ligament and is susceptible to surgical
injury at this point
Reflecting the bladder
The uterovesical peritoneum should be incised along the uterovesical fold at the time the
anterior leaf of the broad ligament is opened to develop the pedicle at the round & ovarian
ligaments
The uterovesical fold is elevated with toothed forceps or a straight clamp and incised in a
curvilinear fashion anterior to the uterus
The bladder is then reflected from the anterior surface of the uterus and cervix using blunt
dissection witha thin gauze swab over the index finger or the closed tips of the Monaghan
dissecting scissors. This process is aided by gentle traction on the two straight clamps on the
uterine cornua
The bladder is reflected until the longitudinal fibres of the vaginal wall are evident
Care should be taken to ensure adequate reflection laterally and avoid injury to the ureters
which enter the base of the bladder just lateral to the upper vagina
Second pedicle – uterine vessels
The areolar tissue of the broad ligaments should be carefully dissected off to leave the tortuous
uterine vessels running upwards along the lateral border of the uterus
The uterine vessels are clamped using a pressure clamp placed at right angles to the long axis of
the uterus and at the level of the cervical isthmus. The tip of the clamp should abut on the
myometrium to ensure that the entire diameter of the vessels is clamped
A second small straight clamp can be placed on the vessels half way up the body of the uterus
to prevent ‘back bleeding’ when the uterine vessels are divided
If the cervix is long, a further pedicle may be required at the parametrium before the vagina can
be opened. A hysterectomy clamp is placed parallel to the cervix, squeezing the parametrial
tissue off the cervix. The tissue is divided before a clamp is placed on the opposite side to allow
the parametrium to retract as the tissue is squeezed
The hysterectomy clamp should be placed medial to the uterine artery pedicle. The ureter is
likely to be injured if tissue lateral to the uterine artery pedicle is clamped.
It is customary to leave these pedicles untied until the uterus has been removed.
Uterosacral ligaments
These ligaments do not need to be clamped and cut separately
However, if the uterus is relatively fixed, especially in women with endometriosis or adhesions
in the Pouch of Douglas, division of the uterosacral ligaments is beneficial
The ligaments are clamped using a curved forceps and divided. The peritoneum between the
ligaments is divided and the ligaments stripped caudally using blunt finger dissection plus
gentle upwards traction on the uterus
If the surgeon uses the left hand to strip the uterosacral ligaments and peritoneum, the same
hand can then be used to ascertain that the bladder has been reflected below the level of the
cervix
The fingers of the left hand are in the pouch of Douglas while the thumb is moved anterior to
the uterus and cervix. Gentle compression will identify the limits of the firm cervix
Opening the vagina and third pedicle – vaginal angles
The longitudinal fibres of the vagina should be evident before the vagina is opened in the mid
line using a knife. Some surgeons will pick up the cut edge of the anterior wall of the vagina
with a long straight forceps at this point. The incision is extended towards the angles using a
knife or dissecting scissors. Care should be taken not to extend the incision to the vaginal angles
as bleeding would be encountered from the vaginal artery
The vaginal angle is then clamped. The anterior blade lf an open curved forceps is placed in the
vagina and the vaginal angle clamped incorporating the uterosacral ligaments if these have not
been divided. The forceps should be closed medial to the uterine artery pedicle. Closing the
forceps lateral to the uterine artery pedicle would risk injuring the ureter
The tissue of the vaginal angles is cut followed by the rest of the vaginal circumference to
remove the uterus. The cut edge of the posterior wall of the vagina may also be picked up at this
point using long straight forceps
One disadvantage of picking up the anterior and posterior walls of the vagina as above is the
increase in the number of instruments within the pelvis which limits access and visibility
Ligating the pedicles
The two / three pedicles (uterine vessels +/ parametrium + vaginal angle) on both sides are
stitch ligatured, taking care to obliterate any dead space
Suturing the vagina
The vagina may be left open or closed
Options for closing the vagina include pursestring stitch, continuous locking / nonlocking
stitches and interrupted stitches
If the vagina is to be left open, the edges should be sutured circumferentially
Leaving the vagina open allows any bleeding to become readily apparent as vaginal bleeding.
However, there is a risk of bowel evisceration
Closing the abdomen
All the pedicles and peritoneal edges should be inspected for bleeding
All swabs and instruments should be accounted for
The peritoneum should not be closed
The rectus sheath and rectus abdominis muscles should be inspected and any bleeding points
cauterized or ligated
The abdomen should then be closed as described under Abdominal incisions
Secondary Amenorrhoea & Oligomenorrhoea
Secondary Amenorrhoea : No periods for 6 months in a woman with pervious menses
Oligomenorrhoea: Infrequent periods with > 35 days – 6 months between periods
There is significant overlap in the causes of oligomenorrhoea / secondary amenorrhoea.
Approach to management is identical – women should be assessed on presentation rather than
waiting for 6 months to meet criterion for secondary amenorrhoea.
Causes of secondary amenorrhoea
Obstetric causes
Pregnancy
Breastfeeding
Sheehan’s syndrome – pituitary necrosis secondary to postpartum haemorrhage
Gynaecological causes
· Polycystic ovary syndrome
· Premature ovarian failure
· Contraception – depoprovera or levonorgestrel IUS (MIRENA). NOT COCP
· Asherman’s syndrome – rare. Intrauterine adhesions usually following postpartum D&C
· Cervical stenosis – rare
Psychiatric / hypothalamic causes
Eating disorders
Excessive exercise or weight loss / gain
Psychological stress
Endocrine / systemic causes
Any untreated / severe endocrine disorder
Hyperprolactinaemia / thyroid disease in particular
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Androgensecreting tumours of the ovary / adrenal gland
Any severe chronic illness
Druginduced
· Contraceptives as above
· Drugs that cause hyperprolactinaemia (dopamine antagonists)
· Chemotherapy / radiotherapy causing ovarian failure
Management of secondary amenorrhoea / oligomenorrhoea
History
LMP, regularity of cycle, volume of menstrual loss
Sexual activity, contraception and possibility of pregnancy
Detailed contraceptive history, especially use of depomedroxyprogesterone acetate / implanon
Obstetric history including breastfeeding, complications after delivery especially postpartum
haemorrhage and need for postpartum D & C
Associated symptoms:
1) androgen excess – acne, facial / body hair, male pattern baldness, deepening of voice
2) hyperprolactinaemia – galactorrhoea, headache & visual symptoms
3) menopausal symptoms
4) symptoms of thyroid disease
· Lifestyle changes – dieting, exercise, weight loss / gain; recent stressful life event
· Gynaecological history – surgery to cervix or ovaries
· Medical history – any severe chronic illness can cause amenorrhoea
· Drug history especially dopamine antagonists
· Family history of premature ovarian failure
· Assess impact on quality of life. This may be related to lack of menses, worries about fertility
or associated issues like body image problems
Examination
BMI
Signs of androgen excess – hirsutism, acne, baldness; clitoral enlargement
Visual fields – bitemporal hemianopia if pituitary macroadenoma
Breast examination for galactorrhoea
Abdominal examination – exclude pregnancy and abdominopelvic mass
Acanthosis nigricans – pigmentation and thickening of the skin of the axilla and neck. Suggests
insulin resistance and associated with PCOS
Speculum and pelvic examination in sexually active women – cervical scarring, vaginal
atrophy, size of uterus and presence of adnexal masses
Investigations
Pregnancy test
Endocrine profile including:
1) FSH & LH (elevated in premature ovarian failure)
2) Testosterone (+/ sex hormone binding globulin) – testosterone mildly elevated in PCOS.
Markedly elevated in androgensecreting tumours and this should prompt urgent referral.
3) Prolactin – mildly elevated with stress / PCOS. Levels above 1000 – 1500 Miu/L should prompt
referral
4) Other tests such as thyroid function tests as indicated by symptoms
Pelvic ultrasound scan – polycystic ovaries, presence of pelvic mass
Indications for urgent referral
Evidence of virilisation – deepening of the voice, male pattern baldness, enlargement of the
clitoris – suggests androgensecreting tumour or late onset congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Rapidly progressive hirsutism – suggests androgensecreting tumour
Evidence of severe endocrine disorder like thyroid disease / Cushing’s syndrome
Treatment
Directed at underlying cause
Consider potential longterm problems including:
1) Fertility issues
2) Risk of osteoporosis
3) Risk of cardiovascular disease if premature ovarian failure
4) Increased risk of endometrial hyperplasia / carcinoma in PCOS
POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME (PCOS) *****
Definition
Based on Rotterdam criteria. This requires the presence of two of the three following criteria
with the exclusion of other causes :
1) polycystic ovaries (either 12 or more peripheral follicles or increased ovarian volume (greater than
10 cubic cm)
2) oligo or anovulation
3) clinical and/or biochemical signs of hyperandrogenism.
A raised LH:FSH ratio is no longer a diagnostic criterion for PCOS owing to its inconsistency
Should not be confused with polycystic ovaries (PCO) ultrasound diagnosis based on the
finding of 10 or more discrete follicles of <10mm diameter in one plane peripherally arranged
around an enlarged hyperechogenic ovarian stroma
PCOS is a diagnosis of exclusion and other conditions must be excluded. The recommended
baseline screening tests are TFT, serum prolactin and a free androgen index (total testosterone
divided by SHBG x 100)
PCOS is a biochemically and clinically heterogeneous condition
Prevalence
Commonest female endocrine abnormality, affecting up to 67 % of women in their
reproductive years
More common in women of South Asian origin and present at an earlier age with more severe
symptoms, worse metabolic disturbance and a higher risk of type II diabetes.
PCO (not PCOS) found in ~20% of asymptomatic women
Clinical presentation
Menstrual abnormalities amenorrhoea / oligomenorrhoea / irregular uterine bleeding
secondary to the effects of unopposed oestrogens on the endometrium (30% of patients have a
regular menstrual cycle)
Infertility
Obesity
Hyperandrogenism hirsutism, acne, male pattern baldness, acanthosis nigricans
(hyperkeratosis, pappilomatosis and increased pigmentation in axilla, nape of the neck, under
the breasts and in flexures. Found in 5% of women with PCOS, associated with insulin
resistance)
Obesity, hirsutism and acne may lead to poor self image and psychological difficulties
May be asymptomatic
Biochemical derangements
Raised androgens testosterone / androstendione ovarian hypersecretion. About 50% of
women with PCOS have elevated levels of DHEAS, an adrenal androgen
Decreased sex hormone binding globulin production by the liver with a resultant increase in
free, biologically active androgens and oestradiol
Hyperprolactinaemia mild and present in ~20% of women with PCOS
Insulin resistance occurs in 3060% of women with PCOS and may be associated with
increased truncalabdominal fat, even in women with a normal BMI.
Long term consequences of PCOS
Increased incidence of gestational diabetes.
Increased incidence of pregnancy induced hypertension independent of obesity and gestational
diabetes
Increased risk of multiple pregnancy following ovulation induction
Increased risk of endometrial cancer (5fold), especially if interval between menses is greater
than 3 months
Cardiovascular disease mortality is not significantly increased although women with PCOS
have abnormal lipid profiles. Offer measurement of fasting lipids as early detection of abnormal
levels might prompt dietary change and exercise.
Increased risk of Type II diabetes ~ 40% risk by the age of 40 years. Women should be offered
regular screening for diabetes mellitus
Sleep apnoea is an independent cardiovascular risk factor and has been found to be more
common in PCOS even after controlling for BMI. The strongest predictors for sleep apnoea
were fasting plasma insulin levels and glucosetoinsulin ratios. Women / their partners should
therefore be asked about snoring / daytime fatigue, informed of the risks of sleep apnoea and
offered investigation and treatment.
Treatment of PCOS *
1) Provide an adequate explanation of the syndrome with reassurance with regards to the presence of
ovarian cysts and a discussion of the long term health risks. Manage presenting complaint
2) OBESITY common factor in the majority of women with PCOS. Altered diet (refer to dietician)
and exercise have been shown to be effective
3) MENSTRUAL IRREGULARITY loss of 10% body weight alone may result in a return to
regular ovulation and menses and should be first line treatment. Combined oral contraceptive pill
would result in regular withdrawal bleeds and shedding of the endometrium use a brand with a non
androgenic progestogen or cyproterone acetate. Alternatively, use progestogen such as
medroxyprogesterone acetate for 510 days every 13 months to induce withdrawal bleeds
4) ANOVULATORY INFERTILITY
Optimise woman’s health before embarking on fertility therapy. Refer to specialist.
Weight loss 10% weight loss may result in a restoration of regular ovulation. Improves
physical fitness with normalisation of glucose metabolism and reduced risk of NIDDM in
overweight women
Clomiphene citrate * antioestrogen. Induces ovulation in 7085% of women with a 4050%
conception rate. A maximum of 12 cycles is recommended (Taken on days 26 of cycle).
Treatment should only take place in circumstances which allow access to ultrasound ovarian
monitoring in order to reduce the risk of multiple pregnancy.
Gonadotrophin therapy and metformin can also be used for ovulation induction
Laparoscopic ovarian drilling leads to ovulation in 80% of patients with good pregnancy rates
(4069%). Free of the risks of multiple pregnancy and does not require ultrasound follicular
tracking. Associated risks of laparoscopic surgery.
5) SKIN MANIFESTATIONS: hirsutism, acne, seborrhoea, alopecia, acanthosis nigricans.
Acne present in ~30% of women with PCOS. Primarily affects the face. Treat early to avoid
scarring.
Mild acne treat with topical agents such as azaleic acid, benzoyl peroxide, retinoids
(contraception required) or antibacterial agents such as clindamycin 1% or erythromycin 2%.
Severe acne oral antibiotics such as tetracycline / erythromycin. COCP (use one with non
androgenic progestogen / cyproterone acetate)
Isotrentinion effective in 70% of women with severe acne highly terratogenic agent and
effective contraception is required for 1 month before commencing treatment and for 1 month
after therapy is discontinued.
Hirsutism – see section on Endocrinology & subfertility
CAESAREAN SECTION
Factors reducing the likelihood of CS
Continuous support during labour from women with or without prior training reduces the
likelihood of CS.
Induction of labour after 41 weeks gestation reduces the risk of perinatal mortality and the
likelihood of CS.
A partogram with a 4hour action line should be used to monitor progress of labour of women
in spontaneous labour with an uncomplicated singleton pregnancy at term, because it reduces
the likelihood of CS.
Consultant obstetricians should be involved in the decision making for CS, because this reduces
the likelihood of CS.
Factors increasing the likelihood of CS
Electronic fetal monitoring is associated with an increased likelihood of CS. When CS is
contemplated because of an abnormal fetal heart rate pattern, in cases of suspected fetal
acidosis, fetal blood sampling should be offered if it is technically possible and there are no
contraindications.
No influence on likelihood of CS
Walking in labour
Nonsupine position during the second stage of labour
Immersion in water during labour
Epidural analgesia during labour
The use of raspberry leaves
Active management of labour
Early amniotomy
Classification of urgency
The urgency of CS should be documented using the following standardised scheme:
Category / Grade 1: Immediate threat to the life of the woman or fetus
Category / Grade 2: Maternal or fetal compromise which is not immediately lifethreatening
Category / Grade 3: no maternal or fetal compromise but needs early delivery
Category / Grade 4: Delivery timed to suit woman or staff.
Decisiontodelivery interval for unplanned CS
Perform category 1 and 2 CS as quickly as possible after making the decision, particularly for
category 1
Perform category 1 CS in most situations within 30 minutes of making the decision
Perform category 2 CS in most situations within 75 minutes of making the decision
Rapid delivery may be harmful in certain circumstances.
Preoperative Management
Consent
Ensure the woman understands the nature of the operation including
Type of anaesthetic
Need for catheterisation
Type of abdominal incision
Type of uterine incision
Likely method of skin closure (nonabsorbable / absorbable sutures, staples)
Likely duration of operation, period in recovery and length of inpatient stay
Timing of removal of sutures
Explain the intended benefits of caesarean section
Explain any alternative interventions (for instance continued attempt at vaginal delivery for intra
partum CS)
Discuss potential serious risks. RCOG recommends
Emergency hysterectomy, seven to eight women in every 1000 (uncommon)
Need for further surgery at a later date, including curettage, five women in every 1000
(uncommon)
Admission to intensive care unit (highly dependent on reason for caesarean section), nine
women in every 1000(uncommon)
Thromboembolic disease, 4–16 women in every 10 000 (rare)
Bladder injury, one woman in every 1000 (rare)
Ureteric injury, three women in every 10 000 (rare)
Death, approximately one woman in every 12 000 (very rare).
In general, most obstetricians will not discuss the risk of hysterectomy, admission to ITU or death in
otherwise healthy women undergoing elective caesarean section.
Discuss frequent risks. RCOG recommends
Persistent wound and abdominal discomfort in the first few months after surgery, nine women
in every 100 (common)
Increased risk of repeat caesarean section when vaginal delivery attempted in subsequent
pregnancies, one woman in every four (very common)
Readmission to hospital, five women in every 100 (common)
Haemorrhage, five woman in every 1000 (uncommon)
Infection, six women in every 100 (common)
Lacerations, one to two babies in every 100 (common).
Discuss implications for future pregnancies
Increased risk of uterine rupture during subsequent pregnancies/deliveries, two to seven women
in every 1000 (uncommon)
Increased risk of antepartum stillbirth, one to four woman in every 1000 (uncommon)
Increased risk in subsequent pregnancies of placenta praevia and placenta accreta, four to eight
women in every 1000 (uncommon).
Discuss any extra procedures which may become necessary during the operation
Hysterectomy
Blood transfusion
Repair of damage to bowel, bladder or blood vessels.
Discuss and record any procedures that should not be carried out without discussion
Document any information leaflets provided
Preoperative testing
Healthy women with uncomplicated pregnancies should NOT routinely be offered the following tests
before CS:
Grouping and saving of serum
Crossmatching of blood
Clotting screen
Preoperative ultrasound for localisation of the placenta,
Anaesthesia for CS
Women should be offered regional anaesthesia because it results in less maternal and neonatal
morbidity than general anaesthesia. Induction of regional anaesthesia should be cared for in
theatre because this does not increase women’s anxiety.
To reduce the risk of aspiration pneumonitis women should be offered antacids and drugs (such
as H2 receptor antagonists or proton pump inhibitors) to reduce gastric volumes and acidity
before CS
Women should be offered antiemetics to reduce nausea and vomiting during CS.
The operating table for CS should have a left lateral tilt of 15°, because this reduces maternal
hypotension.
Prophylactic antibiotics should be administered before skin incision. This reduces the risk of
maternal infection more than prophylactic antibiotics given after skin incision, and no effect on
the baby has been demonstrated
Antibiotics should be effective against endometritis, urinary tract and wound infections
Do not use coamoxiclav when giving antibiotics before skin incision
Surgical techniques for CS
Women having CS with regional anaesthesia require an indwelling urinary catheter to prevent
overdistension of the bladder because the anaesthetic block interferes with normal bladder
function.
Double gloves when should be worn when performing or assisting at CS on women who have
tested positive for HIV, to reduce the risk of HIV infection of healthcare professionals.
Opening the abdomen (see abdominal incisions)
CS should be performed using a transverse abdominal incision because this is associated with
less postoperative pain and an improved cosmetic effect compared with a midline incision.
The transverse incision of choice should be the Joel Cohen incision (a straight skin incision, 3
cm above the symphysis pubis; subsequent tissue layers are opened bluntly and, if necessary,
extended with scissors and not a knife), because it is associated with shorter operating times and
reduced postoperative febrile morbidity.
The peritoneal cavity should be opened as high as possible and the opening extended
downwards. The tissues should be transilluminated to identify the bladder and avoid bladder
injury. It should be remembered that the bladder is an intraabdominal organ during labour and
is especially susceptible to injury during second stage caesarean sections
Opening the uterus
After opening the abdomen, the uterus should be checked for dextro or laevorotation. Dextro
rotation is reported to be more common due to the mass of the rectosigmoid colon. However, at
caesarean section, laevorotation is more likely to be encountered due to the mass of the liver on
the right and leftlateral tilt of the operating table.
An ‘extremely vascular lower segment’, especially with longitudinal vessels may be due to
marked rotation of the uterus bringing the uterine vessels anteriorly. Failure to identify and
correct this will result in the uterine incision being made over the uterine vessels
The use of separate surgical knives to incise the skin and the deeper tissues at CS is not
recommended because it does not decrease wound infection.
Lower segment incision (MunroKerr incision)
The lower segment is that part of the body of the uterus below the uterovesical fold of
peritoneum. The attachment of the peritoneum to the uterus is the upper limit of the lower
segment
The peritoneum should be divided 23cm below its attachment to the body of the uterus in the
midline using dissecting scissors and the incision extended laterally.
During intrapartum caesarean section (especially in the second stage), the lower segment may
become ‘ballooned’ and drawn up. Failure to correctly identify the attachment of the utero
vesical fold may result in the uterine incision being made in the vagina.
The bladder is then reflected using blunt finger dissection of the areolar tissue beiween the
peritoneum and the lower segment
A Doyen retractor (or similar) should be used to protect the bladder
The uterine incision should be made 23cm below the attachment of the uterovesical fold
When there is a well formed lower segment, blunt rather than sharp extension of the uterine
incision should be used because it reduces blood loss, incidence of postpartum haemorrhage and
the need for transfusion
The surgeon should be mindful of the risk of fetal laceration especially in the presence of a
breech presentation, ruptured membranes or during intrapartum operations
Closure of the uterus & abdomen
Intraperitoneal repair of the uterus should be undertaken. Exteriorisation of the uterus is not
recommended because it is associated with more pain and does not improve operative outcomes
such as haemorrhage and infection.
The uterine incision should be sutured with two layers using continuous delayed absorbable
sutures. The first layer should incorporate part of the thickness of the myometrium but not the
deciduas. The second layer should then include the rest of the myometrium and should overlie
the first layer
Neither the visceral nor the parietal peritoneum should be sutured. This reduces operating time
and the need for postoperative analgesia, and improves maternal satisfaction.
In the rare circumstances that a midline abdominal incision is used, mass closure with slowly
absorbable continuous sutures should be used because this results in fewer incisional hernias
and less dehiscence than layered closure.
Routine closure of the subcutaneous tissue space should not be used, unless the woman has
more than 2 cm subcutaneous fat, because it does not reduce the incidence of wound infection.
Superficial wound drains should not be used because they do not decrease the incidence of
wound infection or wound haematoma.
The effects of different suture materials or methods of skin closure at CS are not certain and the
longterm cosmetic results do not differ with different materials or techniques.
Vertical uterine incisions
Vertical uterine incisions are typically used
1. When the lower segment is poorly formed – for instance, in extreme prematurity or with
abnormal lies where there is no presenting part over the lower segment
2. When caesarean hysterectomy is planned – for instance, known placenta acreta or cervical
cancer in pregnancy
3. Some cases of major placenta previa
Classical uterine incision
Abdominal incision
Low transverse abdominal incision (JoelCohen) should be used
Uterine incision
The bladder should be reflected as for the lower segment incision
The initial incision should be vertical in the midline, 23 cm long in the upper part of the lower
segment. If possible, the membranes should be left intact to protect the fetus from lacerations
Two fingers of the nondominant hand are inserted through the incision to lie between the fetus
/ membranes and the uterine wall and protect the fetus
The incision is extended towards the uterine fundus in the midline using a scalpel or dissecting
scissors. The incision should be 1012 cm long
Closing the uterine incision
The classical incision is typically closed in 3 layers
Low vertical uterine incision (DeLee incision)
Used when the lower segment is poorly formed, usually in very preterm caesarean sections
The bladder should be reflected in the usual manner
An initial 2 cm incision is made in the lower segment in the midline
One or two fingers are inserted through the incision to protect the fetus and the incision
extended towards the fundus using dissecting scissors. The incision may also be extended
towards the cervix but care must be taken to avoid the vascular plexus at the bladder base
The incision should be closed in two layers
If the incision is confined to the lower segment, the risk of rupture in future pregnancy is
thought to be similar to a transverse lower segment incision
However, if the incision is extended above the attachment of the uterovesical fold of
peritoneum to the uterus, the risk of rupture in future pregnancy is reported to be 410% and
elective caesarean section should be recommended
Delivery of the placenta & PPH prophylaxis
Oxytocin 5 IU by slow intravenous injection should be used at CS to encourage contraction of
the uterus and to decrease blood loss.
At CS, the placenta should be removed using controlled cord traction and not manual removal
as this reduces the risk of endometritis.
Umbilical artery pH should be performed after all CS for suspected fetal compromise, to allow
review of fetal wellbeing and guide ongoing care of the baby.
Women having a CS should be offered thromboprophylaxis because they are at increased risk
of venous thromboembolism.
Presence of paediatrician at CS
An appropriately trained practitioner skilled in the resuscitation of the newborn should be
present at CS performed under general anaesthesia or where there is evidence of fetal
compromise.
Routine monitoring after CS
After CS, women should be observed on a onetoone basis by a properly trained member of
staff until they have regained airway control and cardiorespiratory stability and are able to
communicate.
After recovery from anaesthesia, observations (respiratory rate,heart rate, blood pressure, pain
and sedation) should be continuedevery half hour for 2 hours, and hourly thereafter provided
that theobservations are stable or satisfactory.
If these observations arenot stable, more frequent observations and medical review
arerecommended.
For women who have had intrathecal opioids, there should be aminimum hourly observation of
respiratory rate, sedation and painscores for at least 12 hours for diamorphine and 24 hours
formorphine.
For women who have had epidural opioids or patientcontrolledanalgesia with opioids, there
should be routine hourly monitoring ofrespiratory rate, sedation and pain scores throughout
treatment andfor at least 2 hours after discontinuation of treatment.
Pain management after CS
Women should be offered diamorphine (0.3–0.4 mg intrathecally) for intra and postoperative
analgesia because it reduces the need for supplemental analgesia after a CS. Epidural
diamorphine (2.5– 5 mg) is a suitable alternative.
Patientcontrolled analgesia using opioid analgesics should be offered after CS because it
improves pain relief.
Providing there is no contraindication, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs should be offered
postCS as an adjunct to other analgesics, because they reduce the need for opioids
Early eating and drinking after CS
Women who are recovering well after CS and who do not have complications can eat and drink
when they feel hungry or thirsty.
Urinary catheter removal after CS
Removal of the urinary bladder catheter should be carried out once a woman is mobile after a
regional anaesthetic and not sooner than 12 hours after the last epidural top up dose.
Length of hospital stay and readmission to hospital
Length of hospital stay is likely to be longer after a CS (an average of 3–4 days) than after a
vaginal birth (average 1–2 days).
However, women who are recovering well, are apyrexial and do not have complications
following CS should be offered early discharge (after 24 hours) from hospital and followup at
home, because this is not associated with more infant or maternal readmissions.
Recovery following CS
Women who have a CS should be prescribed and encouraged to take regular analgesia for
postoperative pain, using:
for severe pain, cocodamol with added ibuprofen
for moderate pain, cocodamol
for mild pain, paracetamol.
CS wound care should include:
Removing the dressing 24 hours after the CS
Specific monitoring for fever
Assessing the wound for signs of infection (such as increasing pain, redness or discharge),
separation or dehiscence
Encouraging the woman to wear loose, comfortable clothes and cotton underwear
Gently cleaning and drying the wound daily
If needed, planning the removal of sutures or clips.
Clinicians caring for women who have had a CS and who have heavy and/or irregular vaginal
bleeding should consider that this is more likely to be due to endometritis than retained products
of conception.
Women who have had a CS should resume activities such as driving, carrying heavy items,
formal exercise and sexual intercourse once they have fully recovered from the CS (including
any physical restrictions or distracting effect due to pain).
Clinicians caring for women who have had a CS should inform women that after a CS they are
not at increased risk of difficulties with breastfeeding, depression, posttraumatic stress
symptoms, dyspareunia and faecal incontinence.
Perioperative fluid management
Based on British Consensus Guidelines on Intravenous Fluid Therapy for Adult Surgical
Patients. March 2011
Note that these recommendations are for nonpregnant patients
The normal sodium intake in adults is 70 mmol/24 hours, which should be accompanied by
about 1.5 to 2.5 L (25 to 35 mL/kg/24h) of water
The physiological response to changes in water intake or to a low sodium intake is both rapid
and efficient. However, the response to sodium excess is sluggish and even normal subjects are
slow to excrete an excess sodium load
Chloride ions cause renal vasoconstriction and reduce glomerular filtration rate resulting in
sodium retention
Options for fluid replacement
Crystalloids
Distinction should be made between fluid and electrolytes required for normal daily
maintenance and fluid and electrolytes needed for resuscitation or replacement of abnormal
losses.
Because of the risk of inducing hyperchloraemic acidosis when crystalloid resuscitation or
replacement is indicated, balanced salt solutions e.g. Ringer’s lactate/acetate or Hartmann’s
solution should be used instead of 0.9% saline, except in cases of hypochloraemia e.g. from
vomiting or gastric drainage.
Solutions such as 4%/0.18% dextrose/saline and 5% dextrose are important sources of free
water for maintenance, but should be used with caution as excessive amounts may cause
dangerous hyponatraemia, especially in children and the elderly. These solutions are not
appropriate for resuscitation or replacement therapy except in conditions of significant free
water deficit e.g. diabetes insipidus.
Before any intravenous fluid is prescribed, the following should be considered:
1. Clinical assessment of the patient’s fluid status, i.e. is there a deficit requiring replacement or
does the patient need maintenance fluids only.
2. The nature of fluid deficit (e.g. haemorrhage or vasodilatation, diarrhoea or vomitus, insensible
or renal losses).
3. The type of fluid which will best treat the deficit or maintain euvolaemia
4. The appropriate rate of fluid administration guided by clinical assessment and safety limits
5. The proposed clinical endpoint (pulse, BP, urine output, CVP)
6. Continued monitoring of fluid and electrolyte status.
To meet maintenance requirements, adult patients should receive sodium 50100 mmol/day,
potassium 4080 mmol/day in 1.52.5 litres of water by the oral, enteral or parenteral route.
Additional amounts should only be given to correct deficit or continuing losses.
Careful monitoring should be undertaken using clinical examination, fluid balance charts, and
regular weighing when possible.
Osmolarity Plasma vol
Type Na (mM) K (mM) Cl (mM) expansion
(mosmol/L) duration (h)
Plasma 136145 3.55.0 98105 280300
5% dextrose 0 0 0 278
Dextrose
30 0 30 283
saline 0.18%
Normal
154 0 154 308 0.2
saline 0.9%
Ringer’s
130 4 109 273 0.2
lactate
Hartman’s 131 5 111 275 0.2
Gelatin 4% 145 0 145 290 12
5% albumin 150 0 150 300 24
HES 6%
154 0 154 308 48
130/0.4
Composition of commonly used intravenous solutions. HES (hydroxyethyl starch)
Colloids
Include gelatines, albumin and hydroxyethyl starches (HES)
All have a significant sodium and chloride content
Gelatines have a low molecular weight and are rapidly excreted through the kidneys giving only
shortterm volume expansion.
Normally, 40% of albumin is in the intravascular space and leaks through the capillary pores at
a rate of 5%/h, being returned to the circulation via the lymphatic system.
The flux of albumin increases in inflammatory conditions including sepsis and surgery.
Albumin is generally not used as a volume expander for resuscitation.
Hydroxyethyl starch (HES) preparations have widely differing properties depending on their
average molecular weight, the degree of hydroxyethyl group substitution of the starch polymer
and the C2 to C6 substitution ratio.
With the exception of 5% dextrose, almost all intravenous solutions contain sodium and chloride –
some in near physiological concentrations of 140 mmol/L for sodium and 95 mmol/L for chloride, and
others in supranormal amounts e.g. 154 mmol/L Na and 154 mmol/L Cl in 0.9% (“normal” saline).
Several studies have demonstrated that, in comparison with more physiological solutions such as
Hartmann’s, even healthy subjects find it difficult to excrete solutions with a high chloride content
such as 0.9% saline, which can cause hyperchloraemic acidosis and reduced glomerular filtration rate
Preoperative fluid management
In patients without disorders of gastric emptying undergoing elective surgery clear non
particulate oral fluids should not be withheld for more than two hours prior to the induction of
anaesthesia.
In the absence of disorders of gastric emptying or diabetes, preoperative administration of
carbohydrate rich beverages 23 h before induction of anaesthesia may improve patient well
being and facilitate recovery from surgery. It should be considered in the routine preoperative
preparation for elective surgery.
Preoperative oral administration of solutions of carbohydrate oligomers has been shown in
several trials to attenuate preoperative thirst, anxiety and postoperative nausea and vomiting. It
also substantially reduces postoperative insulin resistance, thereby improving the efficacy of
postoperative nutritional support.
Routine use of preoperative mechanical bowel preparation is not beneficial and may complicate
intra and postoperative management of fluid and electrolyte balance. Its use should therefore be
avoided whenever possible.
Where mechanical bowel preparation is used, fluid and electrolyte derangements commonly
occur and should be corrected by simultaneous intravenous fluid therapy with Hartmann’s or
RingerLactate/acetate type solutions.
Excessive losses from gastric aspiration/vomiting should be treated preoperatively with an
appropriate crystalloid solution which includes an appropriate potassium supplement.
Hypochloraemia is an indication for the use of 0.9% saline, with sufficient additions of
potassium and care not to produce sodium overload.
Losses from diarrhoea/ileostomy/small bowel fistula/ileus/obstruction should be replaced
volume for volume with Hartmann’s or RingerLactate/acetate type solutions.
“Saline depletion,” for example due to excessive diuretic exposure, is best managed with a
balanced electrolyte solution such as Hartmann's.
In high risk surgical patients preoperative treatment with intravenous fluid and inotropes should
be aimed at achieving predetermined goals for cardiac output and oxygen delivery as this may
improve survival.
Hypovolaemia due predominantly to blood loss should be treated with either a balanced
crystalloid solution or a suitable colloid until packed red cells are available.
Hypovolaemia due to severe inflammation such as infection, peritonitis, pancreatitis or burns
should be treated with either a suitable colloid or a balanced crystalloid.
The administration of large volumes of colloid without sufficient free water (e.g. 5% dextrose)
may precipitate a hyperoncotic state.
Intraoperative fluid management
In patients undergoing some forms of orthopaedic and abdominal surgery, intra operative
treatment with intravenous fluid to achieve an optimal value of stroke volume should be used
where possible as this may reduce postoperative complication rates and duration of hospital
stay.
Patients undergoing nonelective major abdominal or orthopaedic surgery should receive
intravenous fluid to achieve an optimal value of stroke volume during and for the first eight
hours after surgery. This may be supplemented by a low dose dopexamine infusion.
Postoperative fluid management
Details of fluids administered must be clearly recorded and easily accessible.
When patients leave theatre for the ward, HDU or ICU their volume status should be assessed.
The volume and type of fluids given perioperatively should be reviewed and compared with
fluid losses in theatre including urine and insensible losses.
In patients who are euvolaemic and haemodynamically stable a return to oral fluid
administration should be achieved as soon as possible.
In patients requiring continuing i.v. maintenance fluids, these should be sodium poor and of low
enough volume until the patient has returned their sodium and fluid balance over the
perioperative period to zero. When this has been achieved the i.v. fluid volume and content
should be those required for daily maintenance and replacement of any ongoing additional
losses.
The haemodynamic and fluid status of those patients who fail to excrete their perioperative
sodium load, and especially whose urine sodium concentration is <20mmol/L, should be
reviewed.
In high risk patients undergoing major abdominal surgery, postoperative treatment with
intravenous fluid and low dose dopexamine should be considered, in order to achieve a
predetermined value for systemic oxygen delivery, as this may reduce postoperative
complication rates and duration of hospital stay.
In patients who are oedematous, hypovolaemia if present must be treated followed by a gradual
persistent negative sodium and water balance based on urine sodium concentration or excretion.
Plasma potassium concentration should be monitored and where necessary potassium
intake adjusted.
Postoperative handling of sodium & water load
For the surgical patient it is even more difficult to excrete a salt and water load and to maintain
normal serum osmolarity for several reasons:
The stress response to surgery causes antidiuresis and oliguria mediated by ADH,
catecholamines and the ReninAngiotensinAldosterone System (RAAS).
Following surgery, even when the serum osmolarity is reduced by administration of hypotonic
fluid, the ability to excrete free water is limited because the capacity of the kidney to dilute, as
well as to concentrate urine, is impaired. Excess free water infusion risks dilutional
hyponatraemia.
If saline is infused, chloride overload accompanies sodium overload, and hyperchloraemia
causes renal vasoconstriction and reduced GFR, further compromising the ability of the kidney
to excrete sodium and water.
In more seriously ill surgical catabolic patients with increased urea production, there is a
reduced ability to concentrate urine. As a consequence it requires two or more times the normal
volume of urine to excrete a sodium and chloride load given in the perioperative period. Sodium
and chloride excretion competes with excretion of nitrogen mobilised by the inflammatory
response to surgery. A large proportion of the administered sodium, chloride and water is
therefore retained as interstitial oedema.
Potassium depletion, due both to RAAS activity and the cellular loss of potassium which
accompanies protein catabolism, reduces the ability to excrete a sodium load.
A sustained increase in systemic capillary permeability allows albumin and its attendant fluid
(18 ml for every gram of albumin) to leak into the interstitial space, thereby worsening
interstitial oedema. This exacerbates intravascular hypovolaemia and sodium and water
retention by activation of the RAAS and secretion of ADH.
Intracellular sequestration of sodium and fluid due to lack of intracellular energy and failure of
the cellular Na/K ATPase pump may occur in trauma, shock and fasting/malnutrition. In severe
cases this gives rise to the socalled sick cell syndrome
In the absence of complications, oliguria occurring soon after operation is usually a normal
physiological response to surgery.
However, a falling urine output is commonly interpreted as indicating hypovolaemia and prompts
infusion of yet more sodiumcontaining fluids. This not only expands the blood volume but also over
expands the interstitial fluid volume, causing oedema and weight gain, as well as causing
haemodilution , resulting in reduced serum albumin concentration and reduced haematocrit.
The response to injury impairs the patient’s ability to excrete the additional saline load, making
interstitial oedema worse, compromising organ function and increasing the risk of morbidity and
mortality.
Confusion may also arise when faced with dilutional or euvolaemic hyponatraemia, both of which are
erroneously taken as indications for more saline
The key question is whether or not the oliguric patient has significant intravascular hypovolaemia
which needs treatment. That can usually be decided on clinical grounds, but in more severe cases, and
particularly intraoperatively, it may necessitate more invasive monitoring.
Clinical signs reflecting intravascular volume include capillary refill, jugular venous pressure, and the
trend in pulse and blood pressure.
Urine output should be interpreted in the light of these clinical signs, bearing in mind the normal
shortterm physiological effects of surgery on urine output.
Nutritional status
Nutritionally depleted patients need cautious refeeding orally, enterally or parenterally, with
feeds supplemented in potassium, phosphate and thiamine. Generally, and particularly if
oedema is present, these feeds should be reduced in water and sodium. Though refeeding
syndrome is a risk, improved nutrition will help to restore normal partitioning of sodium,
potassium and water between intra and extracellular spaces.
Surgical patients should be nutritionally screened, and NICE guidelines for perioperative
nutritional support adhered to. Care should be taken to mitigate risks of the refeeding syndrome.
Potassium is the dominant intracellular and sodium the dominant extracellular cation, but
because in severe illness or malnutrition there is impairment of the Na/K ATPase pump, sodium
tends to move into the cells and K out, a process which is related to surgical mortality.
Refeeding the depleted patient is associated with rapid cellular uptake of potassium and
phosphate and exhaustion of limited thiamine stores leading to the refeeding syndrome unless
appropriate supplements of potassium, phosphate and thiamine are given.
NICE criteria for nutritional support
Nutritional support should be by the safest, simplest, most cost effective approach acceptable to
the patient.
Favour oral over enteral and enteral over parenteral feeding.
Nutrition support should be considered in people who are malnourished, as defined by any of
the following:
1. A BMI of less than 18.5kg/m2
2. Unintentional weight loss greater than 10% within the last 36 months
3. A BMI of less than 20kg/m and unintentional weight loss greater than 5% within the last 36
months.
Nutrition support should be considered in people at risk of malnutrition as defined by any of the
following:
1. Have eaten little or nothing for more than 5 days and/or are likely to eat little or nothing for the
next 5 days or longer
2. Have a poor absorptive capacity, and/or have high nutrient losses and/or increased nutritional
needs from causes such as catabolism.
Guidelines for perioperative fluid therapy
Assess patient’s volume status based on:
Peripheral perfusion
Pulse & BP
JVP / CVP
Urine output
Flow based measurements
Consider insensible losses
Euvolaemia
Provide daily fluid maintenance only
1500 – 2500 ml per 24h
50100 mmol sodium per 24h
4080 mmol potassium per 24h
If oral fluids possible, ensure this is adequate to meet daily requirements and stop iv fluids
If patient has a nasogastric tube, ensure intake adequate to meet daily requirements and stop iv fluids
If iv fluids needed, avoid salt and water overload. Use balanced crystalloid
Hypervolaemia
Assess total fluid intake including drugs and nutrition
Restrict sodium and fluid intake or stop iv fluids
Consider nutritional support
Use diuretics with great care
Hypovolaemia
Consider nature of fluid loss
Replace with appropriate fluid – balanced crystalloid, colloid or blood
Consider rate of fluid administration
Fluid challenge may be appropriate – fluid bolus of 200 ml with monitoring of clinical response
after 15 minutes and further doses if necessary
Keep fluid volume status under review
Management of oliguria
Defined as urine output < 0.5ml/kg/h
Assess woman’s volume status
Peripheral perfusion
Pulse & BP
JVP / CVP
Fluid balance – intake / input minus output / losses (including insensible losses)
Consider possibility of continuing losses like bleeding or vomiting
Consider flowbased measurement of volume status
Hypovolaemia
Consider possibility of prerenal acute renal injury
Consider possibility of continuing losses like bleeding and vomiting
Administer appropriate iv fluid – crystalloid, colloid or blood
Consider fluid challenge
Continue regular review of volume status
Euvolaemia / hypervolaemia
If patient is anuric:
1. onsider postrenal acute renal injury (catheter blocked, renal tract injury or obstruction)
2. Ultrasound scan of renal tract
3. Refer to urologist if renal tract obstruction or to nephrologist if no obstruction
If the patient is not anuric
1. Possible causes are physiological postoperative stress response or intrinsic acute renal
injury (monitor renal function)
2. If euvolaemic, optimize BP and continue close observation
3. If hypervolaemic, restrict fluids or stop iv fluids
4. If oliguria persists for > 24h, consider referral to nephrologist
Postoperative hyponatraemia
Up to 20% of women who develop symptomatic hyponatraemia die or suffer serious brain
damage
Caused by surgical stress resulting in a syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone
secretion and promoting water retention for several days
Women are more affected than men, as a result of their smaller fluid volume and other sex
related hormonal factors
Premenopausal women are prone to brain damage at sodium concentrations below 128 mmol/l
Postmenopausal women do not usually become symptomatic until sodium concentrations have
fallen below 120 mmol/l but may be symptomatic at higher levels if the rate of change is rapid
Ageing impairs fluid homoeostasis and increases the risk of severe hyponatraemia. This is
compounded by chronic diseases and longterm use of drugs such as thiazide diuretics.
The risk of hyponatraemia is further increased by routine infusions of isotonic dextrose. Post
operative patients metabolise glucose almost immediately.
Isotonic dextrose infusions are effectively just water and volumes as low as 34 L over two days
may cause convulsions, respiratory arrest, permanent brain damage, and death in healthy
women
However, postoperative hyponatreamia also occurs even after infusion of nearisotonic
solutions only (sodium chloride, 154 mmol/L, or Ringer lactate [sodium, 130 mmol/L, and
potassium, 4 mmol/L])
Hyponatreamia may also occur in women receiving oral fluids only
The urine is typically hypertonic. Hyponatremia is caused by generation of electrolytefree
water during excretion of hypertonic urine, a desalination process. This electrolytefree water
was retained in the body because of the actions of antidiuretic hormone
Typical features of postoperative hyponatreamia include
1. Hyponatraemia and low sodium osmolarity
2. Persistent excretion of hypertonic urine
3. Otherwise normal renal function (normal urea and creatinine)
4. Normal adrenal function
5. No evidence of extracellular fluid volume contraction (dehydration / hypotension)
6. Improvement of hyponatreamia following fluid restriction
Factors contributing to inappropriate ADH secretion in the postoperative period
1. Preoperative fasting: dehydration results in increased ADH secretion
2. Pain & emotional stimuli: shown to increase ADH secretion. ADH levels shown to be increased
by incision and stimulation of the pleura and peritoneum
3. Haemorrhage: results in reduction of circulatory volume and stimulation of ADH secretion
4. General anaesthesia: general anaesthetics produce an acute fall in GFR and urine volume with
an increase in ADH secretion
5. Drugs: opiates and barbiturates increase ADH secretion
Early symptoms of hyponatraemia
Weakness
Nausea
Vomiting
Headache
Late symptoms of hyponatraemia
Confusion and restlessness
Convulsions
Drowsiness
Eventually, coma and respiratory arrest
Typically, patients have an initial uncomplicated postoperative recovery followed by symptoms of
hyponatraemic encephalopathy
Treatment options
1. Fluid restriction to 1.52 L normal saline per 24h with sodium levels monitored every 2h. The
aim is to raise serum sodium by 12 mmol/l per hour
2. Hypertonic saline may be used but closer monitoring should be undertaken as a rapid rise in
sodium concentration may lead to osmotic demyelination
3. A loop diuretic such as furosemide may be used to enhance free water excretion and hasten the
restoration of normal sodium concentrations
VAGINAL HYSTERECTOMY
Indications
Typically performed for uterine prolapse
May be undertaken as an alternative to abdominal hysterectomy
Relative contraindications
Enlarged uterus over 12 weeks size
Immobile uterus – known endometriosis or chronic PID
Bilateral salpingooophrectomy required
Surgical technique
Patient’s position
Lithotomy
Bladder care
Bladder should be catheterized at the beginning of the operation
Vaginal examination
Thorough vaginal examination to identify size, position and mobility of the uterus. VE will also
identify adnexal / other pelvic masses
Manipulating the uterus
The cervix should be grasped using two Vulsellum forceps or Littlewoods forceps, one on the
anterior and the other on the posterior lip
This is then used by the surgeon / assistant to provide gentle traction on the uterus and
manipulate the uterus to facilitate clamping and ligation of pedicles
Access into the vagina is facilitated by the use of a weighted speculum (Auvard) and rightangle
sidewall retractors or a Sim’s speculum
Subepithelial infiltration
Infiltration of ~20ml of fluid into the subepithelial tissue around the cervix is thought to
facilitate dissection and reduce bleeding
Options include normal (0.9%) saline, a 1:200,000 solution of noradrenaline or a 1:200,000
solution of noradrenaline + local anaesthetic. The anaesthetist should be informed if solutions
containing noradrenaline or local anaesthetic are to be used
The incision
A circular incision is made in the vaginal mucosa at its junction with the cervix
The depth of this incision is crucial to the ease of subsequent dissection. Care should be taken
not to cut through the cervicovesical (pubovesical cervical) ligament anteriorly and the peri
rectal fascia posteriorly
Opening the uterovesical pouch
The assistant pulls downwards on the forceps attached to the cervix
The surgeon pucks up the anterior vaginal wall above the incision with toothed dissecting
forceps to identify the vertical fibres of the cervicovesical ligament which is divided with
dissecting scissors
The bladder is the reflected off the cervix using scissors or blunt dissection
The peritoneum of the uterovesical fold is identified as a white transverse line across the lower
part of the uterus. The peritoneal fold is grasped with toothed forceps and incised with curved
Mayo scissors
Once the peritoneal cavity is entered, the area should be explored digitally to be sure that it is
not the bladder that has been entered and to uncover any unsuspected pathology
The angles of the bladder should then be reflected to elevate the ureters and reduce the risk of
injury
Opening the pouch of Douglas
The assistant now elevates the cervix by pulling the attached forceps acutely up toward the
pubic symphysis. Toothed forceps are used to retract the posterior vaginal cuff, placing the
peritoneum of the pouch of Douglas under tension. The peritoneum is incised with curved
Mayo scissors. The peritoneal cavity is then explored digitally as for the uterovesical pouch.
First pedicle: Cardinal & uterosacral ligaments
The cervix is moved upwards and laterally by gentle traction on the attached forceps
The surgeon’s finger is placed in the pouch of Douglas and moved laterally to identify the
uterosacral ligament with the cardinal (transverse cervical) ligament anterior to it
A curved clamp is placed on these ligaments with one blade underneath the uterosacral
ligament and the opposite blade over it. The clamp is placed immediately next to the cervix so
that some tissue of the cervix is included. This reduces the risk of injury to the ureter from
clamping the uterosacral ligament too laterally
The ligaments are cut on the medial side of the clamp and the pedicle is stitch ligatured
The stitch may incorporate the vaginal mucosa at this point as a mechanism to suspend the vault
and reduce the risk of prolapse
Second pedicle: Uterine vessels
The uterine vessels are clamped as they run just above the uterosacral pedicle at right angles to
the uterus then branch and run up / down along the body of the uterus and cervix
A single clamp should be placed as close to the uterus as possible and medial to the uterosacral
ligament pedicle. This reduces the risk of injury to the ureter which lies just lateral to the uterine
vessels. The uterine vessels are cut and stitch ligatured
Third pedicle: Round and ovarian ligaments
The uterus is now supported within the pelvis by the remains of the broad ligament, the round
ligament and the ovarian / infundibulopelvic ligaments
It may be possible to deliver the fundus of the uterus to facilitate division of these ligaments
The ovarian and round ligaments are clamped simultaneously, cut and the pedicle tied. Stitch
ligature may carry a risk of bleeding from small veins
Closing the vagina
A range of techniques have been described to support the vaginal vault and reduce the risk of
vault prolapse. There is however, little evidence that these are of value
Closure of the peritoneum is not recommended
The vagina may be closed using anteroposterior interrupted mattress sutures. Alternatively, a
circumferential running suture may be used, leaving the vault open
History taking and treatment options for a subfertile couple
Infertility affect both partners therefore, the history should be taken with both partners present.
History
General:
Past medical history:
Female & Male
Sexually transmitted diseases
Chronic medical problems e.g. diabetes
Mumps
HIV/AIDS
Hepatitis B, C
Genetic conditions
Past surgical history:
Female
Tubal surgery
Pelvic surgery
Male
Herniorrhaphy
Torsion / injury
Sexual history
Female & male
Coital frequency and timing
Libido
Knowledge of fertile period
Impotence
Contraception history
Female
Hormonal e.g. depot
Sterilisation
Male
Vasectomy
Menstrual history
Last menstrual period
Regular / irregular
Pain
Obstetrics history
Primary / secondary infertility
Gynaecological history e.g.
Fibroids
PCOS
Infertility history
Female & Male
Previous treatments and outcome
Drug history
Female & Male
Alcohol
Illicit drugs
Prescription drugs
Physical Examination
General: Blood pressure
Female
BMI
Hair distribution
Abdomen:
Female & Male
Mass, tenderness
Groin:
Inguinal hernia, mass
Genitalia:
Male
Site of testicles in scrotum
Varicocele
Structural causes e.g. Hypospadias, Absence of vas
Pelvis:
Female
Hymen,
labia
Vaginal septum
Polyps
Bimanual exam
Smear
General advice for practitioners to give to patients
1) Smoking: Advise patients to stop smoking. Both active and passive smoking is likely to affect
fertility.
2) Alcohol: Limit alcohol intake. Not more than 1 – 2 units of alcohol once or twice per week for
women and avoiding episodes of intoxication. For men, no more than 3 – 4 units per days.
3) Temperature: Advice men to wear loose trousers in order not to increase scrotal temperature.
4) BMI: Encourage women with a high BMI (≥ 30) to loose weight. This improves their chances of
natural conception. Women with BMI ≤ 19 with irregular menstruation should be advised to increase
their weight as this will improve their chances of spontaneous conception.
5) Sexual Intercourse: regular unprotected intercourse i.e. every 2 – 3 days optimises the chances
of pregnancy. Timing of intercourse around ovulation causes stress and is not recommended.
6) Women should be advised to take folic acid 400 micrograms daily and up to 12 weeks of
gestation as this reduces the incidence of neural tube defects.
7) Rubella: women should be screened for rubella immunity and those who are susceptible should
be offered vaccination and advised not to get pregnant for up to 1 month afterwards.
Treatment options for male fertility problems
1) Men with hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism should be offered gonadotrophin drugs as this
improves fertility
2) Surgical correction should be offered to men with obstructive azoospermia
3) Assisted reproductive technologies
Treatment options for female fertility problems
1) Clomefene (anti oestrogen) or ovarian drilling for anovulation in PCOS. Clomefene can be used
for up to 12 months. Metformin not currently liscenced for use in PCOS.
2) Endometriosis: surgical management likely to improve outcome.
3) Tubal surgery
4) Assisted reproductive technologies
Indications for early referral to specialist services.
Earlier referral for further investigation and management should be done even if the couple have been
trying for less than 1 year.
1) When there is a known cause of infertility e.g. following cancer treatment.
2) Women with known predisposing factors such as PID, aged over 35 years, oligomenorrhoea or
amenorrhoea,
3) Women with known chronic viral infections e.g. Hepatitis B and C, HIV.
Overview: Epidemiology and Causes of infertility
Infertility is the inability to conceive after 2 years of regular, unprotected sexual intercourse in the
absence of any known reproductive pathology. 84% of couples fall pregnant after 1 year of trying and
92% after 2 years.
Infertility can cause major psychological distress to couples and it affects 1 in 7 couples in
industrialised countries. There has been no major change in prevalence over recent years but more
couples are aware of the problem and seeking help.
Female fertility declines with age but the effect of age on male fertility is less clear. 94% of fertile
women aged 35 years and 77% of fertile women aged 38 years will conceive after 3 years of trying.
Primary infertility: couples who have never conceived at any stage
Secondary infertility: couples who have had a pregnancy, although not necessarily a successful one.
Epidemiology
About 15% of couples will experience difficulties with conceiving. 50% of these couples will be sub
fertile rather than infertile and the other 50% will remain infertile and will require advanced treatment
to help achieve pregnancy.
Prevalence
Couples who will experience infertility 15%
Couples whose infertility remains unresolved 8%
Couples with primary infertility 4%
Couples with secondary infertility 4%
Causes of infertility *****
Causes of infertility can be divided into:
Lifestyle causes e.g. weight, smoking, drugs
Genetic causes e.g. sex chromosome anomalies
Acquired causes e.g. injury, infection, surgery
Causes of male infertility
Male factor problems are primarily responsible for up to 30% of cases of infertility.
1. Idiopathic / no demonstrable cause 48.8%
2. Varicocele 12.6%
3. Obstructive
a. Congenital
b. Infective
c. Iatrogenic e.g. vasectomy
d. Congenital absence of vas deferens e.g. in some cases of cystic fibrosis
4. Other causes include primary testicular dysfunction (e.g. mumps orchitis), coital dysfunction
(associated with spinal cord injury, medical problems e.g. diabetes, renal failure, multiple sclerosis,
bladder neck surgery). Alcohol abuse and smoking are also associated with subfertility.
Causes of female infertility *****
Female factor problems are be divided into:
1. Tubal disorders
a. Infection e.g. Pelvic inflammatory disease particularly Chlamydia, Gonorrhoea. Risk of tubal factor
infertility is 40% after 3 or more episodes of PID.
b. Tubal sterilisation – 1% of women already sterilised will request reversal
2. Ovulatory disorders especially polycystic ovary syndrome and premature ovarian failure.
Hypothalamic and pituitary dysfunction can also cause anovulation.
3. Endometriosis
4. Unexplained Infertility
Overall contribution of various factors to infertility
Primary (%) Secondary (%)
Male 25 20
Ovulation 20 15
Tubal 15 40
Endometriosis 10 5
Unexplained 30 20
Initial investigation of the subfertile couple
Women with fertility problems should be managed in association with a specialist team as this is
likely to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of treatment and is known to improve patient
satisfaction.
1. Male
Semen analysis
In the UK, low sperm count or quality is found to be the only cause of infertility in about 20%
of couples, and is a contributory factor in a further 25% of couples
Impaired semen quality, azoospermia and inadequate coitus are contributing factors in ~ 50% of
infertile couples.
WHO ‘reference’ values for fertile men should be used. These are only valid for tests performed
in accordance with the WHO methodology.
Semen analysis using the WHO criteria is a sensitive test (sensitivity of 89.6%), but it has poor
specificity (an abnormal test result does not always mean there is a true semen abnormality).
Analysis of repeat semen samples provide greater specificity in identifying semen
abnormalities.
A single sample analysis will falsely identify about 10% of men as abnormal, but repeating the
test reduces this to 2%.
If the semen analysis is normal there is no need for a repeat analysis
The optimal time for the second sample is at least three months after the initial sample because
the cycle of spermatozoa formation takes about three months to complete. However, this may
be associated with anxiety.
If azoospermia or severe oligozoospermia is reported in the initial semen analysis, a repeat test
should be undertaken within two to four weeks. If the repeat test is reported as normal the
semen can be considered normal and no further test is needed. However, these men may need
further assessment of semen quality if assisted reproduction is being considered
Semen analysis should not include screening for antisperm antibodies.
Sperm function tests such as computerassisted semen analysis have not been found to be more
predictive and should not be offered
In 30 50% of men with poor semen quality no cause is identified.
WHO reference values for semen analysis
Semen volume: ≥ 1.5 ml
pH: ≥ 7.2
Sperm concentration: ≥ 15 million spermatozoa per ml
Total sperm number: ≥ 39 million spermatozoa per ejaculate
Total motility (percentage of progressive motility and nonprogressive motility): ≥
40% motile or ≥ 32% with progressive motility
Vitality: ≥ 58% live spermatozoa
Sperm morphology (percentage of normal forms): ≥ 4%
Screening for antisperm antibodies should not be offered because there is no evidence of
effective treatment to improve fertility
If the result of the first semen analysis is abnormal, a repeat confirmatory test should be
offered
Repeat confirmatory tests should be undertaken 3 months after the initial analysis. However,
if azoospermia or severe oligozoospermia has been detected the repeat test should be
undertaken as soon as possible.
The routine use of postcoital testing of cervical mucus is not recommended because it has
no predictive value on pregnancy rate
Definition of semen abnormalities
Asthenozoospermia
Percentage of progressively motile (PR) spermatozoa below the lower reference limit
Asthenoteratozoospermia
Percentages of both progressively motile (PR) and morphologically normal spermatozoa
below the lower reference limits
Azoospermia
No spermatozoa in the ejaculate
Cryptozoospermia
Spermatozoa absent from fresh preparations but observed in a centrifuged pellet
Haemospermia (haematospermia)
Presence of erythrocytes in the ejaculate Presence of leukocytes in the ejaculate above the
threshold value
Leukospermia (leukocytospermia, pyospermia)
Presence of leukocytes in the ejaculate above the threshold value
Necrozoospermia
Low percentage of live, and high percentage of immotile, spermatozoa in the ejaculate
Oligoasthenozoospermia
Total number (or concentration) of spermatozoa, and percentage of progressively motile
spermatozoa, below the lower reference limits
Oligoasthenoteratozoospermia
Total number (or concentration) of spermatozoa, and percentages of both progressively
motile and morphologically normal spermatozoa, below the lower reference limits
Oligoteratozoospermia
Total number (or concentration) of spermatozoa, and percentage of morphologically normal
spermatozoa, below the lower reference limits
Oligozoospermia (Oligospermia)
Total number (or concentration) of spermatozoa below the lower reference limit
Teratozoospermia
Percentage of morphologically normal spermatozoa below the lower reference limit
Causes of azoospermia
1) Hypothalamicpituitary failure: (Hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism). Accounts for < 1% of
male factor fertility. It results in a deficiency of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH), which is associated with failure of spermatogenesis and
testosterone secretion.
2) Primary testicular failure (nonobstructive azoospermia): The diagnosis is based on
reduction in testicular size and elevation of serum FSH levels. It is the most common cause
of male infertility due to oligozoospermia. May be due to:
Cryptorchidism
Torsion
Trauma
Orchitis
Chromosome disorders (Klinefelter’s syndrome, Ychromosome microdeletions)
Systemic disease
Radiotherapy or chemotherapy
Idiopathic (66%)
There is no effective treatment. Men undergoing treatments that cause infertility should be
offered the opportunity to cryopreserve semen.
3) Obstruction of the genital tract (obstructive azoospermia): Prevalence < 2%
Diagnosis is based on normal testis size and normal serum FSH levels.
Causes include
Congenital bilateral absence of vas deferens (associated with cystic fibrosis mutations or
renal tract abnormality).
4) Anejaculation: total failure of seminal emission into the posterior urethra. Rare
5) Retrograde ejaculation: substantial propulsion of seminal fluid from the posterior urethra
into the bladder. Accounts for 0.3–2.0% of male fertility problems
(4) and (5) may result from:
Spinal cord injury
Transurethral prostatectomy – only 7% of men retain ejaculation
Retroperitoneal lymph node dissection
Diabetes mellitus
Transverse myelitis
Multiple sclerosis
Psychogenic / idiopathic disorders
2. Female
Test of ovulation:
Regular cycles are indicative of ovulation. A serum progesterone level of greater than 30 nmol/ml in
the mid luteal phase of the cycle provides biochemical evidence of ovulation. This is usually done on
day 21 of a 28 days cycle. A record should be made of the next period as the mid luteal phase occurs 7
days before the next period. This may therefore be beyond day 21 in patients with longer menstrual
cycles.
Assessing ovarian reserve
Female fertility is related to the ovarian reserve. Ovarian reserve declines from before birth
until the menopause.
The rate of embryo implantation decreases while the rate of pregnancy loss increases with age.
There is a decline in IVF success rates from around age 35 years.
A woman’s age is therefore the most readily measured surrogate for ovarian reserve and should
be used as an initial predictor of her overall chance of success through natural conception or
with IVF
The following can be used to predict the likely ovarian response to gonadotrophin stimulation in
IVF:
Total antral follicle count measured by TV scan on day 3 of cycle ≤4 for a low responseand >
16 for a high response
AntiMüllerian hormone of ≤5.4 pmol/l for a low responseand ≥25.0 pmol/l for a high response
FSH > 8.9 IU/l for a low response and< 4 IU/l for a high response
The following should not be used on their own to predict any outcome of fertility treatment:
Ovarian volume
Ovarian blood flow
Inhibin B
Oestradiol levels
Prolactin measurement
The incidence of hyperprolactinaemia in infertile but ovulatory women is 3.8% 11.5%
There is no significant association between prolactin, progesterone levels and cumulative
conception rates in ovulatory women
Estimation of prolactin levels should be reserved for women with symptoms of an ovulatory
disorder, galactorrhoea or a pituitary tumour.
Thyroid function tests
Thyroid dysfunction can lead to menstrual and ovulatory disorder associated with infertility
Asymptomatic hypothyroidism occurs in up to 7% of the general population and abnormal
thyroid function test have been reported in 1.3–5.1% of infertile women
Subclinical hypothyroidism occurs in 0.88–11.3% of women with ovulation disorders
Women with possible fertility problems are no more likely than the general population to have
thyroid disease and the routine measurement of thyroid function should not be offered
Thyroid function tests should be confined to women with symptoms of thyroid disease
Endometrial biopsy
Lutealphase defect is a defect of progesterone secretion by the corpus luteum or a defect in
endometrial response to hormonal stimulation, resulting in an inadequate endometrium for
implantation
Affects 3–20% of the infertile population and 23–60% of women with recurrent miscarriage
Its role as a cause of infertility has been questioned and the benefit of treatment on pregnancy
rates has not been established
Women should not be offered an endometrial biopsy to evaluate the luteal phase as part of the
investigation of fertility
Assessing tubal damage
Tubal factors account for 14% of the causes of subfertility in women
The results of semen analysis and assessment of ovulation should be known before a test
for tubal patency is performed.
HSG Vs Lap & dye
Among women whose tubes were found to be patent using HSG, 18% were found to have tubal
obstruction or peritubal adhesions using laparoscopy and a further 34% were found to have
endometriosis and/or fibroids
However, the detection and treatment of pathology missed by HSG did not increase live birth
rates
Using laparoscopy as gold standard, HSG as a test for tubal obstruction has a sensitivity of 0.65
and specificity of 0.83
When HSG suggests the presence of tubal obstruction this will be confirmed by laparoscopy in
only 38% of women. Thus, HSG is a not a reliable indicator of tubal occlusion
When HSG suggests that the tubes are patent, this will be confirmed at laparoscopy in 94% of
women, and so HSG is a reliable indicator of tubal patency
Women who are not known to have comorbidities (such as pelvic inflammatory disease,
previous ectopic pregnancy or endometriosis) should be offered HSG to screen for tubal
occlusion because this is a reliable test for ruling out tubal occlusion, is less invasive and makes
better use of resources than laparoscopy
Hysterosalpingocontrastsonography (HyCoSy) Vs Lap & dye or HSG
HyCoSy has good statistical comparability and concordance with HSG and lap & dye, is well
tolerated and can be a suitable alternative outpatient procedure
HyCoSy using contrast agent Infoson® appears to be more efficient than saline solution in
detecting tubal obstruction
Where expertise is available, HyCoSy should be considered because it is an effective alternative
to HSG for women who are not known to have comorbidities
Women who are thought to have comorbidities should be offered laparoscopy and dye so that
tubal and other pelvic pathology can be assessed at the same time
Tubal flushing
Tubal flushing with oilsoluble contrast media is associated with a significant increase in
pregnancy rates compared with no treatment. It is also associated with an increase in the odds of
live birth but not pregnancy rates when compared with tubal flushing with watersoluble media
There are no significant differences in miscarriage, ectopic pregnancy and infection rates
between tubal flushing with oil or water, or between oil plus water media versus water media
only
Extravasations of oilsoluble contrast media into the pelvic cavity and fallopian tubes may be
associated with anaphylaxis and lipogranuloma.
Chlamydia antibodies
The discriminative capacity of chlamydial antibody testing is comparable to that of HSG in the
diagnosis of tubal pathology
Elevated titres of chlamydial antibodies are significantly associated with tubal disease
The titre of chlamydial antibodies has also been reported to be more accurate in predicting
severe tubal pathology than unspecified tuboperitoneal abnormalities
Chlamydial antibody levels are quantitatively related to severity and extent of tubal pelvic
damage. An elevated chlamydial antibody titre is significantly associated with poor live birth
rates, but not pregnancy rates
However, the chance of conception with or without tubal surgery is related to the degree of
damage found at laparoscopy, with the chlamydial antibody titre adding no further diagnostic
value
Assessing uterine abnormalities
Polyps, submucous fibroids and septae are found in 1015% of women seeking treatment for
fertility problems
A causal relationship between fibroids and infertility has not been established
In women undergoing assisted reproduction, the presence of fibroids is associated with a
reduced chance of clinical pregnancy or delivery but the effectiveness of surgical treatment of
uterine abnormalities to enhance pregnancy rates is not established
Women should not be offered hysteroscopy on its own as part of the initial investigation unless
clinically indicated because the effectiveness of surgical treatment of uterine abnormalities on
improving pregnancy rates has not been established
Ultrasound of the pelvis
Can be used in the evaluation of pelvic pathology, such as endometrioma, cysts, polyps,
fibroids, adnexal and ovarian abnormality, where such abnormalities are present
Testing for viral status
The following viral infections have a potential impact on fertility treatment:
HIV
Hep B
Hep C
Rubella
Consideration needs to be given to the risk of viral transmission not only to the mother and
child, but also through laboratory contamination of other noninfected couples’ gametes and
of technicians, and even through storage and manipulation of cryopreserved semen.
People undergoing IVF treatment should be offered testing for HIV, Hep B and Hep C
People found to test positive should be offered specialist advice and counseling and
appropriate clinical management
Screening for Chlamydia trachomatis
Chlamydia trachomatis is present in 11% of the sexually active population aged ≤ 19 years
It is a major cause of PID, leading to chronic abdominal pain, ectopic pregnancy and tubal
factor infertility
The prevalence of C. trachomatis in subfertile women in the UK is 1.9%
Uterine instrumentation may reactivate or introduce upper tract dissemination of endocervical
chlamydial infection, resulting in iatrogenic PID
Clinical pelvic infection following HSG has been reported in up to 4% of cases and in 10% of
patients with tubal disease
Doxycycline or azithromycin are effective prophylaxis and treatment for chlamydia.
Prophylaxis should be considered in women undergoing HSG
Before undergoing uterine instrumentation women should be offered screening for Chlamydia
trachomatis. Women who are found to have chlamydial infection should be treated for the
infection before proceeding. Women should also be referred to genitourinary medicine clinics
so that sexual partners can be traced and treated
Prophylactic antibiotics should be considered before uterine instrumentation if screening has
not been carried out
DNA techniques such as PCR and LCR of cervical and urine specimens are highly sensitive and
specific for diagnosing chlamydial infection
Chlamydial infection has also been implicated in male infertility and it may cause epididymitis
and obstruction
Techniques used in ART
Intrauterine Insemination (IUI):
This involves timed introduction of washed motile sperm into the uterine cavity. The preparation of
sperm removes prostaglandins & bacteria thus reducing the risk of clumping and infection. It also
improves the number of highly motile spermatozoa. Ovarian stimulation to induce multiple ovulations
can be combined with IUI to improve the live birth rate. Pregnancy rate with IUI is about 10%
In vitro fertilisation (IVF):
This involves the mixing of sperm and oocyte in vitro to enable fertilisation to occur. The resulting
embryos are then transferred into uterine cavity. Ovarian stimulation is also carried to induce multiple
ovulations. Follicular development is monitored (ultrasound) oocytes later aspirated under ultrasound
guidance. The oocytes retrieved are incubated with sperm and the resulting embryos are transferred
into the uterine cavity. Live birth rate of IVF is about 25% per cycle.
Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI):
After collection of oocytes as in conventional IVF, sperm is directly injected into the oocyte. The
resulting embryos are then transferred into the uterine cavity as in standard IVF. This method of ART
can be used to treat severe male factor infertility. Men with previous vasectomy or vas deferens
obstruction can have their sperm aspirated and used for this procedure. Live birth rate with ICSI is
about 25% per cycle.
Factors influencing outcome in ART
1. Age of woman: Optimal age range is 23 – 39 years. Highest live birth rates being in the age group
25 – 30 years. Age is the most important single factor influencing ART.
2. Number of previous treatment cycles: Results are consistent for the first 3 cycles but effectiveness
after 3 cycles become less certain.
3. Duration of infertility: there is a significant decrease in ageadjusted live birth rates with increasing
duration of infertility.
4. Past reproductive history: Women with a previous live birth have a significantly higher live birth
rate compared with those who have had no previous pregnancies.
5. BMI: Body mass index of 18 – 30 is a good prognostic factor for success in ART.
6. Alcohol, smoking and caffeine consumption: have adverse effects on ART / pregnancy success
rates.
Summary of July 2006 recommendations of the British Fertility Society for national criteria for
NHS funding of assisted conception.
Previous children
If the couple have NO children they should qualify for funding. If either partner has a child /children
from a previous relationship, they should qualify for NHS funding provided there has been
consideration of the welfare of the child. Childless couples should have priority.
Age of female
No treatment cycle should be started after the age of 40 in the female but treatment funded up until the
40th birthday of the female partner. No age limitation on the use of frozen embryos created during an
NHS funded cycle carried out before the female partners’ 40th birthday.
Age of male partner
Paternal age should NOT be included in criteria for acceptance in NHS programmes.
Previous sterilisation
A history of sterilisation in either partner will normally exclude a couple from NHS funding of
assisted conception or surgical reversal of male and female sterilisation although there may be
exceptional cases where funding is agreed.
Weight
Women with a body mass index of less than 19 and greater than 29 should be referred for advice from
a dietician. NHS funding of their treatment should be deferred until they demonstrate response to
these interventions. Assisted conception may be provided if the BMI is less than 36.
Smoking
Smoking should NOT be an exclusion criterion but patients who smoke should be given advice about
its implications. In addition, all smokers should be given the opportunity to be referred to a smoking
cessation programme.
Previous self funded treatment
NHS funding should NOT be provided to those who have already received the number of NHS funded
cycles currently supported by their PCT.
Same sex couples and single women
Single women and same sex couples should be eligible for up to six cycles of NHS funded donor
insemination treatment provided assessment of the Welfare of the Child has been undertaken in line
with the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority Code of Practice, 2004. After failed donor
insemination treatment or in the presence of an indication for IVF allocation of cycles should be on
the same basis as for heterosexual couples.
In practice, the eligibility criteria across most parts of UK would vary depending on the funding
provided by the primary care trusts. Basic eligibility criteria include:
1. Age: between 23 – 39 years at start of treatment
2. Fertility history: 3 year history of sub fertility
3. Diagnosis: one or both couples have been diagnosed with a fertility problem
Others may include:
1. Weight: BMI 18 30
2. Both couples should NOT have a child
3. Both couples must be registered with a GP
4. The welfare of the child to be born has been considered. This should be considered in both
heterosexual and same sex couples.
5. Neither partner should have previously undergone a sterilisation procedure
6. A limit on the number of attempts at IVF usually 23
OVARIAN HYPERSTIMULATION SYNDROME
• Iatrogenic disorder thought to be secondary to vasoactive products released by hyperstimulated
ovaries
• Pathogenesis is unknown. Associated with increased capillary permeability leading to haemo
concentration, ascites, pleural / pericardial effusions and ovarian enlargement
• Mild OHSS is common (~33% of stimulated IVF cycles) while moderate (3 6%) and severe (0.3
0.5%) OHSS are uncommon. OHSS can occur with clomifene citrate but this is rare
Risk factors
• Young age < 30 years
• Low body weight
• PCOS
• High dose of gonadotrophins
• Large number of oocytes retrieved
• High oestradiol levels on the day of HCG administration
• Pregnancy
• Previous OHSS
Clinical features
• Early onset: 39 days after HCG administration.
• Late onset : 1217 days after HCG administration. More likely to be severe and last longer than
earlyonset OHSS
Diagnosis
There is a history of ovarian stimulation followed by typical symptoms of abdominal distension,
abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting. Diagnosis is mainly clinical.
Severity of OHSS
• Women should be managed according to the severity of the syndrome. Severity may change as the
condition evolves
Mild OHSS
• Mild abdominal pain
• Abdominal bloating
• Ovarian size < 8cm
Moderate OHSS
• Moderate abdominal pain
• Nausea +/ vomiting
• Ultrasound evidence of ascites
• Ovarian size 812cm
Severe OHSS
• Clinical ascites +/ hydrothorax
• Oliguria
• Haemoconcentration (haematocrit > 45%)
• Hypoproteinaemia
• Ovarian size usually > 12cm
Critical OHSS
• Tense ascites / large hydrothorax
• Haematocrit > 55%
• White cell count > 25,000/ml
• Oliguria / anuria
• Thromboembolism
• Acute respiratory distress syndrome
Complications
• Hypoalbuminaemia the ascites fluid is an exudate
• Electrolyte imbalance hyponatraemia with hyperkalaemic acidosis
• Increased thrombogenesis haemoconcentration and immobility.
• Cardiorespiratory failure effusions, ascites and ARDS
• Prerenal failure and multiple organ failure
• Ovarian torsion, rupture / bleeding into ovarian cyst
Management
• Units should have protocols for referral and initial management. Protocols should be available to
referring clinicians and A&E departments
Outpatient care
• Mild / Moderate OHSS may be managed on an outpatient basis
• Analgesia paracetamol / codeine phosphate. Avoid NSAIDS
• Advice to drink to thirst rather than excessively
• Avoid strenuous exercise / sexual intercourse risk of ovarian injury
• Continue progesterone support
• Avoid bedrest
• Review every 23 days measure weight, abdominal girth and pelvic / abdominal scan for ovarian
size / ascites. Blood tests include FBC (including haematocrit), U&E, LFT, serum osmolality, clotting
screen.
• Urgent assessment required if increased pain, abdominal distension, SOB, subjective impression of
reduced urine output.
Inpatient care criteria for admission
• Severe OHSS requires inpatient care until condition resolves
• Admission required for moderate OHSS if pain / nausea not controlled by oral therapy or if close
outpatient monitoring not possible
Management
• History of symptoms abdominal pain / distension, SOB, nausea & vomiting, diarrhoea, calf pain,
chest pain & haemoptysis
• Examination chest (including respiratory rate), abdomen (gentle as enlarged ovaries may be very
fragile), lower limbs
• Investigations: FBC (including haematocrit), U&E, LFT, serum osmolality, Clotting screen.
Abdominal ultrasound scan ascites / ovaries. Chest Xray in women with respiratory symptoms /
signs. ECG & Echo if suspected pericardial effusion
• Treatment supportive. Correct intravascular fluid volume with iv fluids +/ albumin, CVP line
may be required
• Painrelief with paracetamol / opiates. Avoid NSAIDs may compromise renal function
• Antiemetics
• Thromboprophylaxis is essential until discharge.
• Monitoring daily weight and abdominal girth; fluid input / output chart, Pulse & BP 46 hourly;
daily FBC, U&E, LFT, Clotting
• Consider invasive monitoring if persistent oliguria despite initial colloid volume expansion
• Diuretics should be avoided and if used, should be accompanied by invasive monitoring
• Paracentesis should be performed under ultrasound guidance in women who are distressed due to
abdominal distension. IV colloid replacement should be considered in women who have large
volumes of ascites fluid drained.
• A clinician experienced in OHSS management should remain in overall charge
Women should be reassured that OHSS has no adverse effect on pregnancy.
Differential diagnosis of OHSS
Infection – PID, appendicitis
Pregnancy related – Ectopic pregnancy
Complication of Ovarian cyst – torsion, haemorrhage
Intraabdominal haemorrhage
Ovulation Induction *****
Methods of ovulation induction include:
1) Antioestrogens e.g. clomifene citrate
Most common prescribed drug for induction of ovulation. Most frequently used in PCOS.
Acts by increasing GnRH secretion from the hypothalamus. This in turn leads to a rise in FSH
production, which stimulates follicular recruitment and growth.
Incidence of multiple pregnancy is 7 – 10%.
Treatment regimes:
Generally starts at 50mg taken orally once daily for 5 days from day 2 to 6 of the menstrual
cycle.
Ovulation is checked with a luteal phase progesterone estimation or by ultrasound scans.
If no response, daily dose can be increased to 100mg daily and then 150mg.
In addition, advice couple to have intercourse on alternate days from days 9 or 10 of the cycle
for at least 1 week.
Side effects of clomifene citrate *
Hot flushes 10%
Abdominal distension, pain, nausea, vomiting, breast tenderness, headaches, reversible heir loss. 2%
Blurred vision and scotoma 1.5%
Multiple pregnancy
Effectiveness
Pregnancy rate of 20 – 25% per ovulatory cycle has been described.
2) Other antioestrogens
Tamoxifen is similar to clomifene with similar actions and appears to be as effective in
inducing ovulation as clomifene. Data from randomised controlled trials are limited therefore it
is not used routinely in clinical practice.
3) Gonadotrophins
Common indications include failure of response to clomifene or in IVF procedures.
Common gonadotrophins in use include human menopausal gonadotrophin, purified FSH or
recombinant FSH.
4) Laparoscopic drilling of the ovaries
Main indication is anovulation associated with PCOS.
In involves creation of 4 – 10 perforations on the ovarian surface to a depth of 4 – 10 mm using
laser or unipolar diathermy.
Ovarian drilling results in monofollicular ovulation.
This results in reduced risk of multiple pregnancy compared to medical ovulation induction and
OHSS is avoided.
5) Insulinsensitising agents
Most commonly used is metformin.
Used mostly in PCOS and when used as a sole agent in PCOS, it resulted in ovulation in 46% of
women compared to 24% receiving placebo.
When used in combination with clomifene, ovulation was noted in 76% as compared to 42%
receiving clomifene alone.
It is mainly used in those who have not responded to clomifene alone.
Recommended starting dose is 500 mg BD daily with meals, increasing to 500mg TDS daily.
Complications of ovulation induction
Before starting any method of ovulation induction, the patient needs to be informed about the
potential risks. These include
1) Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome
See OHSSS notes
2) Multiple pregnancy
The risk of multiple pregnancy varies from 710% for clomifene to 15 – 20% with gonadotrophins.
With higher order multiple pregnancy (triplets or more), a 1 year survey in UK showed 31% of triplets
pregnancies were spontaneous, 34% from different methods of ovulation induction and 35% were
from assisted reproductive technologies.
3) Putative risk of ovarian cancer
Concerns have been raised about the exposure of the ovaries to supraphysiological levels of
gonadotrophins with multiple ovulation and trauma to the epithelial surface of the ovary resulting in
subsequent occurrence of ovarian cancer. However, the available evidence does not lead to a firm
conclusion for ovarian induction agents with ovarian cancer.
SUTURES
Characteristics of ideal suture
Sterile
Composed of material that can be used in any surgical procedure
Causes minimal tissue injury or reaction
Easy to handle
Holds securely when knotted
High tensile strength
Predictable absorption profile
Minimises infection
Unfortunately, no single material possesses all of these characteristics. In different situations and
tissue composition, the requirements for adequate wound closure necessitate different sutures.
Properties of sutures
The following properties are used to characterise sutures:
Absorbable Progressive loss of mass / volume. Does not correlate with initial tensile strength
Breaking strength Limit of tensile strength at which the suture fails
Capillarity Extent to which absorbed fluid is transferred along the suture
Elasticity Measure of the ability of the material to regain its original form and length after
deformation
Fluid absorption Ability to take up fluid after immersion
Knotpull tensile strength Breaking strength of knotted suture material (1040% weaker after
deformation by knot placement)
Knot strength Amount of force necessary to cause a knot to slip
Memory Inherent capability of suture to return to or maintain its original gross shape. Sutures
with good memory are more difficult to tie and the knots are less secure
Plasticity Measure of the ability to deform without breaking and to maintain a new form after
relief of the deforming force
Pliability Ease of handling of suture material; ability to adjust knot tension and to secure knots
(related to suture material, filament type, and diameter)
Tensile strength Measure of ability to resist deformation and breakage
Tissue drag the friction generated as the suture passes through tissue
Thickness or calibre conventionally described as 'number 1', 'number 2' increasing thickness,
or '0', '2/0' decreasing thickness
Diameter (mm) Size (No)
0.5mm = Number 2
0.4mm = Number 1
0.35mm = 0
0.3mm = 2/0 (00)
0.2mm = 3/0 (000)
Number 1 vicryl is wider than 0vicryl which is wider than 2/0 (00) vicryl....
Suture Classification
Natural or Synthetic. Tissue reaction and suture antigenicity lead to inflammatory reactions
with natural materials
These two classes are subdivided into Absorbable and Nonabsorbable. Suture absorption
occurs by enzymatic degradation (natural) or hydrolysis (synthetic). Loss of tensile strength
does not correlate with rate of absorption. Absorption is increased by pyrexia, infection, protein
deficiency, fluidfilled body cavities and if sutures become wet prior to insertion
Within these, sutures can be monofilament or multifilament (twisted or braided).
Monofilament one strand, less flexible, more slippery, more difficult to handle and knot, knots
need more throws to be secure. Less resistance to passage through tissue than with
multifilament suture. Crushing or crimping can weaken the suture and lead to premature suture
failure. Twisted separate strands twisted around each other easier to handle and knot.
Braided strands plaited very flexible, easy to handle and knot, knots secure. The interstices
of the yarn may provide a nidus for microbes.
ABSORBABLE SUTURES
Catgut
Strands of collagen from sheep / cow intestine; absorbed by proteases
Plain catgut loses tensile strength in ~ 5 days. Used for repairing rapidly healing tissues that
require minimal support, ligating superficial blood vessels, and suturing subcutaneous fatty
tissue.
Chromic catgut coated in potassium dichromate loses tensile strength in 1421 days and
absorbed by 90 days
Cause significant tissue reaction and inflammation and associated with more wound infections
less with chromic catgut
Dexon (polyglycolic acid)
Braided, loses 50% of tensile strength in 20 days, absorbed by hydrolysis at 100120 days, good
knot security
Vicryl (polygalactin)
Braided and causes minimal tissue reaction
Loses 35% of tensile strength after 14 days, 60% after in 21 and 90% after 35 days.
Absorbed by hydrolysis at 6090 days, good knot security
PDS (Polydioxanone)
Monofilament, causes minimal tissue reaction
Loses tensile strength slower than vicryl or dexon 30% at 14 days, 50% at 28 days and 86% at
56 days
Absorbed by hydrolysis at ~ 180 days
Maxon (Polyglyconate)
Monofillament, stronger than PDS but loses tensile strength faster than PDS.
Superior to PDS in lack of tissue drag, tensile strength and first throw knot security, similar in
other respects
Monocryl (Poliglecaprone)
Similar to Maxon but handles better (less memory) and is absorbed quicker (2128 days).
NONABSORBABLE SUTURES
Prolene (polypropylene)
Monofilament
Does not adhere to tissues and is useful as a pullout suture (subcuticular closure)
Knots better than other monofilament synthetic materials
Minimal tissue reaction
Not subject to degradation or weakening and maintains tensile strength for up to 2 years
Polyester fibre (Mersilene/Dacron; Ethibond)
Mersilene/Dacron uncoated; Ethibond coated (with polybutilate)
Multifilament braided
Coating reduces friction for ease of tissue passage and improved suture pliability
Minimal tissue reaction
Lasts indefinitely in the body
Does not weaken with moistening, provides precise consistent suture tension and retains tensile
strength
Commonly used for vessel anastomosis and the placement of prosthetic materials
Silk
Made of raw silk and may be coated with beeswax or silicone
Although classified as a nonabsorbable, silk becomes absorbed by proteolysis and is
undetectable by 2 years
Tensile strength decreases with moisture absorption and is lost by 1 year
Causes acute inflammatory reaction leading to encapsulation by fibrous connective tissue
Nylon
Polyamide polymer, can be monofilament or braided
Commonly used for skin closure
Good handling characteristics but its memory tends to return the material to its original straight
form
81% tensile strength at 1 year, 72% at 2 years, and 66% at 11 years
Stronger than silk and elicits minimal inflammatory reaction
Hydrolyzed slowly, but remaining material is stable at 2 years, due to gradual encapsulation by
fibrous tissue
The incidence of wound dehiscence and hernia is similar for absorbable and nonabsorbable sutures
The incidence of prolonged wound pain and suture sinus is significantly higher with nonabsorbable
sutures
STAPLES
May be absorbable or nonabsorbable
Nonabsorbable staples made of stainless steel and have low tissue reactivity
contaminated wounds closed with staples have a lower incidence of infection compared to those
closed with sutures
Disadvantages include staple track formation, bacterial migration into wound bed and
discomfort during removal
Absorbable sutures are being introduced into surgical practice
GLUE
Tissue adhesives being introduced as an alternative to staples / sutures
Can be biological (fibrin or gelatinbased) or synthetic
Are faster to apply and do not need to be removed
Some synthetic glues (cyanoacrylates) have antimicrobial properties
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS I: Chlamydia *****
It is the commonest STI in the UK.
Chlamydia is an obligate intracellular gram negative bacterium and can only be grown on cell culture
systems.
Involved in about 40% of hospitalise patients with PID.
Commonest preventable cause of female sub fertility
Incidence / Prevalence
Prevalence varies with age and setting of populations studied.
Under 20 yrs 8.1%
2024 yrs 5.2%
2529 yrs 2.6%
Over 30 yrs 1.4%
Prevalence is higher in healthcare settings like GUM or TOP clinics compared to general practice.
17.3% in GUM clinics
12.3% in TOP clinics
10% in family planning clinics
In England in 2007, prevalence was highest in London, Yorkshire and Humberside, the North East and the
North West and rates of infection are still increasing.
Uptake of screening is poor. In a study almost 20,000 women selected from 27 GP practices invited to take
part in Chlamydia screening, uptake was only about 35%.
Aetiology
Various serovars exist:
L1, L2, L3 cause lymphogranuloma venerum,
A, B, C cause trachoma and
BK cause genital tract infection, neonatal conjunctivitis and pneumonia.
Pathophysiology / mode of transmission
Infectious particle is known as the elementary body and it attaches itself to susceptible host cells. It is then
taken up by phagocytosis.
Intracellular form is known as reticulate body. Replicates by binary fission to produce intracellular inclusions.
If untreated, can persist or resolve. Two thirds of partners of Chlamydia patients are positive as well.
Risk factors for Chlamydia infection & other STIs
Age under 25 yrs
New sexual partner in the last year
Multiple sexual partners
Inconsistent use of condoms
Early age of sexual intercourse
Marital status unmarried
Clinical features
70% of women and 50% of men are asymptomatic. If symptoms are present, they include:
Lower abdominal pain
Dyspareunia
Abnormal vaginal bleeding e.g. postcoital bleeding, intermenstrual bleeding,
Abnormal vaginal or cervical discharge. May be purulent.
Dysuria (due to urethritis)
When men are symptomatic, it presents as dysuria (due to urethritis) or urethral discharge
Rarely, patients can present with right upper quadrant pain (perihepatitis) and joint pains (reactive arthritis)
Pharyngeal infections are usually asymptomatic and uncommon.
Rectal infections are usually asymptomatic. It may present as anorectal discharge or discomfort (proctitis)
Signs:
The following may be present:
Pyrexia
Lower abdominal tenderness
Cervical excitation
Contact bleeding cervix
Investigations:
1) Swabs – cervical swabs are best. Consider rectal & pharyngeal swabs as well.
2) Urine sample – if swabs not possible. Variable sensitivity for first catch urine (65100%) In men, first catch
urine is reported to be as good as urethral swabs.
Chlamydia Culture –
Gold standard but expensive therefore NOT recommended for routine use. 100% specific and 6080%
sensitive.
Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) –
NAATS are more sensitive and specific than enzyme immunoassays (EIAs). Positive tests need to be
confirmed by the same or a different NAATs platform. This improves specificity but all positive cases even if
unconfirmed, needs to be treated.
Rectal / Pharyngeal swabs – NAATS are not licensed for use with rectal or pharyngeal swabs. Culture is the
gold standard but NAATs can still be used in the absence of culture.
If Chlamydia test positive, offer screening for other STIs including HIV, Hepatitis B and C.
Treatment
Patients should avoid sexual intercourse until they and their partners have been treated or for 7 days after
treatment in the case of azithromycin.
Option 1
Oral Doxycycline 100 mg BD for 7 days (avoid in pregnancy)
Option 2
Oral Azithromycin 1g start
Good evidence for the above 2 regimes. Follow up for 25 weeks have shown more than 95% NEGATIVE on
retesting.
Option 3
Oral Erythromycin 500 mg BD for 1014 days. In pregnancy, use for 14 days.
Erythromycin is less effective than doxycycline or azthromycin.
Option 4
Oral Ofloxacin 200mg BD for 7 days OR Ofloxacin 400mg once daily for 7 days. More expensive than
doxycycline
Management of sexual partners
All patients with Chlamydia should have partner notification by a trained professional discussed at time of
treatment.
Offer full STI screening to sexual partners
Epidemiological treatment of Chlamydia should be offered.
Complications
Women
Early
Pelvic inflammatory disease
Late
Tubal obstruction with risk of infertility, risk of ectopic pregnancy
FitzHugh curtis syndrome
Men
Early
Urethritis / epididymytis
Reiter’s disease
Late
Urethral strictures
infertility
Follow up
Test of cure should only be offered if non compliance or reinfection suspected.
NHS National Chlamydia screening programme
This is an NHS sexual health programme set up by the Department of health (DOH) in 2003. More than 1.5
million Chlamydia tests have been carried out since the launch of the programme.
The aim is to ensure that all sexually active young people are aware of Chlamydia and its sequelae. It targets
mainly young people under the age of 25 years as this is the group where the incidence of Chlamydia
infection is highest. In addition, it provides access to free and confidential testing to all those interested in the
screening programme.
Unlike the cervical smear screening programme, the Chlamydia screening programme does not operate a call
and recall system. It is mainly an opportunistic screening service aimed at young people.
There are local testing venues across England where information on Chlamydia and free Chlamydia testing is
carried for those under 25 years. Screening venues include both clinical and nonclinical centres.
Local Chlamydia screening office (CSO)
The Chlamydia screening office is the hub of the local programme and oversees the coordination of screening
activities, communication with patients, liaison with NHS staff and the public.
Key office functions:
• All screened individuals receive their test result.
• Arranging/ensuring treatment for all Chlamydia positive patients.
• Arranging/ensuring partner notification for all Chlamydia positive patients.
• Ensure there is adequate geographical coverage.
• Ensuring full core data items are collected on screened patients and submitted to the
relevant health agencies as required. Followup data on the successful treatment of positive patients and
notification of their partners is collected.
• To provide ongoing education and training to participating healthcare professionals.
References
www.chlamydiascreening.nhs.uk
http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/DH_4118418.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS II: Gonorrhoea *****
Incidence / prevalence
Since 1998, incidence increasing in the UK.
In 2007, highest rates in men aged 2024 yrs (174 / 100,000 of the population) and women aged 1619
yrs (137 / 100,000 of the population).
As with Chlamydia, highest rates were seen in London and the North West.
Aetiology
Gonorrhoea is a clinical disease caused by Neisseria gonorrhoea – a gram negative intracellular
diplococcus.
Pathophysiology
Causes intense inflammatory reaction in the fallopian tubes with tubal occlusion from necrotic debris
and pus.
The primary sites of infection are the mucous membranes of the urethra, endocervix, rectum, pharynx
and conjunctiva.
Transmission is by direct inoculation of infected secretions from one mucous membrane to another.
Risk factors for gonorrhoeal infection
Age under 25 yrs
New sexual partner in the last year
Multiple sexual partners
Inconsistent use of condoms
Early age of sexual intercourse
Marital status unmarried
Clinical features.
Presentation varies with the site infected. Pharyngeal infection in both men and women is usually
asymptomatic (greater than 90%)
Symptoms:
Men:
• up to 90% of urethral infections are symptomatic. In can either present as dysuria (up to 50%) and /
or discharge (up to 80%)
• rectal infection in homosexual men is usually asymptomatic but may cause anal discharge (12%) or
perianal/anal pain or discomfort (7%).
Women:
• infection at the endocervix is frequently asymptomatic (up to 50%). Altered vaginal discharge is the
most common symptom (up to 50%).
• lower abdominal pain may be present (up to 25%).
• urethral infection may cause dysuria (12%).
• rectal infection is usually asymptomatic and more frequently develops by transmucosal spread of
infected genital secretions than from anal intercourse.
Signs
Men
Mucopurulent or purulent urethral discharge is the most common sign.
Occasionally balanitis or tenderness of epididymitis may be present.
Women
Lower abdominal tenderness
Contact bleeding – cervix
Mucopurulent endocervical discharge
Cervical excitation
Investigations
1) Swabs – Urethral swabs in men and cervical swabs in women are best. Consider urethral (women),
rectal and pharyngeal swabs if symptomatic at these sites.
2) Urine sample – if swabs not possible. Variable sensitivity for first catch urine (65100%). In men,
first catch urine is reported to be as good as urethral swabs.
3) Screen for Chlamydia as well
Microscopy of gram stained genital specimens – more sensitive in symptomatic than asymptomatic
patients. Allows direct visualization of N. gonorrhoea as gram negative diplococci within
polymorphonuclear leukocytes.
Culture – method of choice in UK and allows confirmatory tests. Cheap, sensitive and specific. A
selective medium is recommended.
Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) – more sensitive than culture and can be used as diagnostic
/ screening test on urine samples. Sensitivity exceeds 90% on genital sites compared to about 75% for
culture. Not licensed for use with rectal or pharyngeal samples but studies have suggested that
sensitivity exceeds 90%.
Treatment
Indications for treatment include a positive test or on epidemiological grounds e.g. if a recent sexual
partner has confirmed gonorrhoea.
Patients should avoid sexual intercourse until they and their partners have been treated. British
association of sexual health and HIV (BAASH) Recommended antibiotics:
For uncomplicated anogenital infection in adults:
Option 1
Intramuscular Inj. Ceftriaxone 250mg single dose.
OR
Oral Cefixime 400mg oral as a single dose.
Option 2 (only when sensitivities are known)
Oral Ciprofloxacin 500 mg single dose (only when sensitivities are known)
OR
Oral Ofloxacin 400mg orally as a single dose (only when sensitivities are known)
OR
Cefotaxime 500mg IM as a single dose (only when sensitivities are known)
Pregnancy and Breastfeeding.
Option 1
Intramuscular Inj. Ceftriaxone 250mg as a single dose.
OR
Oral Cefixime 400mg as a single dose.
OR
Intramuscular Inj. Spectinomycin2g as a single dose.
Management of sexual partners
Partner notification should be pursued in all patients identified with gonococcal infection, preferably
by a trained health adviser in GU Medicine. Treatment of all recent sexual contacts is advised.
Complications
Women
Early
Pelvic inflammatory disease
Late
Tubal obstruction with risk of infertility, risk of ectopic pregnancy
Men
Early
Urethritis / epididymytis / prostatitis
Heamotgenous spread leading to skin lesions, arthritis, tenosynovitis
Late
Urethral strictures
Infertility
Follow up
A follow up appointment needs to be given to confirm compliance with treatment, ensure resolution
of symptoms, assess risk of reinfection and to pursue partner notification and health promotion.
Indications for a test of cure include:
Failure of symptoms to resolve,
Resistant strain identified on culture,
Possibility of reinfection or
Suboptimal treatment.
References
Health protections agency STI Statistics 2007.
www.baash.org.uk BAASH guidelines
www.chs.library.nhs.uk/home
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS III: Syphilis
Aetiology
Caused by spirochete bacterium – Trepanoma pallidum.
Pathophysiology
Transmitted from person to person by direct contact with infectious lesion.
Can be transmitted from mother to child during pregnancy
Incubation period is 9 – 90 days.
Classified into acquired or congenital.
Acquired: primary, secondary, early latent (2 years of infection) and late latent (tertiary including
cardiovascular, neurological and gummatous)
Congenital: early (diagnosed in first 2 years of life), Late (presenting after first 2 years of life)
Clinical features
Primary syphilis: characterised by an ulcer (chancre) and regional lymphadenopathy. It is usually a
single ulcerated painless ulcer. Usually present in the perianal region, genitalia or mouth. In women, it
is usually asymptomatic and discovered on the cervix (speculum exam).
Secondary syphilis: Characterised by multisystem involvement usually within the first 2 years. More
commonly within 1 – 6 months. There is often a macular, papular or maculopapular rash and
generalised lymphadenopathy. Rash typically affects palms and soles of feet. Patchy alopecia,
meningitis, hepatitis, cranial nerve palsies, splenomegaly and anterior uveitis may occur.
Late syphilis: syphilis diagnosed on serological testing with no symptoms or signs. Defined as early if
this is within the first 2 years of infection and defined as late if it is more than 2 years.
Symptomatic late syphilis can be neurosyphilis, cardiovascular syphilis (aortitis) and gummatous
syphilis (inflammatory granulomatous lesions).
Congenital syphilis: Early congenital syphilis includes a rash, condylomata lata, vesiculobullous
lesions, hermorrhagic rhinitis, hepatosplenomegaly and generalised lymphadenopathy. Late
congenital syphilis including neurological and gummatous involvement.
Investigations
Microscopy: dark ground microscopy from the ulcer in primary syphilis or the lesion in secondary
syphilis to demonstrate the bacterium T. pallidum. If initial test is negative, repeat test daily for 3
days.
Serological tests: should be performed routinely in GUM settings.
Nonspecific tests include venereal disease reference laboratory (VDRL) and rapid plasmin regain
(RPR). Used for monitoring treatment and diagnosing reinfection. False positive occur in pregnancy,
mumps infection, herpes and autoimmune diseases.
Specific tests include enzyme immunoassay test (EIA) and T. pallidum haemagglutination test
(TPHA). Used to confirm diagnosis. Remain positive for life even after treatment. Can be positive in
Yaws and pinta.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test: can be used on oral and other lesions but not available for
routine used. Available in reference laboratories.
Repeat screening recommended within 3 months after high risk exposure as in unprotected vaginal,
anal, oral intercourse with homosexual male multiple partners, commercial sex workers, partners from
high prevalence areas.
Evaluation of neurological, cardiovascular or ophthalmic involvement in syphilis
In addition to clinical history and examination and serological tests, consider
CXR
CSF analysis
Neurological imaging
Management
General
Refer to GUM clinic as soon as possible
Partner notification and screening of children
Screen for other STIs including HIV
Parenteral antibiotic is the treatment of choice rather than oral antibiotics.
Advice to refrain from sexual intercourse (anal, vaginal, oral) until lesions of early syphilis are fully
healed or until after the results of the first follow up serology are known.
Treatment
Early (primary, secondary, early latent)
1) Benzathine penicillin G 2.4 MU i.m as a single dose OR
2) Procaine penicillin G 600,000 units i.m daily for 10 days
If penicillin allergy,
1) Doxycycline 100mg BD for 14 days can be used.
Late latent, cardiovascular and gummatous syphilis
1) Benzathine penicillin 2.4 MU i.m weekly x 3 doses
2) Procaine penicillin 600,000 units i.m daily for 17 days
If penicillin allergy,
1) Doxycycline 100mg BD oral for 28 days
Neurosyphilis including neurological or ophthalmic involvement in early syphilis
1) Procaine penicillin 1.82.4 MU i.m daily plus probenecid 500mg oral Q.D.S for 17 days
2) Benzylpenicillin 1824 MU daily given as 34 MU i.m every 4 hours for 17 days
If penicillin allergy,
1) Doxycycline 200mg oral B.D for 28 days.
Late syphilis in pregnancy
Manage as in nonpregnant patients EXCEPT you should AVOID Doxycycline
Early syphilis in pregnancy
Benzathine penicillin G 2.4 MU i.m. single dose in the first and second trimesters. In the third
trimester, a second dose should be given after 1 week.
Management of sexual partners
All patients should have partner notification discussed by a trained professional.
Sexual partners within the last 3 months should be notified in the case of primary syphilis.
Sexual partners in the last 2 years should be notified in the case of secondary syphilis.
Epidemiological treatment of asymptomatic contacts should be considered.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS IV: HPV / Genital warts
Over 80,000 new diagnosis of anogenital warts were made in GUM clinics in UK in 2005.
Caused by HPV of which over 100 genotypes have been identified.
Most anogenital warts are benign and are caused by HPV types 6 and 11.
Pathophysiology
Usually transmitted by sexual contact but transmission can be by autoinoculation e.g. hand to genital
region.
Warts typically appear 2 to 8 months after the infection but may take several years
Genital warts often spread and enlarge during pregnancy, and may complicate labour by bleeding or
obstructing labour
Clinical features
History
Asymptomatic in most cases.
May be associated with irritation and soreness.
Bleeding from urethra or anus may indicate internal lesions
Painless solitary or multiple lumps. May coalesce into a cauliflower shape
Examination
Genital and speculum examination under good lightening
Proctoscopy may be indicated
Females typically at the posterior fourchette and adjacent labia minora. The perineum, perianal
region, vagina and cervix may also be involved.
Investigations
Clinical diagnosis is the key
HPV testing is NOT routinely offered.
Treatment
General
Condom use may offer partial protection.
Screen for other STIs
Consider referral to GUM
Specific
1) Topical treatment with podophyllin, podofilox, 5fluorouracil cream or trichloroacetic acid (TCA)
2) Podophyllin, 5fluorouracil and interferon contraindicated in pregnancy
3) Cryotherapy
4) Electrocautery
5) Laser treatment
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS V: Herpes simplex virus (HSV)
Aetiology
Orolabial herpes caused mainly by HSV1
Genital herpes – caused mainly by HSV2. Historically associated with sexual transmission.
In the UK, genital herpes is equally caused by HSV1 and HSV2.
Pathophysiology
Infection may be primary or secondary. Following primary infection, the virus becomes latent in local
sensory ganglia and intermittently gets reactivated to cause symptomatic reinfection.
Incubation period is 1 – 2 weeks. Active lesions indicate viral shedding and high infectivity.
Prior infection with HSV1 modifies the clinical presentation of HSV2.
Clinical features
Symptoms
• may be asymptomatic.
• painful ulceration, dysuria.
• fever and myalgia.
• Vaginal discharge.
• tingling may occur in the area prior to ulceration.
Signs
• Blisters and ulceration of affected area
• Tender inguinal lymphadenitis.
Investigations
Diagnosis is mainly clinical
Viral detection: swabs taken from the base of the lesion and analysed by PCR.
Serology: serological test for HSV1 & 2 IgG can be used to indicate HSV infection. If negative at the
onset, a repeat sample if positive in 3 weeks would indicate seroconversion.
Treatment
General
Analgesia
Saline bathing
Topical anaesthetic agents may be useful
Screen for other STIs
Specific
Oral antiviral drugs are indicated within 5 days of the start of the infection or whilst new lesions are
still forming.
Recommended regimens include:
Aciclovir 200 mg five times daily for 5 days OR
Aciclovir 400 mg three times daily doe 5 days OR
Valaciclovir 500 mg twice daily for 5 days OR
Famciclovir 250 mg three times daily for 5 days.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS VI: Bacterial vaginosis *****
Commonest cause of abnormal vaginal discharge in women of child bearing age.
Prevalence is about 5 – 50% depending on population studied. It is about 30% in women undergoing
termination of pregnancy and about 12% in pregnant women attending antenatal clinics.
BV is NOT a sexually transmitted disease.
Aetiology / Pathophysiology
There is an alteration in the vaginal microbial environment with a reduction in Lactobaccilus sp and
an increase in facultative and anaerobic bacteria G. vaginalis / Bacteroides sp / Mobiluncus sp).
Associated with increased vaginal pH to 4.57.0. Douching is associated with an increased risk of BV.
Clinical features
History
50% asymptomatic
Offensive fishy smelling vaginal discharge
Not usually associated with irritation or itching.
Signs
Vaginal discharge thin white or grey homogenous and may be offensive
Investigations
Fishy odour on addition of 10% potassium hydroxide to discharge
Presence of clue cells on wet mount of discharge
pH greater than 4.5
Diagnosis can also be made on gram stain
Complications / associations
Associated with preterm labour / delivery, chorioamnionitis and postpartum endometritis.
Screening
In women with previous preterm delivery, screening and treating for BV reduces the risk of preterm
delivery. Screening not shown to be effective in low risk women.
Management
General
Advice against douching, use of shower gel or antiseptic products in the bath.
STD contact tracing NOT routinely undertaken in the absence of other STD
Treatment
This should be offered if symptomatic or patient undergoing a surgical procedure. Recommended
regimes include:
Metronidazole 400500 mg BD for 57 days or
Metronidazole 2 g single dose.
Alternative regimens
Intravaginal metronidazole gel (0.75%) once daily for 5 days or
Intravaginal clindamycin cream (2%) once daily for 7 days or
Clindamycin 300 mg BD for 7 days
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS VII: Vulvovaginal candidiasis
Over 70% of women will suffer from vulvovaginal candidiasis in their lifetime.
Aetiology
Candida albincans 80 – 92 %
Nonalbicans spp e.g. C.glabrata, C.tropicalis
Pathophysiology
Candida can be found as a commensal organism in the vagina.
10 – 20% of women during reproductive years may be colonised with Candida spp but remain
asymptomatic.
Broad spectrum antibiotics and immunosupression increase risk of developing Candida infection.
It may or may not be sexually transmitted.
Clinical features
History
Vulval itch and soreness
Vaginal discharge which may be thick, curdy and white
Superficial dyspareunia
Dysuria
Signs
Erythema and fissuring
Vaginal discharge which may be thick curdy and white
Satellite lesions
Vulval oedema.
None of the above symptoms and signs are pathognomic of vulvovaginal candidiasis and other vulval
conditions need to be excluded.
Investigations
Vaginal swab taken from the anterior fornix and sent for microscopy and culture
pH of vagina 4.0 – 4.5
Treatment
General
Avoid tight fitting synthetic clothing
Avoid local irritants e.g. perfumed products
Specific
Topical or oral azole compounds e.g. clotrimazole, miconazole give a cure rate of over 80%.
Efficacy similar across the different types of azole compounds
In pregnancy, treat if symptomatic. No evidence to suggest asymptomatic women need to be treated.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS VIII: Pelvic inflammatory disease
Definition
Inflammation caused by infection of the upper genital tract endometrium (endometritis), fallopian
tubes (salpingitis), ovary (oophritis), uterine serosa and broad ligament (parametritis) and the pelvic
peritoneum.
Chronic PID is now rarely used as the chronic sequelae of acute PID (adhesions / hydrosalpinx) are
bacteriologically sterile. Only infections with rare organisms such as TB and actinomycosis cause
chronic PID.
•85% are spontaneous infections in sexually active women caused by ascending microbes from
vaginal and cervical flora
•15% follow invasive procedures which disrupt cervical mucus barrier termination of pregnancy,
insertion of IUD, endometrial biopsy / curettage, hysteroscopy
•<1% of infections result from transperitoneal spread from perforated appendix / intraabdominal
abscess
Microbiology
•Polymicrobial infection. Most common agents include:
Chlamydia Trachomatis
Neisseria Gonorrhoea
•Nongonococcal, nonchlamydial agents include:
Anaerobes (Bacteriodes / Peptostreptococcus),
G. Vaginalis,
Coliforms,
Haemolytic and nonhaemolytic streptococci
Mycoplasma
Risk factors
•Age – incidence of PID decreases with advancing age 75% occur in women < 25 years old. A
diagnosis of PID in a postmenopausal woman should prompt a search for genital tract malignancy /
diabetes mellitus / concurrent GI disease
•Early age at first sexual intercourse
•Multiple sexual partners
•Marital status – more common in single than married
•Contraception IUCD use greatest risk of PID is in the first three weeks after insertion. Thereafter,
increased risk related to lifestyle.
•Previous PID
•Frequent vaginal douching associated with a 34 fold increase in risk of PID
•Instrumentation of the upper genital tract
•Smoking
Clinical features
History
•There is a wide range of nonspecific symptoms bilateral lower abdominal pain increased on
movement (commonest presentation), deep dyspareunia, dysmenorrhoea, intermenstrual bleeding,
menorrhagia, abnormal vaginal discharge, frequency and dysuria; nausea, vomiting, malaise, fever.
•Atypical / silent PID relatively asymptomatic upper genital tract infection, associated with
Chlamydia. Repeated infections lead to tubal infertility and ectopic pregnancy. Now thought that
silent PID outnumbers clinically apparent cases by 3:1
Examination
• Pyrexia (greater than 38oC), tachycardia, lower abdominal tenderness, guarding and rebound
tenderness; cervical excitation, bilateral adnexal tenderness and presence of adnexal mass
•Clinical diagnosis has a high false positive and false negative rate. However, because of longterm
sequelae, diagnosis should be made and treatment instituted with minimum suspicion
Investigations
•ESR and CRP not always raised and are nonspecific. CA125 raised in PID
•Ultrasonography is of limited value in mild to moderate PID helpful in documenting adnexal mass
or in women who are too tender to allow effective clinical assessment. Should not routinely be
ordered in women with acute disease
•Laparoscopy is gold standard for diagnosis. However, 1530% of suspected cases may have no
laparoscopic evidence of acute infection despite organisms being isolated from the fallopian tubes.
Only 17% of laparoscopically diagnosed cases of PID have the classic triad of fever, raised ESR/CRP
and adnexal tenderness or mass
Differential diagnosis
• Complication of ovarian cysts e.g. torsion, rupture, haemorrhage
• Acute appendicitis
• Adnexal torsion
• Ectopic pregnancy
• Bleeding corpus luteum
• Endometriosis
• Urinary tract infection
Treatment
Criteria for referral to hospital for inpatient management
1) surgical emergency cannot be excluded
2) clinically severe disease
3) tuboovarian complex or abscess
4) lack of response to oral therapy
5) Intolerance to oral therapy
Antibiotics
Outpatient treatment:
● oral ofloxacin 400 mg twice daily + oral metronidazole 400 mg twice daily for 14 days
● i.m. ceftriaxone 250 mg single dose followed by oral doxycycline 100 mg twice daily +
metronidazole 400 mg twice daily for 14 days.
Reassess patient after 72h therapy to evaluate response. A further review at 46 weeks may be useful
to ensure complete resolution of symptoms, compliance with therapy and to discuss contact tracing if
not already done.
Inpatient treatment:
Continue for 24 hrs after clinical improvement and change to oral therapy.
RCOG Recommended regimens are:
● IV ceftriaxone 2 g daily + IV/PO doxycycline 100 mg BD, followed by oral doxycycline 100 mg
BD + oral metronidazole 400 mg BD for 14 days
● IV clindamycin 900 mg TDS + IV gentamicin, followed by either
oral clindamycin 450 mg QDS to complete 14 days OR
oral doxycycline 100 mg BD + oral metronidazole 400 mg BD to complete 14 days.
● IV ofloxacin 400 mg twice daily + IV metronidazole 500 mg TDS for 14 days
Long term sequelae
• Recurrent acute PID occurs in 25% of women with PID, treatment of male partner / appropriate
contraception important
• Ectopic pregnancy ~50% occur in fallopian tubes previously damaged by salpingitis
• Chronic pelvic pain subsequently occurs in ~20% of women with PID (5% general population)
• Deep dyspareunia
• Infertility 10% risk of tubal infertility after one episode, 20% and 40% risk after two and three or
more episodes respectively.
Genital ulceration list of differential diagnosis
The common causes of genital ulceration can be summarised as follows:
1)Noninfective
a. Lichen sclerosis
b. Lichen planus
c. Trauma
d. Aphthous ulcers
e. Systemic disease e.g. Crohn’s disease, Behcet’s disease
f. Drugs
e. Eczema / dermatitis
f. Malignancy
2) Infective
a. Herpes simplex
b. Syphilis – primary and secondary
c. Chancroid
d. Tuberculosis
e. Severe candidiasis (immunocompromised women)
f. Lymphogranuloma venereum
Vaginal discharge list of differential diagnosis
The common causes of vaginal discharge can be summarised as follows:
1) Noninfective
a. Physiological
Puberty
Sexual activity
Pregnancy
Menstrual cycle
b. Pathological
Foreign bodies e.g. Tampons
Chemical irritation
Allergy
Gynaecological
Cervical ectropiom
Polyps
Trauma
Neoplasia
Fistulae
Retained products of conception
2) Infective
a. Candidiasis
b. Bacterial vaginosis
c. Betahaemolytic streptococcus
d. Sexually transmitted diseases
Chlamydia
Neisseria gonorrhoea
Cervical herpes (primary infection)
Trichomonas vaginalis
VAGINAL BLEEDING IN PREGNANCY
Overview
Causes
Early Pregnancy related
Ectopic pregnancy
Miscarriage
Molar pregnancy
Cervical ectropion
Late Pregnancy related
Placenta previa
Placental abruption
Preterm labour / Show
Cervical ectropion
Vasa previa
Nonpregnancy related
Infections
Neoplasms (mainly cervical)
Genital tract trauma
MANAGEMENT
History
Demographic details
LMP & gestation age. Date of first pregnancy test
Bleeding: date & time of onset, amount (clots, clothes / bedding soaked, blood extending to
feet, feeling faint / dizzy), precipitating factors (sexual intercourse, trauma), passage of tissue or
bloodstained mucus
Associated abdominal pain: site, severity, type (constant or colicky), aggravating & relieving
factors
Vaginal discharge or ‘watery loss’ – second / third trimester
History of current pregnancy including ultrasound scans confirming intrauterine pregnancy or
placental localisation
Past obstetric history including previous ectopic pregnancy, miscarriage, preterm delivery,
placental abruption
Past gynaecological history including cervical smear history
Past medical & surgical history; drug history
Social history including smoking, alcohol and support network
Systematic enquiry
Examination
Assess airway, breathing and circulation (P, BP, resp)
Assess and quantify overt bleeding
Abdominal examination:
Early pregnancy
Inspect: Distension / mass; scars
Palpate: Mass – site, size, shape, mobility, consistency, tenderness
Abdominal tenderness, guarding, rebound tenderness
Auscultate: Fetal heart if > 12 weeks pregnant
Vaginal examination
Early pregnancy
Speculum:
Condition of vulva and vagina
Active bleeding
Clots or tissue in vagina or cervical os
State of cervix (os open or closed; presence of cervical lesion such as ectropion, cervicitis, polyp,
mass)
VE:
Uterine size, shape, position, consistency, tenderness, mobility
Presence of adnexal mass (size, shape, tenderness, mobility)
Adnexal tenderness
Cervical excitation
Abdominal examination
Late pregnancy
Inspect: Abdominal distension, scars, striae gravidarum, linea nigra, fetal movements
Palpate: Simphysis – fundal height, uterine shape, consistency, tenderness, presence of
palpable uterine activity. Fetal lie, presentation, position, engagement.
Auscultate: Fetal heart
Vaginal examination
Late pregnancy
Speculum
Condition of vulva and vagina
Active bleeding
Clots in vagina
State of cervix (cervix shortened, os dilated or closed; presence of cervical lesion such as ectropion,
cervicitis, polyp, mass)
VE:
Avoid until placenta previa has been excluded
Cervical length, consistency, position and dilatation.
Station of the presenting part
Investigations
Early pregnancy
Urine pregnancy test
FBC, Group & save or crossmatch
Vaginal, endocervical and urethral swabs for infection
Transvaginal ultrasound scan – pregnancy location and viability
Serial quantitative serum betaHCG if ectopic pregnancy suspected
Late pregnancy
FBC, Group & save or crossmatch
Clotting screen if severe bleeding
Kleihauer test
LFT, Urea, creatinine & urate if hypertensive
Fetal monitoring using CTG
Ultrasound scan for placental localisation if unknown
CONTRACEPTION I: Basic principles of contraceptive use *****
A contraceptive is a method or device that deliberately serves to prevent pregnancy.
The “ideal” contraceptive would be:
Guaranteed to protect against pregnancy
Without danger of serious side effects
Without danger of nuisance side effects
Effective immediately
Quickly reversible
Acceptable from user’s cultural and personal point of view
In practice, there is NO ideal contraceptive and most methods have advantages and disadvantages.
There are various methods of contraception available. These can be grouped into:
Hormonal methods:
1) Combined contraceptive – contains both oestrogen & a progestogen
Combined oral contraceptive pills (COCP)
Combined contraceptive patch
Combined contraceptive vaginal ring
2) Progestogen based methods;
Progestogen only pills
Progestogen only subdermal implants
Progestogen only injectables
Progestogen containing intrauterine system e.g. mirena
Non Hormonal methods:
1) Barrier methods e.g.
Condoms,
Diaphragms
Caps
2) Natural methods e.g.
Persona,
Coitus interruptus,
Lactational amenorrhoea method,
3) Intrauterine device e.g.
Copper intrauterine device (CuIUD)
4) Sterilisation – Male & female
Contraception uptake in UK in women aged 1649 yrs:
Oral contraception 25%
Male / female sterilisation 24%
Sheath 18%
IUCD 4%
Progestogen only injectables 3%
Definitions
Pearl index * – This is used to measure the efficacy of a contraceptive method. It is the number of
pregnancies per 100 women years of use. (i.e. number of pregnancies in 100 women using the method
over one year).
Effectiveness – the extent to how good a method is in preventing pregnancy with regular use.
Theoretical effectiveness – that which is obtained under ideal circumstances but is hardly ever
achieved in clinical practice
User effectiveness – that which is obtained in actual clinical practice
Method failure – failure inherent to the method itself
User failure – failure due to user error or not using the method adequately
Typical use (user and method failure)
UKMEC (United Kingdom medical eligibility criteria) for contraceptive use *****
This is a classification that provides evidenced based guidelines to clinicians and patients to help
select the appropriate method of contraception without imposing significant health risks or posing
unnecessary restrictions.
There are 4 categories:
UKMEC 1 – unrestricted use of a method
UKMEC 2 – the benefits of using the method outweighs the theoretical risks
UKMEC 3 – risks outweighs the benefits of using the method. It can still be considered and
decision about use requires clinical judgement and / or referral to a specialist contraceptive
provider
UKMEC 4 – unacceptable health risks or absolute contraindications
CONTRACEPTION III:
HISTORY AND EXAMINATION
Focused history and examination needs to be taken when assessing patients requesting contraception.
General points to be considered are listed below.
History
General – Age. (If under 16, is she Frazer competent?)
Details about request for contraception – reasons for wanting contraception. Short or long
term? Understanding of the different type of contraception,
Past Medical History – exclude condition in UKMEC 3 or 4. See notes in contraception II.
Social History – is her family complete? Future plans to have children, attitude of her partner
towards contraception, smoking habits,
Sexual History – number of sexual partners, frequency of sexual intercourse, STI risk
assessment, symptoms of STIs,
Contraceptive History – previous contraceptive use and reasons for discontinuing it,
compliance with previous contraceptive, duration of use
Gynae History – menstrual history including dysmenorrhoea, fibroids, smear history and
results. Exclude pregnancy
Obstetrics History – Time of last delivery and breastfeeding. If so, is she exclusively
breastfeeding? Reproductive intentions.
Drug History – prescription and non prescription drugs antibiotics, antifungals,
anticonvulsants, St. Johns woth and illicit drug use (associated with high risk sexual behaviour)
Allergies – check for latex allergies. May need barrier methods
Physical Examination
General – Blood pressure, weight/BMI,
Signs of any condition in UKMEC 3 or 4
Investigations
Pregnancy test if indicated
Thrombophilia screen NOT routinely recommended
Offer STI screening if appropriate
Other tests will depend on history and if needed to exclude conditions in UKMEC 3 or 4.
Counselling – General *****
Exclude pregnancy
Ensure appropriate method for woman in relation to compliance and lifestyle
Offer alternatives
Discuss benefits (non contraceptive) and risks of methods
Teach pill taking including missed pills (if patient chooses pill method)
Give information of safe sex
Provide written information / helpline
Teach on side effects to look out for
Make appointment for review
Factors influencing contraceptive choices
1) Effectiveness of the contraceptive method
2) Need for short or long term contraception
3) Previous experience with other methods
4) Presence of other medical conditions e.g. stroke, diabetes
5) Clinicians knowledge and preference
6) Simplicity of use
7) General public perception of the benefits / risks of the method
8) Availability of method
9) Whether it interferes with sexual intercourse
10) Whether it is acceptable to ones religion or values
PROGESTOGEN ONLY PILLS (POP) *****
Types
POPs commonly available in the UK are as follows:
Brand name Progestogen and dose
Cerazette 75µg desogestrel
Femulen 500 µg etynodiol diacetate
Noriday 350 µg norethisterone
Micronor 350 µg norethisterone
Norgeston 30 µg Levonorgestrel
Mechanisms of action
Primary effect thickening of cervical mucous and reducing sperm penetrability
Primary effect of cerazette by suppressing ovulation (97% of cycles on desogestrel are
anovulatory)
Other POPs suppress ovulation to a variable extent (60% of cycles on levonogestrel only pill
are anovulatory.)
Reduces endometrial receptiveness
Reduces fallopian tube motility
Efficacy
Daily pill taking around same time of day (within 3 hrs) or (within 12 hrs for cerazette)
Failure rate for traditional POPs vary from 0.3 to 0.8 / 100 women years
Cerazette – pearl index 0.41 / 100 woman years
Efficacy increases with age particularly after 40 yrs
No evidence to suggest reduced efficacy in women > 70 kg therefore licensed use of 1 pill / day
is recommended
No evidence that one POP is more effective than another
Advantages
Contraceptive benefits
Effective see notes on efficacy above
Reversible
No delay in return of fertility
Everyday regime may help compliance with some patients
Non contraceptive benefits (including Cerazette)
Endometriosis – may improve symptoms
Primary dysmenorrhoea – inhibits ovulation therefore can relieve primary dysmenorrhoea
Premenstrual tension inhibits ovulation therefore cyclical changes
Can be used when oestrogens pose a significant health risk e.g. smokers over 35 yrs, diabetics
with vascular complications,
Side effects / disadvantages
General progestogenic side effects:
Bloating
Amenorrhoea
Breast tenderness
Acne
Decreased libido
Mood swings can occur but no evidence it causes depressions
Vaginal dryness
Weight gain – though weight gain has been documented, there is NO evidence of a causal
association between POP use and weight gain (FSRH Nov 2008 guidance)
Increased risk of ectopic if becomes pregnant whilst on the pill
Needs to be taken around same time every day (3 hr window of safety or 12 hrs for cerazette)
Managing complications – irregular bleeding
Exclude
1. Sexually transmitted infections
2. Cervical causes of bleeding e.g. cervicitis, polyps
3. Pregnancy complications e.g. ectopic
Consider increasing dose of progestogen though there is no evidence, it may work for some
individuals
Consider changing to a COCP if no contraindications
CONTRACEPTION IV:
Combined oral contraceptive pills (cocp) *****
Types
Contains 2 hormones i.e. ethinyloestradiol and a progestogen. Various doses of oestrogen component:
Higher doses 50 micrograms ethinyloestradiol
Standard 3035 micrograms ethinyloestradiol
Lower doses 20 micrograms ethinyloestradiol
Various progestogens
2nd generation e.g. norethisterone, Levonorgestrel
3rd generation e.g. desogestrol, gestodene, cyproterone acetate,
Spironolactone derivatives – drospirenone
Can be monophasic, biphasic or triphasic depending on the variation of doses of each component of
the pill throughout a pack
Oestrogen Progestogen
Monophasic pills e.g.
Loestrin 20 20 1 mg norethisterone
Loestrin 30 30 1.5 mg norethisterone
Ovranette 30 0.15 mg Levonorgestrel
Microgynon 30 0.15 mg Levonorgestrel
Femodette 20 0.075 mg gestodene
Cilest 35 0.25 mg norgestimate
Biphasic pills
Binovum 35 0.5mg for 7 days
35 1 mg for 14 days
Triphasic pills
Synphase 35 0.5 mg for 7 days
35 1 mg for 9 days
35 0.5 mg for 5 days
Mechanism of action & efficacy
Primarily by inhibiting ovulation. Inhibits LH surge and FSH secretion.
Progestogen component has some effects on cervical mucous and endometrial thinning
1st 7 pills inhibit ovulation. Remaining 14 pills maintain anovulation
Pearl index with Perfect use 0.1 per 100 woman years
Advantages / benefits
Contraceptive benefits
Effective contraception – see efficacy and pearl index
Reversible
No delay in return of fertility
Convenient to take. Does not interrupt coitus.
Non contraceptive benefits
Colorectal & Gynaecological tumours
COCP associated with a reduction in risk of colorectal cancer
Halving the risk of endometrial and ovarian cancers.
Reduced incidence of functional ovarian cysts and benign ovarian tumours
Reduction in risk of BENIGN breast disease.
Control of menstrual irregularities
Treatment of dysmenorrhoa.
Treatment of menorrhagia COCP reduce menstrual blood flow by up to 43%
Lower incidence of anaemia in menstruating women because of reduction in blood flow.
Some benefits in women with pre menstrual tension.
Reduction in risk of ectopic pregnancy all forms of contraception reduce risk of ectopic.
Acne e.g. dianette improves skin conditions
Endometriosis. Some women will get improvement in pelvic pain.
PID – conflicting data but it may reduce risk of acute PID
Disadvantages / risks / side effects
Disadvantages
May pose a serious health risk to some women.
Requires motivation to take daily pills or daily pills for 3 out of 4 weeks
Oestrogenic side effects
Headaches
Nausea
Breast tenderness
Increase in vaginal discharge
Risks
VTE
Increased risk of VTE compared to non users. Risk higher with higher doses of oestrogen
Circumstance Risk of VTE per 100,000 woman years
Non pregnant non COCP user 5
COCP user (Levonorgestrel or norethisterone
Containing pills / 2nd Generation) 15
COCP user (gestodene or desogestrel containing 25
Pills / 3rd generation)
Pregnancy 60
Cervical cancer
Increased risk of cervical cancer compared to non users. Small increase after 5 yrs of use and 2 fold
increase after 10 yrs of use. Note: Encourage women to continue with the cervical screening
programme if they are eligible.
Breast cancer
Small increase risk of breast cancer compared to non users (relative risk 1.24). No increased risk
above background risk 10 yrs after stopping COCP. No evidence of increased mortality.
Stroke – a small increase in risk of ischaemic stroke.
Myocardial infarction – risk of MI increases in COCP users with other risk factors e.g.
hypertension, smokers over age 35 yrs,
Managing pill problems
1. Irregular bleeding – Exclude
1. STIs,
2. Cervical causes of bleeding e.g. cervicitis, polyps
3. Pregnancy complications e.g. ectopic
· Consider increasing progestogen component
· Increase oestrogen if on 20 microgram pill
2. Acne
Change to oestrogen dominant pill or try newer pills e.g. yasmin, cilest,
3. Bloating
Progestogen effect. Try changing to a less progestogenic pill.
4. Breast tenderness
Common is 1st few months of use. If persists, change to a less oestrogenic pill.
DRUG INTERACTIONS
Hepatic enzymeinducing drugs
Antiepileptics: Carbamazepine, Phenobarbital, phenytoin, primodone, topiramide
Nonliver enzyme inducing antiepileptics include: Ethosuximide, gabapentin, lamotrigine, valproate,
vigabatrin,
Antifungal agents: griseofulvin. Nonliver enzyme inducing antifungals include;
Fluconazole, Itraconazole, ketoconazole
Antibiotics: rifampicin (and rifabutin).
Take additional contraceptive precautions during use and for 7 days after use start next packet
without a break if 7 days runs beyond the end of a packet. For rifampicin / rifambutin use additional
contraception for at least 4 weeks after stopping treatment.
Broadspectrum antibiotics
Impair bacterial flora responsible for enterohepatic circulation of ethinyloestradiol additional
contraception during treatment and for 7 days after treatment as above.
CONTRACEPTION VI:
Intrauterine contraceptive device (iucd) & intrauterine system (ius) *****
Copper Intrauterine Contraceptive Device (CuIUD)
Mechanism of action
Acts by preventing fertilisation and implantation. Copper is toxic to ovum and sperm and therefore
prevents fertilisation. In addition, the endometrial inflammatory reaction has an anti implantation
effect. NSAIDs have no effect on Copper IUD efficacy.
Types
a) Cu T 380 or T Safe 380A – licensed for 8 yrs in the UK. First choice IUCD and has low expulsion
rate (8 / 100 women over 5 yrs of use). It is very effective (1.42.2 / 100 women over 5 yrs).
b) Multiload Cu 375 – licensed for 5 yrs in the UK. Twice as likely to result in pregnancy compared
to Cu T 380 with similar expulsion rates and removal rates for abdominal pain and bleeding.
c) GyneFix – licensed for 5 yrs. Frameless device with 6 copper beads wound around a monofilament
polypropylene thread. Similar efficacy to Cu T 380 but with significantly lower expulsion rates (3.0 /
100 women at 3 yrs) compared to Cu T 380 (7.8 / 100 women at 3 yrs). Should only be inserted by
those who have received appropriate training.
Advantages
Contraceptive benefits – effective contraception. Failure rate of less than 2% at 5 yrs of use for Cu
T380A. Long acting reversible method.
Practical tips
IUCD inserted in women after age 40 should be left in until 1 yr after the menopause as fertility
declines after this age. Consider STI screening if appropriate before IUCD insertion.
Intrauterine system e.g. Mirena
Mechanism of action
Primary mode of action is by its progestogenic effect on the endometrium (causing endometrial
atrophy) which prevents implantation.. Also, the progestogenic effect of thickening cervical mucous,
increase in endometrial phagocytic cells and endometrial stroma contribute to its contraceptive
effects. After removal, endometrial morphology returns to normal with menstruation within 30 days.
Types
Mirena – contains 52mg Levonorgestrel released at a rate of 20mcg / day. Frame is radio opaque.
Licensed for contraception up to 5 yrs.
Advantages
Contraceptive benefits
a) Effective contraception. Failure rate of less than 1% at 5 yrs of use.
Non contraceptive benefits
a) Management of menorrhagia – reduction in menstrual blood loss of up to 97% after 12 months of
use with an increase in serum ferritin and Hb concentrations. 35% amenorrhoea rate at 1 year.
b) Dysmenorrhoea – there is evidence that this may be improved
c) Progestogenic opposition for oestrogen replacement therapy / oestrogen therapy for premenstrual
syndrome
d) Low rate of ectopic pregnancy (0.02 / 100 women years compared to 0.25 / 100 women yrs for
Nova T and 1.21.6 / 100 women yrs for sexually active women not using any contraception)
e) Management of endometrial hyperplasia
f) Some evidence that the incidence of uterine fibroids and their growth is reduced.
g) Cost effective – compared to hysterectomy or medical treatment for menorrhagia.
Side Effects / complications of IUS
a) Difficulties with insertion – especially in nulliparous women, cervical dilatation may be required
under para cervical block prior to insertion
b) Irregular bleeding – takes 3 months for endometrial atrophy – good counselling required prior to
insertion
c) Increased incidence of functional ovarian cysts compared to copper IUD users
d) Amenorrhoea – unless appropriately counselled, some women may regard this as abnormal.
f) Progestogenic side effects – may subside after a few months. See POP for details of progestogenic
side effects.
Complications of IUCD use
1) Expulsion – most occur in the first year especially the 1st 3 months. Increased risk of expulsion in
women with heavy periods, within 6 wks of postpartum or previous expulsion.
2) Perforation – 1.2 / 1,000 insertions
3) Pregnancy – if becomes pregnant whilst IUCD in place, remove device gently if possible as soon as
pregnancy is diagnosed. Reduces risk of spontaneous miscarriage later in pregnancy by 50%. Exclude
ectopic pregnancy.
4) Pelvic infection – 6 fold increase in risk of PID in the first 3 wks following insertion compared to
any other time. There after, risk of infection is related to lifestyle
5) Abdominal pain / dysmenorrhoea
6) Increased menstrual loss (with Copper IUD)
CONTRACEPTION VII: Progestogen only injectables *****
Types
Depomedroxyprogesterone acetate 150mg (depoprovera, given every 12 weeks).
Norethisterone oenanthate 200mg (noristerat, given every 8 weeks)
Mechanism of action
Main effect is by inhibiting ovulation. In addition, thickening of cervical mucous prevents sperm
penetration and changes to the endometrium make it an unfavourable environment for implantation.
Pearl index
0.250.5 / 100 women years (depoprovera)
0.42.0 / 100 women years (noristerat)
Depoprovera is most commonly used progestogen injectable in the UK
Advantages
Effective method of contraception
Low risk of ectopic compared to POP
Low risk of PID, endometrial cancer
Disadvantages / side effects
a) Menstrual irregularities – common. Amenorrhoea becomes more likely with repeated doses. (35%
after 1st dose, 70% by 1 year). About 50% of users will discontinue after 1 year because of irregular
bleeding patterns. (ffhrc 2008)
b) Delay in return of fertility – can be delayed for up to 1 – 2 years after last injection.
c) Weight gain – associated with weight gain of up to 3 kg at 2 years. Those with higher BMI > 30 are
more likely to gain more weight.
d) Heavier bleeding has been associated with use in women who are less than 6 weeks postpartum
though it is not contraindicated.
e) Depoprovera & osteoporosis – there is evidence that depot causes a reduction in bone mineral
density. Reduction appears to be partly reversible after discontinuation and resumption of ovarian
activity. There is no evidence on long term fracture risk. In adolescents, depoprovera should only be
used after other methods have been considered and found to be unsuitable or unacceptable.
In women with risk factors for osteoporosis, other methods should be considered prior to depo
provera.
In all women, careful reevaluation of risks and benefits of treatment should be undertaken in those
who wish to continue longer than 2 years.
CONTRACEPTION VIII:
Progestogen only subdermal implants *****
Types
Implanon (68mg etonorgestrel. Active metabolite of desogestrel)
Licensed for use for 3 years
Pregnancy rate: less than 1 in 1,000 over 3 years
Mechanism of action
Primary effect is by inhibiting ovulation.
In addition, implants thicken cervical mucous preventing sperm penetration and alter the endometrium
which makes it an unfavourable environment for implantation.
Advantages
a) Effective method of contraception
b) Long acting reversible contraception
c) Reduces overall risk of ectopic compared to non contraceptive users
d) Rapid return of fertility – 90% of women ovulate within 30 days.
e) Can be used in women with BMI > 30 without reduction in efficacy.
f) No evidence of clinically significant effect on bone mineral density with implanon use.
Disadvantages
a) Irregular bleeding patterns – 20% will become amenorrhoic, 50% will have irregular bleeding
patterns. Most common reason for discontinuation is irregular bleeding.
CONTRACEPTION IX: *****
Barrier & natural methods
Spermicides / Gels / Creams
Condoms *
Male condoms e.g. durex, condomania etc. Most made from latex rubber. Non latex versions
available. Contains non spermicidal lubricants
Female condoms – mainly from polyurethane
Mechanisms of action
Physical barrier to sperm.
Effectiveness
If used correctly and consistently, may be up to 98% effective
Pregnancy rates are similar for latex and non latex condoms
Advantages
Reduction in risk of transmission of STIs e.g. HIV, Chlamydia, gonorrhoea, etc
Cheap and reversible
Can be used by most people. No medical contraindication except latex allergy
Disadvantages
Interrupts coitus
Some women may have local irritation to condoms. Try non latex condoms
Counselling / Prescribing advice
Use of spermicidal lubricant with condoms is NOT recommended
Use of lubricant onto penis before putting on condoms is NOT recommended as it increases rate
of spillage
Use of non oil based lubricants is recommended
Lubricants are highly recommended for anal sex
Diaphragms & Caps
Diaphragms e.g. silicone, flat spring
Caps e.g. cervical cap, femcap,
Mechanism of action
Acts as a physical barrier to sperm.
Efficacy
Diaphragms / caps are 9296% effective when used with spermicides and used correctly
Contraceptive sponge is 8090% effective if used correctly
Advantages
Cheap and reversible
Women with sensitivity to latex can use silicone diaphragms
Disadvantages
Diaphragms do not reduce risk of transmission of STI’s.
Needs to be inserted before sexual intercourse
The woman needs to be assessed by a competent medical personal before use. Includes vaginal
exam at initial and follow up to ensure correct size, and correct use of method
Contraindicated in HIV/AIDS, history of toxic shock syndrome, sensitivity to latex (all
UKMEC 3)
Counselling / prescribing advice
Additional spermicide is needed if sex is to take place and the method has been in place for
more than 3 hrs or if sex is to be repeated when the method has been in place.
Must be left in place for at least 6 hrs after last intercourse
Emergency contraception is needed if diaphragm is removed before 6 hrs
Avoid oil based lubricants
Diaphragms should not be in situ for more than 30 hrs
Natural family planning
Lactational amenorrhoea
If fully breast feeding and NO periods and baby less than 6 months old, can be 98% effective
Not effective when the any of the above changes
Symptom based methods
Depends on basal body temperature, cervical mucous changes and changes in cervix
Calendar based method
Ovulation occurs about 1216 days before next menstruation. This can be estimated based on
menstrual cycle records over the last 6 cycles.
Persona
Failure rate 6 per 100 woman years with perfect use. Much higher with typical use.
Measures levels of LH and oestron3glucuronide in early morning urine.
Needs to be programme over 3 months before can be relieved upon
Needs to be reprogrammed after emergency contraception
Not suitable for women with cycle lengths <23 days or >35 days, breastfeeding, menopausal
symptoms, PCOS or those taking hormonal medications.
References
FSRH guidance on male & female Jan 2007
FSRH guidance on female barrier methods Jun 2008
CONTRACEPTION X:
Male & female sterilisation *****
Female sterilisation
Tubal occlusion can be performed at anytime during menstrual cycle provided that the clinician
is reasonable sure the patient is not pregnant
A pregnancy test must be performed. A negative test does not exclude a luteal phase pregnancy.
Laparoscopic approach is quicker and less morbidity
Mechanical tubal occlusion with fishie clips is method of choice. Would need referral to
hospital.
General anaesthesia usually used.
Mechanism of action
Physical occlusion to transport of ovum (tubal sterilisation)
Efficacy
Failure rate is 1:200 over lifetime. (tubal sterilisation)
23:1,000 over 10 years of use.
Advantages
Intended to be a permanent procedure. Reversal of sterilisation is not carried out under the
NHS.
No need to take daily pills
Applicable to most women
No “hormonal” risks
Disadvantages
Increased risk of ectopic if method fails.
Reversal not carried out in the NHS
Risk of regret later in some patients
Complications of Laparoscopic sterilisation
1) Anaesthetic complications
Nausea, vomiting
Failure to intubate patient
Aspiration pneumonitis
VTE
Hypothermia
Sore throat
Death 1:12,000
2) Surgical complications
Intraoperative Overall risk of visceral injury ~1 in 1000
Bowel injury
Bladder injury
Bleeding
Failure to achieve pneumoperitoneum
Early post operative
Wound infection
Abdominal pain
Surgical emphysema
Late post operative –
Bowel injury – delayed presentation.
Failed sterilisation
VTE
Factors associated with regret
Young age <30 yr old
Few or no children
Not in a mutually faithful relationship or not in a relationship
Performed at Time of abortion or child birth
Coercion by partner or medical personnel
Male sterilisation
Vasectomy
Usually done under local anaesthetic
‘No scalpel’ approach should be used to identify vas
Division of vas plus fascial interposition. Division of vas alone associated with high failure rate.
Excised portions of vas should be sent for histology
Mechanism of action
Physical occlusion to passage of sperm through the vas (vasectomy)
Efficacy
Failure rate for vasectomy 1:2,000
Advantages
Intended to be a permanent procedure. Reversal of vasectomy is not carried out under the NHS.
No “hormonal” risks to partner
Disadvantages
Reversal not carried out in the NHS
Small risk of chronic testicular pain in men with vasectomy
Risk of regret later in some patients
Important clinical advice
Delay vasectomy if evidence of sexually transmitted infections, scrotal mass (exclude
malignancy) systemic infections.
Refer to specialist if large varicocele, hydrocele or previous scrotal injury
Complications of vasectomy
1) Local Anaesthetic complications
Pain
Bleeding
Infection
Ischaemic necrosis rarely
2) Surgical complications
Intraoperative
Bleeding
Early post operative
Infection – wound, epidydimytis
Scrotal haematoma
Post operative pain
Late post operative
Chronic testicular pain
Anti sperm antibodies – nearly 75% will develop antibodies
Failure of method – rate is 1 in 2,000
Counselling for sterilisation
If there are concerns about capacity to provide consent, refer to the courts
Take extra care if patient is under 30 yrs of age or nulliparous – increased risk of regret.
Sterilisation is intended to be permanent. However, provide information on success rate of
reversal and that reversal and treatments like IVF or ICSI may not be available on the NHS.
Provide information on advantages and disadvantages and failure rates of other methods of long
term reversible contraception. Cumulative pregnancy rate after 12 yrs with Cu T380A is 1.9%
and after 5 yrs with LNGIUS is 1.1%. Intrauterine pregnancy rates after reversal of sterilisation
are 3192% with an ectopic pregnancy rate of 07%.
If tubal ligation fails, there is a risk of ectopic pregnancy. Women should seek medical advice if
they think they may be pregnant or have abnormal abdominal pain or vaginal bleeding. Risk of
ectopic pregnancy 476% depending on method of sterilisation. Risk of ectopic pregnancy is
however lower in sterilised than non sterilised fertile women.
Discuss method of access for tubal ligation – laparoscopy or minilaparotomy and the method to
be used if the intended method fails. Outline reasons for preferring a particular approach.
Discuss risks associated with laparoscopy, possibility of requiring laparotomy particularly if
previous abdominal surgery or overweight. Risk of laparotomy is 1.43.1 / 1,000 with a risk of
death of 1:12,000.
Tubal ligation is not associated with increased risk of menorrhagia if performed after the age of
30 yrs. There is an association with increased hysterectomy rates. Limited data in younger
patients.
Advise women to use effective contraception until the date of the procedure and continue until
their next period.
Post partum or post TOP tubal ligation is associated with increased regret rate and possibly
increased failure rate. If tubal ligation is to be performed at caesarean section, counselling and
agreement should have been given at least one week prior to the procedure.
Although not a legal requirement, it is good practice to involve both partners in the decision
making.
Specific points for vasectomy
Vasectomy and tubal ligation should be discussed with all men and women requesting
sterilisation.
Women & men should be informed that vasectomy carries lower failure rate (1:2000) than tubal
ligation (1:200 life time, 23:1,000 after 10 yrs). Risk of failure significantly higher in women
under 28 yrs.
Men should use alternative contraception until azoospermia is confirmed. Usually by 2 post
vasectomy samples.
No increase in testicular or prostrate cancer or heart disease associated with vasectomy. Discuss
possibility of chronic testicular pain.
Support verbal counselling with written information
Pre operative assessment
History and examination to ensure patients does not have concurrent problems that need
additional procedures.
Gynaecological history to exclude significant pelvic pathology may make options like mirena or
hysterectomy more appropriate.
Perform pregnancy test to exclude pregnancy. A negative test does not exclude a luteal phase
pregnancy. Ensure using appropriate contraception prior to and after sterilisation.
CONTRACEPTION XI:
Emergency contraception (EC) *****
Provides a safe means of preventing pregnancy following unprotected sexual intercourse or
contraceptive failure
EC can be given by a trained nurse at the GP surgery.
2 available methods in UK
Hormonal method – Levonorgestrel (LNG)
Copper intrauterine device
Mechanism of action
LNG Incompletely understood. Thought to be due to inhibition of ovulation rather than
preventing implantation. If taken before ovulation, can prevent it for 57 days.
LNG will NOT interrupt an existing pregnancy
Copper IUD – by direct toxicity to sperm. Inflammatory reaction in endometrium may
contribute to anti implantation effect. Will interrupt existing pregnancy.
Indications for EC
Generally when a contraceptive method fails and there is risk of pregnancy or if not on contraception
but risk of pregnancy high following unprotected sexual intercourse.
COCP missed pills
POP – when one or more missed pills or if taken > 3hrs (>12 hrs for Cerazette) and unprotected
intercourse has occurred in the 2 days following this.
IUD – if complete or partial expulsion or if mid cycle removal is deemed necessary and
unprotected intercourse has occurred in last 7 days.
Barrier methods – if failure of barrier methods
Depot injections – if more than 14 days late (10 days for norethisterone etantate) and
unprotected sexual intercourse has occurred.
Liver inducing enzymes (including st johns wort) – if theses drugs are taken with oral
contraceptives, progestogen implants, patch, then EC is needed if unprotected intercourse or
barrier method failure or in the 28 days following use of liver enzyme inducers.
Dose
Single 1.5 g dose of Levonorgestrel (levonelle 1500) given within 72 hrs of unprotected
intercourse
Can also be used between 73 – 120 hrs but outside product licence and limited evidence of
efficacy between these times.
Copper IUD – can be inserted up to 5 days after unprotected intercourse or 5 days after the most
likely date of ovulation.
If facilities not available in primary care, referral to specialist should be considered. Offer
levonelle in the interim
Efficacy
Take history to estimate likely date of ovulation. If given at the appropriate time,
LNG is 84% effective if given <72 hrs from unprotected intercourse and 63% effective if given
> 72 hrs
IUD is 99% effective if given within 5 days of unprotected intercourse.
Offer written and verbal information to enable informed consent.
References
RCOG clinical guidelines male & female sterilisation Jan 2004
FSRH guidance emergency contraception April 2006
ECTOPIC PREGNANCY *****
Definition
A pregnancy that has implanted outside the uterine cavity
Why is this important?
Account for ~7.5% of all direct maternal deaths
Caused 10 maternal deaths in the UK in 2003 – 2005
Mortality has decreased 4 fold in the last 20 years due to earlier detection and prompt treatment
Ectopic pregnancy should be suspected in any woman of reproductive age who presents with
abdominal pain, vaginal bleeding or collapse.
Incidence
UK = 11.1 per 1000 pregnancies
Aetiology
Implantation of the embryo begins once the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida. This
begins around day 4, by which time the embryo is within the uterine cavity.
If the passage of the embryo is delayed (damaged fallopian tube or altered motility) then
hatching and implantation occur before the embryo has entered the uterine cavity.
Location of ectopic pregnancies
Commonest site is the fallopian tube – ampulla (55%), isthmus (25%), fimbrial end (17%) and
cornua (2%)
Ovarian – 0.5%
Intraabdominal – 0.1%
Risk factors
Pelvic inflammatory disease – causes damaged fallopian tubes
Intrauterine contraceptive device – associated with PID
Sterilisation – damages tubes
Tubal surgery for infertility
Previous ectopic
Assisted reproduction – infertility associated with damaged fallopian tubes
Progestogenonly contraception – progestogens impair tubal motility
Note that all current contraceptive users, including IUCD are less likely to have an ectopic pregnancy
than sexually active women not using contraception
IUCD users (except MIRENA) are 3 times more likely to have an ectopic pregnancy than users of
other contraceptives
Use of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate is associated with a lower risk of ectopic pregnancy than
the minipill but higher than the COCP
MANAGEMENT OF ECTOPIC PREGNANCY
History
The woman typically presents with vaginal bleeding and / or abdominal pain in early pregnancy
Ascertain gestation age – LMP, certainty, regularity of cycle, use of contraception and whether
the last period was a normal period for her. Note date of first missed period and first positive
pregnancy test
Bleeding – amount and nature (dark old blood suggests ectopic pregnancy while red fresh blood
with clots suggests miscarriage). Consequences of blood loss including dizziness, fainting and
collapse
Abdominal pain – site, radiation, severity, exacerbating and relieving factors. Both ectopic
pregnancy and miscarriage can cause colicky pain. Constant pain suggests ectopic pregnancy.
Shoulder tip pain – indicates intraabdominal bleeding due to ruptured ectopic pregnancy.
Blood tracks along the paracolic gutters to the under surface of the diaphragm. Irritation causes
pain referred to the shoulder tip (phrenic nerve).
Exclude other causes – passage of tissue suggests miscarriage; postcoital bleeding may indicate
cervical pathology
Identify risk factors above, especially past history of ectopic pregnancy or PID
Differential diagnoses
Miscarriage, molar pregnancy – vaginal bleeding & abdominal / pelvic pain
Cervical ectropion, cervical neoplasm, genital tract infection – painless bleeding or postcoital
bleeding
Examination
Pulse & BP
Abdomen: scars, tenderness, rebound tenderness, guarding.
Speculum examination: active bleeding, clots, products of conception, state of cervix and
cervical os (open / closed)
Vaginal examination: uterine size, position, consistency, mobility, tenderness; adnexal mass –
size, mobility, consistency, tenderness; adnexal tenderness, cervical excitation. State of cervical
os (open / closed).
Investigations
Community
Urine pregnancy test
Hospital
FBC, blood group & save (consider crossmatch if the woman is hypotensive / tachycardic)
Transvaginal ultrasound: role is to identify intrauterine pregnancy or features of ectopic
pregnancy. Ultrasound features of ectopic pregnancy include an empty uterus, adnexal mass and
free fluid in the pouch of Douglas.
If diagnosis remains uncertain, quantitative serum HCG. At levels of 1000 – 1500IU, a
gestation sac should be detectable on transvaginal scan. HCG level may be repeated 48h later if
the woman is stable. A rise of less than 66% is suggestive of ectopic pregnancy. However, 15%
of ectopic pregnancies will show a rise in serum HCG of over 66% in 48h.
Diagnostic laparoscopy if: (i) HCG levels above 1500IU and no intrauterine pregnancy on
transvaginal scan. (ii) Features of ectopic pregnancy present on scan. (iii) Woman has severe
symptoms and signs plus a positive pregnancy test should prompt a diagnostic laparoscopy or
laparotomy without further delay.
Treatment
Venous access and resuscitation is paramount in a woman who has collapsed or is tachycardic
(+/ hypotensive). Prompt treatment is essential in such women to prevent severe morbidity /
mortality.
When ectopic pregnancy is diagnosed at laparoscopy, treatment should be by laparoscopic
removal of the fallopian tube (salpingectomy) if the other tube appears normal
Conservation of the fallopian tube (by performing a salpingostomy) is an option if the other
tube is absent or damaged.
Women should be appropriately counselled and consented before laparoscopy for suspected
ectopic pregnancy
When ectopic pregnancy is diagnosed by ultrasound, medical treatment (methotrexate) may be
undertaken if certain conditions are met
In rare cases, ectopic pregnancy may be managed expectantly with close observation of the
patient.
Administer antiD immunoglobulin if Rhesus negative and unsensitized.
Followup & prognosis
About 45% of women with a previous ectopic pregnancy will have an intrauterine pregnancy
in the future
The recurrence rate is 1520%
Women with a previous ectopic pregnancy should have a pregnancy test as soon as they miss a
period followed by a transvaginal scan at ~6 weeks gestation to exclude recurrent ectopic
pregnancy.
CONTRACEPTION XII:
Termination of pregnancy *****
Basic statistics
England and Wales
185,400 abortions in 2004
142 abortions in women aged 13 yrs
15 abortions in women aged 12 yrs
17.8 per 1000 women aged 15 – 44 yrs
31.9 per 1000 women aged 18 – 24 yrs
82% funded by the NHS. 88% carried out under 13 wks gestation
(Department of Health abortion statistics 2004)
Abortion Act *
Subject to the provisions of this section a person shall not be found guilty of an offence under the law
relating to abortion when a pregnancy is terminated by a registered medical practitioner if two
medical practitioners are of an opinion formed in good faith:
a) that the continuance of the pregnancy would involve risks to the life of the pregnant woman
greater than if the pregnancy were terminated
b) that the termination of the pregnancy is necessary to prevent grave permanent injury to the
physical pr mental health of the pregnant woman
c) that the pregnancy has not exceeded it 24th week and that continuance of the pregnancy would
involve risk greater than if the pregnancy were terminated, of injury to the physical and mental health
of the pregnant woman
d) that the pregnancy has not exceeded it 24th week and that continuance of the pregnancy would
involve risk greater than if the pregnancy were terminated, of injury to the physical and mental health
of the existing child(ren) of the family of the pregnant woman
e) that there is substantial risk that if the child were born it would suffer from such physical
handicap or mental abnormalities as to be seriously handicapped.
The regulations permit abortion to be performed in an emergency on the basis of the signature of the
doctor performing the procedure which may be provided up to 24 hrs after the termination. The
emergency grounds are:
f) to save the life of the pregnant woman
g) to prevent grave permanent injury to the physical or mental health of the pregnant woman.
Abortion is a crime except if performed under the above conditions
The majority are performed under clause C & D.
Doctors may refuse to participate in terminations but are obliged to provide necessary treatment in an
emergency where the life of a woman may be jeopardised.
Managing women who request abortion
History
Menstrual history to date pregnancy
Reasons for termination. Assess social support available to patient. Identify those that may need
more psychological imput.
PMH – any significant medical problems that may impact on care e.g. cardiovascular disease.
Any previous terminations and reasons for TOP.
Previous caesarean sections. May need to be performed by an experienced operator if surgical
termination is chosen.
Contraceptive history – details of previous methods used and compliance.
Examination
Check weight/BMI. Vital signs, general physical examination including pelvic exam.
Investigations
Pregnancy test to confirm pregnancy
Ultrasound scan to help accurately date the pregnancy. Also helps exclude other conditions like
ectopic, molar pregnancy.
Blood tests – FBC, group & save. Determine Rhesus status.
STI screening – screen for Chlamydia infection.
Methods of termination of pregnancy
Surgical methods
Avoid at < 7 wks gestation.
Suction termination is ideally appropriate at 7 – 12 wks. Complications higher with increasing
gestations.
Cervical preparation recommended prior to surgical evacuation.
Should not be carried out with sharp curettes. Use only blunt and suction curettes
Can be done after 15 wks by dilatation and evacuation preceded by cervical preparation but
risks are generally higher
Complication of surgical methods
1) General anaesthetic complications
2) Surgical complications
Intraoperative
Risk of haemorrhage 1:1,000 abortions. 0.8 per 1000 for <13 wks. 4:1000 at >20 wks
Uterine perforation 14 per 1,000. Lower for early terminations
Cervical trauma at time of surgical abortion is 1 in 100
Bowel / bladder injury from uterine perforation
Early post operative
Abdominal pain
Haemorrhage
Late post operative
Endometritis / PID
Asherman syndrome / uterine synechiae
Failed abortion and continuing pregnancy 2.3 per 1,000 for surgical abortion
Risk of placenta praevia in future pregnancies.
No evidence of increased risk of ectopic
Psychological sequelae
Medical methods
Mefiprestone+prostaglandin is most effective. Doses may vary depending on gestation at termination.
Can be used up to 24 week gestation but mifepristone not licensed for use after 9 weeks (63 days from
LMP) .
Mifeprestone
Derivative of norethindrone.It is a Progesterone / glucocorticoid antagonist
Administered orally.
Main therapeutic effect is on thepregnant uterus – acts on the high concentration of progesterone
receptors in decidua resulting in withdrawal of progesterone support, disruption of placental function
and uterine bleeding. On its own, mifeprestone results in complete medical abortion in 6080% of
subjects. This is improved by administration of prostaglandins 3648 hrs later. Mefiprestone increases
uterine contractions
Contraindications
a) suspected ectopic pregnancy
b) chronic adrenal insufficiency
c) long term corticosteroid therapy
d) haemorrhagic disorders
e) anti coagulant therapy
f) hepatic / renal impairment
g) avoid aspirin / NSAIDS for at least 12 days after mifeprestone
Complications of medical methods
Early complications
Risk of haemorrhage 1:1,000 abortions. 0.8 per 1000 for <13 wks. 4:1000 at >20 wks
Uterine rupture with mid trimester medical abortion 1 per 1,000
Abdominal pain
Late complications
Failed abortion and continuing pregnancy 114 per 1,000 for medical abortion
Endometritis / PID
Retained products of conception – more likely with medical methods than surgical methods.
No proven association between induced abortion and future ectopic risk
Psychological sequelae
Preventing postabortion infection
Offer screening for lower genital tract infections (especially Chlamydia)
Options are to screen and treat all women with contact tracing for those who screen positive or
to screen and treat only those who are positive
Delays in availability of test results means that most centres screen and treat all women and
contact trace those who are positive
Suitable prophylactic regimes include:
1G metronidazole rectally at time of abortion +
Doxycycline 100 mg orally BD for 7 days OR Azithromycin 1G orally on day of abortion
Post abortion care
Offer antiD 250 IU before 20 wks and 500IU after 20 wks to all Rh Negative women
undergoing abortion whether medical or surgical
Offer psychological support
Offer & discuss contraception
Offer written information about symptoms to look for that might require medical attention
Offer follow up appointment to help provide support
Counselling – key points
Ensure legal basis for termination.
Identify those who need more support in decision making and offer support.
Discuss alternatives to termination if appropriate
Discuss methods of termination and its benefits/risks/complications
Offer screening for Chlamydia
Discuss contraception when appropriate
Ensure adequate postabortion followup and counselling
Reference
NICE / RCOG guidelines on the care of women requesting induced abortion 2004
DOH abortion statistics 2004 England and Wales
CONTRACEPTION XIII:
Starting, changing and stopping, missed pills *****
When to start pills
When to start COCP
Ideally within first 5 days of menstrual cycle. No need for additional contraception
Need additional contraception for 7 days if started at other times. Exclude pregnancy
Start on day 21 postpartum if NOT breastfeeding
Start after 6 months if fully breastfeeding
Start within 5 days if post abortion without need for additional contraception. Otherwise, use
barrier methods or abstinence for 7 days.
When to start POP
Start on day 1 of the cycle and take 1 pill everyday.
Can be started up to and including day 5 of menstrual cycle without need for additional
contraception. If started after day 5 and woman is not pregnant, needs additional contraception
for 48 hours.
Can be started up to and including day 21 post partum without need for additional contraceptive
cover
Can be started within 5 days of termination of pregnancy or miscarriage (< 24wks gestation)
Can be continued up to age 55 yrs if no contraindications
When to start progestogen only implants & injectables
Ideally in the 1st 5 days of cycle. No additional contraception needed.
Can be inserted at any other time provided woman is not pregnant. Use barrier methods or
abstinence for 7 days.
Can be started up to and including day 21 post partum without need for additional contraceptive
cover. If started after day 21, use barrier methods or abstinence for 7 days.
Can be started within 5 days of termination of pregnancy or miscarriage (< 24wks gestation)
without need for additional contraception. If after 5 days, advise barrier methods or abstinence
for 7 days.
When to start Levonorgestrel Intrauterine system (Mirena)
Can be inserted anytime within the 1st 5 days of menstrual cycle without need for additional
contraceptive cover.
Can be started at any other time provided the woman is not pregnant. Use condoms or
abstinence for 7 days.
Postpartum – insert from 4 weeks postpartum
Post abortion / miscarriage – insert within 48 hrs or delay until 4 weeks post abortion.
When to start Copper intrauterine contraception
Can be inserted at any time provided the woman is not pregnant. A CuIUD is effective
immediately.
Postpartum – insert from 4 weeks postpartum
Post abortion / miscarriage – insert within 48 hrs or delay until 4 weeks post abortion.
Managing Missed pills
When faced with a women presenting with having missed her pills, it is important to know when to
provide emergency contraception if there is a risk of pregnancy. The following will help you decide:
COCP
If 1 or 2 missed pills (30 µg) or 1 missed pill (20 µg): take pill as soon as possible. NO need for
emergency contraception
If 3 or more missed pill (30µg) or 2 or more missed pills (20µg): take pill as soon as possible
continue taking pill as usual and avoid sex or use condoms for 7 days
If missed pills are in 1st week of pack (day 07): Emergency contraception if unprotected
intercourse in pill free interval or 1st 7 days of pack
If pills missed in 2nd week of pack (day 814): NO need for emergency contraception if she has
taken at least 7 consecutive days of the pill.
If missed pills in the 3rd week (day 1521): Omit pill free interval of current park and continue
straight to new pack
POP
Traditional POPs
More than 3hrs late OR more than 27 hrs from last pill: Take pill as soon as remembered and
take next pill atthe usual time. Use additional contraceptive cover e.g. condoms or abstinence
for at least 2 days. If woman vomits within 2 hrs of taking pill, another pill should be taken.
Cerazette
More than 12 hrs late OR more than 36 hrs from last pill: Take pill as soon as remembered and
take next pill as per the usual time. Use additional contraceptive cover e.g. condoms or
abstinence for at least 2 days. If woman vomits within 2 hrs of taking pill, another pill should be
taken.
Managing other pill problems
COCP Managing pill problems
Irregular bleeding – Exclude
STIs,
Cervical causes of bleeding e.g. cervicitis, polyps
Pregnancy complications e.g. ectopic
Consider increasing progestogen component
Increase oestrogen if on 20 microgram pill
Acne
Change to oestrogen dominant pill or try newer pills e.g. yasmin, cilest,
Bloating
Progestogen effect. Try changing to a less progestogenic pill.
Breast tenderness
Common is 1st few months of use. Caused by oestrogen. If persists, change to a less oestrogen
dominant pill.
Dry vagina
check lifestyle / relationship causes. Use newer progestogen or oestrogen dominant pill. Consider
STIs / candida. Try lubricants
POP Managing complications – irregular bleeding
Exclude
1. Sexually transmitted infections
2. Cervical causes of bleeding e.g. cervicitis, polyps
3. Pregnancy complications e.g. ectopic
Consider increasing dose of progestogen though there is no evidence, it may work for some
individuals
Consider changing to a COCP if no contraindications
CONTRACEPTION XIV:
Consent & legal issues *****
Laws & issues relating to consent
Competent Adult aged >18 yrs.
For consent to be valid it must be given voluntarily on the basis of appropriate information and the
woman must have capacity to consent
Criteria for consent:
Must have sufficient capacity to understand the procedure and its alternatives
Consent must be voluntary
Decision based on sufficient and accurate information
Must have capacity. Assessment of capacity based on the ability to:
1) Understand and retain treatment information
2) Believe in the information
3) Weigh the information, balancing risks and benefits
Non competent adults
Under English law, no one can consent on behalf of another adult who is unable to give consent.
Professionals will have to apply to the courts or treat the woman in her best interest.
Competent minors aged 16 – 17 yrs
Section 8 of the family law reform act 1969 allows people aged 16 – 17 yrs to consent to their own
medical treatment. However, unlike adults, the refusal of a competent person of this age may in
certain circumstances be overridden by someone with parental responsibility or by a court
Young people aged less than 16 yrs
Following the Gillick case, Lord Frazer provided the Frazer criteria to guide doctors on providing
contraception to young girls under 16 yrs who refuse to involve their parents. These criteria are
worded to contraception but provide guidance relating to abortion as well.
A doctor is justified in proceeding without the parents consent or knowledge if:
A girl understands his advice
He cannot persuade her to inform her parents or to allow him to inform the parents that she is
seeking contraceptive advice
She is likely to begin or continue having sexual intercourse with or without contraceptive
advice
Unless she receives contraceptive advice or treatment, her physical or mental health or both are
likely to suffer
Her best interests require him to give her contraceptive advice, treatment or both without
parental consent.
Legislation in Scotland is based on the age of legal capacity (Scotland) act 1991 and under these, the
situation regarding age of consent (16 yrs) and rights of a competent minor to give consent are the
same as the rest of UK.
Non competent minors
Only those with parental responsibility can give consent to treatment on behalf of such minors
Sexual offences and child protection
Sexual offences act 2003
The sexual offences act 2003 does not affect the ability of the health professional and others working
with young people to provide confidential advice or treatment on contraception sexual or reproductive
health to young people under 16.
The law is not intended to prosecute mutually agreed teenage sexual activity between 2 people of a
similar age unless it involves abuse or exploitation
Young people under the age of 18 (16 – 18 yrs) are still protected under child protection procedures.
Consideration still needs to be given to issues about sexual exploitation through prostitution and abuse
of power.
Children under 13 are considered NOT capable to consent to sexual activity. One must be alert to the
possibility of sexual exploitation in children having sex under the age of 13 yrs.
CONTRACEPTION II:
Contraindications to different methods *****
Please refer to the above UKMEC definition to help understand the contraindications listed below.
Also note the examples below;
3 (continuation) – means that if this condition develops whilst using the pill then it is a UKMEC 3 to
continue using the method.
3 (initiation) – means that if this condition exists at the time if initiation of the pill, then it is a
UKMEC 3 to go ahead and prescribe the pill.
( ) means that is NOT contraindicated (UKMEC 1 or 2)
Contraceptives and drug interactions
COCP drug interactions
Antiretroviral drugs
Metabolism of oestrogens increased by Ritonavir and Nevirapine while Atazanavir increases plasma
oestradiol concentrations
Women on antiretroviral drugs should be advised to use condoms
The dose of ethinyloestradiol should be 3050 mcg
Neucloside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (Zidovudine, Lamivudine): UKMEC 1
Nonneucloside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (Efavirenz, Nevirapine, Etravirine): UKMEC 2
Ritonavirboosted protease inhibitors (Atazanavir, Indinavir): UKMEC 3.
AntiConvulsants
Hepatic enzyme inducers including Carbamazepine, Phenytoin, Barbiturates, Primidone, Topiramate,
Oxcarbazepine: UKMEC 3
Recommend consistent use of condoms plus additional contraception
Use COCP with at least 30 mcg ethinlyoestradiol
Lamotrigine: UKMEC 3
Recommend consistent use of condoms plus additional contraception
Use COCP with at least 30 mcg ethinlyoestradiol
Combinations of Lamotrigine + nonenzyme inducing antiepileptics such as Valproate do not interact
with COCP
Antimicrobial agents
Broad spectrum antibiotics, antifungal and antiparasitic agents: UKMEC 1
Hepatic enzymeinducing antibiotics: Rifampicin or rifabutin. UKMEC 3
Recommend consistent use of condoms plus additional contraception
Use COCP with at least 30 mcg ethinlyoestradiol
Progestogenonly pills drug interactions
Antiretroviral drugs
Women on antiretroviral drugs should be advised to use condoms
Neucloside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (Zidovudine, Lamivudine): UKMEC 1
Nonneucloside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (Efavirenz, Nevirapine, Etravirine): UKMEC 2
Ritonavirboosted protease inhibitors (Atazanavir, Indinavir): UKMEC 3.
AntiConvulsants
Hepatic enzyme inducers including Carbamazepine, Phenytoin, Barbiturates, Primidone, Topiramate,
Oxcarbazepine: UKMEC 3
Recommend consistent use of condoms plus additional contraception
Lamotrigine does not interact with progestogenonly contraceptives
Antimicrobial agents
Broad spectrum antibiotics, antifungal and antiparasitic agents: UKMEC 1
Hepatic enzymeinducing antibiotics: Rifampicin or rifabutin. UKMEC 3
Recommend consistent use of condoms plus additional contraception
Progestogenonly Injectables drug interractions
Antiretroviral drugs
UKMEC 1 for depomedroxyprogesterone acetate
UKMEC 2 for deponorethisterone oenanthate
AntiConvulsants
Hepatic enzymeinducing anticonvulsants: UKMEC 1 for depomedroxyprogesterone acetate;
UKMEC 2 for deponorethisterone oenanthate
Lamotrigine: UKMEC 1
Antimicrobial agents
Broad spectrum antibiotics: UKMEC 1
Hepatic enzymeinducing antibiotics: Rifampicin or rifabutin. UKMEC 1 for depo
medroxyprogesterone acetate; UKMEC 2 for deponorethisterone oenanthate
Progestogenonly Implants drug interactions
Neucloside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (Zidovudine, Lamivudine): UKMEC 1
Nonneucloside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (Efavirenz, Nevirapine, Etravirine): UKMEC 2
Ritonavirboosted protease inhibitors (Atazanavir, Indinavir): UKMEC 2.
AntiConvulsants
Hepatic enzymeinducing anticonvulsants: UKMEC 2
Lamotrigine: UKMEC 1
Antimicrobial agents
Broad spectrum antibiotics: UKMEC 1
Hepatic enzymeinducing antibiotics: Rifampicin or rifabutin. UKMEC 2
CONTRAINDICATIONS TO THE USE OF CONTRACEPTIVES
COCP: UKMEC 4 – unacceptable health risks or absolute contraindications
Personal
Age over 35 years and smoking ≥15 cigarettes / day
Cardiovascular
Multiple risk factors for arterial cardiovascular risk e.g. older age, diabetes, hypertension, smoking.
Hypertension: Systolic BP > 160mmHg or diastolic > 94 mmHg
VTE risk: Personal history of VTE, major surgery with prolonged immobilisation, thrombophilia
Current or history of ischaemic heart disease, stroke or peripheral vascular disease
Neurological
Migraines with aura at any age
Endocrine
Diabetes mellitus: Retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy or diabetes > 20 yrs duration (otherwise
IDDM and NIDDM are UKMEC 2).
Malignancy
Current breast cancer or other oestrogen / progesteronesensitive tumour
GI Disorders
Active viral hepatitis and severe (decompensated cirrhosis). Hepatocellular adenoma & hepatoma
Rheumatological
SLE with positive or unknown antiphospholipid antibodies (SLE on its own or with severe
thrombocytopaenia or use of immunosuppressive therapy are UKMEC 2)
Raynaud’s disease with lupus anticoagulant (Primary Raynaud,s disease = UKMEC 1 and Raynaud’s
disease without lupus anticoagulant = UKMEC 2)
Pregnancy
Within 6 weeks postpartum and breastfeeding
Note that gestational trophoblastic disease with decreasing or undetectable HCG, persistently elevated
HCG or malignant disease are all UKMEC 1 (UNRESTRICTED USE) for COCP
COCP: UKMEC 3 – Risks outweigh benefits
Personal
BMI ≥ 35kg/m2
Age over 35 years and stopped smoking less than 1 year ago (over 1 year = UKMEC 2)
Age over 35 years and smoking less than 15 cigarettes per day
Cardiovascular
Multiple risk factors for cardiovascular disease
Adequately controlled hypertension
BP 140159 / 9094 mmHg (pregnancy induced hypertension = UKMEC 2)
VTE in first degree relative below the age of 45 years
(VTE in first degree relative over the age of 45 is UKMEC 2)
Immobility unrelated to surgery
Neurological
Past history (over 5 years) of migraine with aura at any age
Migraine without aura is UKMEC 2 for initiating COCP and UKMEC 3 for continuation
Malignancy
Undiagnosed breast mass (initiation; UKMEC 2 for continuation), Past history of breast cancer with
no evidence of recurrence over 5 years and carriers of gene mutations associated with breast cancer
GI Disorders
Current gall bladder disease (asymptomatic gall bladder disease = UKMEC 2)
History of cholestasis associated with combined contraceptive (obstetric cholestasis = UKMEC 2)
Pregnancy
6 weeks to 6 months postpartum and breastfeeding
Within 21 days postpartum and not breastfeeding
Progestogenonly Pills: UKMEC 3 – Risks outweigh benefits
Cardiovascular
Current / history of ischaemic heart disease (Continuation). UKMEC 2 for initiation
Stroke (Continuation). UKMEC 2 for initiation
Malignancy
Past history of breast cancer with no evidence of recurrence for 5 years (current breast cancer =
UKMEC 4)
GI Disorders
Severe decompensated cirrhosis, hepatocellular adenoma and hepatoma
Rheumatological
SLE with positive or unknown antiphospholipid antibodies (SLE on its own or on immuno
suppressive therapy or severe thrombocytopaenia = UKMEC 2)
Progestogenonly Injectables: UKMEC 3 – Risks outweigh benefits
Cardiovascular
Multiple risk factors for cardiovascular disease (such as age, smoking, diabetes, hypertension, obesity)
Vascular disease
Current / history of ischaemic heart disease
Stroke
Malignancy
Unexplained vaginal bleeding before investigation
Past history of breast cancer with no evidence of recurrence for 5 years (current breast cancer =
UKMEC 4)
Endocrine
Diabetes mellitus with nephropathy, neuropathy or retinopathy
GI Disorders
Severe decompensated cirrhosis, hepatocellular adenoma and hepatoma
Rheumatological
SLE with positive or unknown antiphospholipid antibodies or severe thrombocytopaenia (im
injection). (SLE on its own or on immunosuppressive therapy = UKMEC 2)
Progestogenonly Implants: UKMEC 3 – Risks outweigh benefits
Cardiovascular
Current / history of ischaemic heart disease (Continuation). UKMEC 2 for initiation
Stroke (Continuation). UKMEC 2 for initiation
Malignancy
Unexplained vaginal bleeding before investigation
Past history of breast cancer with no evidence of recurrence for 5 years (current breast cancer =
UKMEC 4)
GI Disorders
Severe decompensated cirrhosis, hepatocellular adenoma and hepatoma
Rheumatological
SLE with positive or unknown antiphospholipid antibodies (SLE on its own or on immuno
suppressive therapy or severe thrombocytopaenia = UKMEC 2)
Copper IUCD: UKMEC 3 – Risks outweigh benefits
Pregnancy
Less than 4 weeks postpartum (Post first / second trimester (up to 24 weeks) abortion = UKMEC 1
and 2 respectively). Septic abortion or puerperal sepsis = UKMEC 4
Gestational trophoblastic disease with persistently elevated HCG or malignancy (UKMEC 4). Falling
or undetectable HCG = UKMEC 1
Malignancy
Unexplained vaginal bleeding before evaluation (UKMEC 4 for initiation)
Cervical cancer awaiting treatment (UKMEC 4 for initiation; UKMEC 2 for continuation)
Endometrial cancer (UKMEC 4), Ovarian cancer (UKMEC 3) for initiation; both are UKMEC 2 for
continuation
Uterine abnormalities
Uterine fibroids distorting cavity
Uterine anomaly distorting cavity
STI & PID
Current PID (UKMEC 4 for initiation and UKMEC 2 for continuation)
Chlamydia infection (symptomatic or asymptomatic), current purulent cervicitis or gonorrhoea
(UKMEC 4 for initiation and UKMEC 2 for continuation). Treat the STI using appropriate antibiotics.
There is usually no need for removal of the IUD if the woman wishes to continue use.
Pelvic TB
Rheumatological
SLE with severe thrombocytopaenia (UKMEC 2 for continuation)
Levonorgestrel IUS: UKMEC 3 – Risks outweigh benefits
Cardiovascular
Current / history of ischaemic heart disease (Continuation). UKMEC 2 for initiation
Stroke (Continuation). UKMEC 2 for initiation
Pregnancy
Less than 4 weeks postpartum (Post first / second trimester (up to 24 weeks) abortion = UKMEC 1
and 2 respectively). Septic abortion or puerperal sepsis = UKMEC 4
Gestational trophoblastic disease with persistently elevated HCG or malignancy (UKMEC 4). Falling
or undetectable HCG = UKMEC 1
Malignancy
Unexplained vaginal bleeding before evaluation (UKMEC 4 for initiation)
Past history of breast cancer with no evidence of recurrence for 5 years (current breast cancer =
UKMEC 4)
Cervical cancer awaiting treatment (UKMEC 4 for initiation; UKMEC 2 for continuation)
Endometrial cancer (UKMEC 4), Ovarian cancer (UKMEC 3) for initiation; both are UKMEC 2 for
continuation
GI disorders
Severe decompensated cirrhosis, hepatocellular adenoma and hepatoma
Uterine abnormalities
Uterine fibroids distorting cavity
Uterine anomaly distorting cavity
STI & PID
Current PID (UKMEC 4 for initiation and UKMEC 2 for continuation)
Chlamydia infection (symptomatic or asymptomatic), current purulent cervicitis or gonorrhoea
(UKMEC 4 for initiation and UKMEC 2 for continuation). Treat the STI using appropriate antibiotics.
There is usually no need for removal of the IUD if the woman wishes to continue use.
Pelvic TB
Rheumatological
SLE with positive or unknown antiphospholipid antibodies
INITIAL ASSESSMENT & MANAGEMENT OF WOMEN WITH INCONTINENCE
At the initial clinical assessment, categorise urinary incontinence as stress UI (SUI), mixed UI,
or urgency UI/overactive bladder (OAB).
In mixed UI, direct treatment towards the predominant symptom.
If stress incontinence is the predominant symptom in mixed UI, discuss with the woman the
benefit of conservative management including OAB drugs before offering surgery.
During the clinical assessment seek to identify relevant predisposing and precipitating factors
and other diagnoses that may require referral for additional investigation and treatment.
History
Storage symptoms
Frequency (daytime), nocturia, urgency, urgency UI
Stress UI
Including constant leakage (which may rarely indicate fistula).
Voiding symptoms
Hesitancy, straining to void, poor or intermittent urinary stream.
Postmicturition symptoms
Sensation of incomplete emptying, postmicturition dribbling.
Accompanying symptoms that may indicate a more serious diagnosis and which require referral, such
as haematuria, persisting bladder or urethral pain, or recurrent UTI
Diagnostic accuracy of urinary symptoms
Likelihood of symptoms predicting stress incontinence or detrusor overactivity on multichannel
cystometry is shown in table.
The Negative Predictive Value is important in assessing whether urodynamics provide
additional information compared with clinical history. This summarises the extent to which a
negative history is associated with a negative finding on urodynamics.
If a woman does not report mixed UI, the probability of finding urodynamic stress incontinence
(USI) plus DO on cystometry is small (~10%), therefore urodynamic testing might be said to
offer little additional diagnostic value. I
If a woman does not report pure urgency UI, the probability of finding DO on cystometry is
small (~10%), therefore urodynamic testing offers little added diagnostic value.
15–51% (median 31%) of women who do not report pure stress UI may be found to have USI
on cystometry.
Urodynamic testing is not required before initiating conservative treatment
Bowel symptoms
Constipation or problems with defecation may predispose to UI and adversely affect the
outcome of any continence surgery.
Straining can contribute to loss of bladder control by weakening pelvic floor muscles.
Fecal incontinence in association with UI or OAB may suggest the presence of cognitive
impairment, neurological and/or anatomical damage. Women with fecal incontinence may
require specialist referral
Medical history
Mental health and cognitive impairment
Neurological system (e.g. multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, Parkinson’s disease,
Cerebrovascular accident, cauda equina syndrome, pelvic plexus injury)
Metabolic system (e.g. diabetes)
Cardiorespiratory system
Renal system
Surgical history
Previous surgery for UI or for Pelvic Organ Prolapse may complicate treatment and make
diagnosis more difficult
Any surgery that might have interfered with normal nerve supply to the bladder or urethra (low
spinal surgery, radical hysterectomy, low rectal surgery, sympathectomy or complex pelvic
surgery).
Obstetric and gynaecological history
The number and type of deliveries and their outcome
The woman’s desire for further childbearing may influence the most appropriate treatment
options
Menstrual history and menopausal status
Symptoms of uterovaginal prolapse
Sexual function and woman’s expectations
Drug history
Some medications may be associated with UI and their use may need to be reviewed
Drugs affecting
The central nervous system, for example sedatives, hypnotics, anxiolytics and smooth muscle
relaxants
The autonomic nervous system, for example drugs with antimuscarinic action,
sympathomimetics and sympatholytics
Fluid balance, for example diuretics and alcohol.
Previous medication for UI symptoms, and any known allergies which may affect future treatment
choices.
Symptom scoring and quality of life assessment
Use the following incontinencespecific qualityoflife scales when therapies are being
evaluated: ICIQ, BFLUTS, IQOL, SUIQQ, UISS, SEAPIQMM, ISI and KHQ
General assessment
Social and functional impact of UI
Desire for treatment, expectations and motivation
Social circumstances
Home environment, personal relationships, occupational history and lifestyle factors such as
smoking
Adjustment of these lifestyle factors may form part of the management of the condition in some
women
Functional assessment
Access and ease of use of toileting aids, mobility and dexterity
Assessment of the home environment may be undertaken, for example by an occupational
therapist.
Examination
Assessment of cognitive impairment allows the effect of disease to be taken into account and
allows modification of treatment. The Abbreviated Mental Test Score (AMTS) and the Mini
Mental State Examination (MMSE) should be undertaken for women over 75 years with
complex comorbidities. These scales should also be considered for younger women if clinically
appropriate.
Abdominal examination can detect a significantly enlarged bladder or palpable pelvic mass
A palpable bladder may indicate the presence of chronic urinary retention
Pelvic assessment should include vaginal examination, and possibly also rectal examination if
clinically indicated
Vaginal examination can assess pelvic organ prolapse, atrophic changes, infection and
excoriation.
Uterine and ovarian enlargement may be determined by bimanual examination
Rectal examination is undertaken to further evaluate posterior vaginal wall prolapse and bowel
symptoms
Undertake routine digital assessment to confirm pelvic floor muscle contraction before the use
of supervised pelvic floor muscle training for the treatment of UI.
Role of MSU
Urine dipstick positive plus UTI symptoms should have a midstream urine specimen sent for
culture & sensitivities. An appropriate course of antibiotic treatment should be prescribed
pending culture results.
Urine dipstick positive but no UTI symptoms should not be offered antibiotics without the
results of midstream urine culture
Urine dipstick negative but UTI symptoms midstream urine specimen sent for culture and
analysis of antibiotic sensitivities. The healthcare professional should consider the prescription
of antibiotics pending culture results.
Urine dipstick negative and no UTI symptoms should not have a urine sample sent for culture
Assessment of residual urine
Measure postvoid residual volume by bladder scan or catheterisation in women with symptoms
suggestive of voiding dysfunction or recurrent UTI.
Use a bladder scan in preference to catheterisation on the grounds of acceptability and lower
incidence of adverse events.
Refer women who are found to have a palpable bladder on bimanual or abdominal examination
after voiding to a specialist.
The following should not be offered
Cystoscopy in the initial assessment
Pad tests
Qtip, Bonney, Marshall and FluidBridge tests
Magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography
Ultrasound is not recommended other than for the assessment of residual urine volume.
Lifestyle advice
Recommend a trial of caffeine reduction to women with OAB.
Consider advising modification of high or low fluid intake in women with UI or OAB.
Advise women with UI or OAB who have a BMI greater than 30 to lose weight.
Pelvic floor muscle training
Undertake routine digital assessment to confirm pelvic floor muscle contraction before the use
of supervised pelvic floor muscle training
Offer a trial of supervised pelvic floor muscle training of at least 3 months’ duration as firstline
treatment to women with stress or mixed UI.
Pelvic floor muscle training programmes should comprise at least 8 contractions performed 3
times per day.
Continue an exercise programme if pelvic floor muscle training is beneficial.
Electrical stimulation and/or biofeedback should be considered in women who cannot actively
contract pelvic floor muscles in order to aid motivation and adherence to therapy.
Offer pelvic floor muscle training to women in their first pregnancy as a preventive strategy for
UI.
Bladder training
Offer bladder training lasting for a minimum of 6 weeks as firstline treatment to women with
urgency or mixed UI.
If women do not achieve satisfactory benefit from bladder training programmes, the
combination of an OAB drug with bladder training should be considered if frequency is a
troublesome symptom.
The following should not be offered
Electrical stimulation in the treatment of women with OAB.
Electrical stimulation in combination with pelvic floor muscle training.
Perineometry or pelvic floor electromyography as biofeedback as a routine part of pelvic floor
muscle training.
Transcutaneous sacral nerve stimulation to treat OAB in women.
Transcutaneous posterior tibial nerve stimulation for OAB.
Indications for specialist referral
Refer women with urinary incontinence who have symptomatic prolapse that is visible at or
below the vaginal introitus to a specialist.
Urgently refer women with UI who have any of the following:
1) Microscopic haematuria in women aged 50 years and older
2) Visible haematuria
3) Recurrent or persisting UTI associated with haematuria in women aged 40 years and older
4) Suspected malignant mass arising from the urinary tract
In women with urinary incontinence, further indications for consideration for referral to a
specialist service include
1) Persisting bladder or urethral pain
2) Clinically benign pelvic masses
3) Associated faecal incontinence
4) Suspected neurological disease
5) Symptoms of voiding difficulty
6) Suspected urogenital fistulae
7) Previous continence surgery
8) Previous pelvic cancer surgery
9) Previous pelvic radiation therapy
The urogynaecology multidisciplinary team (MDT)
The MDT for urinary incontinence should include:
1) a urogynaecologist
2) a urologist with a subspecialist interest in female urology
3) a specialist nurse
4) a specialist physiotherapist
5) a colorectal surgeon with a subspecialist interest in functional bowel problems, for women with
coexisting bowel problems
6) a member of the care of the elderly team and/or occupational therapist, for women with
functional impairment.
When recommending optimal management the MDT should take into account:
1) the woman’s preference
2) past management
3) comorbidities
4) treatment options (including further conservative management such as OAB drug therapy).
Inform the woman of the outcome of the MDT review if it alters the provisional treatment plan.
All MDTs should work within an established regional clinical network to ensure all women are
offered the appropriate treatment options and high quality care.
Bladder catheterisation
Intermittent or indwelling urethral or suprapubic should be considered for women in whom
persistent urinary retention is causing incontinence, symptomatic infections, or renal
dysfunction, and in whom this cannot otherwise be corrected.
Explain to women that the use of indwelling catheters in urgency UI may not result in
continence.
Intermittent urethral catheters
Offer intermittent urethral catheterisationto women with urinary retention who can be taught to
selfcatheteriseor who have a carerwho can perform the technique.
Indwelling urethral catheters
Give careful consideration to the impact of longterm indwelling urethral catheterisation.
Discuss the practicalities, benefits and risks with the patient or, if appropriate, her carer.
Indications for the use of longterm indwelling urethral catheters for women with urinary
incontinence include:
1. chronic urinary retention in women who are unable to manage intermittent selfcatheterisation
2. skin wounds, pressure ulcers or irritations that are being contaminated by urine
3. distress or disruption caused by bed and clothing changes
4. where a woman expresses a preference for this form of management.
Indwelling suprapubiccatheters
Indwelling suprapubiccatheters should be considered as an alternative to longterm urethral
catheters.
Explain to women that they may be associated with lower rates of symptomatic UTI,
‘bypassing’, and urethral complications than indwelling urethral catheters.
Products to prevent leakage
Do not use intravaginaland intraurethraldevices for the routine management of urinary
incontinence in women.
Do not advise women to consider such devices other than for occasional use when necessary to
prevent leakage, for example during physical exercise.
ICS STANDARD NOMENCLETURE
Genuine stress incontinence (OLD) = Urodynamic stress incontinence
Detrusor instability (OLD) = Detrusor overactivity
Detrusor hyperreflexia (OLD) = Neurogenic overactivity
URODYNAMIC STRESS INCONTINENCE
TREATMENT OPTIONS:
NONSURGICAL
• Treatment of chronic constipation, chest conditions, weight reduction and stopping smoking may
produce symptomatic improvement. Up to 50% of women will obtain sufficient benefit from non
surgical treatments to avoid surgery
PELVIC FLOOR MUSCLE TRAINING (PFMT) AND VAGINAL CONES
The results for PFMT groups versus no treatment were:
1. Subjective cure rates of 16 56% versus 3%
2. Success (combined subjective cure and improvement) in 85% versus 0%
3. Objective cure rates (1 hour pad test or negative stress test) of 4465% versus 07%
4. Reductions in leakage episodes of 5472% versus 6%
Offer a trial of supervised pelvic floor muscle training of at least 3 months’ duration as firstline
treatment to women with stress or mixed urinary incontinence.
Pelvic floor muscle training programmes should comprise at least 8 contractions performed 3
times per day.
Do not use perineometry or pelvic floor electromyography as biofeedback as a routine part of
pelvic floor muscle training.
Continue an exercise programmeif pelvic floor muscle training is beneficial.
Daily PFMT is an effective treatment for stress or mixed urinary incontinence compared with
no treatment over the short term.
Other than occasional cases of pain or discomfort, no other adverse effects were noted.
In studies of up to 1 year, higher intensity PFMT regimens confer greater subjective cure or
Improvement than lower intensity regimens. Over the longer term, differences between these
groups are not sustained.
There is a lack of evidence for optimum training regimens for PFMT.
There is no additional benefit from the use of PFMT in women undergoing treatment with
tolterodine for OAB.
In women with stress urinary incontinence, vaginal cones are more effective than no treatment
over the short term.
There is no evidence of a difference in effectiveness between cones and PFMT.
Compared with PFMT, cones are associated with more adherence problems.
One study suggested that the training time for using vaginal cones is onethird of that for
PFMT, which would make vaginal cones cheaper than PFMT. However, it is not clear what the
appropriate training regimen should be for women using vaginal cones.
Vaginal cones are not suitable for all women. Cones are inappropriate for use in some
circumstances, such as when there is a moderate to severe prolapse, too narrow or too capacious
a vagina causing difficulty with insertion or misplacement of the cone, untreated atrophic
vaginitis, vaginal infection, or during menstruation or pregnancy.
Evidence does not indicate additional benefit from biofeedback with PFMT in comparison with
PFMT alone in treating UI.
Biofeedback with PFMT is more costly than PFMT alone and therefore is not cost effective.
There are limited data on the use of magnetic therapy for urinary incontinence, and its role in
treatment of women is unclear
PFMT is more cost effective than duloxetine alone, as firstline treatment for stress urinary
incontinence.
Electrical stimulation and/or biofeedback should be considered in women who cannot actively
contract pelvic floor muscles in order to aid motivation and adherence to therapy
Preventive use after pregnancy
Urinary incontinence occurs in 17–32% of women postpartum.
PFMT was started 24 or 48 hours after delivery in primi or multiparous women
At 3 months postpartum, there is
significantly lower prevalence of urinary incontinence in the PFMT group following the 8 week
treatment programme. This difference was not sustained at 1 year
no significant differences in urinary incontinence prevalence between groups following the 4
week treatment programme
Acohort study reported a significantly lower stress urinary incontinence prevalence in women
(41% of whom had incontinence at baseline) who had undergone a structured 8 week PFMT
programmecompared with usual care, both at the end of the intervention and at 1 year
postpartum. No significant differences were found between groups in leakage index or social
activity index.
There is evidence that PFMT used during a first pregnancy reduces the prevalence of urinary
incontinence at 3 months following delivery. The effects in the longer term are inconsistent and
the impact of subsequent pregnancies unknown.
SURGERY FOR STRESS URINARY INCONTINENCE
The principle of all continence procedures is that they provide a tensionfree support to the mid
urethra or bladderneck, which comes under tension when the patient strains or coughs, hence slightly
obstructing the urethra.
Procedures to suspend the vaginal wall
Objective is to prevent the downward displacement of the urethra which plays a part in the
pathogenesis of stress urinary incontinence.
These include retropubic suspension procedures such as the Burch colposuspension, Marshall–
Marchetti–Krantz(MMK) and vaginoobturator shelf procedure, each of which secures the
paraurethral or vaginal tissues to a fixed structure by means of sutures.
Minimally invasive procedures that suspend the paraurethral tissues by means of a suspensory
suture, usually inserted under endoscopic control and secured to the rectus sheath to provide
support. These include the Raz, Pereyra, Stamey and Gittes procedures.
Sling operations aim to stabilise the urethra by placing a strip of material around the underside
of the urethra and securing the ends to a fixed structure above.
Synthetic midurethral tape (for example, TVT)
Synthetic midurethral tapes are inserted via a small suburethral vaginal incision and small
incisions in the suprapubic or perineal area, depending on the type of trocar used.
As a result of the minimal access approach, hospital stay and morbidity are reduced and
recovery is quicker.
Complications include tape erosion, pain and the risk of vessel/nerve or organ damage due to
the minimal access approach.
Colposuspension
Longterm complications include:
Prolapse (cystocele, rectocele or enterocele): median 4%
Voiding difficulties/chronic retention: median 6%
De novo urgency or urge urinary incontinence: median 22%
Dyspareunia: median 3%
Recurrent UTI: median 5%
Suprapubicpain/pain at site of suture: median 2%
Needle suspension
Longterm complications include:
Suprapubicpain/pain at site of suture: median 6%
Surgery to release or remove sutures: median 3%
De novo urgency or urge urinary incontinence: median 13%
Recurrent UTI: median 2%
Voiding difficulty: median 6%
Dyspareunia: median 9%
Biological slings
NICE Interventional Procedure guidance on biological slings:
“Current evidence on the safety and efficacy of the insertion of biological slings for stress urinary
incontinence in women is adequate to support the use of this procedure provided that normal
arrangements are in place for consent and clinical governance. Data on the longterm efficacy of the
insertion of biological slings for stress urinary incontinence in women are limited to autologous
slings. Clinicians should therefore audit patients in the longer term
Reported complications include:
Sling failure, haemorrhage, suprapubic abscess, lower extremity neuropathy, persistent
suprapubic pain and suprapubic haematoma
Persistent thigh pain, abdominal wound infection and prolapse in 11%, 6% and 1%, respectively
Urinary retention and UTI
Need for urethrolysis because of persistent voiding dysfunction in 25%
NICE RECOMMENDATIONS
When offering a surgical procedure discuss with the woman the risks and benefits of the
different treatment options for stress urinary incontinence using the information in table
If conservative management for has failed, offer:
1. Synthetic midurethral tape or
2. Open colposuspension or
3. Autologous rectus fascial sling
Operations to augment sphincter closure
Include injection of urethral bulking agents and implants that aim to occlude the urethra.
A pliable bulking agent is injected into the submucosaltissues of the urethra, or bladder neck.
May increase the resistance to flow within the urethra, so preventing stress urinary
incontinence.
The injections may be undertaken transurethrally, either using a needle passed down the
operating channel of a cystoscope under direct vision, or blind, using specifically developed
injection systems.
1. Success rates: median 48%
2. Objective cure: 48–59%
3. Continence rates reduced over the duration of followup.
Adverse effects reported were transient and included
Dysuria, haematuria, frequency, acute retention, UTI
NICE Recommendations
Consider intramural bulking agents (silicone, carboncoated zirconium beads or hyaluronic
acid/dextran copolymer) for the management of stress urinary incontinence if conservative
management has failed. Women should be made aware that:
1. repeat injections may be needed to achieve efficacy
2. efficacy diminishes with time
3. efficacy is inferior to that of synthetic tapes or autologous rectus fascial slings
Do not offer autologous fat and polytetrafluoroethylene used as intramural bulking agents for the
treatment of stress urinary incontinence
Artificial sphincters
In view of the associated morbidity, the use of an artificial urinary sphincter should be
considered for the management of stress UI in women only if previous surgery has failed. Life
long followup is recommended.
UROGYNAECOLOGY I: Overview
Terminology
The International Continence Society defines urinary incontinence as ‘the complaint of any
involuntary leakage of urine’
Symptoms
Stress urinary incontinence: Involuntary urinary leakage on effort or exertion or on coughing,
sneezing or laughing
Dysuria: Pain on passing urine
Urgency: a sudden compelling desire to urinate that is difficult to defer
Urge urinary incontinence: involuntary urine leakage accompanied or immediately preceded by
urgency
Mixed urinary incontinence: involuntary urine leakage associated with both urgency and
exertion, effort, sneezing or coughing
Urinary Frequency: Voiding more than once every 2 hours or more than 7 times per day
Nocturia: Desire to void causes patient to wake. Rare before the age of 60, above 60 years, one
episode of nocturia per decade of life is not abnormal
Clinical Diagnoses
Urodynamic stress incontinence (USI): A urodynamic diagnosis in which involuntary loss of
urine occurs when intravesical pressure (pressure inside the urinary bladder) exceeds maximum
urethral closure pressure (pressure keeping the urethra closed) in the absence of a detrusor
contraction (accounts for ~48% of incontinence)
Overactive bladder syndrome (OAB): urgency that occurs with or without urge incontinence
and usually with frequency and nocturia.
OAB that occurs with urge incontinence is known as ‘OAB wet’. OAB that occurs without urge
incontinence is known as ‘OAB dry’. These combinations of symptoms are suggestive of the
urodynamic finding of detrusor overactivity.
Detrusor Overactivity (DO): A urodynamic diagnosis in which uncontrolled spontaneous
contractions of detrusor muscle occur during filling, or on provocation, while the patient is
actively trying to inhibit micturition (accounts for 38% of incontinence)
In a woman presenting with urinary leakage, other diagnoses include urinary fistulas, urinary
retention with overflow incontinence. Conditions such as interstitial cystitis, radiation cystitis
and chronic infectious conditions may reduce bladder capacity resulting in urinary frequency,
urgency and incontinence
In about 4% of women, no satisfactory diagnosis is reached
Why is urinary incontinence important?
Common disorder: A postal survey showed a prevalence of 8.5% in women aged 15–64 years
and 11.6% in those aged 65 years and over.
Incontinence was described as ‘moderate’ or ‘severe’ in onefifth of those who reported it and,
even among these, fewer than onethird were receiving any treatment.
There are newer and less invasive treatments for urinary incontinence and more women are
presenting and expecting treatment
Risk factors for incontinence
Age
Pregnancy increased prevalence of stress incontinence in parous women. The contribution of
pregnancy itself as opposed to vaginal delivery remains debated, although elective caesarean
section appears to offer some protection.
Pelvic floor denervation evidence of pudendal denervation in women with urodynamic stress
incontinence
Menopause
Prolapse no more common in women with urodynamic stress incontinence compared to
detrusor overactivity or the general parous population but may influence surgical management
Obesity appears to be a risk factor for both stress incontinence and overactive bladder
syndrome
Functional and cognitive impairment
Smoking
Neurological disease
Hysterectomy
UROGYNAECOLOGY II: Basic Anatomy, Physiology & Pharmacology
Clinical anatomy and mechanism of continence
Micturiction is a reflex action controlled by higher centres in the cerebral cortex in toilettrained
individuals
The reflex is induced by stretching of the bladder with afferent impulses transmitted via the
pelvic splanchnic nerves to S2,3,4. Efferent impulses leave the spinal cord at S2,3,4 via
parasympathetic preganglionic fibres through the pelvic splanchnic nerves and inferior
hypogastric plexuses to the bladder where they synapse with postganglionic neurons.
To remain continent intravesical pressure should be less than urethral pressure. Main factor
causing stress incontinence is the incomplete transmission of abdominal pressure to the
proximal urethra. This results in the intravesical pressure exceeding the urethral pressure.
Drugs acting on the bladder
a) Anticholinergic agents oxybutynin, Tolterodine, Propiverine, Solifenacin improvement in 57
71% of women with detrusor overactivity, significant placebo effect. Sideeffects,especially dry
mouth appear to be less common with newer agents like Solifenacin.
Sideeffects include:
• Nausea, constipation, diarrhoea and abdominal discomfort
• Dry mouth (88%)
• Blurred vision
• Voiding difficulties
• Headache, dizziness, drowsiness, restlessness and disorientation
• Rash, dry skin, photosensitivity
• Arrhythmia
• Angioedema
Tolterodine has similar efficacy to oxybutynin but is be better tolerated
Propiverine is also a calcium channel blocker
Solifenacin is a newer agent with organ selectivity for the bladder over the salivary gland. Similar
efficacy to other agents with respect to bladder function.
b) Tricyclic antidepressants anticholinergic effects and also sedative useful in nocturia and
nocturnal enuresis. Main sideeffects are drowsiness and postural hypotension
c) Antidiuretic hormone DDAVP effective in treatment of nocturia and nocturnal enuresis.
Contraindicated in cardiac disease and women on diuretics. Sideeffects include fluid retention with
hyponatraemia, epistaxis, nasal congestion and rhinitis with nasal spray
d) Oestrogen effective in relieving symptoms of urogenital atrophy in postmenopausal women
(frequency, urgency and dysuria), no evidence that it is effective in proven detrusor overactivity
e) Duloxetine
Combined serotonin (5HT) and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor
Use results in significant reduction in incontinence episodes, social embarrassment and
psychological impact of incontinence and a significant improvement in quality of life
Sideeffects
GI disturbance particularly nausea and dry mouth
Headache, decreased libido, anorgasmia
Withdrawal reaction is characterised by headache, nausea, paraesthesia, dizziness and anxiety
drug should not be stopped abruptly and dose should be reduced over a 2 week period
Contraindications
Pregnancy, lactation
Hepatic impairment
Monoamine oxidase therapy
Lowers seizure threshold therefore avoid in epilepsy
Can enhance the anticoagulant effects of warfarin
Metabolised by the same enzymes as ciprofloxacin and fluvoxamine avoid coprescription
Avoid coprescription with SSRIs and tricyclic antidepressants
NICE RECOMMENDATIONS
Duloxetine is not recommended as a firstline treatment for women with predominant stress
incontinence.
Duloxetine should not routinely be used as a secondline treatment for women with stress
incontinence, although it may be offered as secondline therapy if women prefer
pharmacological to surgical treatment or are not suitable for surgical treatment.
If duloxetine is prescribed, women should be counselled about its adverse effects.
Drugs that may precipitate / exacerbate urinary incontinence
Diuretics – increase volume of urine produced and exacerbate urgency, urge incontinence and
nocturia
Alphaantagonists – relaxation of the urethral sphincter and worsen incontinence
Alcohol – diuretic and impairs judgement and coordination. Exacerbates urinary frequency and
urgency
Sedatives including benzodiazepines – sedation and confusion associated with incontinence
Anticholinergic agents including antidepressants with anticholinergic activity – reduce
detrusor contractility and associated with urinary retention
MIRABEGRON
Detrusor relaxation is mainly mediated by the cyclic AMP pathway activated via the fixation of
noradrenalin to β –adrenoreceptors
β1,2,3receptors have all been demonstrated in the human bladder
β3receptors account for more than 95% of all βadrenoreceptor mRNA in the human bladder
and are thought to be the main βadrenoreceptor mediating human detrusor relaxation
β3ARs have been found to be highly and preferentially expressed on urinary bladder tissues,
including the urothelium, interstitial cells, and detrusor smooth muscle
In animal studies β3 agonists directly cause dosedependent detrusor relaxation during the
storage phase of the micturition cycle and inhibited neurogenic detrusor overactivity and
experimentally induced or bladder outlet obstruction (BOO)associated OAB
Compared with other agents (including antimuscarinics), β3 agonists increase bladder capacity
with no change in micturition pressure and residual volume, supporting the principle of β3AR
agonism as a new therapeutic approach to OAB.
Receptors on smooth muscle are thought to be the main site of action for these agents in treating
detrusor overactivity, although they also promote relaxation by directly influencing urothelial
functions
These drugs have fewer cardiovascular side effects compared with β1,2 agonists
Mirabegron has a marketing authorisation in the UK for the 'symptomatic treatment of urgency,
increased micturition frequency and/or urgency incontinence as may occur in patients with
overactive bladder (OAB)'.
Formulated as oral controlled absorption system (OCAS) tablets a modified release system
(extended release or prolonged release) that allows the release of drug from the tablets for an
extended period.
Available in two strengths of 50 mg orally once daily dose, with or without food and 25 mg for
patients with severe renal or moderate hepatic impairment).
Pharmacology
Plasma protein binding is 71%.
Widely distributed in the body; volume of distribution about 1670 liters.
Terminal elimination half life is approximately 50 h.
Time to reach maximum concentration (T max) is 3–4 h.
Absolute bioavailability is approximately 29% at a 25 mg dose and 35% at a 50 mg dose.
Bioavailability appears to be 40–50% higher in women than men; however, when normalized
for body weight the difference is reduced to around 20–30%.
Bioavailability is reduced when given with food, with lowfat food having greater effect on the
absorption than highfat food
Partly metabolized by the liver through multiple pathways
Also excreted by the kidneys through glomerular filtration and active tubular secretion
Contraindications
Severe hypertension
Avoid in pregnancy and breastfeeding
Adverse effects
Incidence of adverse effects 39.2% compared with 36.4% for the placebo group and 48.4% for
the tolterodine group
Adverse events are mild or moderate. Headache (6.9%) and GI disorders (13.8%) are the most
common in the mirabegron group, but their incidence lower compared with the tolterodine
group (9.4%, 23.4% respectively).
Treatmentrelated dizziness and palpitations more common with mirabegron compared with
placebo and tolterodine.
Discontinuation rates caused by adverse effects 4.6% and 7.7% with mirabegron 100 mg and
150 mg, respectively, 1.5% with placebo and 3.1% with tolterodine.
Adverse events include
1. Headache
2. Urinary tract infection
3. Tachycardia, palpitations, atrial fibrillation, increased BP
4. Vaginal infection, vulvovaginal pruritis
5. Dyspepsia, gastritis, abnormal LFTs,
6. Urticaria, rash, pruritus, joint swelling, eyelid oedema, lip oedema
7. Leukocytoclastic vasculitis
Drug interactions
Clarithromycin
Avoid or reduce dose of mirabegron in hepatic or renal impairment when given with
clarithromycin
Digoxin
Mirabegron increases plasma concentration of digoxin —reduce initial dose of digoxin
Itraconazole
Avoid or reduce dose of mirabegron in hepatic or renal impairment when given with
itraconazole
Metoprolol
Mirabegron increases plasma concentration of metoprolol
Ritonavir
Avoid or reduce dose of mirabegron in hepatic or renal impairment when given with
ritonavir
NICE RECOMMENDATIONS
Mirabegron would be positioned in a complex treatment pathway that varied geographically but
potentially offered an additional pharmacological treatment before invasive treatment options
were considered
The evidence for a comparison between mirabegron and tolterodine was satisfactory, and that
mirabegron was likely to be as clinically effective as tolterodine.
The rate of adverse events was no different between the mirabegron and tolterodine 4 mg but
that the nature of the adverse events experienced differed.
Dry mouth was more common in the tolterodine arm than in the mirabegron arm, in which the
incidence was similar to that in the placebo arm. Dry mouth was the most bothersome side
effect of antimuscarinic drugs and contributed to discontinuation with treatment. The rate of dry
mouth was statistically significantly lower for mirabegron than for tolterodine and the other
antimuscarinic drugs
The different side effects of mirabegron compared with antimuscarinic drugs could be of
benefit for those who cannot tolerate the specific side effects of antimuscarinic drugs,
particularly dry mouth. For people who cannot tolerate antimuscarinic drugs, mirabegron may
be a suitable alternative treatment.
Mirabegron was likely to be cost effective when compared with tolterodine MR 4 mg
GESTATIONAL TROPHOBLASTIC DISEASE / MOLAR PREGNANCY (HYDATIDIFORM
MOLES)
Definition
A pregnancy characterised by excessive growth of the trophoblast (placental tissue). A fetus
may be present (partial molar pregnancy) or absent (complete molar pregnancy). These
pregnancies have malignant potential (may develop into choriocarcinoma).
Why is this important?
Although rare in Western countries, molar pregnancies are a more common cause of bleeding in
pregnancy in the Far East. Can cause severe haemorrhage
Have malignant potential and a high recurrence risk. Early detection of malignancy results in a
very high cure rate.
Incidence
Incidence of molar pregnancies is 11.5 per 1000 live births (UK). Incidence higher in the Far
East (up to 1 in 85 pregnancies)
Incidence of choriocarcinoma ~ 1 in 50,000 live births (UK).
Recurrence risk of molar pregnancy = 1 in 55 after one affected pregnancy and 1 in 7 after two
previous molar pregnancies.
Aetiology
Complete molar pregnancy – arises due to fertilisation of an anucleate oocyte by one sperm
which duplicates its genetic material. The pregnancy has a 46XX karyotype
Partial molar pregnancy arises due to fertilisation of a normal oocyte by two sperms. The
pregnancy has a triploid karyotype (69 chromosomes).
The additional genetic material of paternal origin results in excessive growth of the trophoblast
and the formation of trophoblastic vesicles.
About 2 to 3% of molar pregnancies are complicated by the development of choriocarcinoma.
5% of complete moles and 0.05% of partial moles progress to choriocarcinoma.
Choriocarcinoma can also arise following normal full term pregnancy – risk is 1 in 50,000.
RISK FACTORS
Maternal age – Ushaped relationship. Lowest risk in 2529 years age group, risk increases with
increasing (relative risk 26.3 in 4549 years age group) and decreasing (relative risk 6.0 in
women <15 years) maternal age
Previous molar pregnancy
MANAGEMENT OF MOLAR PREGNANCY
History
Vaginal bleeding in early pregnancy +/ expulsion of grapelike vesicles per vagina
Excessive pregnancy symptoms – thought to be due to high levels of HCG produced by the
trophoblast. Typically, there is excessive vomiting and early onset, rapidly progressive
hypertensive disease
Symptoms of thyrotoxicosis – HCG has identical alpha chain to TSH and the high HCG levels
stimulate thyroid hormone production. Trophoblast also produces human chorionic
thyrotrophin.
Differential diagnoses
Vaginal bleeding: ectopic pregnancy, miscarriage, cervical ectropion, cervical neoplasm, genital
tract infection
Excessive vomiting: UTI, gastrointestinal disease, metabolic disease, hyperemesis gravidarum
Examination
Pulse / BP; state of mucous membranes if excessive vomiting
Abdominal examination – uterine size large for dates; exclude surgical cause for vomiting;
abdominal tenderness, rebound tenderness & guarding (if bleeding, need to exclude ectopic
pregnancy).
Speculum examination – quantify blood loss, presence of clots and products of conception in
the vagina / cervix (especially grapelike vesicles), state of cervix and cervical os (open or
closed).
Vaginal examination – uterine size and consistency (large for dates with doughy consistency),
uterine tenderness; adnexal mass and tenderness, cervical excitation (exclude ectopic
pregnancy); state of cervical os.
Investigations
Community
Urine pregnancy test
Hospital
FBC, blood group & save (crossmatch if heavy bleeding)
Transvaginal ultrasound scan – may identify excessive growth of the trophoblast (snowstorm
appearance) or large placental mass with (partial mole) or without a fetus (complete mole).
Risk factors for malignant change
Maternal age 9 fold increase in risk in >40 years compared to 2024 years age group
Initial method of evacuation lowest risk after vacuum aspiration
ABO blood group highest risk in woman with blood group A and partner with blood group O;
lowest risk in woman with blood group A and partner with blood group A
Complete or partial mole malignant potential higher with complete mole 16% require
chemotherapy compared to 0.5%% after partial mole
Postevacuation contraception use of COCP before HCG levels have returned to normal
associated with increased need for chemotherapy
Management after evacuation of molar pregnancy
Women with molar pregnancies should be registered with one of the three national screening
centres located in Dundee, Sheffield and Charring Cross, London
Avoid use of COCP until HCG levels have returned to normal
Avoid using IUCD / IUS until cycles have reestablished
Avoid further pregnancy for 6 months after HCG levels return to normal
Recurrence risk ~1 in 55
Will need followup after all subsequent pregnancies irrespective of the outcome of the
pregnancy
Urge incontinence and Overactive Bladder Syndrome
Urge urinary incontinence is involuntary urine leakage accompanied or immediately preceded by urgency (a
sudden compelling desire to urinate that is difficult to defer)
Mixed urinary incontinence is involuntary urine leakage associated with both urgency and exertion, effort,
sneezing or coughing.
Overactive bladder syndrome (OAB) is defined as urgency that occurs with or without urge incontinence and
usually with frequency and nocturia.
OAB that occurs with urge UI is known as ‘OAB wet’. OAB that occurs without urge UI is known as ‘OAB
dry’.
These combinations of symptoms are suggestive of the urodynamic finding of detrusor overactivity, but can
be the result of other forms of urethrovesical dysfunction.
Detrusor Overactivity
Occurrence of uncontrolled spontaneous contraction of detrusor muscle during filling, or on provocation,
while the patient is actively trying to inhibit micturition
Diagnosis is therefore made at filling cystometry:
a) Rise in detrusor pressure of >15cm H2O
b) Rise in detrusor pressure of <15cm H2O in the presence of urgency or urge incontinence
A rise in detrusor pressure during filling may also be caused by a low compliance bladder.
Detrusor overactivity may coexist with urodynamic stress incontinence
Presents with symptoms of frequency, urgency / urge incontinence, nocturia, nocturnal enuresis,
incontinence during coitus, or stress incontinence.
Cystometry is not essential for diagnosis in women without stress incontinence.
In women complaining of mixed symptoms including stress incontinence, empirical treatment for detrusor
overactivity with conservative management of stress incontinence may be undertaken, with urodynamic
assessment only if treatment fails or the woman is being considered for incontinence surgery.
MANAGEMENT
HISTORY
Severity of symptoms, duration and effect on quality of life; symptoms of UTI, haematuria, bladder pain
Most severe symptom nocturia or frequency or incontinence
Fluid intake and caffeine intake
Drug therapy diuretics, parasympathomimetics
Previous incontinence surgery
Mobility / dexterity change in location of toilet / type of clothing may improve quality of life in elderly
Medical history: cardiac failure and oedema may result in fluid redistribution at night while supine with
nocturia
EXAMINATION
Exclude abdominopelvic mass
Detect uterovaginal prolapse
INVESTIGATIONS
MSU and dipstix for blood, protein, leukocytes, nitrites and glucose
Frequency volume chart: Bladder diaries should be used in the initial assessment of women with urge
incontinence or OAB. Women should be encouraged to complete a minimum of 3 days of the diary covering
variations in their usual activities, such as both working and leisure days.
The measurement of postvoid residual volume by bladder scan or catheterisation should be performed in
women with symptoms suggestive of voiding dysfunction or recurrent UTI.
A bladder scan should be used in preference to catheterisation on the grounds of acceptability and lower
incidence of adverse events
Pelvic scan to exclude pelvic mass if inadequate clinical pelvic assessment
Urodynamic assessment if symptoms suggestive of voiding dysfunction or failed empirical therapy
Cystoscopy if haematuria, bladder pain or reduced bladder capacity at cystometry
TREATMENT
(a) Conservative treatments
No single treatment should be considered first line as comparison between published studies is difficult and
there are few randomised trials.
There is a significant placebo effect associated with all treatment
An explanation of the diagnosis with reassurance that there is no serious pathology may suffice in some
women
Lifestyle changes such as location of toilet, change in type of clothing, modification of medical treatments
such as diuretics and reduction of caffeine intake may improve quality of life, particularly in the elderly
Women with a BMI of over 30 should be advised to lose weight
Bladder drill and biofeedback up to 90% of women become continent compared to 23% in control group;
40% relapse rate within 3 years, better outcome with inpatient treatment but has cost limitations
. Bladder
training lasting for a minimum of 6 weeks should be offered as firstline treatment to women with urge or
mixed urinary incontinence.
There is good evidence that bladder training is an effective treatment for urge or mixed UI, with fewer
adverse effects and lower relapse rates than treatment with antimuscarinic drugs.
If women do not achieve satisfactory benefit from bladder training programmes, the combination of an
antimuscarinic agent with bladder training should be considered if frequency is a troublesome symptom.
In women with urinary incontinence who also have cognitive impairment, prompted and timed voiding
toileting programmes are recommended as strategies for reducing leakage episodes
(b) Medical therapy
The absolute probability of being continent at 4 weeks ranged from 16% for tolterodine (extended release)
to 27% for oxybutynin (immediate release)
The absolute probability of being continent at 12 weeks ranged from 12% for tolterodine (extended release)
to 21% for oxybutynin (immediate release)
The absolute probability of discontinuing from treatment at 4 weeks range from 4% for solifenacin and
darifenacin to 11% for oxybutynin (immediate release) and propiverine (immediate release)
The absolute probability of discontinuing from treatment at 12 weeks range from 15% for solifenacin and
darifenacin to 31% for oxybutynin (immediate release) and propiverine (immediate release)
The cost per year of OAB drugs ranged from £364 to £578. The difference in effectiveness was very small –
a difference less than of 0.01 QALY between the most effective (oxybutynin immediate release) and least
effective drug (tolterodine extended release) over a year
The weekly cost of oxybutynin (immediate release), and tolterodine (immediate release) were below the cost
of no treatment since the latter included £8 per week for incontinence pads.
Oxybutynin (immediate release) was the most costeffective firstline antimuscarinic therapy. All other
drugs were more expensive and less effective than oxybutynin immediate release.
The probability of a drug being the most cost effective at £20,000 per QALY was highest for oxybutynin
(immediate release) and tolterodine (immediate release). All other drugs had no more than a 5% chance of
being cost effective at that threshold.
Switching to another OAB drug
If a drug is not providing optimal benefit then another low cost, effective OAB drug should be offered as an
alternative. If that drug also fails to improve symptoms then other treatment options should be considered.
Considerations before treatment
When offering antimuscarinic drugs to treat OAB always take account of:
a) the woman’s coexisting conditions (for example, poor bladder emptying)
b) use of other existing medication affecting the total anticholinergic load
c) risk of adverse effects.
Before OAB drug treatment starts, discuss with women:
a) the likelihood of success and associated common adverse effects
b) the frequency and route of administration
c) that some adverse effects such as dry mouth and constipation may indicate that treatment is starting to have an
effect
d) that they may not see the full benefits until they have been taking the treatment for 4 weeks.
Prescribe the lowest recommended dose when starting a new OAB drug treatment.
If drug treatment is effective and welltolerated, do not change the dose or drug.
Offering OAB drugs
Offer one of the following choices first to women with OAB or mixed UI:
a) oxybutynin (immediate release)
b) tolterodine (immediate release)
c) darifenacin (once daily preparation)
Antidiuretic hormone DDAVP
Effective in treatment of nocturia and nocturnal enuresis. Contraindicated in cardiac disease and women on
diuretics. Sideeffects include fluid retention with hyponatraemia, epistaxis, nasal congestion and rhinitis
with nasal spray
The use of desmopressin may be considered specifically to reduce nocturia in women with UI or OAB who
find it a troublesome symptom
Use particular caution in women with cystic fibrosis and avoid in those over 65 years with cardiovascular
disease or hypertension
Oestrogen
Effective in relieving symptoms of urogenital atrophy in postmenopausal women (frequency, urgency and
dysuria), no evidence that it is effective in proven detrusor overactivity
Do not offer systemic hormone replacement therapy for the treatment of UI
Offer intravaginal oestrogens for the treatment of OAB symptoms in postmenopausal women with vaginal
atrophy
Medication review
Offer a facetoface or telephone review 4 weeks after the start of each new OAB drug treatment. Ask the
woman if she is satisfied.If improvement is optimal, continue treatment. If there is no or suboptimal
improvement or intolerable adverse effects change the dose, or try an alternative OAB drug and review
again 4 weeks later
Offer review before 4 weeks if the adverse events of OAB drug treatment are intolerable.
Offer a further facetoface or telephone review if a woman’s condition stops responding optimally to
treatment after an initial successful 4week review
Review women who remain on longterm drug treatment for UI or OAB annually in primary care (or every
6 months for women over 75).
Invasive treatments for OAB
Botulinum toxin A
Botulinum toxin is a potent neurotoxin derived from the bacterium Clostridium botulinum.
Two strains are available for clinical use, type A and B.
Blocks the release of acetylcholine and temporarily paralyse any muscle into which it is injected
Pretreatment management & counselling
Start treatment with botulinum toxin A only if women:
a) Have been trained in clean intermittent catheterisation and have performed the technique successfully, and
b) Are able and willing to perform clean intermittent catheterisation on a regular basis for as long as needed.
Discuss the risks and benefits of treatment with botulinum toxin A with women before seeking informed
consent including
i) the likelihood of being symptom free or having a large reduction in symptoms
ii) the risk of clean intermittent catheterisation and the potential for it to be needed for variable
lengths of time after the effect of the injections has worn off
iii) the absence of evidence on duration of effect between treatments and the longterm efficacy and
risks
iv) the risk of adverse effects, including an increased risk of urinary tract infection.
Neurostimulation
Percutaneous Sacral Nerve Stimulation (PSNS)
The principle of neurostimulation is that electrical stimulation of the sacral reflex pathway will inhibit the
reflex behaviour of the bladder and reduce detrusor overactivity
Permanently implantable sacral nerve root stimulators have been developed to provide chronic stimulation
directly to the S3 nerve roots
Patients first undergo test stimulation before treatment using either percutaneous nerve evaluation (PNE) or
tined leads in which a needle is inserted through the sacral foramina under local anaesthetic. This is
connected to an external stimulation source and left in place for a few days
Those who show satisfactory response (normally a 50% improvement of symptoms) to the test stimulation
may then proceed to a permanent implant.
Current evidence on the safety and efficacy of sacral nerve stimulation for overactive bladder symptoms appears
adequate to support the use of this procedure, provided that the normal arrangements are in place for consent, audit
and clinical governance.
Discuss the longterm implications including:
a) the need for test stimulation and probability of the test’s success
b) the risk of failure
c) the longterm commitment
d) the need for surgical revision
e) the adverse effects.
Tell women how to selfrefer for prompt specialist review if symptoms return
Augmentation cystoplasty
Aims to increase functional bladder capacity by bivalving the bladder wall and incorporating a segment of
bowel into the resultant defect
Preoperative counselling should include common and serious complications such as
1. Bowel disturbance
2. Metabolic acidosis
3. Mucus production and/or retention in the bladder
4. UTI
5. Urinary retention
Discuss the small risk of malignancy occurring in the augmented bladder
Provide lifelong followup.
Urinary diversion
Urine drainage is rerouted away from the urethra
Commonly achieved by transposing the ureters to an isolated segment of ileum, which is used to create a
permanent cutaneous stoma (ileal conduit)
Should be considered only when conservative management has failed, and if botulinum toxin A,
percutaneous sacral nerve stimulation and augmentation cystoplasty are not appropriate or are unacceptable
Provide lifelong followup
UROGYNAECOLOGY VI: Urogenital Prolapse *****
Prolapse is the descent of an organ from its anatomical position. All structures within the lower
urogenital and gastrointestinal tract (bladder, uterus, vagina, rectum) can prolapse through the
vaginal opening.
Prolapse of the bladder forms a cystocele while prolapse of the rectum forms a rectocele. Other
GI structures (typically small bowel) can prolapse forming an enterocele.
Anatomical support to pelvic organs
The levator ani muscles form the pelvic floor and provide the main support to pelvic organs
especially the vagina, rectum and urethra
The uterus is mainly suspended from the pelvic side wall by the transverse cervical and utero
sacral ligaments and these also support the upper vagina
Weakness in these support structures allows the organs to descend through the vaginal aperture
Risk factors for genital tract prolapse
Age – prevalence increases with age
Menopause – oestrogen withdrawal results in atrophy of support structures
Pregnancy and vaginal delivery – especially deliveries associated with injuries such as third
degree tears. Caesarean section is not absolutely protective
Increased intraabdominal pressure: chronic cough, abdominal / pelvic mass
Congenital weakness of the pelvic floor
Assessment and classification of prolapse
Traditionally, pelvic organ prolapse has been classified by a description of the organ (cystocele,
rectocele, uterine prolapse) plus a subjective measure of the extent of the prolapse (for instance,
small / medium cystocele or 1st, 2nd or 3rd degree uterine prolapse)
This is being replaced by a more objective system, the Pelvic Organ Prolapse Quantification
(POPQ)
POPQ Assessment
This system is increasingly used by specialists and GPs should be aware of it
Based on demonstrating the maximum extent of prolapse.
Maximum prolapse is present when the vaginal wall becomes tight during straining, traction on
the prolapse causes no further descent or the patient confirms that protrusion is maximal (for
instance, using a mirror). A standing, straining examination should be done to confirm that the
full extent of the prolapse was observed in other positions used.
The fixed point of reference for all POPQ measurements is the plane of the hymen.
Six points (two on the anterior vaginal wall, two on the superior vagina, and two on the
posterior vaginal wall) are measured with reference to the plane of the hymen.
Points above (proximal to) the hymen are described by the distance from the hymenal plane in
centimeters preceded by a minus sign (2 cm), and points below (distal to) the hymen are
preceded by a positive sign (+2 cm).
A full description of the examination should include type of speculum / retractors used, patient
position, bladder and rectal fullness
Managing women with urogenital prolapse
History
Symptoms –lump coming down, dragging / pressure sensation, lower back ache, vaginal
bleeding or discharge. Symptoms are usually worse at the end of the day / on standing. Some
women may have no symptoms
Urinary / bowel symptoms – especially incontinence or sensation of incomplete emptying of
bladder or rectum. Some women have to reduce the prolapse digitally in order to empty their
bladder / rectum. Identify other urinary symptoms
Effect of symptoms on quality of life
Reproductive intentions in young women – conservative treatment if family not complete
Identify risk factors – obstetric history, chronic cough
Examination
Abdominal examination – mass
Digital vaginal examination – pelvic mass
Objective assessment of prolapse should be done using standard quantification tools like POPQ
following Simm’s speculum examination
Assess occult urinary stress incontinence following reduction of prolapse with pessery or
sponge forceps
Investigations
None usually required but ultrasound scan of abdomen / pelvis if mass suspected or clinical
examination uninformative
Treatment options
Conservative
1) Treat risk / exacerbating factors such as chronic cough
2) Value of weight reduction is uncertain
3) Pelvic floor physiotherapy may improve mild symptoms and also improve stress incontinence
4) Pesseries ring / shelf: may be of value in women awaiting surgery or those who decline / are
unfit for surgery. The shelf pessery makes sexual intercourse impossible. Pesseries should be changed
every 6 12 months. Postmenopausal women need topical oestrogen to reduce the risk of ulceration.
Risks include expulsion, incarceration, ulceration / erosion with fistula formation
Surgical treatment – secondary care
1) Vaginal hysterectomy is the operation of choice for uterine prolapse
2) Anterior repair (colporrhaphy) is the operation of choice for anterior vaginal wall prolapse
3) Posterior repair (colporrhaphy) is the operation of choice for posterior vaginal wall prolapse
4) Usually, vaginal hysterectomy is accompanied by anterior / posterior repair
5) Abdominal sacrocolpopexy is used for vaginal vault prolapse. The vault is suspended from the
anterior longitudinal ligament which runs in front of the sacrum.
6) Sacrospinous fixation is used for vaginal vault prolapse – suspends the vaginal vault from the
sacrospinous ligament. This operation is performed through the vagina.
7) Synthetic material (mesh) may be used to reinforce repair of the anterior / posterior vaginal walls
Repair of anterior vaginal wall prolapse may unmask ‘occult’ stress incontinence.
INTERSEXUALITY
Causes of Intersexuality
Abnormal sexual development may be due to
Sex chromosome abnormalities, for instance 45X/46XY mosaicism
Anatomical or biochemical testicular failure
Endorgan insensitivity either due to 5alpha reductase deficiency or abnormalities in the
androgen receptor
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia masculinisation of a genetic female due to excessive androgen
production inutero
Deficient Mullerian inhibitory factor
True haemaphrodism presence of ovarian and testicular tissue in the same individual
FEMALE INTERSEX
This refers to individuals who are genetically female but have masculine physical features
Common causes of female intersex
1) Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
• Commonest cause of female intersex, incidence ~1:15000 live births
• Autosomal recessive
• Commonest enzyme defect is 21hydroxylase deficiency (90% of cases)
• 11betahydroxylase deficiency and 3betahydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency are less
common causes
Signs
• Clitoral enlargement; fusion of genital folds; thickening and rugosity of the labia majora which
resemble the scrotum. Uterus, fallopian tubes and vagina are always present although the introitus
may be difficult to identify.
• Salt loosing syndrome may present with vomiting and failure to thrive secondary to aldosterone
deficiency.
• Syndrome may be unrecognised in the male and later present with precocious puberty
Biochemical abnormalities
• Low cortisol
• Raised ACTH / 17hydroxyprogesterone / progesterone / androstendione / testosterone
Investigations
• Karyotype
• 17alphahydroxyprogesterone levels
• U&E salt loosing characterised by low Na+ / Cl and raised K+
• Pelvic ultrasound scan for presence of uterus / ovaries / vagina
Management
• Manage parental anxiety
• Do not assign sex on the basis of inspection of the genitalia prompt karyotype (cord blood) and
other investigations as above to assign sex and exclude saltloosing syndrome
• Manage with neonatologist / paediatrician
• Treatment cortisol replacement, suppresses ACTH overproduction
• Surgical correction of external genitalia
• Offer prenatal diagnosis / genetic counselling in subsequent pregnancy
2) Other causes of female intersex
• Exogenous androgens androgen secreting tumours during pregnancy
• True haemaphrodites
• Management is to exclude CAH, rear as female and offer surgical correction
MALE INTERSEX
This refers to individuals who are genetically male but have female physical features
Common causes of male intersex
1) Androgen insensitivity syndrome
• Most patients present after puberty
• Normal breast development
• Absent / scanty pubic and axillary hair, short blindending vagina, absent uterus and cervix
• Testes found within the abdomen / inguinal canal / labia
• 46XY karyotype
• Increased risk of cancer in testes gonadectomy recommended after puberty + oestrogen
replacement therapy
Aetiology
Complete absence of gene for androgen receptor / genetic defect resulting in nonfunctional receptor
Endocrine abnormalities
• Testosterone within normal male range
• Oestrogen overlap between male & female range
• LH levels raised
• FSH usually within normal male range
2) 5alphareductase deficiency
• Autosomal recessive
• Poor masculinisation of external genitalia in male fetus
• Uterus, tubes and vagina are absent
• Child usually reared as female initially
• Virilisation occurs at puberty due to increased testicular testosterone production
• Sex of rearing dependent on the degree of masculinisation of the external genitalia
GONADAL DYSGENESIS
This refers to conditions where there is abnormal development (dysgenesis) of the gonads.
Syndromes include:
Turner’s syndrome 45XO, streak gonads, female genitalia with sexual infantilism, short
stature, webbed neck, primary amenorrhoea, coarctation of the aorta and other variable physical
features
Klinefelter’s syndrome 47XXY, dysgenesis of the seminiferous tubules, male genitalia with
small firm testicles, tall stature, gynaecomastia and learning / emotional difficulties
True hermaphrodism 46XX or 46XY or mosaic, ovaries, testes or ovotestes; ambiguous or
male genitalia with phallus, bifid scrotum and hypospadias
46XX males undescended testes with male / ambiguous genitalia, short stature and
hypospadias
Mixed gonadal dysgenesis
Pure gonadal dysgenesis
PRECOCIOUS PUBERTY
• Onset of pubertal development before the age of 8 years
• However, a significant number of normal girls begin pubertal development before the age of 8
• 58 times more common in girls than boys
• ~75% of precocious puberty in girls is idiopathic (40% boys)
• The children are transiently tall for their age but there is early epiphyseal fusion resulting in short
stature. 50% are < 1.52m (5 foot) tall
• Intellectual & psychological development consistent with chronological age
• Risk of social and emotional difficulties
• Two types:
1) GnRHdependent
2) GnRHindependent
CAUSES
• GnRHdependent
1) Idiopathic
2) CNS abnormality. Include:
a) Space occupying lesions
b) Infection post encephalitis, brain abscess, meningitis
c) Head injury / irradiation
d) Tuberous sclerosis and neurofibromatosis
e) Late / incompletely treated CAH
• Premature activation of the hypothalamic putitary ovarian axis
• Associated with pubertal growth spurt
• Constitutional precocity runs in families and typically occurs close to the limit of 8 years. Idiopathic
precocity does not run in families and typically occurs earlier
• GnRHindependent
Causes
1) Topical / systemic androgens / oestrogens
2) Tumours – ovarian, adrenal
3) Severe hypothyroidism
4) McCuneAlbright syndrome
5) Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
• Most common cause of precocious puberty in females is idiopathic / constitutional this is a
diagnosis of exclusion and prolonged followup is necessary to detect slowly growing tumours of the
brain, ovary or adrenal
• Complete sexual precocity with ovulation and adult gonadotrophin levels does not rule out serious
disorders such as brain tumours
Management of precocious puberty
History
• Cerebral problems trauma, encephalitis
• Symptoms suggestive of space occupying lesion headache, seizures, visual symptoms
• Onset and progression abrupt + rapid progression suggests oestrogen secreting tumour
• Symptoms suggestive of abdominal mass pain, urinary / bowel disturbance
• Symptoms of hypothyroidism
• Growth spurt may help distinguish between precocious puberty and premature thelerache (onset of
breast development)
• Identify whether puberty is Isosexual (one sex) or heterosexual
• Drug history oestrogens / androgens
• Family history precocious puberty, inherited syndromes such as CAH / neurofibromatosis
• Social history psychosocial problems
Examination
• Height & weight; BMI
• Neurological examination including optic discs
• Skin caf au lait spots / neurofibromas
• Signs of virilisation deepening of voice, hirsutism, increased muscle mass
• Stage breast and hair development
• Abdominal examination mass
• Examine external genitalia for evidence of oestrogenisation / virilisation
• Vaginal examination is not valuable
Investigations
Directed by clinical findings
• Xray left hand and wrist for bone age bone age is significantly greater than chronological age /
height age in true precocious puberty
• Serum LH, FSH, DHEAS, Oestradiol, TSH. Random LH & FSH levels should be interpreted with
caution as these hormones are typically released during sleep
• If evidence of hyperandrogenaemia testosterone, 17OHprogesterone, DHEA +/ ACTH
stimulation test to detect mild forms of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
• Pelvic USS ovarian mass
• MRI brain with contrast
Additional investigations may be needed as directed by specialists
Treatment
Objectives are
1) Diagnose and treat lifethreatening conditions ovarian / adrenal tumours, intracranial disease
2) Arrest maturation until normal age of puberty
3) Diminish established secondary sexual characteristics
4) Maximise eventual height
5) Avoid emotional problems and provide contraception if necessary
• Mainstay of treatment for true precocious puberty is GnRH analogues usually depot preparations
• Associated with substantial regression of pubertal characteristics, amenorrhoea and reduced growth
velocity
• Final bone height increased but dependent on the stage at which therapy is commenced
MENOPAUSE I
• Permanent cessation of menstruation with the loss of ovarian follicular activity. Retrospective
diagnosis after 12 consecutive months of amenorrhoea for which there is no other cause
• Median age 51 years
• Premature menopause arbitrarily set at below 40 years
OTHER IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
Perimenopause – includes the period beginning with the first clinical, biological and endocrinological
features of the approaching menopause such as vasomotor symptoms and menstrual irregularity and
ends 12 months after the last menstrual period
Premenopause – refers to the entire reproductive period from menarche to the final menstrual period.
Post menopause – refers to the phase after the final menstrual period regardless of whether the
menopause was induced or spontaneous.
Climacteric – the phase marking the transition from the reproductive state to the non reproductive
state.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF THE MENOPAUSE
Maximum number of oocytes present in the ovary at 2028 weeks gestation.
Ovarian function is under the influence of FSH and LH.
Oestradiol, progesterone and inhibin have negativefeed back effect on FSH production, while
oestradiol has preovulatory positive feedback effect on LH secretion
Around the menopause, ovary becomes less responsive to gonadotrophins, resulting in a rise in
FSH and LH and a fall in oestradiol concentrations which subsequently become too low to
stimulate the endometrium, resulting in amenorrhoea
Around the time of the menopause, FSH levels fluctuate markedly and are of limited value as a
diagnostic tool
FSH levels > 30IU/L are considered postmenopausal. FSH and LH levels peak 13 years after
the menopause, followed by a gradual decline
Oestrogen levels do not begin to decline until a woman is within 12 months of the menopause.
Oestrogen production by the ovaries stops after the
menopause
SYMPTOMS
• Vasomotor symptoms Hot flushes and night sweats. Occur in 5075% of women and may
commence up to 10 years before the last menstrual period. May cause sleep disturbance and insomnia
• The association between psychological symptoms such as depressed mood, irritability, loss of
memory and the menopause, or specifically oestrogen deficiency is controversial. The majority of
women do not experience mood changes during the menopause transition
• Urinary symptoms urinary frequency, dysuria, nocturia, urgency and incontinence. There is an
increased risk of urinary tract infections
• Genital symptoms vaginal dryness and dyspareunia; There is an increased risk of vaginal infections
• Female sexual dysfunction decreased sexual desire, decreased arousal, dyspareunia and inability to
achieve orgasm associated with the menopause but likely to be multifactorial
• Other complaints may include changes in hair and skin quality
EXAMINATION
Variable findings. Vulva, vagina and cervix are commonly atrophic.
INVESTIGATIONS
• LH and FSH blood levels. Pre menopausal values are 3 – 10 iu/ L on days 3 – 5 of the cycle. FSH
levels > 30IU/L are considered postmenopausal.
• Diagnosis of the menopause is based mainly on the history. Laboratory investigations are only
supportive.
LONG TERM CONSEQUENCES OF THE MENOPAUSE
Cardiovascular disease
• Postmenopausal women have significantly higher serum LDLcholesterol levels compared to pre
menopausal women. HDL levels fall while triglyceride and lipoproteina levels rise
• Homocysteine levels rise after the menopause and there is an association between high levels and
cardiovascular disease
• Coronary heart disease is the single commonest cause of death in women in the UK
• There is no sudden change in the rising trend of coronary heart disease with age at the menopause.
The incidence of stroke increases with age.
Osteoporosis
• Postmenopausal women loose bone more rapidly than men of the same age and osteoporosis
ultimately affects 1:3 women and 1:12 men. Median age for hip fractures in women is 79 years
• Peak bone density is reached during the 20s and declines from the mid40s onwards, with an
accelerated period of decline for 610 years after the menopause followed by a period of slower bone
loss
• Risk of osteoporosis dependent on peak bone density, rate of loss and life span
• Other risk factors include family history, smoking and alcohol use, immobility, corticosteroids,
hyperthyroidism, hypogonadism, chronic liver disease, malabsorption and low vitamin D intake.
Osteoporosis is less common in AfroCaribbean compared to Caucasians
Urogenital disorders
• Urogenital symptoms as above + uterovaginal prolapse
MANAGEMENT OF THE MENOPAUSE
See menopause II notes.
MENOPAUSE II
MANAGEMENT OF THE MENOPAUSE
Mainstay is treatment of symptoms particularly vasomotor symptoms.
HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY *****
ADVANTAGES
Relief of vasomotor symptoms Hot flushes and night sweats relieved within 4 weeks, maximum
response achieved by 3 months
Psychological benefit oestrogen therapy associated with improvement in psychological well
being. May be secondary to the relief of vasomotor symptoms or a placebo effect
Osteoporosis prevents loss of bone density with some gain in density in the first 1824 months.
However, use of HRT for 510 years around the menopause does not confer enough protection to
reduce the risk of hip fractures at the age of 79 HRT has to be taken lifelong to be effective. HRT
has been shown to reduce the incidence of vertebral fractures.
Alzheimer’s disease epidemiological data indicate that oestrogen replacement may delay or prevent
the onset of Alzheimer’s disease. Disease progression or cognitive function in women with
established disease is, however, unaffected
Urogenital atrophy symptoms may take up to a year to improve. Topical oestrogens are effective in
relieving local vaginal symptoms. Oestrogen therapy alone is ineffective in the treatment of stress
incontinence
Colorectal cancer Relatively shortterm use of oestrogen plus progestogen was associated with a
decreased risk of colorectal cancer. However, colorectal cancers in women who took oestrogen plus
progestogen were diagnosed at a more advanced stage than those in women who took placebo.
Oestrogen replacement also associated with a decreased risk of macular degeneration, cataract and
tooth loss.
RISKS / SIDEEFFECTS *****
Cardiovascular disease
1) Observational studies indicate that HRT is protective against cardiovascular disease with no
difference between oestrogen alone or oestrogen + progesterone
2) In women with established coronary artery disease, the available evidence indicates that overall,
HRT does not confer an advantage and is associated with an increased risk of coronary artery events
in the first year. If a woman on HRT develops acute coronary artery disease, discontinuation of HRT
should be considered
3) In women without cardiovascular disease, the WHI trial showed that continuous combined HRT is
associated with an increased risk of Coronary heart disease, Stroke and Pulmonary embolism.
4) Conjugated equine estrogens alone, in women with hysterectomy, provided no overall protection
against myocardial infarction or coronary death in generally healthy postmenopausal women during a
7year period of use. There was a suggestion of lower coronary heart disease risk with Conjugated
Equine Estrogen alone among women 50 to 59 years of age at baseline but these data did not reach
statistical significance (WHI Trial).
Breast cancer
1) Oestrogen replacement after the age of 50 associated with an increased risk of breast cancer similar
to that associated with delayed menopause. Use of HRT for 5, 10 and 15 years would cause 2, 6 and
12 extra breast cancers per 1000 women
2) Use of oestrogen replacement in women with a premature menopause is not associated with an
increased risk of breast cancer duration of oestrogen exposure is the risk factor
3) The available evidence does not support the notion that progestogens are protective.
4) The risk of breast cancer in women who have discontinued HRT for 5 years is similar to that in
never users
5) Current use of HRT is associated with increased mortality from breast cancer. The combined HRT
appeared to stimulate breast cancer growth.
6) Women with a previous history of breast cancer should be reviewed by an oncologist and at a
specialist menopause clinic before HRT is initiated
Endometrial cancer
1) Unopposed oestrogen therapy is associated with an increased risk of endometrial hyperplasia and
carcinoma
2) Sequential combined HRT (progestogen for 10 days per cycle) is also associated with an increased
risk of endometrial cancer
3) Continuous combined HRT is not associated with increased endometrial cancer risk
Ovarian cancer
HRT is associated with an increased risk of ovarian cancer.
Current users were significantly more likely to develop and die from ovarian cancer than never users.
For current users of HRT, incidence of ovarian cancer increased with increasing duration of use, but
did not differ significantly by type of preparation used, its constituents, or mode of administration.
Thromboembolic disease
1) HRT is associated with a 23 fold increase in the risk of venous thromboembolism. Transdermal
oestrogen containing HRT is safer than oral HRT with respect to VTE
2) The RCOG DOES NOT recommend universal screening for thrombophilias before commencing
HRT. Screening for thrombophilias should be offered to women with a previous VTE. However, the
risk of recurrent VTE with oral HRT is high even in the absence of an inheritable thrombophilia and
oral HRT should be avoided
3) Prior to commencing HRT, however, a personal and FHx of VTE should be obtained and HRT
should be avoided in women with multiple preexisting risk factors for VTE.
4) When a woman on HRT develops VTE, HRT should be discontinued
5) All women starting HRT should be counselled about its risks and benefits, the risks of VTE and
should be aware of the signs of VTE. Women should have ready access to medical assessment if they
think they have developed VTE
SYSTEMIC SIDEEFFECTS OF HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY
1) Oestrogen related (usually continuous or random) fluid retention, breast tenderness, nausea,
headache, leg cramps, dyspepsia usually resolve with increasing duration of use, otherwise manage
by reducing dose where possible or changing oestrogen or route of delivery
2) Progestogen related (confined to the progestogen phase) mood swings, depression, acne, fluid
retention, breast tenderness, headache reduce dose where possible, change progestogen or route of
administration, use long cycles (14 days every 3 months) or continuous combined
3) No evidence that HRT causes weight gain
4) Bleeding / bleeding problems may require investigation
5) HRT is associated with an increased risk of gall bladder disease
6) Pelvic disease enlargement of fibroids and reactivation of endometriosis. The Committee on the
Safety of Medicines has advised that routine pelvic and breast examinations are not necessary in
women on HRT and should only be performed if clinically indicated
HRT – sequential / continuous combined / Tibolone
· Sequential HRT involves the administration of an oestrogen followed by oestrogen plus
progestogen
· To reduce the risk of endometrial hyperplasia, the progestogen should be administered for 10
13 days of the cycle.
· Women taking sequential HRT may have a period every month or the regimen can be varied to
allow a withdrawal bleed every 3 months
· Continuous combined HRT involves the administration of oestrogen and progestogen
simultaneously throughout the cycle.
· Women taking continuous combined HRT do not have any withdrawal bleeds. However,
irregular bleeding is a recognised complication and if persistent, uterine pathology should be excluded
· Continuous combined HRT should not be used by perimenopausal women or by women who
are less than 2 years from their LMP (if under 50 years) or less than 12 months (if over 50 years)
· Tibolone has oestrogenic and progestogenic activity and can be used by women with a uterus
without additional progestogen
· Used in postmenopausal women who wish to have amenorrhoea and used to treat vasomotor
symptoms and libido problems.
· Daily dose is 2.5 mg.
· Tibolone conserves bone mass and reduces risk of vertebral fracture.
· Associated with increased risk of breast cancer similar to conventional HRT.
RCOG CONCENSUS STATEMENT ON HRT USE
1) HRT will continue to be prescribed for women with severe menopausal symptoms. HRT should be
used for shortterm (less than 5 years) relief of symptoms
2) For woman who are not suffering from menopausal symptoms, the risks of taking HRT outweigh
the benefits
3) Ultimately, women should have the choice to take the drug provided they understand the risks.
ALTERNATIVES TO HRT FOR MENOPAUSAL SYMPTOMS
Enquire about reasons for using alternatives. This includes
• Woman’s wishes
• Patient concern about potential risks associated with HRT
• Clinical concerns because of family or personal history: VTE, breast cancer, cardiovascular disease
• Alternatives may be the more appropriate choice for the woman
Clinicians should be able to discuss the evidence for alternative therapies with women in a manner
that enables them to make informed decisions
1) Lifestyle changes
• Exercise aerobic, sustained, regular exercise associated with an improvement in menopausal
symptoms. Infrequent, high impact exercise may exacerbate symptoms
• Reduction in alcohol / caffeine intake reduces frequency and severity of symptoms
2) Topical treatments
• Vaginal bioadhesive moisturiser rehydrates vaginal tissue and is suitable alternative to topical /
systemic HRT or lubricants like KY jelly
3) Progestogens
• RCT show modest benefit for megestrol in the relief of vasomotor symptoms
• However, progestogens not protective of breast cancer and are associated with increased risk when
used in combined HRT
• Some breast cancers have progesterone receptors
• Doses of progestogen that achieve control of vasomotor symptoms are associated with an increased
risk of VTE
4) Clonidine
• Alpha2agonist
• Evidence is that oral clonidine is ineffective, while transdermal clonidine is effective in relieving
vasomotor symptoms
5) Selective serotoning and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (SSRI & SNRI)
• Both SSRIs (fluoxetine, paroxetine) and SNRIs shown to be effective in the treatment of hot flushes
• SNRI venlafaxine appears to be most effective agent
• However, patients were treated over a short period and studies undertaken over longer periods (9
months) found no benefit
• SNRIs particularly associated with nausea
6) Complementary therapies
• The evidence that phytooestrogens such as derivatives of soy and red clover are effective in the
treatment of menopausal symptoms is controversial and the longterm risks of these treatments are not
fully understood
• Black cohosh has been shown to be effective in the relief of vasomotor symptoms. There are,
however, concerns about its safety and there is the possibility of hepatotoxicity
• The evidence is that evening primerose oil is ineffective in the treatment of hot flushes
• Ginseng is ineffective in the treatment of menopausal symptoms, although it is associated with
improved feeling of wellbeing and relief of depression. It interacts with alcohol and warfarin
• St John's Wort effective in mild to moderate depressive illness but efficacy in treatment of
menopausal symptoms is unproven.
• Acupuncture has been shown to be effective in the relief of hot flushes in a small randomised trial.
Sideeffects are rare but potentially include cardiac tamponade, hepatitis transmission and
pneumothorax
• Dietary supplements such as vitamins C & E and selenium have not been shown to be effective.
Doses of vitamin E above 400iu/day may be associated with increased mortality
• There is some evidence that homeopathy may be effective in the relief of menopausal symptoms but
larger trials are needed
• The use of other agents such as liquorice is not supported by evidence
Malignant conditions of the Cervix
Epidemiology
2.5% of all gynaecological cancers
Peak incidence is at 4550 yrs
2,938 cases diagnosed in the UK in 2008
Caused 957 deaths in the UK in 2008
The lifetime risk of a woman developing cervical cancer in the UK is 1 in 136
Is the second commonest cancer in women under the age of 35 years (breast cancer is
commonest)
Incidence of cervical cancer highest in women aged 3040 years with another peak in women
aged 7585 years
Deaths from cervical cancer are decreasing
Aetiology
HPV most common agent particularly HPV 16 & 18. More than 99% of cases are caused by
HPV of various subtypes.
Risk factors
The biggest risk factor is nonattendance for cervical screening
Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) infection. HPV 16 & 18 are particularly oncogenic.
Smoking about 2 fold increase in risk
Immunosupression e.g. HIV infection, after organ transplant
COCP
Coexisting STI e.g. herpes.
Multiple sexual partners and early age of sexual intercourse increase risk of acquiring more
oncogenic strains of HPV
Early age of 1st pregnancy (before 17 yrs)
Multiparity. Risk of cervical cancer is doubled in a Para 7 compared to a Para 1 or 2.
Women in manual social classes are at higher risk than those in nonmanual social classes.
Exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES) in utero
Pathophysiology
2 main types:
Squamous cell carcinoma (approx. 8085%)
Adenocarcinoma (approx. 10 15%). Develops from the endocervix.
Others (rare) include:
Melanomas, small cell carcinomas
Invasive cervical cancer develops from CIN or CGIN over several years.
Staging
Stage I: Stage I is carcinoma confined to the cervix.
Stage II: Lesion extends beyond the cervix, but does NOT extend into the pelvic wall or lower third
of vagina.
Stage III: Lesion extends into the pelvic sidewall. The tumour involves the lower third of the vagina.
All cases with hydronephrosis or a nonfunctioning kidney are Stage III cancers.
Stage IV: Lesion extends beyond the true pelvis or has clinically involved the mucosa of the bladder
and/or rectum.
Clinical assessment
Usually asymptomatic and detected on routine cervical screening
History
Abnormal vaginal bleeding – postcoital, intermenstrual or postmenopausal bleeding
Vaginal discharge – offensive and blood stained
Pain – usually in advanced disease with compression of lumbosacral nerve plexus
Examination
Chest – including assessment for supraclavicular nodes
Abdomen – including assessment of inguinal nodes, enlarged liver and kidneys,
Speculum and bimanual examination. Lesions may present as exophytic, friable mass
Rectal examination
Investigations
FBC
U&Es
LFTs
Colposcopy and biopsy
CXR
IVU
CT / MRI abdomen
Treatment
Early Stage 1 tumours may be treated conservatively (cone biopsy, diathermy loop excision,
trachylectomy [excision of the cervix]) in women wishing to conserve reproductive potential.
However, hysterectomy should be the standard treatment.
Late stage I tumours should be treated byWertheim’s hysterectomy + pelvic lymphadenectomy or
chemoradiation.
Stage II and beyond – chemoradiation
Stage IVb – Palliative
Prevention
HPV vaccine
Cervical screening
Malignant conditions of the Endometrium
Epidemiology
Commonest cancer of the female genital tract, accounting for 4% of all cancer cases in women
Peak age of incidence is 6474 years
7703 women were diagnosed with uterine cancer in the UK in 2008
Uterine cancer caused 1,741 deaths in 2008 in the UK
Incidence is rising in postmenopausal women but prognosis is improving
Prognosis is better than other gynaecological malignancies mainly because over 70% of women
will present with symptoms in stage 1
Pathophysiology
Caused by stimulation of the endometrium by oestrogen without the protective effect of progesterone.
Risk factors
Obesity
Hypertension
Diabetes mellitus.
Anovulatory amenorrhoea
Oestrogen secreting tumours
Tamoxifen
HRT in women with a uterus – oestrogen only or sequential oestrogen + progesterone.
Continuous combined HRT associated with decreased risk
Late menopause
Low parity
Early menarche
PCOS
Women who have had breast cancer have a 2 to 3fold increased risk of developing
endometrial cancer.
Staging
Stage I: Carcinoma confined to the uterine corpus;
Stage II: Lesion confined to uterine corpus and cervix but not beyond the uterus.
Stage III: Lesion extends outside uterus but confined to true pelvis
Stage IV: Lesion involves bladder or bowel mucosa or has metastasis to distant sites
Clinical assessment
History
Abnormal vaginal bleeding – postmenopausal bleeding is the commonest presenting symptom.
May also present with menorrhagia
Vaginal discharge – offensive and blood stained
Examination
Abdomen – including assessment of inguinal nodes, enlarged liver and kidneys,
Speculum
Bimanual examination – fixed and bulky uterus occurs with advanced disease
Investigations
Trans vaginal scan: endometrial thickness greater than 5 mm in a postmenopausal woman
should prompt further investigation
Biopsy: outpatient aspiration biopsy (such as Pipelle) or outpatient hysteroscopy and biopsy
Inpatient hysteroscopy D&C if outpatient investigation not possible
MRI – may be needed to assess depth of myometrial invasion / cervical involvement
Treatment
Surgery: mainstay of treatment total abdominal hysterectomy + bilateral salpingoophorectomy +
peritoneal washings. Removal of pelvic lymph nodes adds to staging information but no survival
benefit is seen (ASTEC Trial)
In addition, adjuvant radiotherapy and chemotherapy should be considered.
Stage 1a and 1b – no adjuvant chemotherapy
Stage 1c – adjuvant radiotherapy
Stage II – adjuvant radiotherapy
Stage III – chemotherapy + radiotherapy
Stage IV – Palliative
Malignant conditions of the Ovary
Epidemiology
Fifth most common cancer in females in the UK and the second most common gynaecological
cancer after uterus
6,537 new cases diagnosed in 2008
Commonest cause of death from gynaecological cancer – 4,373 deaths in 2008
Incidence of ovarian cancer is increasing
Lifetime risk of developing ovarian cancer ~1 in 48
5 year survival ~40%. Usually presents with advanced disease with a poor prognosis
Over 85% of cases are diagnosed in women over the age of 50 years. Peak incidence is in the 70
– 79 age group
Aetiology
Majority unknown
Familial: BRCA 1 & 2 genes are associated with ovarian cancer and may account for up to 10% of
cases
Pathophysiology
The ovary has an epithelium, stroma and germ cells. Malignant tumours may arise from any of these
components.
1) Epithelial tumours (most common approx. 90%) of which there are three main lines of
differentiation:
Serous
Mucinous
Endometriod
2) Sex cord stromal tumous e.g.
Granulosa stromal cell tumours – secrete oestrogen
Stertolileydig
4) Germ cell tumours e.g.
Dysgerminoma – secrete lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)
Yolk sac tumour – secrete alpha fetoprotein
Choriocarcinoma – secrete HCG
Teratoma
Mixed tumours
5) Metastatic tumours
Risk factors
Age more than 85% are diagnosed in women over 50 years.
BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene mutation
Nulliparity
HRT for more than five years associated with increased risk
Subfertility associated with increased risk
Obesity associated with increased risk
Risk reduced by
Oral contraceptive use effect persists for many years after stopping the Pill
Sterilisation by tubal ligation
Breastfeeding
Staging
Stage I: Carcinoma confined to one or both ovaries;
Stage II: Lesion involves one or both ovary with spread to pelvic structures.
Stage III: Lesion as in stage I or II but with spread outside the true pelvis or positive retroperitoneal
lymph nodes
Stage IV: Lesion involves one or both ovary with distant metastasis.
Clinical assessment
History
Usually asymptomatic in early stage disease
Abdominal swelling / discomfort. Usually a late sign.
Weight loss
Rarely postmenopausal bleeding
Examination
Abdominal examination – masses, ascites,
Bimanual examination – pelvic mass; fixity in pouch of Douglas
Investigations
Bloods – FBC, U&Es, LFT
Tumour markers – CA125, HCG, alpha fetoprotein
CXR
Ultrasound scan
CT / MRI abdomen, pelvis
Paracentesis + ascetic fluid analysis
CA125
Cancer antigen125, glycoprotein
Plays a role as a lubricating barrier against foreign particles and infectious agents on
epithelial surfaces
79% of all ovarian cancers are positive for CA125
Not currently recommended for ovarian cancer screening in asymptomatic women
Used to monitor the response to treatment and predicting prognosis after treatment in
women with CA125 positive ovarian cancer
Also elevated in endometrial, breast, fallopian tube, lung and GI cancers
Elevated in benign conditions such as pregnancy, fibroids, endometriosis, pelvic
inflammatory disease
NICE RECOMMENDATIONS 2011
Symptoms and signs of ovarian cancer
The sensitivity of individual symptoms for ovarian cancer is low
Sensitivity can be improved by combining the symptoms
85% of women with ovarian cancer reported at least one symptom during the year before
diagnosis
CA125 should be measured in primary care if a woman (especially if 50 years or over)
reports having any of the following symptoms on a persistent or frequent basis (particularly
more than 12 times per month)
1. persistent abdominal distension or bloating
2. feeling full (early satiety) and/or loss of appetite
3. pelvic or abdominal pain
4. increased urinary urgency and/or frequency
Consider measuring CA125 in primary care if a woman reports unexplained weight loss,
fatigue or changes in bowel habit.
If CA125 is 35 IU/ml or greater, arrange an ultrasound scan of the abdomen and pelvis
If the ultrasound suggests ovarian cancer, refer the woman urgently
Measure CA125 followed by ultrasound scan as above in any woman of 50 or over who
has experienced symptoms within the last 12 months that suggest irritable bowel syndrome
(IBS) because IBS rarely presents for the first time in women of this age
Refer the woman urgently if physical examination identifies ascites and/or a pelvic or
abdominal mass (which is not obviously uterine fibroids)
Advise any woman who is not suspected of having ovarian cancer to return to her GP if her
symptoms become more frequent and/or persistent.
Women with normal CA125 or CA125 >/= 35 IU/ml but a normal ultrasound should be
assessed carefully to exclude other clinical conditions. If no other causes are identified,
women should be advised her to return to her GP if symptoms become more frequent and/or
persistent.
Imaging in suspected ovarian cancer
Ultrasound has the advantage of being more available, cheaper and safer
Greyscale ultrasound performs well in identifying simple cystic masses that have a high
negative predictive value. Used as the initial test, it enables adnexal masses to be triaged
into low (not ovarian cancer) and higher risk (suspected ovarian cancer) categories
CT is the investigation of choice for detection of disease in the thorax
In higher risk women, a CT scan has the advantage of enabling a more comprehensive
assessment of the body, and is superior to MRI and ultrasound for assessment of the sub
diaphragmatic regions, gastrosplenic ligament, lesser sac and retroperitoneal nodal disease
CT is less operatordependent than ultrasound, and more available than MRI.
CT also provides optimal baseline information in order to assess response to chemotherapy
and disease relapse.
MRI is used in the characterisation of pelvic masses because of its ability to discriminate
masses that contain both fat and blood, neither of which are features of malignancy.
However, MRI is less available, scan times are much longer, and imaging of the abdomen
can be degraded by movement caused by breathing which may affect the sensitivity of
detection of omental and peritoneal disease.
The accuracy of combined greyscale/colour Doppler ultrasound, CT and MRI for the
differentiation of benign and malignant ovarian masses, are broadly similar, with sensitivity
~ 90% and specificity ~85%.
In women with indeterminate masses at greyscale ultrasound, MRI has a higher positive
predictive value than CT and combined greyscale/colour Doppler ultrasound
CT and MRI are more accurate than ultrasound for staging ovarian cancer
Ultrasound of the abdomen and pelvis should be performed as the first imaging test in
women with suspected ovarian cancer
If the ultrasound, serum CA125 and clinical status suggest ovarian cancer, a CT scan of the
pelvis and abdomen should be performed to establish the extent of disease. The thorax
should be included if clinically indicated
MRI should not be used routinely for assessing women with suspected ovarian cancer.
Premalignant conditions of the vulva
Vulval Intraepithelial Neoplasia (VIN) *****
Presents with pruritus vulvae although 2045% is asymptomatic. 40% occurs in women under the age
of 40 years
Lesions are usually raised with a rough surface and variable colour. They usually turns white about 2
minutes after application of 5% acetic acid and a mosaic pattern may be visible
Adequate biopsies should be taken to exclude invasive disease
Usually associated with CIN
Malignant change more likely in older women, immunocompromised and those with other genital
tract malignancies
Treatment
EXPECTANT Spontaneous regression may occur
MEDICAL Topical fluoridated steroids may be used for symptom relief once invasive disease has
been excluded
LASER CO2 laser vaporisation may be effective although the depth of destruction for adequate
treatment is unknown and difficult to control in the vulva.
SURGERY Small localised lesions are amenable to excision biopsy. Multifocal disease skinning
vulvectomy with skin grafting may be required
Paget’s Disease of The Vulva
Adenocarcinomainsitu, similar to Paget’s disease of the breast
Associated with pruritus and appears as a red crusted plaque with sharp edges
Confirm diagnosis by biopsy
Treated by vulvectomy
Premalignant conditions of the vagina
Vaginal Intraepithelial Neoplasia (VAIN)
Aetiology: Oncogenic HPV
Pathophysiology: similar to CIN.
Malignant potential of VAIN:Risk of invasive disease with VAIN III is 10%
Clinical presentation
Generally asymptomatic.
Lesion usually turns white about 2 minutes after application of 5% acetic acid
Adequate biopsies should be taken to exclude invasive disease
Treatment
Surgery: surgical excision by vaginectomy for recurrent VAIN. Suitable for widespread disease.
Treatment may cause significant morbidity.
Laser: suitable for localised disease.
Premalignant conditions of the Cervix *****
Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN)
Aetiology:
HPV especially subtypes 16, 18. CIN is associated with immunosupression and smoking. 80% of
women infected with HPV are able to clear the virus within 1 – 2 years.
Pathophysiology:
Squamous metaplasia occurring in the transformation zone is an ongoing normal physiological
process. If oncogenic HPV infects this zone, CIN may develop. CIN is a histological diagnosis.
Characterised by abnormal differentiation, stratification and maturation of the epithelium
CIN I: lower 1/3 of epithelium involved
CIN II: lower 2/3 of epithelium involved
CIN III: full thickness of epithelium involved
Malignant potential of CIN
CIN III risk of invasive cervical cancer is 18% and 36% at 10 and 20 years respectively, if untreated
CIN I diagnosed at colposcopy without punch biopsy 26% progression to CIN III within 2 years
Clinical History
Generally asymptomatic
Physical examination
CIN is a histological diagnosis therefore no signs are seen on physical examination except at
colposcopy
Colposcopic Features of CIN
Distinct acetowhite lesions with clear margins
Mosaic vascular pattern
Punctation caused by vessels running perpendicular to the surface
A marked mosaic pattern or coarse punctation is suggestive of microinvasion
Treatment of CIN
Given the malignant potential of CIN III, the difficulty of diagnosing CIN I with certainty and its
progression to CIN III, it is prudent to treat all CIN on diagnosis
At colposcopy, a 'seeandtreat’ or 'biopsy with subsequent treatment' approach can be adopted
depending on local protocols, the balance between cytological and colposcopic findings and the
likelihood of the woman reattending
CIN I: may be observed as many will regress spontaneously. Alternatively, treatment can be offered if
the woman wishes. CIN II or III should be treated.
Treatment of CIN can be by local excision or destructive techniques excision has the benefit of
making tissue available for histology to confirm diagnosis and adequacy of treatment.
Outcome of treatment for CIN
Adequately treated CIN has a recurrence rate of ~5% at 2 years.
Women with treated CIN remain at higher risk of invasive cervical cancer compared to the general
population
Close followup therefore required to identify residual / new disease and to reassure the woman
Repeat smears at 6 and 12 months. If negative, repeat yearly for 4 years. If negative, routine recall
Sampling of the transformation zone may be difficult after treatment and an endocervical brush should
be used in addition to a spatula
Colposcopy is not essential but may enhance detection of residual disease
Premalignant conditions of the Endometrium
Endometrial hyperplasia
Several Types: Simple, Complex & Atypical
Usually results from long term unopposed oestrogen exposure. Hyperplasia predisposes to cytological
abnormalities / atypia. Risk is increased in women with polycystic ovary syndrome, oestrogen
producing tumours and oestrogen replacement therapy
Simple hyperplasia – most common type of hyperplasia. Usually presents at end of reproductive age.
Increased number of glands but normal glandular pattern.
Complex hyperplasia – crowded glands with irregular glandular pattern.
Atypical hyperplasia – glands have atypical nuclei with abnormal mitotic figures. High risk for
endometrial cancer. In severe cases, it can be difficult to distinguish from endometrial cancer.
Clinical presentation
May present with abnormal uterine bleeding e.g. postmenopausal bleeding
May present with abnormal cells of cervical smear
Treatment
Simple / complex: Conservative management by eliminating source of oestrogen. Medical treatment
with Progestogens e.g. mirena IUS or oral progestogens
Atypical: Due to risk of progression to carcinoma and possibility of coexistent carcinoma, surgical
treatment by total abdominal hysterectomy + bilateral salpingoophorectomy is recommended.
NHSCervical Screening Programme *****
The NHSCervical Screening Programme was introduced in 1988 with a computerised call and recall
system
About 4 million women are screened in England every year with 81.6% of eligible women having
been screened in the previous 5 years
Primary Care Trusts commission cervical screening from their overall resource allocation and each
PCT has a nominated person responsible for its cervical screening programme and implementing
national guidelines
The national office of the NHS Cancer Screening Programmes, based in Sheffield, is responsible for
improving the overall performance of the programme.
Cervical screening now saves approximately 1,300 lives and prevents up to 3,900 cases of cervical
cancer per year in the UK
Eligibility for Cervical Screening
All women between the ages of 25 and 64 are eligible for a free cervical smear test every three to five
years
The NHS call and recall system invites women who are registered with a GP. The system also keeps
track of any followup investigation, and, if all is well, recalls the woman for screening in three or five
years time
Screening Protocol
First invitation aged 25 years
Between 2549 years screening every 3 years
Between 5064 years screening every 5 years
After 65 years only screen those who have not been screened since the age of 50years or have had
recent abnormal tests
Screening interval
A three yearly interval appears to be the most cost effective for younger women, with 84% protection
against cervical cancer compared to 73% with a 5 yearly interval
In older women who have previously been adequately screened, 5 yearly screening confers 83%
protection and more frequent screening does not confer much extra benefit
Liquidbased cytology
The sample is collected in a similar way to the Pap smear, using a spatula. The head of the spatula is
broken off into glass vial containing preservative fluid, or rinsed directly into the preservative fluid
The sample is sent to the laboratory where it is spun and treated to remove obscuring material, for
example mucus or pus, and a sample of the remaining cells is taken. A thin layer of the cells is
deposited onto a slide. The slide is examined in the usual way by a cytologist
The reduction in the rate of inadequate smears (for example, the introduction of LBC at the pilot sites
reduced the reported rate of inadequate smears from 9 per cent to 12 per cent.) will be of
considerable benefit to women in terms of reducing anxiety, uncertainty and the need for repeat
smears
This also reduces the pressure on the workforce. Nationally, the workload would be reduced from 4.2
million slides per annum to 3.9 million slides per annum
A faster turnaround time in the laboratory also means that women will get their results more quickly
Managing smear reports
Prescreening counselling
Women should be provided with the following information before the smear is taken
1) The condition that screening detects preinvasive lesions
2) How results will be communicated and when
3) Implications of results normal means low risk rather than no risk
4) The meaning of being recalled inadequate or abnormal smears
Each woman should receive her results in writing
Negative smear
• No nuclear abnormalities identified.
• Women should be informed that their smear is NORMAL rather than NEGATIVE
• No previous smear or previous smears negative routine recall
• Woman aged over 65years with no previous negative smears two negative smears 3 years apart
then no further recall
Borderline nuclear abnormality
• 2030% have CIN II III
• Repeat smear in 6 months
• Two consecutive negative smears 612 months apart are required before return to routine recall
• After 2 consecutive borderline smears refer for colposcopy
• The majority of women with borderline smears have an ensuing negative smear
Mild dyskaryosis
50% have CIN II III
Together with borderline smears make up about 5% of all smears
Repeat smear in 6 months many smears will return to normal. Return to routine recall after 2
negative smears 6 12 months apart
Referral for colposcopy may also be apropriate
Moderate dyskaryosis
5075% have CIN II III
About 1% of smears
Refer for colposcopy
Severe dyskaryosis
8090% have CIN II III
5% have invasive lesion
About 0.5% of smears
Refer for colposcopy
Severe dyskaryosis invasive carcinoma
50% have invasive lesion
Less than 0.1% of smears
Refer to a gynaecological oncologist
Glandular neoplasia
• Cervical glandular intraepithelial neoplasia (CGIN) often occurs in young women and may represent
endocervical carcinoma insitu or adenocarcinoma, endometrial or extrauterine adenocarcinoma
• If cervical histology is negative, consider other gynaecological /non gynaecological conditions
which could yield abnormal glandular cells
• Selective use of endometrial biopsy is recommended for women of perimenopausal age and above,
or for those with irregular vaginal bleeding or if the atypical cells appear to be of endometrial origin
Post menopausal bleeding *****
• Spontaneous bleeding from the genital tract after 12months of amenorrhoea in a woman over the age
of 50, or 24 months if below the age of 50 years. Abnormal bleeding around the time of the
menopause (Perimenopausal bleeding) also warrants investigation
• Incidence ~ 7/1000 postmenopausal women in UK, 13.6/1000 at 50 and 1.7/1000 at 80 years
• Risk of endometrial cancer ~10%, higher with increasing age and number of risk factors
Causes
• Vulval / vaginal atrophy, dystrophies, trauma, carcinoma
• Cervical polyps, cervicitis, trauma, carcinoma
• Endometrial polyps, endometritis, hyperplasia, carcinoma
• Leiomyosarcoma of the uterus
• Fallopian tube carcinoma
• Exogenous oestrogens (HRT) including phytooestrogens
• Oestrogenproducing tumours
Management
History
• Nature of bleeding does not distinguish malignant from benign causes
• Precipitating factors postcoital suggests cervical pathology or atrophy
• Risk factors
• Cervical smear history
• Weight loss, change in bowel habit, anorexia
• Drugs including HRT and compliance; Tamoxifen
• Exclude rectal and urethral bleeding
Examination
• Exclude abdominopelvic mass
• Genital tract atrophy
• Vulval and vaginal tumours / ulceration
• Cervical polyps, cervicitis, carcinoma
• Bimanual pelvic assessment
• General examination surgical and anaesthetic fitness
Investigation
• Blood tests – FBC. Clotting may be indicated.
• Cervical smear may be indicated if the woman has not been screened
• Consider colposcopy if postcoital bleeding and cervix abnormal
• Transvaginal ultrasound scan (TVS) + endometrial thickness
• Outpatient endometrial aspiration biopsy
• Outpatient hysteroscopy and biopsy
• Sonohysteroscopy is not widely available but may be more sensitive than TVS
• No agreed protocol for investigating postmenopausal bleeding but hysteroscopy with endometrial
sampling is gold standard and should be performed as an outpatient procedure where possible.
Treatment
Depends on cause
MISCARRIAGE *****
Definition
Spontaneous demise or expulsion of a pregnancy before the gestation age for fetal viability.
Although fetuses delivered at 23 weeks gestation may survive, 24 weeks is currently the
threshold for viability
May occur in the first (before 12 weeks) or second (12 – 23 weeks) trimester and the causes are
different.
Why is this important?
Bleeding in early pregnancy is very common and is an important cause of physical and
psychological morbidity to pregnant women
There is a need to exclude other causes of bleeding, such as ectopic pregnancy which are
potentially lifethreatening.
Incidence
1015% of clinically diagnosed pregnancies end in miscarriage
Risk factors
Increasing maternal age
Previous history of miscarriage
History of infertility
Maternal infection
Excessive alcohol intake
Poorly treated medical disorder
Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome
Low body mass index
Increased paternal age (>45)
Causes – first & second trimesters
Chromosomal anomalies
Structural fetal anomalies
Uterine anomalies
Maternal systemic infection
Idiopathic – commonest ‘cause’
Causes – second trimester
Ascending genital tract infection
Cervical incompetence Important cause
Varieties of miscarriage
Threatened miscarriage: Vaginal bleeding before gestation age for fetal viability. The fetus has
been confirmed to be viable or viability is unknown.
Missed miscarriage: the fetus is no longer viable but the gestation sac has not been expelled.
May be diagnosed on routine dating scan or following vaginal bleeding.
Inevitable miscarriage: the presence of a dilated cervix or open cervical os makes a miscarriage
inevitable.
Complete miscarriage: vaginal bleeding plus expulsion of all the products of conception.
Incomplete miscarriage: vaginal bleeding plus partial expulsion of the products of conception
Septic miscarriage: Any variety of miscarriage (usually incomplete) associated with genital
tract sepsis
Management of first trimester miscarriage
Typically presents with a period of amenorrhoea (< 12 weeks), a positive pregnancy test and painful
vaginal bleeding.
History
Age, Parity / gravidity
LMP, cycle length and regularity. Date of first positive pregnancy test
Bleeding – precipitating factors, amount, clots / tissue or gestation sac, feeling faint or dizzy
Abdominal pain – site, radiation, nature (constant / colicky), severity, progression, aggravating
& relieving factors. Shouldertip pain (ectopic pregnancy)
History of previous miscarriage / ectopic pregnancy
Cervical smear history
Differential diagnoses
Ectopic pregnancy
Bleeding from cervical ectropion or neoplasm
Molar pregnancy
Examination
P, BP, temperature, pallor & capillary refill
Assess overt bleeding
Abdominal examination – scars, distension, uterine size & tenderness; abdominal tenderness,
guarding & rebound tenderness
Speculum examination – continuing bleeding, clots, products of conception in the vagina /
cervix; cervical os open or closed; any cervical pathology (ectropion, infection, tumour)
Vaginal examination – uterine size, shape, position (anteverted / retroverted), mobility,
tenderness. Adnexal mass and tenderness, cervical excitation.
Investigations
FBC
Blood group and save (Rhesus status, need transfusion)
Urine pregnancy test
Transvaginal scan for pregnancy localisation and viability
Quantitative serum betaHCG (repeated 48h later) and a repeat ultrasound scan (7 days later)
may be necessary if ectopic pregnancy cannot be excluded
Treatment
Support and counselling play a key role in treating women who have suffered a miscarriage
Resuscitate if heavy blood loss (iv access + fluids including blood if necessary)
If missed or incomplete miscarriage, offer medical or surgical evacuation of retained products
of conception
If less than 12 weeks and Rhesus negative, antiD immunoglobulin not needed unless bleeding
is heavy and associated with severe pain or intervention undertaken to evacuate the uterus
Provide written information and contact details of support groups.
Palliative care
Palliative terminal care is defined by the WHO as ‘the active total care of patients whose disease is
not responsive to curative treatment’. The aim is to achieve the best possible quality of life for the
woman and her family
The following issues are central:
1) Quality of life need to understand the woman’s perspective
2) Pain control
3) Control of other symptoms
4) Management of psychological, social and spiritual problems
5) Ethical issues
1) Quality of life
•Identify what the woman / her family consider as ‘quality of life’ and agree aims of care with the
woman / her family
•Decide location of care / death keep under review as circumstances may change. Care at home /
hospice is generally preferred
•Provide support to carers as a desire ‘not to be a burden’ if often important to terminally ill women
•Involve other services social services, local hospice / Macmillan nurses
2) Pain control
•Pain is defined as an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential
tissue damage or described in terms of such damage. This definition stresses the importance of
emotional aspects in the perception of pain
•Undertreatment of pain is a serious problem in cancer patients. In the advanced stages of disease,
~75% of patients have moderate, severe or very severe pain
•Cancer pain is especially undertreated in women, minorities and the elderly
•Cancer pain can be somatic, visceral, neuropathic or a combination of these the nature of pain
should influence treatment
•Treatment goals are set and explained to the patient and her family these should be reviewed
regularly
Treatment of Cancer Pain:
Pharmacological treatment
•Use simplest dose schedule with least invasive route and frequent followups and adjustments
•Essential to assess nature and intensity of pain before initiating treatment
•Treatment should be individualised. Oral therapy is cheaper, has a rapid onset, is associated with
fewer sideeffects and is usually effective
•Opiates should be titrated until painrelief is attained with monitoring for unacceptable sideeffects
•NSAIDs have a ceiling effect to their efficacy if the maximum dose is reached without painrelief,
the drug should be discontinued and a different drug selected
•Adjuvant drugs are used to enhance analgesic efficacy, treat concurrent symptoms or treat specific
types of pain examples include antidepressants, anticonvulsants, corticosteroids, muscle relaxants
these drugs also have a ceiling effect
WHO three step ladder
Step 1 mild to moderate pain: Nonopioid analgesic (Aspirin, NSAIDs, acetaminophen) plus
adjuvant drug
Step 2 if pain persists or increases: Weak opioid analgesic (codeine, hydrocodone, oxycodone) plus
non opioid drug plus adjuvant drug
Step 3 Strong opioid analgesic (morphine, dihydromorphone,oxycodone, Transdermal therapeutic
system Fentanyl patch) plus nonopioid analgesic plus adjuvant drugs
•These should be supplemented by medication prescribed on an ‘asneeded’ basis
•Women presenting with moderate or severe pain should be started at the second or third step
•Opioid analgesics are associated with nausea & vomiting, constipation, urinary retention, sedation
and respiratory depression. Associated with tolerance (need to increase dose to attain the same
analgesic effect), physical dependence (occurrence of withdrawal symptoms when the dose is reduced
or the drug is stopped) and addiction (aberrant behaviour characterised by compulsive drug use or
continued use despite harm to the individual).
•Use of PCA may be appropriate in some cases
•Corticosteroids can be used to enhance analgesia and elevate mood and have antiinflammatory, anti
emetic activity and stimulate appetite
•Antidepressants may be effective in the management of neuropathic pain
Nonpharmacological treatments
•Physical methods acupuncture and TENS
•Cognitive therapy Psychological support should be central to pain management. Cognitive
techniques help patients think differently about their pain while behavioural techniques help develop
skills to cope with pain. Hypnosis may be useful
•Blockade or ablation of specific nerve trunks has been used to treat specific pain syndromes lumbar
sympathetic blockade (urogenital, distal colon and rectal cancers)
Palliative radiotherapy
•Intended to provide symptomatic relief usually pain control or bleeding while limiting the risks
from immediate / longterm sideeffects
•Also useful in the management of bone pain from metastases
3) Control of other symptoms
GI Symptoms
May be a consequence of the disease or its treatment and should be managed by a multidisciplinary
team
•Mouth symptoms dry mouth / candidiasis / altered taste: maintain hydration, change drugs and
modify diet. Pilocarpine drops stimulate saliva production
•Anorexia and cachexia can lead to strained relations between caregivers / relatives and the patient.
Treat underlying conditions like nausea / constipation / gastric stasis. Progestogens / corticosteroids
improve appetite.
•Nausea & vomiting usually multifactorial. Treat conditions like ascites / constipation and identify
drugrelated causes. Exclude bowel obstruction. Use antiemetics +/ corticosteroids
•Bowel obstruction commonly multifactorial (adhesions, drugs, constrictions, compression by
tumour mass). Corticosteroids have been shown to be effective conservative treatment and surgery
may be effective in selected cases. Otherwise the aim should be to eliminate nausea and colic and
reduce vomiting to 12 episodes per day. Hyoscine has antiemetic effects and reduces GI secretions.
Intestinal secretions and colic may also be reduced using octreotide.
•Ascites paracentesis is effective but becomes progressively difficult and would be required at more
frequent intervals. Other treatments are diuretics (spironolactone / frusemide) or corticosteroids
•Constipation caused by drugs, immobility, dehydration and direct effect of tumour.
5) Ethical issues
•Ensure that decision to move from lifesustaining support to palliation is in line with the wishes of
the woman and her family
•Conflict between maternal palliation and fetal wellbeing in the case of pregnant women
•Identifying the woman’s wishes in cases where she is unable to express herself use of surrogate
decisionmakers. Role of family dynamics
•Financial implications of decisions
•Decision on resuscitation status
•Assisted suicide Illegal in UK
Human Papilloma Virus
Human papilloma virus (HPV) is a papilloma virus that infects the skin and mucous membranes of
humans. HPV is associated with various gynaecological cancers – vagina, vulva and cervix. There are
over 100 subtypes of HPV of which about 30 are transmitted sexually.
Types 16 & 18 are particularly oncogenic and are associated with over 70% of squamous cervical
cancers. 80% of women with HPV would clear the virus in 12 years. Serotype 6 & 11 is associated
with anogenital warts.
HPV vaccination *****
HPV is associated with the majority of cervical cancer and protection against this virus will reduce
risk of cervical cancer.
Since September 2008, there has been a national vaccination programme for girls aged 1213 years
old against HPV. There is also a 2 year catch up programme that will offer vaccination to girls aged
13 – 18 years old will start from autumn 2009.
Cervarix *
This is the vaccine that is used in the NHS HPV vaccination programme. It protects against HPV
types 16 & 18. It protects against over 70% of cancercausing HPV and is over 99% effective.
A high level of protection has been shown to last up to 6 years. It is likely to show further protection
as new data is available from follow up studies.
Cervarix does not:
protect against genital warts (although another licensed HPV vaccine, called Gardasil, does),
create immunity against cervical cancer or treat existing cervical cancer,
treat HPV infection that is already present,
protect against infections or cancers that are not caused by infection with HPV types 16 or 18
(women should therefore continue to practice safe sex using condoms).
Dose: 3 doses are needed for complete vaccination usually given at 0, 1 & 6 months.
Side effects – redness, swelling and pain at site of injection. Mild pyrexia, headaches, muscle aches
and dizziness has been reported.
Benign conditions of the cervix
Cervicitis *
Acute or chronic. Acute usually presents in combination with endometritis, salpingitis (PID).
Predisposing factors are similar to those of PID i.e.
Multiple sexual partners
Unprotected sexual intercourse,
Immunosupression
Others – trauma,
Common infective agents include
Chlamydia, N. gonorrhoea, trichomonas, anaerobes
Chronic cervicitis is a nonspecific clinical condition and bacteriology is usually negative.
Cervicitis usually is asymptomatic or may present with postcoital bleeding.
Polyps
Usually originate from the endocervix and protrudes through the cervical canal. They are generally
pedunculated and covered by columnar epithelium.
Clinical features
Incidental finding on most occasions
Postcoital bleeding
Increase in vaginal discharge
Treatment
Can be avulsed at speculum examination. Send sample for histology to confirm polyps and exclude
malignancy
Ectropion *
Results from eversion of the lower cervical canal. Normal physiological process associated with
adolescence, pregnancy and COCP use.
Clinical features
Usually an incidental finding
Increased vaginal discharge
Postcoital bleeding occasionally. (Exclude other causes)
Treatment
Expectant treatment if incidental finding or minimal symptoms
Change contraception if appropriate
Cautery using silver nitrate
Cryotherapy
Can be cauterised using diathermy but this requires anaesthetic
Nabothian cysts
Results from blockage of openings of glands of columnar epithelium. This leads to mucous retention.
It is a normal physiological process.
Clinical features
Rarely associated with discharge
It is a normal incidental finding on most occasions
Benign conditions of the Vulva & Vagina
Lichen sclerosus *
May involve the vulva, perineum, and perianal skin. Squamous cell carcinoma may occur in these
areas (risk ~35%)
Thought to be an autoimmune disorder and associated with autoimmune diseases (~20%), especially
thyroid disease. About 40% of patients have a family history of autoimmune diseases or auto
antibodies
Clinical features
Typically occurs in postmenopausal women but can occur before puberty *
Presents with vulval pain (vulvodynia), itching, superficial dyspareunia or visible lesions
Characterised by thin, white, and crinkly skin (parchmentlike) with narrowing of the introitus and
fusion of the labia minora.
Vagina not involved and can be differentiated from lichen planus which has an erosive vaginal
component
Diagnosis
Vulval biopsy indicated if diagnosis in doubt, the disease does not respond to treatment or areas of
ulceration or foci of granulation or nodules develop to exclude malignancy.
Treatment
Mainstay of treatment is topical potent corticosteroids such as clobetasol propionate.
Regular followup (every 612 months) required to identify VIN or squamous cell carcinoma. Refer to
gynaecology specialist if suspicion of malignancy.
Lichen planus
Pruritic, papular eruption with fine scale.
Most commonly found on the flexor surfaces of the upper limbs, the genitalia, mucous membranes,
nails and scalp. Lesions may also be found on the vaginal vault; and around the anus.
Clinical features
Dyspareunia, a burning sensation, and pruritus are common.
Vulval and urethral stenosis can occur
Can occur at any age
Cutaneous lesions typically resolve within 18 months
Diagnosis
Histology to confirm diagnosis.
Treatment
Mild cases can be treated symptomatically with antihistamines and topical steroids. More severe
cases, especially those with scalp, nail, and mucous membrane involvement treated with topical or
oral corticosteroids.
Definition and purpose
Antenatal care is the complex of interventions that a pregnant woman receives from organised
health care services to prevent or identify and treat conditions that may threaten the health of
the fetus/newborn and/or the mother, and to help a woman approach pregnancy and birth as
positive experiences.
Such care can be provided in 1216 antenatal care visits during a pregnancy, screening
pregnancies at regular intervals in order to prevent harm to mother and baby.
Good antenatal care is associated with a better outcome for both mother and baby. The NICE
guideline on routine antenatal care provides standardised approach to the provision of care by
obstetricians, midwives and general practitioners.
Women and their families should always be treated with kindness, respect and dignity. Their
views, beliefs and values regarding their care and that of their baby should be sought and
respected. Healthcare professionals should offer women the opportunity to make informed
decision about their care.
Good communication between healthcare professionals and women is essential especially with
minority groups.
Antenatal care would include:
Promotion and maintenance of the physical, mental and social health of mother and baby by
providing information and education on nutrition, personal hygiene and birthing process
Routine antenatal screening
Development of birth preparedness and complication readiness plans
Treatment of common complications of pregnancy
Management of serious complications of pregnancy
Preparation for postdelivery care including breast feeding and care of the newborn
The majority of pregnant women are healthy with no relevant personal or family history. Such
women are classified as ‘Low risk’. Otherwise women should be classified as ‘High risk’
Risk status can change markedly and rapidly during pregnancy hence the need for regular
assessment and screening
In women with a previous pregnancy, pregnancy outcome provides a good indicator of the
likely outcome of the current pregnancy. Healthy women who have a previous adverse
pregnancy outcome should be classified as ‘High risk’.
Low risk women should be offered midwife and GPled care. These women should however be
referred to the obstetrician when complications arise.
There is no improvement in outcomes when obstetricians are involved in low risk carecompared
to involving them when complications arise.
High risk women should be referred to the Obstetrician as early as possible to help make a plan
of care during their pregnancy.
Indications for referral to secondary care
(a) Medical / surgical conditions – any woman with a preexisting chronic medical condition should
be referred. These include
Cardiac diseases including hypertension
Renal diseases including transplant patients
Endocrine disorders including diabetes mellitus
Psychiatric disorders being treated with medications
Haematological disorders e.g. sickle cell disease, haemophiliacs and women with
thrombophilias or previous VTE
Autoimmune disorders
Epilepsy requiring anticonvulsant drugs
Malignant disease
Severe asthma
Previous surgical procedures that may affect, or be affected by pregnancy / childbirth. For
instance, surgery for urinary stress incontinence.
If there is doubt about referral, the case should be discussed with the obstetrician.
(b) Infectious diseases
Blood borne virus e.g. HIV, hepatitis B /C
(c) Lifestyle & social conditions
Obesity
Vulnerable groups e.g. teenagers who lack social support
Use of recreational drugs e.g. cocaine, ecstasy or on an opiate substitution programme
(d) Obstetric history
Previous adverse pregnancy outcome (such as prematurity, IUGR or stillbirth, severe early
onset preeclampsia / eclampsia)
Previous adverse birth experience (‘traumatic’ delivery – including psychological trauma)
Previous obstetric injury (3rd /4th degree tears, perineal breakdown)
Previous caesarean section
Provision of antenatal information
Women should be given information in a form that is easy to understand and accessible to
them.
Information should be based on current evidence with support to enable pregnant women
make informed decisions.
The woman’s decision should be respected even if it is contrary to the views of the
healthcare professional.
At first contact with a healthcare professional (including prepregnancy), information should be
offered on the following:
Folic acid supplementation.
Food hygiene
Lifestyle advice e.g. smoking cessation
Antenatal screening e.g. Downs syndrome screening, anomaly scan
At booking appointment (ideally by 10 weeks), information should be provided on
Nutrition and diet
How baby develops during pregnancy
Exercise
Place of birth
Further discussions on antenatal screening
Pregnancy care pathway
Participantled antenatal classes e.g. breastfeeding
Discussion of mental health issues
Before 36 weeks, information should be provided on
Preparation for labour and birth
Breastfeeding
Newborn screening tests
Vitamins K prophylaxis
Postnatal self care
Awareness of mental health issues e.g. baby blues
At 38 weeks, information should be provided on
Management options for prolonged pregnancy
Frequency of antenatal appointments:
A schedule of 10 appointments for a woman who is nulliparous and 7 appointments for a parous
with an uncomplicated pregnancy should be adequate.
Antenatal appointments usually include a booking appointment (ideally by 10 weeks), further
appointments at 16, 25, 28, 34, 36, 38 and 41 weeks. Additional appointments are usually made
for primiparous woman at 31 and 40 weeks.
Gestational age assessment:
Early pregnancy scan should be ideally offered between 10 weeks + 0 days and 13 weeks + 6
days. This would help accurately date the pregnancy and identify multiple pregnancies.
ROUTINE ANTENATAL CARE III: Lifestyle considerations
The following are appropriate advice to be given in pregnancy.
Alcohol consumption in pregnancy
Alcohol:
Avoid drinking alcohol in the first 3 months or pregnancy because it is associated with
increased risk of miscarriage.
At all times, women should avoid binge drinking.
If they chose to drink alcohol in pregnancy, the maximum recommended is 12 units once or
twice a week.
Although there is uncertainty about safe limits, there is no evidence of harm at these low levels.
Smoking in pregnancy
Smoking:
NOT recommended in pregnancy.
Associated with adverse outcomes like preterm birth, low birth weight, fetal growth restriction.
Offer NHS smoking cessation support. Nicotine patches may be useful.
Cannabis:
Should be avoided. May be harmful.
Cannabis use associated with smoking cigarettes as well which has proven adverse effects on
the baby.
Nutritional supplements
Folic acid:
Dietary supplementation with folic acid 400 micrograms before conception and throughout the
first 12 weeks of pregnancy is recommended. It reduces the risk of neural tube defects.
Women at high risk of neural tube defects (including those on antiepileptic drugs, diabetics,
women with a previous affected baby or those with a personal / family history and folate
deficiency states) should be offered 5mg daily
Iron:
Supplementation NOT routinely offered.
Vitamin A:
Supplementation might be teratogenic and should be AVOIDED.
Liver and liver products have high vitamin A levels and therefore consumption of these
products should be avoided.
Vitamin D:
Women should maintain adequate vitamin D stores during pregnancy and whilst breastfeeding.
Some women may chose to take 10 micrograms of vitamin D per day as found in the healthy
start multivitamin supplement.
Women at particular risk include women of south Asia, Africa, Caribbean and Middle East
origin.
Women have limited exposure to sun light are also at increased risk of deficiency.
Sources of vitamins D include eggs, fish, meat, vitaminD fortified margarine or breakfast
cereal.
Food acquired infections
Risk of salmonella and listeriosis:
In order to reduce risk of listeriosis, women should drink only pasteurised milk, avoid ripened
soft cheese such as camembert, and avoid uncooked or undercooked readyprepared meals.
Risk of salmonella infection is reduced by avoiding eating raw or partially cooked eggs.
Prescribed and over the counter medicines
Prescription and nonprescription medicine:
Few medicines have established safety in pregnancy therefore prescription and nonprescription
medicines should only be used where benefits outweigh risks.
The BNF is a good source for healthcare professionals to check the safety of medication in
pregnancy.
Working during pregnancy:
Work:
The majority of women can be reassured that working in pregnancy is safe.
A woman’s occupation should be ascertained at the start of pregnancy to identify those at
increased risk through occupational exposure. e.g. women working in chemical industry might
be exposed to teratogenic substance.
Physically demanding work may be associated with poor outcome.
Exercise in pregnancy
Moderate exercise:
Beginning or continuing a moderate exercise is not associated with adverse outcomes.
High risk sports like contact sports, high impacts sports, and vigorous racquet sports may pose
risk of abdominal trauma, falls and joint stress and should be avoided.
Sexual intercourse in pregnancy
Sexual intercourse: not known to be associated with any adverse outcome.
Air travel in pregnancy
Long haul flights:
Associated with increased risk of venous thrombosis.
In the general population, wearing correctly fitted compression stockings is effective at
reducing the risk
Women should maintain good hydration and remain mobile during long haul flights.
If pregnant women decide to travel abroad, consideration should be given to vaccinations, travel
insurance and risk of long haul flights.
Car travel in pregnancy
Seat belts:
Women should be advised that seat belts should “go above the bump, not over it”.
Complementary therapies
Complimentary therapy: few have established safety. Women should not assume these are safe and
should be use as little as possible during pregnancy.
ROUTINE ANTENATAL CARE IV: Management of common symptoms in pregnancy
Most women will experience various minor problems in pregnancy. The common problems in
pregnancy include:
Nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy:
Most will settle by 16 20 weeks and not usually associated with poor outcome.
Nonpharmacological treatments include ginger and pharmacological options include
antihistamines.
Exclude other causes of nausea and vomiting e.g. UTI
Heartburn
Antacids may be offered to women whose heat burns remains troublesome.
In late pregnancy, exclude preeclampsia, HELLP syndrome.
Constipation
Offer advice about dietary modification such as bran or wheat fibre supplementation.
High fibre diet would help improve symptoms.
Occasionally, laxatives such as fybogel may be needed.
Varicose veins
Theses are common in pregnancy and do not cause harm.
Compression stocking can improve symptoms but not prevent them from emerging.
Vaginal discharge
Increase in vaginal discharge is a common physiological change in pregnancy.
If associated with soreness, itching, offensive odour or dysuria, infective causes should be
excluded.
Topical imidazole creams for candidiasis are safe in pregnancy.
Backache
Backache is common in pregnancy and exercising in water, massage therapy may help ease
backache in pregnancy.
ROUTINE ANTENATAL CARE V: Clinical examination of pregnant women
Measurement of weight and body mass index
These should be done at the booking appointment.
Repeated weighing should be confined to circumstances in which clinical management would
be influenced.
Measurement of blood pressure and urinalysis
This is traditionally done at each visit. Document the findings in patient’s handheld notes.
Breast examination
Routine antenatal breast exam is NOT recommended.
Abdominal exam
If fundus palpable, routine assessment including measurement of symphysiofundal height is
recommended.
Pelvic examination
Routine antenatal pelvic exam does not accurately predict preterm birth or cephalopelvic
disproportion. It should therefore NOT be part of a routine exam.
Others
Sensitive enquiry should be made about female genital mutilation and domestic violence as
early as possible. If present, antenatal care could be planned as early as possible.
ROUTINE ANTENATAL CARE VI: Screening: haematological conditions, fetal anomalies,
infections.
Routine antenatal care in the UK now covers various screening modalities. These include:
Screening for haematological condition
Anaemia
FBC should be done at booking and at 28 weeks. This allows time for treatment if anaemia is
detected.
Hb below 11 g/dl at booking or below 10.5 g/dL at 28 weeks should be investigated and treated.
Blood grouping and red cell alloantibodies
Blood group and red cell antibody status should be determined in early pregnancy.
Women who are Rhesus negative should be offered antiD prophylaxis usually at 28 and 34
weeks.
If red cell antibodies detected, refer to specialist antenatal services.
Haemoglobinopathies
Preconception counselling and carrier testing should be offered to all women who are
identified as being at risk of haemoglobinopathies.
The most common include sickle cell disease and thalassaemias which should be tested for in
early pregnancy ideally by 10 weeks.
If woman is identified as a carrier of a clinically significant haemoglobinopathy, then the father
of the baby should be offered counselling and screening without delay.
Screening for Downs syndrome
Before screening, it is important that women understand the nature of the condition (trisomy 21)
and its consequences for the fetus including structural anomalies and learning disability
The difference between a screening test (gives risk but not ‘yes or no’ answer) and a diagnostic
test should be explained
Downs syndrome associated with raised first trimester free bHCG and low Pregnancy
associates plasma protein A (PAPPA) in the first trimester
First trimester screening is undertaken at 1114 weeks gestation and uses a combination of
nuchal transluscency (NT), free betaHCG and PAPPA
Between 1114 weeks, PAPPA and NT increase, while free betaHCG decreases.
On average, second trimester MSAFP is 25% lower in women with a fetus with Downs
compared to those with a normal fetus
There is, however, no difference in fetal serum AFP concentration in Downs
Maternal second trimester serum unconjugated oestriol (MSuE3) ~ 25% lower in Downs
Second trimester serum free bHCG is the most effective marker for Downs in maternal serum
concentrations ~2X normal in Downs
Note that MSAFP and MSuE3 rise between 1421 weeks while HCG concentrations fall over
this period. InhibinA decreases before 17 weeks and increases after 17 weeks
The placenta in Downs syndrome is thought to behave as a functionally immature placenta
Maternal second trimester serum InhibinA is increased (1.79 MoM) in Downs syndrome
Need accurate dating of pregnancies to optimise sensitivity of second trimester screening
Trisomy 18 (Edward’s syndrome) is associated with low maternal serum AFP, free betaHCG
and uE3
FACTORS AFFECTING SERUM MARKERS
Maternal weight 20kg increase in maternal weight associated with 17% decrease in MSAFP,
7% decrease in MSuE3 and 16% decrease in MSHCG
IDDM MSAFP 10% lower (after correction for weight), MSuE3 7% lower, InhibinA 9%
lower. Total MSHCG not significantly different
Twin pregnancy serum markers 2X singleton pregnancies
Ethnic origin MSAFP and MSHCG 10% higher in blacks (incidence of neural tube defects
~50% lower in blacks)
Smoking inhibinA levels 40% higher in smokers, MSHCG 20% lower in smokers. Adjusting
for smoking makes little difference to screening performance
Parity MSHCG falls with increasing parity 3% for each previous birth
Assisted reproduction IVF associated with higher false positive rate for Downs syndrome.
MSHCG higher and MSuE3 lower
SCREENING TEST OPTIONS
Integrated test
NT and PAPPA at 10 completed weeks gestation + AFP, free betaHCG, uE3 and InhibinA at
1420 weeks gestation
Most effective screening test with a false positive rate of 1.2% (1.0 1.4) for an 85% detection
rate
Serum integrated test
Integrated test without NT
Second most effective test with a 2.7% false positive rate (2.4 3.0) for an 85% detection rate
Combined test
NT, free betaHCG and PAPPA offered between 11+0 and 13+6 weeks gestation
6.1% (5.6 6.5) false positive rate for an 85% detection rate
Quadruple test
AFP, uE3, free betaHCG and InhibinA at 1420 weeks gestation
6.2% (5.8 6.6) false positive rate for an 85% detection rate
Triple test
AFP, uE3, free betaHCG at 14 20 weeks gestation
9.3% (8.8 9.8) false positive rate for an 85% detection rate
Double test
AFP and free betaHCG at 1420 weeks gestation
13.1% (12.5 13.7) false positive rate for an 85% detection rate
NT measurement
At 1213 completed weeks gestation
20% (18.6 21.4) false positive rate for an 85% detection rate
Screening for structural anomalies
Ultrasound screening for structural anomalies should be offered between 18 weeks and 20
weeks + 5 days.
The purpose of the scan is to identify fetal anomalies and allow for termination of pregnancy,
intrauterine therapy or managed birth in a specialist centre if a fetal anomaly is detected.
Screening for infections
Asymptomatic bacteriuria
Women should be offered routine screening for asymptomatic bacteriuria by midstream urine
culture in early pregnancy (usually at booking).
Identification and treatment of this reduces the risk of pyelonephritis.
Hepatitis B virus
Serological screening for hepatitis B should be offered so that effective postnatal interventions
can be offered to infected women to decrease the risk of vertical transmission.
HIV
Screening should be offered to all women in early pregnancy because appropriate antenatal
interventions can reduce the risk of vertical transmission.
Rubella
Susceptibility screening should be offered in early pregnancy to identify women at risk of
contracting rubella infection and to enable vaccination in the postnatal period for protection of
future pregnancies.
Syphilis
Screening should be offered in early pregnancy because treatment of syphilis is beneficial to the
mother and baby.
Other screening tests
Screening for asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis, chlamydia, cytomegalovirus, hepatitis C, group
B streptococcus and toxoplasmosis should NOT be routinely offered to pregnant women.
Screening for clinical conditions
Gestational diabetes
Screening for gestational diabetes in healthy women using risk factors is recommended.
At booking, the following risk factors for gestational diabetes should be deteremined:
1) BMI above 30 kg/m2
2) Previous macrosomic baby weighing 4.5 kg or above
3) Previous gestational diabetes
4) Family history if diabetes (in a 1st degree relative)
5) Family origin with a high prevalence of diabetes (South Asia, Middle East, Black Caribbean).
Women with any of these factors should be offered biochemical screening for gestational diabetes.
Preeclampsia
Blood pressure measurement and urinalysis for protein should be carried out at each antenatal
visit to screen for preeclampsia.
More frequent measurements should be offered to those with other risk factors for pre
eclampsia e.g. family history of PET, BMI above 30 kg/m2, preexisting renal disease, multiple
pregnancy, preexisting hypertension.
Placenta praevia
Only women whose placenta covers the internal os at the anomaly scan should be offered a
repeat scan at 32 weeks
Fetal growth and wellbeing
Symphysisfundal height should be measured at every visit from 24 weeks.
Routine use of ultrasound estimation of fetal size for suspected largefordate is not
recommended
Routine use of Doppler ultrasound to assess fetal wellbeing is not recommended.
If fetal malpresentation is suspected after 36 weeks, an ultrasound assessment can be used to
confirm presentation.
Other screening tests
Routine screening for preterm birth is not recommended.
RAPID PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS: TECHNIQUES
The availability of rapid diagnostic techniques has led the UK National Screening Committee to
recommend that screening programmes for Downs syndrome need no longer include
karyotyping
Karyotype is typically available after 23 weeks while results of rapid diagnostic tests can be
available within 2448h. However, rapid tests only analyse specific chromosomes, typically 13,
18, 21 and X & Y if required
Fluorescence insitu hybridisation (FISH)
Uses nondividing (interphase) cells in uncultured samples
Fluorescently labelled chromosomespecific DNA sequences are used to identify chromosome
copy number
Three chromosomes can be detected at the same time (three flurochromes available red, blue
and green)
Commercial kits are available for FISH and this is therefore a relatively inexpensive technique
Designed to detect specific aneuploidies and will not detect other abnormalities or structural
chromosomal defects
False positive rate less than 1 in 30,000 cases
False negative rate less than 1 in 4000 cases
Misdiagnosis may be due to:
1) Maternal cell contamination this will not be detectable if the fetus is female.
2) Structural chromosome anomalies
3) DNA polymorphism causing crosshybridisation of DNA probe with other DNA locations
4) Mosaicism this may only be detected if a sufficient cells (at least 100) are used for analysis
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Uses quantitative fluorescence PCR (QFPCR)
The number of copies of a particular chromosome is determined using DNA analysis
Relies on the analysis of noncoding regions of DNA which show a wide variation in size
between different individuals
These regions are amplified by PCR and separated on a gel according to size
If three copies are present of different sizes, this is easily detectable by differences in migration
on the gel
If two copies are present of identical size, this will also be detectable because the total quantity
of DNA can also be determined
QFPCR requires semiautomated equipment which may not be available in many cytogenetics
labs and the system has to be validated in every centre. However, once established, costs
compare favourably with FISH
Maternal cell contamination and mosaicism can be detected
Failure of DNA amplification occurs in about 0.1% of samples
Will not detect abnormalities in other chromosomes (apart from those analysed) or structural
anomalies
QFPCR is not reliable when used to analyse a single cell and FISH is the preferred method for
preimplantation genetic diagnosis
Comparative Genomic Hybridisation
This technique is not currently in clinical use
DNA from sample is labelled with one flurochrome (say red) and compared with a normal
reference DNA labelled green
The two DNA samples are added to a slide containing multiple metaphases from a normal male
for hybridisation
Computer aided analysis is used to determine the red : green ratio for every chromosome and
therefore determine the copy number
This allows analysis of all chromosomes at once, unlike FISH or QFPCR
The procedure is however, labour intensive
Recent development of genomic microarrays (cloned DNA segments from different
chromosomes are fixed onto a slide and used instead of metaphase chromosomes) may simplify
the procedure and improve its clinical usefulness
ROUTINE ANTENTATL CARE VII: Management of specific clinical conditions
Pregnancy after 41weeks:
Women with uncomplicated pregnancies should be offered induction of labour beyond 41
weeks.
Prior to this, women should be offered a vaginal examination for membrane sweeping.
Induction of labour at 4142 weeks, when compared to expectant management, is associated
with a reduction in perinatal mortality / morbidity and a reduction in caesarean section rate
From 42 weeks, women who decline induction of labour should be offered antenatal monitoring
consisting of at least twice weekly CTGs and ultrasound estimation of maximum amniotic pool
depth.
Such monitoring has not been shown to predict or prevent late intrauterine fetal death
Breech presentation: *
Women with breech presentation at term should be offered external cephalic version (ECV).
Exceptions include those with a previous caesarean section, fetal compromise, ruptured
membranes, vaginal bleeding and medical conditions.
ECV should be done after 36 weeks.
References:
NICE clinical guideline 62 – antenatal care
Physiology of puberty
Puberty is the process of physical change during which a child’s body becomes that of an adult
capable of reproduction
This is marked by the pubertal growth spurt and the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
Thelarche (breast development) occurs first (9 – 11 years) followed by adrenarche (pubic and axillary
hair development, 11 – 12 years) and finally, in the female, the onset of menstruation (menarche)
In developed countries, the average age at menarche is 1213 years
Before puberty, levels of circulating leutenising hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone
(FSH) are very low: CNShypothalamic axis very sensitive to low levels or circulating oestrogens. LH
and FSH are gonadotrophins
Increased gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) production by the hypothalamus begins once a
critical weight or body composition is attained, causing increased LH and to a lesser extent FSH
Episodic pulses of LH occur initially during sleep and subsequently while awake. Lead to increased
gonadal steroid synthesis
Activation of the positive gonadotrophin (LH & FSH) response to increasing levels of oestradiol
resulting in the midcycle gonadotrophin surge and ovulation with subsequent menstruation
The establishment of normal menstruation is therefore dependent on:
1) Normal karyotype / gene complement regulate development of the internal and external genitalia
in utero.
2) Normal CNShypothalamic response and production of GnRH
3) Normal pituitary response to GnRH with production of gonadotrophins
4) Anatomically and biochemically normal ovaries (and adrenals), with a normal response to
gonadotrophins
5) The presence of normal uterus and vagina and normal endorgan response to ovarian / adrenal
steroids
Physiology of menstruation
The normal menstrual cycle lasts 22 – 35 days, with a mean of 28 days
The first day of menstruation marks the beginning of the cycle and is the LMP (date of last
menstrual period)
Menstruation is the result of shedding of the endometrium following the fall in circulating
levels of ovarian steroids, especially progesterone
Prostaglandins and tissue factors present in the endometrium cause constriction of the spiral
arterioles, minimising bleeding
As oestrogen and progesterone levels fall, the negative feedback effect on the hypothalamus
and pituitary is removed, resulting in pulsatile release of GnRH and LH and FSH secretion
FSH stimulates development of ovarian follicles which produce oestradiol
Rising oestradiol levels have a positive feedback effect on the pituitary and hypothalamus,
resulting in an LH surge. Oestradiol also stimulates proliferation of the endometrium
(proliferative phase)
Ovulation occurs about 36h after the LH surge
The follicle is converted to the corpus luteum following ovulation and this secretes oestrogens
and progesterone – this is the luteal phase of the cycle
Progesterone stimulates secretory changes in the endometrium in preparation for implantation.
Hence the luteal phase is also described as the secretory phase. Circulating levels of
progesterone peak 7 days before menstruation begins
If fertilisation does not occur, the corpus luteum begins to disintegrate, resulting in a fall in
levels of oestrogens and progesterone
This withdrawal of hormonal support to the endometrium causes it to shed and menstruation
begins
The luteal phase always lasts 14 days. Therefore in a woman with a regular 30 day cycle,
ovulation will occur on day 16. In a woman with a regular 32 day cycle, ovulation will occur on
day 18.
Definition of menstrual disorders
Menorrhagia: Regular heavy periods. Average blood loss per menstrual cycle = 35ml.
Objectively, menorrhagia is defined as blood loss over 80ml per cycle.
Dysmenorrhoea: Painful periods
Oligomenorrhoea: Infrequent periods with > 35 days – 6 months between periods
Amenorrhoea : No periods. Primary amenorrhoea – no periods ever in a woman over the age of
16 years (14 years if absent growth spurt and secondary sexual characteristics). Secondary
amenorrhoea – no periods for 6 months in a woman with pervious menses
Intermenstrual bleeding: bleeding between periods
Obesity in Pregnancy
Definitions
Body mass index = weight / height2
The healthy range for BMI is between 18.5 and 25 kg/m2
Underweight: BMI < 18.5
Overweight: BMI 25 – 29.9
Obese I: BMI 30 – 34.9
Obese II: BMI 35 – 39.9
Obese III or Morbidly obese: BMI 40 and over
Waist circumference is also used as a measure of obesity, allowing muscle mass to be
distinguished from fat. Raised waist circumference is > 88cm for women and > 102cm for men.
NICE guidelines on prevention, identification, assessment and management of overweight and obesity
uses both BMI and waist circumference to categorise risk for developing longterm health problems.
BMI Classification Waist Circumference
Scale of the problem
England:
2007: 37 per cent of adults were overweight (BMI 25 and over) and a further 24 per cent were
obese (BMI 30 and over).
14% children were overweight and 19 per cent were obese.
41% of women and 33 % of men had a waist circumference above the healthy range.
The proportion of adults with a healthy body weight has decreased from 41% to 34% in men
and from 49% to 42% in women between 1993 and 2007.
The per cent with a waist circumference above the healthy range rose from 20 to 33% for men
and from 26 to 41% for women between 1993 and 2007.
It is estimated that rates of obesity will rise even further to 36 per cent in men and 28 per cent in
women by 2015 and 47 per cent and 36 per cent respectively by 2025.
Health consequences of obesity
Relative risk of specific diseases in obese people by gender; England
Men Women
Ovarian cancer 1.7
Obesity and Pregnancy
BMI over 30 at booking
Affects ~20% of women in the UK
Antenatal Risks
Gestational diabetes
Hypertensive disorders
Macrosomia
Venous thromboembolism (throughout pregnancy)
Vitamin deficiencies:
a) Women with BMI ≥ 27 have been shown to have lower serum folate levels, receive folate
through their diet or take nutritional supplements compared to women with BMI < 27).
b) Serum vitamin D levels fall with increasing prepregnancy BMI. Obese women are at increased
risk of vitamin D deficiency and their babies have lower cord serum vitamin D levels.
Intrapartum / postpartum risks
Slower progress in labour
Need for caesarean section
Postpartum haemorrhage
Shoulder dystocia
Wound infection
Anaesthetic complications
Difficulties with intrapartum fetal monitoring
Fetal, neonatal and childhood risks
Miscarriage
Congenital anomalies including neural tube defects – risk increases with increasing category of
obesity
Poor ultrasound visualisation of the fetus and difficulties with surveillance
Macrosomia and Birth trauma
Stillbirth and neonatal death
Admission to SCBU
Less likely to initiate and maintain breastfeeding
Prematurity
Obesity in childhood
Prepregnancy management of the obese woman
Provide information on risks of obesity in pregnancy and potential benefits of optimising
weight. Provide support to lose weight before conception
Provide information on weight and lifestyle during family planning consultations
Women wishing to become pregnant should be advised to take 5mg folic acid daily beginning
at least 1 month before conception until the end of the first trimester
Antenatal care
Organisation:
The management of obesity in pregnancy should be integrated into all antenatal clinics as
specialist clinics for obese women are not feasible. All clinicians should be aware of the risks
associated with obesity and interventions to minimise risk.
Maternity units should have accessible multidisciplinary guidelines on the management of
obese pregnant women
Nutritional supplementation: Women should be administered 5mg folic acid daily during the
first trimester and 10 micrograms vitamin D daily during pregnancy and breastfeeding
Referral
All women with BMI ≥ 30 should be referred to a consultant obstetrician
All women with BMI ≥ 40 should have antenatal consultation by an obstetric anaesthetist. A
management plan should be discussed and documented
All women with BMI ≥ 40 should be have an assessment by a qualified professional in the third
trimester to determine manual handling requirements and tissue viability issues
Antenatal counselling
All women with BMI ≥ 30 should be given information on the risks associated with obesity and
how these can be minimised. Discuss importance of healthy eating and exercise. Provide
information in a sensitive manner to empower the woman to engage with the services available.
Clinical Assessment
a) BMI – weight and height for all women at booking, recorded in handheld notes and electronic
patient records. Use appropriate equipment and do not use selfreported weight and height. If BMI >
30, reassess in the third trimester
b) VTE – assess risk of VTE and provide thromboprophylaxis. BMI ≥ 30 plus 2 additional risk
factors = antenatal + postnatal thromboprophylaxis
c) BP measurement – use appropriate cuff size and document size in notes. Too small a cuff and
BP is artificially high with error up to 50mmHg. Too large a cuff results in BP that is artificially low
although the error is smaller. Use standard cuff (13x23cm) for an arm circumference of up to 33cm, a
large size (33 x 15 cm) for an arm circumference between 33 and 41cm) and a thigh cuff (18x36cm)
for an arm circumference of 41cm or more. There is less error introduced by using too large a cuff
than by too small a cuff.
Antenatal screening
a) Preeclampsia – women with BMI ≥ 35 are at increased risk of preeclampsia and should be
screened according to PRECOG guidelines. These women should be referred early for specialist
antenatal care if they have additional risk factors including:
Multiple pregnancy
Underlying medical conditions like
i) Preexisting hypertension or booking diastolic BP ≥ 90 mmHg
ii) Preexisting renal disease or booking proteinuria (≥ 1+ on more than one occasion or quantified
at ≥ 0.3g/ 24 hour)
iii) Preexisting diabetes
iv) Antiphospholipid antibodies
Preeclampsia in any previous pregnancy
Any two of the following: first pregnancy, age 40 years or more, family history, booking diastolic BP
≥ 80 mmHg < 90mmHg
Women with BMI ≥ 35 but no additional risk factors can have community BP monitoring at least
every 3 weeks between 24 and 32 weeks then every 2 weeks from 32 weeks till delivery
b) Gestational diabetes
All women with BMI ≥ 30 should be screened using a 2 hour 75g oral GTT at 24 – 28 weeks
gestation.
Planning labour and delivery
Women with BMI ≥ 35 should give birth in a consultantled obstetric unit. Women with BMI
3034 should have an individualised plan for place of birth
Discuss intrapartum risks and strategies to minimise risks. Document management plan
Women with a previous CS should have an individualised plan for planned vaginal delivery
following informed discussion and consideration of all the clinical issues. Successful vaginal
delivery rates are lower in obese women and those with morbid obesity have a higher risk of
uterine rupture.
Postnatal care
a) Thromboprophylaxis
All women receiving antenatal LMWH should have postnatal risk assessment and LMWH
continued for 6 weeks
All women with BMI BMI ≥ 30 requiring prophylactic LMWH should be administered a dose
appropriate for maternal weight
All women with BMI BMI ≥ 30 should be encouraged to mobilise early after delivery
All women with BMI ≥ 30 and one or more additional persisting risk factors for VTE should be
given LMWH for 7 days after delivery. Those with two or more risk factors should also be
given TED stockings
All women with BMI ≥ 40 should be offered postnatal LMWH regardless of mode of delivery
for a minimum of 1 week
b) Breastfeeding
All women with BMI ≥ 30 should receive specialist advice and support antenatally and post
partum to support initiation and maintenance of breastfeedin
Diabetes Mellitus
All women with BMI ≥ 30 should continue to be given nutritional and lifestyle advice after
delivery with a view to weight reduction
All women with BMI ≥ 30 and gestational diabetes but a normal GTT after delivery should
have regular followup by their GP to screen for the development of type II diabetes
All women with BMI ≥ 30 and gestational diabetes should have annual screening for cardio
metabolic risk factors and be offered lifestyle and weight management advice
FETAL MOVEMENTS
Fetal movements first perceived by the mother at 18 to 20 weeks gestation
Multiparous women may perceive fetal movements earlier while primips may perceive
movement much later than 20 weeks
The frequency of movement increases until the 32 weeks then plateaus until the onset of labour.
However, there is no reduction in the frequency of fetal movements in the late third trimester.
The type of fetal movement may change as pregnancy advances in the third trimester with
‘rolling’ movements being more common in the late third trimester
At term, fetuses make on average 31 movements per hour (range 16–45), with the longest
period between movements ranging from 50 to 75 minutes.
Fetal movements show diurnal variation with the afternoon and evening being periods of peak
activity. Movements are usually absent during fetal ‘sleep’cycles, which usually last for 20–40
minutes and rarely exceed 90 minutes
Women perceive most fetal movements when lying down, fewer when sitting and fewest while
standing
A reduction or sudden alteration in fetal movement may be a warning sign of fetal compromise
or impending fetal death. Reduced fetal movement is associated with poor perinatal outcome
Women should be advised of the need to be aware of fetal movements up to and including the
onset oflabour and should report any decrease or cessation of fetal movements to their maternity
unit.
Factors affecting fetal movements
Anterior placenta: may decrease a woman’s perception of fetal movements before 28 weeks
Corticosteroids to enhance fetal lung maturation: may decrease fetal movements and fetal heart
rate variability on CTG over the 2 days following administration
Cigarette smoking: associated with a decrease in fetal movements
Congenital anomalies: major malformations associated with reduced fetal activity
Fetal position: 80% of fetal spines lay anteriorly in women who were unable to perceive fetal
movements despite being able to visualise them by ultrasound scanning. Fetal presentation has
no effect on perception of movement
There is a diurnal variation with more movements being perceived in the evening
Assessment of fetal movements
Fetal movements should be assessed by subjective maternal perception
Formal fetal movement counting is not recommended
Women should be advised to be aware of their baby’s individual pattern of movements. If they
are concerned about a reduction of fetal movements after 28 weeks, they should contact their
maternity unit and should not wait until the next day for assessment
If women are unsure whether movements are reduced after 28 weeks, they should beadvised to
lie on their left side and focus on fetal movements for 2 hours. If they do not feel 10 or more
discrete movements in 2 hours, they should contact their maternity unit immediately.
Iron deficiency anaemia in pregnancy
Anaemia
Hb <110g/l in first trimester, <105g/l in second and third trimesters and <100g/l in postpartum
period
Iron deficiency
Spectrum ranging from iron depletion to iron deficiency anaemia.
Iron depletion: the amount of stored iron (measured by serum ferritin concentration) is reduced
but the amount of transported (transferrin saturation) and functional iron is not affected.
Irondeficient erythropoiesis: stored iron is depleted and transport iron is reduced.
The shortage of iron limits red cell production and results in increased erthryocyte
protoporphyrin concentration.
In irondeficiency anaemia: there is shortage of iron stores, transport and functional iron,
resulting in reduced Hb in addition to low serum ferritin, low transferrin saturation and
increased erythrocyte protoporphyrin concentration.
Maternal iron deficiency is associated with preterm delivery, low birth weight and postpartum
haemorrhage.
Investigations
Routine screening
Full blood count (including red cell indices) at booking and 28 weeks
Features of iron deficiency include:
Low Hb
Low mean cell volume (MCV). In mild cases, MCV will be normal
Low mean cell haemoglobin (MCH), and mean cell haemoglobin concentration (MCHC)
Blood film may show microcytic hypochromic red cells and characteristic ‘pencil cells’ (may also
occur in haemoglobinopathies).
Serum ferritin
Glycoprotein which reflects iron stores
Also acute phase protein and levels increased during inflammatory response
The first laboratory test to become abnormal as iron stores decrease
Not affected by recent iron ingestion
In women with normal iron stores at conception, the serum ferritin concentration rises in early
pregnancy, followed by a progressive fall by 32 weeks to about 50% prepregnancy levels
The levels increase again in the third trimester
Levels below 15 μg/l indicate iron depletion in pregnancy
Indications for assessment of serum ferritin
Anaemic women where estimation of iron stores is necessary
Known Haemoglobinopathy
Prior to parenteral iron replacement
Nonanaemic women with high risk of iron depletion including:
Previous anaemia
Multiparity >/= P3
Consecutive pregnancy <1year following delivery
Vegetarians
Teenage pregnancies
Recent history of bleeding
Nonanaemic women where estimation of iron stores is necessary such as:
High risk of bleeding
Jehovah’s witnesses
Serum Iron (Fe) and total iron binding capacity (TIBC)
Unreliable indicators of iron deficiency
Levels affected by recent ingestion of Fe, diurnal rhythm and infection
Zinc protoporphyrin (ZPP)
ZPP increases when iron availability decreases, as zinc is incorporated into the protoporphyrin
ring.
Indicator of availability of iron to the tissues
Levels not affected by plasma dilution of pregnancy
Levels increased by inflammation and infection
Red blood cell ZPP has greater sensitivity and specificity for iron depletion but is rarely
performed.
Reticulocyte Hb & reticulocytes
Iron deficiency causes a reduction in reticulocyte number and reticulocyte haemoglobin
concentration. Using an automated flowcytometry technique, measurements of reticulocyte
cellular characteristics allow extremely early and objective information to be collected on
erythropoietic activity in anaemia. This again is not widely available, and there is no data in
pregnancy
Oral iron preparations
Once women become iron deficient in pregnancy it is not possible to ensure repletion through
diet alone
Ferrous salts (ferrous fumarate, ferrous sulphate and ferrous gluconate) are better absorbed than
ferric salts. There is little difference in oral bioavailability of the different ferrous salts
The recommended dose of elemental iron for treatment of iron deficiency is 100200mg daily.
Higher doses should not be given, as absorption is saturated and side effects increased.
Combined iron and folic acid preparations may also be used but women should still take the
recommended dose of folic acid for prevention of neural tube defects
Oral iron supplementation should be taken on an empty stomach to enhance absorption
If women develop sideeffects (nausea, epigastric discomfort), preparations with lower iron
content should be tried – the dose of iron should be titrated to minimize sideeffects.
The relationship between dose and altered bowel habit (diarrhoea and constipation) is less clear
and strategies such as use of laxatives may be helpful.
Slow release and entericcoated preparations should be avoided
Dose and elemental iron content per tablet of oral iron preparations
Ferrous Fumarate 200mg 65mg
Ferrous Gluconate 300mg 35mg
Ferrous Sulphate (dried)
200mg 65mg
Ferrous Sulphate
300mg 60mg
190mg / 5ml elixir 27.5 mg / 5ml
FerrousFeredetate
Dose and elemental iron content per tablet of combined oral iron and folate preparations
Response to oral iron
Hb should rise by ~ 2.0 g/dl over 34 weeks depending on the Hb and iron status at the start of
supplementation, ongoing losses, iron absorption and other factors contributing to anaemia,
such as other micronutrient deficiencies, infections and renal impairment.
Dietary Advice
Average daily iron intake from food for women in UK = 10.5mg.
15% (12mg) of dietary iron is absorbed. Absorbtion is increased 3 fold in the third trimester to
6mg per day
Iron requirements are 3 x higher in pregnancy
The recommended daily intake (RDA) of iron for the latter half of pregnancy is 30mg.
Iron absorption depends on:
1. Amount of iron in the diet
2. The bioavailability of dietary iron: Haem iron (haemoglobin, myoglobin) is absorbed 23x more
readily than nonhaem iron. About 95% of dietary iron intake is nonhaem iron. Vitamin C
increases iron absorption from nonhaem foods. Phytate (present in cereals) and tannins
(present in coffee and tea) inhibit iron absorption. Education and counseling regarding diet may
improve iron intake and enhance absorption
3. Physiological requirements
Women should be advised to take oral iron supplements on an empty stomach, 1 hour before meals,
with a source of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) such as orange juice to maximise absorption. Other
medications or antacids should not be taken at the same time.
Ref:
UK guidelines on the management of iron deficiency in pregnancy. British Committee for Standards
in Haematology
I: OVERVIEW
Screening for infections in pregnancy NICE guidelines.
Asymptomatic bacteriuria
Women should be offered routine screening for asymptomatic bacteriuria by midstream urine culture
early in pregnancy. Identification and treatment of asymptomatic bacteriuria reduces the risk of
pyelonephritis.
Asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis
• Pregnant women should not be offered routine screening for bacterial vaginosis because the
evidence suggests that the identification and treatment of asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis does not
lower the risk of preterm birth and other adverse reproductive outcomes.
Chlamydia trachomatis
• At the booking appointment, healthcare professionals should inform pregnant women younger than
25 years about the high prevalence of chlamydia infection in their age group, and give details of their
local National Chlamydia Screening Programme
• Chlamydia screening should not be offered as part of routine antenatal care.
Cytomegalovirus
• Cytomegalovirus screening in pregnant women should not be offered.
Hepatitis B
• Serological screening for hepatitis B virus should be offered to pregnant women so that effective
postnatal interventions can be offered to infected women to decrease the risk of vertical transmission.
Hepatitis C
• Pregnant women should not be offered routine screening for hepatitis C virus because there is
insufficient evidence to support its clinical and cost effectiveness.
HIV
• Pregnant women should be offered screening for HIV infection early in antenatal care because
appropriate antenatal interventions can reduce mothertochild transmission of HIV infection.
• A system of clear referral paths should be established in each unit or department so that pregnant
women who are diagnosed with an HIV infection are managed and treated by the appropriate
specialist teams.
Rubella
• Rubella susceptibility screening should be offered early in antenatal care to identify women at risk of
contracting rubella infection and to enable vaccination in the postnatal period for the protection of
future pregnancies.
Group B streptococcus
• Pregnant women should not be offered routine antenatal screening for group B streptococcus
because evidence of its clinical and cost effectiveness remains uncertain.
Syphilis
• Screening for syphilis should be offered to all pregnant women at an early stage in antenatal care
because treatment of syphilis is beneficial to the mother and baby.
• Because syphilis is a rare condition in the UK and a positive result does not necessarily mean that a
woman has syphilis, clear paths of referral for the management of pregnant women testing positive for
syphilis should be established.
Toxoplasmosis
• Routine antenatal serological screening for toxoplasmosis should not be offered because the risks of
screening may outweigh the potential benefits.
• Pregnant women should be informed of primary prevention measures to avoid toxoplasmosis
infection, such as:
1) washing hands before handling food
2) thoroughly washing all fruit and vegetables, including ready prepared salads, before eating
3) thoroughly cooking raw meats and ready prepared chilled meals
4) wearing gloves and thoroughly washing hands after handling soil and gardening
5) avoiding cat faeces in cat litter or in soil.
II: RUBELLA
· RNA virus, terratogenic
· Acquired by respiratory droplet exposure Incubation period 23 weeks
· Symptoms: fever, rash, arthralgia, postauricular and suboccipital lymphadenopathy (only 50
75% of infected patients are symptomatic)
· Vaccination: Results in long term (not life long) immunity in 95% of those vaccinated
Diagnosis: Clinical diagnosis unreliable. Need to demonstrate seroconversion in susceptible women
(presence of rubella IgM in sample taken 3 weeks after contact).
Congenital rubella syndrome
Typically affects:
1) Eyes cataract, retinopathy, glaucoma and microophthalmia
2) Heart – several anomalies including patent ductus arteriosus, coarctation of the aorta, VSD and
ASD
3) Ear bilateral and progressive hearing loss
4) IUGR and oligohydramnios
Neonatal complications include hepatosplenomegaly, purpura, jaundice, meningoencephalitis and
thrombocytopaenia (these are common features with almost all terratogenic viruses)
Risk of fetal infection over 90% in the first trimester; 25% in early second trimester No case of
congenital rubella syndrome as a result of immunisation has been documented
Fetal viraemia continues throughout pregnancy and the infant may continue to excrete virus for up to
a year
Preventing rubella infection
· Universal vaccination
· Universal screening in pregnancy
· Screening and vaccination of all women planning pregnancy
· No evidence that vaccine is terratogenic therefore termination of pregnancy not indicated if
pregnant woman is vaccinated
Managing pregnant women who come in contacted with infected individuals
· History – clarify date of contact and gestation age at contact. History of vaccination
· Investigations – maternal blood for rubella IgG and IgM or check results from booking bloods
· If IgG positive, the woman is immune and can be reassured
· If IgG negative, the woman is susceptible (will also be IgM negative unless she has recent
infection)
· Passive immunisation is not available
· Explain risks to the woman and advise her to avoid contact with other pregnant women
· Retest 3 weeks after contact. If she seroconverts (becomes IgM positive) then there is a risk of
fetal infection and congenital anomalies
· Refer to fetal medicine centre
· Maternal infection at < 11 weeks 90% of fetuses affected; 1112 weeks (33% affected), no
fetuses affected after 20 weeks
III: PARVOVIRUS B19
· DNA virus. Not terratogenic
· Replicate in and damage human red blood cell precursors
· Causes Fifth disease in children. Rash is due to immune complex deposition
· Causes transient aplastic crisis in sickle cell disease and other hereditary anaemias including
spherocytosis, thalassaemia, pyruvate kinase deficiency and autoimmune haemolytic anaemia
· Causes fetal anaemia and hydrops
· Transmitted by respiratory droplets. Incubation period 414 days
· Rash does not occur until 1718 days after infection and about 5 days after the disappearance of
virus from serum and respiratory droplets. Therefore patients presenting with the clinical features of
infection are usually no longer infectious
· Vertical transmission rate ~30%. Infection is not an indication for termination of pregnancy
· Transmissibility: 5090% among susceptible household contacts; 2030% susceptible staff in
schools during outbreaks
Groups at increased risk of infection
· Those in daily contact with children.
· 1% of susceptible adults are infected each year: 1 infection in 400 pregnancies.
Fetal risks:
· Fetal loss rate 10%, highest risk in the second trimester
· Nonimmune fetal hydrops –this is the most frequent pathological finding in infected fetuses.
Caused by severe fetal anaemia and cardiac failure
Management of pregnant woman in contact with Parvovirus B19
· History timing of contact and symptoms
· Counselling discuss implications and investigations required
· Check parvovirus B19 IgG an IgM using antenatal booking serum
· Woman is seropositive (IgG) – reassure
· If seronenative or booking serum not available, take serum 21 days after contact for IgM and
IgG. If IgG positive and IgM negative, reassure
· If IgG negative and IgM negative woman is susceptible but not infected reassure and follow
up any future contacts
· IgM positive infected. Refer to tertiary centre for fetal surveillance and treatment.
III: VARICELLA *****
· DNA virus, terratogenic
· Transmitted by fomites and respiratory droplet and during significant contact (The UK
Advisory Group on Chickenpox considers any close contact during the period of infectiousness to be
significant)
· Incubation period 1021 days
· Infectious 48h before rash until vesicles crust over
· Remains dormant in ganglia and may be reactivated as herpes zoster (which is infectious but
does not usually result in intrauterine infection).
· The risk of acquiring infection from an immunocompetent individual with herpes zoster in a
nonexposed site (such as thoracolumbar) is small. However, disseminated zoster, exposed zoster or
localised zoster in an immunocompromised individual should be considered infectious.
· Primary chicken pox infection occurs in ~ 3 in 1,000 pregnancies
· Over 90% of the antenatal population are seropositive for varicella zoster IgG
· Women from tropical and subtropical countries are less likely to be immune
Maternal risks
· Severe disease in adults, particularly in pregnancy. Chickenpox results in ~25 deaths per year in
the UK, 75% of which are in adults.
· Pneumonia in 10%, may require ventilation, mortality rate 314% with antiviral therapy and
intensive care. Severity increases with increasing gestation. Other complications include hepatitis and
encephalitis.
· Women at greater risk of pneumonia are those who smoke, have chronic obstructive lung
disease, are immunosuppressed (including those who have taken systemic corticosteroids in the
preceding 3 months), have a more extensive or haemorrhagic rash or who are in the latter half of
pregnancy
Fetal risks
· Fetal varicella syndrome (~1% risk at <28 weeks gestation); does not occur after 28 weeks and
is very rare between 20 and 28 weeks. Risk lower in early pregnancy (~0.5% in first trimester).
Defects include skin scarring, eye defects and learning disability
· No increase in risk of first trimester miscarriage.
· Referral to a fetal medicine specialist should be considered at 16 20 weeks or 5 weeks after
infection for discussion and detailed ultrasound examination.
· It is not known whether VZIG reduces the risk of fetal varicella syndrome.
Management of suspected exposure to varicella in pregnancy
· Ascertain diagnosis of varicella, infectiousness and degree of exposure.
· If woman has had chickenpox in the past, test for IgG to confirm immunity.
· If in doubt / no previous history then check for VZ IgG. IgG positive (85%), reassure
· IgG negative, recommend VZ immune globulin (VZIG) as soon as possible (counsel re:
administration of blood products). Effective when given up to 10 days after contact
· If VZIG is given, the pregnant woman should be managed as potentially infectious from 8 28
days after VZIG (8 21 days if no VZIG given). Women should be advised to notify a doctor /
midwife if a rash develops even if VZIG was administered.
· A second dose of VZIG may be required if a further exposure is reported and 3 weeks have
elapsed since the last dose.
· Check for seroconversion (VZ IgM 3 weeks after exposure). If chickenpox develops, she
should be advised to avoid contact with others at risk including other pregnant women and counselled
about the risk of fetal varicella syndrome
· If < 28 weeks and seroconverts or develops chickenpox, ~1% risk of congenital syndrome,
counsel and refer to tertiary centre for detailed scans at 1620 weeks gestation or 5 weeks after
infection
Management of chickenpox in pregnancy
· Advise women to contact their GP immediately if they develop a rash
· Advise to avoid contact with susceptible individuals (other pregnant women and neonates),
until the lesions have crusted over (~5 days after the onset of the rash).
· Symptomatic treatment and hygiene to prevent secondary bacterial infection of the lesions.
· Oral aciclovir if they present within 24 hours of the onset of the rash and if >20 weeks
gestation. Aciclovir should be used cautiously before 20 weeks.
· Explain the potential risk and benefits of treatment with aciclovir. Oral aciclovir (800 mg five
times a day for 7 days) reduces the duration of fever and symptoms of varicella infection in
immunocompetent adults if commenced within 24 hours of development of rash. Not associated with
fetal anomalies although there is a theoretical risk of terratogenesis in the first trimester.
· Referred immediately to a hospital if the following develop: chest symptoms, neurological
symptoms, haemorrhagic rash or bleeding, a dense rash with or without mucosal lesions. Women with
significant immunosuppression should also be referred.
· If the woman smokes cigarettes, has chronic lung disease, is taking corticosteroids or is in the
latter half of pregnancy, a hospital assessment should be considered, even in the absence of
complications.
· Appropriate treatment in hospital should be decided in consultation with a multidisciplinary
team: obstetrician or fetal medicine specialist, virologist and neonatologist, respiratory / ITU
physician.
· Vaginal delivery appropriate. Breastfeeding not contraindicated. If there are vesicles close to
the nipple, milk should be expressed until vesicles have crusted. If the neonate is protected from
infection with VZIG, he / she can drink the breast milk
Neonatal risks & management
· If maternal infection occurs 1 4 weeks before delivery, up to 50% of babies are infected and
~23% of these develop clinical varicella despite high titres of passively acquired maternal antibody.
· Severe chickenpox is most likely to occur if the infant is born within 7 days of onset of the
mother’s rash or if the mother develops the rash up to 7 days after delivery when cord blood VZV IgG
is low
· If delivery occurs within 7 days of the onset of the maternal rash, or if the mother develops
chickenpox within 7 days after birth, the neonate should be given VZIG. The infant should be
monitored for signs of infection until 28 days after the onset of maternal infection.
· VZIG is also recommended for nonimmune neonates that are exposed to chickenpox or
shingles (other than maternal) in the first 7 days of life.
· Neonatal infection should be treated with aciclovir following discussion with a neonatologist
and virologist.
· VZIG is of no benefit once neonatal chickenpox has developed
· Maternal shingles around the time of delivery is not a risk to the neonate because it is protected
by transplacentally acquired maternal antibodies. This may not apply to the baby who delivers before
28 weeks or weighs less than 1 kg who may lack maternal antibodies
· If there is contact with chickenpox in the first 7 days of life, no intervention is required if the
mother is immune. However, the neonate should be given VZIG if the mother is not immune to
varicella or if the neonate delivered before 28 weeks or weighs <1kg
· If neonate has a sibling with varicella, the risk to the neonate is minimal when the mother is
varicella immune. If the mother is seronegative, discharge should be delayed until the neonate is at
least 7 days old.
Varicella immunisation
· Should be considered prepregnancy or postpartum in women who are found to be sero
negative
· Live attenuated virus derived from the Oka strain of Varicella zoster
· Use in the USA has resulted in a 90% fall in the incidence of primary infection and mortality
has decreased by twothirds.
· Immunity from the vaccine may persist for up to 20 years.
· Two varicella vaccines are licensed for use in the UK
· Vaccinated women should be advised to avoid pregnancy for 3 months and to avoid contact
with other susceptible pregnant women should a postvaccination rash occur.
· Transmission of vaccine virus in the absence of a rash is rare.
· Inadvertent exposures to the vaccine in pregnancy have been reported to a register but there
have not been any cases of fetal varicella syndrome or increase in fetal abnormalities.
CYTOMEGALOVIRUS (CMV)
· DNA virus, terratogenic
· Commonest congenital viral infection in pregnancy
· Causes selflimiting febrile illness in immunocompetent individuals
· Causes severe illness in immunocompromised, including pneumonia and hepatitis
· Fetal infection occurs with primary as well as reactivated infection
· Primary infection occurs in ~2% of pregnant women (4050% are susceptible)
· Can be isolated from ~1% of all neonates
· 510% of infected neonates are symptomatic at birth. Of asymptomatic neonates, 515%
develop symptoms by the second year of life, usually sensorineural deafness
· Fetus / neonate infected by transplacental passage of virus or exposure to virus from birth
canal / breast milk / exposure to other babies in nursery
· Infected neonates shed virus in urine / respiratory secretions for long periods
Fetal risks
· Commonest cause of congenital sensorineural deafness
· Hepatosplenomegaly, IUGR, Microcephaly, learning disability, Thrombocytopaenia, Jaundice
Diagnosis
· Clinical diagnosis of maternal infection is unreliable
· Requires paired sera to demonstrate seroconversion or a rise in antibody titres
Management
· Counsel women in highrisk professions child care workers
Consider TOP if primary infection diagnosed in first trimester
HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS
· DNA virus, terratogenic
· Type 1 orolabial herpes
· Type 2 genital herpes
· 1/3rd of genital herpes is due to Type 1
· Incubation period < 7 days
· May be contracted from asymptomatic partner
· Causes febrile illness, myalgia, aseptic meningitis, encephalitis in addition to characteristic
genital lesions; urinary retention may occur
· Viral shedding occurs for up to 3 weeks after primary infection and recurrences are common
· Disseminated infection more common in pregnancy
Primary genital herpes in pregnancy
Refer to genitourinary physician and manage according to her clinical condition. Fiveday
course of oral aciclovir usually required. Treatment is known to reduce the duration and
severity of symptoms in nonpregnant women and the duration of viral shedding
Aciclovir is not terratogenic and is not associated with maternal or fetal toxicity
Screen for other STIs
Caesarean section recommended for all women presenting with firstepisode genital herpes at
the time of delivery. The risk of neonatal herpes is ~40% if delivered vaginally
Recurrent genital herpes
Culture for viral shedding not indicated
Recurrent lesions in the antenatal period is not an indication for C/S
Recurrent lesions in labour risk of neonatal herpes 03% and should be balanced against the
risks of C/S. Routine C/S not recommended
All women should be asked at their first antenatal visit if they or their male partner have ever
had genital herpes.
HEPATITIS B VIRUS (HBV)
· DNA virus. Not terratogenic
· 2/3rd of infections are subclinical
· HBV carrier rate is 120% worldwide. Variation is related to differences in the mode of
transmission and age at infection.
· Transmitted via blood and blood products, sexual intercourse and iv drug abuse
· Causes anorexia, vomiting RUQ pain and diarrhoea; jaundice in ~50% of cases
· In adults, 90% of infections resolve completely within 6 months, 10% become chronic carriers
and HbsAg remains detectable
· Vertically acquired infection 90% become chronic carriers – this is what makes Hep B
infection in pregnancy important
· 5% of fetal infections occur due to transplacental transfer, 95% occur during delivery.
· HBsAg and HBeAg are the first markers that can be identified in the serum followed by
HBcAb (IgM)
· For patients who recover, seroconversion to HBsAb and HBeAb is observed, and the HBcAb is
of the IgG class.
· Patients with persistent HBsAg for longer than 6 months develop chronic hepatitis
Fetal risks
· No congenital syndrome
· High risk of chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma
Diagnosis
· Clinical diagnosis unreliable serology required
· HbsAg surface antigen, indicates infectivity
· HbeAg core antigen indicates high infectivity
· AntiHBs antibodies indicates immunological response to infection and cure
· The majority of atrisk pregnancies are detected through screening programmes
Managing Hep B carriers in pregnancy
· Counsel, screen and vaccinate partner if appropriate, contact tracing
· HbsAg screen positive women confidential record in notes + notify carers infection control
measures during invasive procedures
· Avoid invasive procedures (such as fetal blood sampling) during labour
· Hepatitis B immune globulin administered to neonate within 12hours of delivery
· First dose of HBV vaccine within 7 days of delivery
· Second and third doses of vaccine at 1and 6 months, test for HbsAg at 1215 months.
These measures minimise the risk of vertical transmission
MENORRHAGIA *****
· Heavy regular menstrual blood loss
· Mean menstrual blood loss = 35ml per cycle, higher in multiparous women
· When menstrual blood loss >80ml per cycle, there is an increased risk of anaemia
· Menorrhagia accounts for ~40% of gynaecological referrals in UK and affects 40 / 1000 women
annually
· In 25% of women there is an underlying pathological diagnosis. 75% have dysfunctional
uterine bleeding (that is, menorrhagia for which no cause has been identified)
· There is little correlation between the amount of blood lost and a woman’s perception or
description of blood loss or the number of pads used
· 50% of women complaining of heavy menses have measured loss within normal limits.
However, clinicians have to accept the woman’s perception that her loss is heavy
· An alteration in menstrual loss may prompt consultation.
AETIOLOGY
1) Underlying pelvic pathology uterine fibroids, pelvic infection, endometrial polyps,
adenomyosis, endometrial hyperplasia and carcinoma
2) Iatrogenic IUCD / anticoagulants
3) Bleeding disorders rare cause
4) Dysfunctional uterine bleeding associated with increased endometrial concentration of
vasodilatory prostaglandin PGE2alpha and increased fibrinolytic activity
5) Thyroid dysfunction is a rare cause of menorrhagia in an asymptomatic woman.
MANAGEMENT
History
· LMP, regularity of cycle, contraception history
· ‘Subjective’ assessment of blood loss clotting, flooding, effect on social life including time off
work
· Other menstrual abnormalities including premenstrual syndrome, dysmenorrhoea, inter
menstrual bleeding, cyclical mastalgia and migraine
· Postcoital bleeding and cervical smear history
· Symptoms of anaemia fatigue / shortness of breath / palpitations
· Bleeding disorders bleeding after dental treatment; anticoagulation; women with menarchal
onset and continuing menorrhagia may have bleeding disorder
· Risk factors for endometrial carcinoma / hyperplasia age at menarche, anovulatory infertility,
obesity, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, tamoxifen use, unopposed oestrogen therapy
· Previous therapy and any improvement
· Fertility wishes – whether or not the woman’s family is complete
Examination
· Signs of anaemia – pallor, tachycardia
· Abdominal examination Abdominopelvic mass / enlarged uterus
· Examine cervix
· Pelvic examination uterine size, fibroids, uterine / adnexal tenderness (bulky uterus up to 810
weeks size may be treated emperically)
· Use of pictorial blood loss assessment charts to provide a semiquantitative assessment of
menstrual loss
Investigation
· FBC not a perfect screening test for menorrhagia 66% of women with menstrual blood loss
>80ml have Hb <12g/dl
· In women under the age of 40 years with menorrhagia and no other symptoms and a normal
pelvic examination, no further investigations are required prior to treatment
· Referral for further investigation and treatment is necessary if initial conservative treatment
fails these women are more likely to have endometrial pathology such as endometrial polyps and
submucous fibroids which are not detectable by clinical examination alone
· Investigations should be directed towards excluding endometrial cancer / hyperplasia /
endometrial polyps
· Transvaginal ultrasound scan +/ endometrial sampling which may be done as an outpatient or
inpatient procedure
· Women over the age of 40 years and those with abnormal findings on examination should be
referred
· Clotting screen and thyroid function tests only if indicated by history / examination
Treatment options
· Discuss the relevant risks and merits of surgical and medical management to enable patients
make fully informed choices
· Take account of all relevant symptoms including other types of abnormal bleeding,
dysmenorrhoea and premenstrual syndrome. Other menstrual cycleinduced disorders such as cyclical
mastalgia or migraine should also be considered
· Identify the woman’s treatment preference medical / surgical
MEDICAL TREATMENT *
Tranexamic acid antifibrinolytic agent reduces menstrual loss by ~50% and is more effective
than NSAIDS. Effective in reducing menstrual loss associated with IUCD, fibroids and bleeding
diathesis. Not associated with an increased risk of DVT.
Side effects nausea / vomiting / diarrhoea; disturbance in colour vision discontinue therapy
NSAIDS mefenamic acid commonly used, reduces menstrual loss by ~25%; have a better sideeffect
profile compared to tranexamic acid. Also effective in IUCD associated menorrhagia
Combined oral contraceptive pill reduces menstrual blood loss by ~50%.
Tranexamic acid, Mefenamic acid and COCP are RCOG recommended first line treatments in
primary / secondary care. Referral for gynaecologinal review or further investigations should be
considered if symptoms do not improve after three months therapy or therapy is discontinued because
of sideeffects.
Systemic progestogens such as norethisterone or medroxyprogesterone acetate are ineffective in the
treatment of ovulatory dysfunctional uterine bleeding, especially when low doses are used for 510
days in the luteal phase. However, norethisterone is effective if given at higher doses (5mg three times
a day) for three weeks out of four (days 526 of the cycle)
Levonorgestrel intrauterine system (MIRENA) associated with a reduction in menstrual loss of
~80% and provides effective contraception. Irregular bleeding during the first 34 months after
insertion counsel appropriately.
Review should take place at 6 months if MIRENA IUS is used with consideration for referral if
symptoms do not improve.
Women must be involved in the decisionmaking process regarding their treatment and be provided
with appropriate information. Quality of life issues are important and must be addressed during the
collaborative decisionmaking process.
SURGICAL TREATMENT *
Endometrial resection / ablation
· Effective in treating menorrhagia. Amenorrhoea rates 2040%
· Associated with lower morbidity and quicker recovery compared to hysterectomy with a
significant improvement in Hb and quality of life.
· Long term satisfaction rates ~80%
· However, 1025% require hysterectomy after 34 years
· Women need to continue contraception as there is s risk of pregnancy
Hysterectomy
· Surgical excision of the uterus
· Established effective treatment for menorrhagia
· Discuss route vaginal / abdominal / laparoscopic
· Discuss total / subtotal hysterectomy (Conservation of the cervix). If the cervix is conserved,
cervical screening should continue
· Discuss conservation versus removal of the ovaries
· Offer hormone replacement therapy following TAH + BSO
· Operation of choice in women who desire amenorrhoea
TOXOPLASMOSIS
· Toxoplasma gondii obligate intracellular protozoan. Terratogenic
· Incubation period = 523 days
· Becomes sexually mature in cat intestines, producing oocysts which are excreted in stool.
Infection occurs through ingestion of contaminated food including vegetable or infected meat.
· Human infection usually asymptomatic / produces glandular fever like illness.
Lymphadenopathy involving the posterior cervical chain is commonest clinical manifestaton.
· About 1:500 women become infected during pregnancy
Fetal risks
· TORCH syndrome
· Primary infection in first trimester ~17% of fetuses affected; 25% affected in second and 65%
in third trimester
Diagnosis
· Routine screening not recommended
· Biopsy of lymph node
· Serology commonly used, potentially confusing.
· Pregnant women who test positive should be referred to a fetal medicine centre
LISTERIOSIS
· Listeria monocytogenes gram positive, betahaemolytic facultative anaerobe
· In pregnancy, presents with flulike illness (2/3 of women), GI symptoms, fever often
misdiagnosed as UTI or influenza. May cause meningitis, endocarditis and respiratory failure
· More common in third trimester
Fetal risks
· Transplacental spread causes fetal infection with chorioamnionitis and septic miscarriage or
fetal death
· Also causes EARLYONSET neonatal disease (vertically acquired) or LATEONSET neonatal
disease occurs in term neonates, typically presents with meningitis. Due to horizontally acquired and
maternal cultures are usually negative
Diagnosis
Bacterial culture / postmortem.
Management
· Dietary advice to prevent infection (raw food / soft cheeses / unpasteurised milk / reheated
food)
· Commence antibiotics once infection is suspected sensitive to ampicillin / penicillin G.
Aminoglycosides are also effective and are usually given in addition to penicillin
· Early aggressive treatment may allow continuation of pregnancy with good outcome
SYPHILIS
· Treponema pallidum – spirochaete. Incubation period 1090 days. Terratogenic
Fetal risks
· Transplacental passage occurs at all stages of the disease (primary to quaternary), though less
so with the later stages
· Congenital syphilis (40% risk if primary / secondary syphilis; 10% risk if later stages)
· Stillbirth, nonimmune hydrops, preterm delivery
· Early congenital syphilis rash / hepatosplenomegaly / lymphadenopathy / chorioretinitis /
osteochondritis 1014 days after delivery.
· Late congenital syphilis Hutchinson's teeth / mulberry molars / VIII deafness / saddle nose /
sabre shin / interstitial keratitis.
Diagnosis
· Routine screening recommended
· VDRL / RPR (rapid plasma reagin) cardiolipin antibody tests, positive in untreated secondary
/ latent / tertiary syphilis, become negative with treatment.
· Treponemal antibody tests TPHA (treponema Pallidum haemagglutination) and FTAABS
(fluorescent treponemal antibody absorption test) remain positive even with adequate treatment.
FTAABS becomes positive before VDRL or RPR.
Management
· Refer to GUM clinic / obstetric centre
· Treat maternal infection prevents congenital syphilis
· Contact trace and treat sexual partner. Screen for other STDs
· Penicillin G cures maternal infection and prevents congenital infection in 98% of cases
· JarischHerxheimer reaction during treatment may precipitate preterm labour
· Breastfeeding not contraindicated
· Neonatal followup required
BACTERIAL VAGINOSIS (BV)
· Commonest cause of vaginal discharge / infection in sexually active women occurs in~20% of
pregnant women
· There is an alteration in the vaginal microbial environment with a reduction in Lactobaccilus sp
and an increase in facultative and anaerobic bacteria.
· Associated with increased vaginal pH to 4.57.0. Douching is associated with an increased risk
of BV.
· Associated with preterm delivery, chorioamnionitis and postpartum endometritis.
· In women with previous preterm delivery, screening and treating for BV reduces the risk of
preterm delivery. Screening not shown to be effective in low risk women.
Diagnosis
· Thin watery vaginal discharge with fishy odour
· 50% asymptomatic
· Presence of clue cells on wet mount of discharge
· Diagnosis can also be made on gram stain.
Management
· Value of screening and treating if previous preterm delivery has been demonstrated
· Sensitive to metronidazole / clindamycin
GROUP B STREPTOCOCCUS (GBS)
· Streptococcus agalactiae facultative anaerobic gram positive cocci, one of the most important
causes of neonatal infection.
· Incidence of earlyonset disease is 0.5/1000 in UK with 6% and 18% mortality in term and pre
term neonates respectively
· Cervical / vaginal colonisation occurs from GI tract reservoir in ~25% of pregnant women.
· Isolated twice as frequently from rectal compared to vaginal swabs, and in 4563% of urethral
swabs from partners of female carriers.
· Causes maternal intrapartum and postpartum sepsis, chorioamnionitis, urinary tract infection
and asymptomatic bacteriuria.
FETAL / NEONATAL RISKS
· Vertical transmission through birth canal or horizontal transmission from mother / other
neonates / nursery staff.
· Up to 10% of all neonates are colonised within the first week (4070% if mother colonised)
· Associated with preterm premature rupture of the membranes and preterm delivery
· Leading cause of meningitis and septicaemia in first 2 months of life.
· Early onset disease within 5 days of life secondary to vertical transmission. Causes neonatal
pneumonia, septicaemia and meningitis
· Late onset disease after 1st week horizontal transmission. Mainly causes meningitis
Diagnosis
· Culture of genital tract / rectal swabs / urine
MANAGEMENT
· Antenatal treatment to eradicate colonisation is ineffective
· Neonatal antibiotic prophylaxis is usually ineffective as many infected neonates are septic at
birth
· Intrapartum antibiotic therapy based on the presence of risk factors or maternal colonisation is
the recommended approach up to 30 fold reduction in early onset disease
· Risk factors: previous baby with GBS disease, GBS bacteriuria, prolonged ROM (>18h), low
birth weight (<2500g), preterm delivery (<37 weeks), intrapartum pyrexia (>38C). Intrapartum
treatment prevents 70% of early onset disease with 18.% of pregnant women requiring antibiotics
· Routine screening not recommended
Antibiotics
· iv penicillin 3g as soon as possible after the onset of labour + 1.5g 4 hourly until delivery
· Clindamycin 900mg iv 8 hourly to women allergic to penicillin
· No need to continue antibiotics after delivery if woman is asymptomatic
Increased risk of postpartum endometritis use broadspectrum antibiotic if this develops.
URINARY TRACT INFECTION (UTI)
· Second commonest medical complication of pregnancy (anaemia is commonest). Most
common bacterial infection during pregnancy
· Bacteriuria increases with age and is associated with sexual activity
· The prevalence of bacteriuria in pregnant women and nonpregnant women are identical but
pregnant women are more likely to have UTIs
· Ureters undergo tonic relaxation during pregnancy because of progesterone and other hormones
with a resultant increase in urinary stasis, vesicoureteric reflux, upper UTIs and acute pyelonephritis.
· Sickle cell trait / disease, diabetes mellitus, lower socioeconomic status, neurogenic bladder
and previous UTI associated with increased risk
· Untreated upper UTIs associated with a low birth weight, prematurity, premature labour,
hypertension and/or preeclampsia, maternal anaemia.
Asymptomatic bacteriuria
· 6% prevalence in pregnancy and carries a 3050% risk of pyelonephritis if untreated.
· Treatment reduces the risk of symptomatic infection and is associated with a reduction in the
risk of pyelonephritis by ~80%
Acute pyelonephritis
· Affects ~2% of pregnant women, 1018% recurrence risk in the same pregnancy
· Typically presents with pyrexia, nausea, vomiting, loin pain
· Increased risk of preterm delivery, low birth weight and perinatal mortality
· E. coli is causative organism in 8090% of cases.
History
· Burning sensation with urination most significant symptom in women with symptomatic
cystitis.
· Increased frequency, nocturia, and suprapubic pressure are not particularly helpful, because
most pregnant women experience these as a result of increased pressure from the fetus.
· Nausea and vomiting are common presenting symptoms
· Pyelonephritis may present with fever, rigors and loin pain
Examination
· Temp / pulse – pyrexia + tachycardia
· Suprapubic tenderness and loin tenderness may be present
Investigations
· Reagent strip testing for (1) nitrites dependent on the presence of bacteria which reduce
urinary nitrates to nitrite requires bacterial incubation in bladder for > 4h therefore early morning
specimen better, (2) leukocyte esterase suggestive of pyuria. (3) Protein. These tests have a low
specificity / sensitivity.
· Microscopy > 100,000 colony forming units pre ml. Presence of white cells on microscopy is
suggestive but not diagnostic
· Bacterial culture gold standard
· Renal ultrasound scan if pyelonephritis. May also require blood cultures if temp > 38C
Treatment
· Use shortest effective course of antibiotics
· Single dose therapy effective in the majority of asymptomatic bacteriuria
· Acute cystitis requires 714 day therapy
· Perform testofcure cultures
· Prophylactic antibiotics recommended in women with renal tract anomalies, renal transplant,
recurrent cystitis / bacteriuria
· Administer analgesia & antipyretics (paracetamol)
· Failure to improve within 72h should prompt a review of antibiotic therapy and further
investigation of the renal tract.
· Review antibiotic therapy once culture results available
· Repeat urine culture one week after completion of therapy to confirm cure
· Screening for UTI during every antenatal visit (dipstix testing) + culture during booking visit to
detect asymptomatic bacteriuria
MANAGEMENT OF HIV IN PREGNANCY IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES *****
· Prevalence: 0.38% of pregnant women in London, 0.06% in the rest of England and Scotland,
2030% in some parts of subSaharan Africa.
· Risk of vertical transmission: 1520% in nonbreastfeeding woman in Europe and 2540% in
breastfeeding woman in Africa this is largely preventable by screening, antenatal antiretroviral
therapy (Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy, HAART) , delivery by caesarean section and
avoidance of breastfeeding risk reduced to < 2%
· Advanced maternal HIV disease, low antenatal CD4 count and high plasma viral load are
associated with increased risk of vertical transmission viral load being the strongest predictor
· Less than 2% of vertical transmission occurs in the first / second trimesters. 80% of vertical
transmission occurs from 36 weeks onwards, including labour & delivery
· Obstetric risk factors for vertical transmission include vaginal delivery, duration of membrane
rupture, chorioamnionitis, preterm delivery. Breastfeeding associated with a 2fold increase in
vertical transmission rate.
· CD4 count falls during pregnancy and returns to prepregnancy levels postpartum this is not,
however, associated with acceleration of HIV disease or a worsening of prognosis
MANAGEMENT
· Offer antenatal screening should be named and voluntary. Pretest counselling should be
provided by midwives / GPs / Obstetrician. Positive results should be given to the woman in person
by an appropriately trained professional.
· Multidisciplinary care – GP, HIV physician, Obstetrician, midwife, paediatrician, support
groups and psychiatrics, social workers and drug dependency specialists if necessary
· All professionals caring for the woman should be aware of the diagnosis and plan of
management she should, however, be reassured that confidentiality will be respected
· It must NOT be assumed that the woman’s partner or family are aware of her diagnosis.
· The woman should be encouraged to inform her sexual partner.
· The woman’s HIV status may be disclosed to a known sexual partner to protect him when the
woman has not informed him and cannot be persuaded to do so. The woman must be told of such
disclosure.
Discuss interventions to reduce the risk of vertical transmission:
1) HAART antenatally, intrapartum and to the mother and neonate in the first 6 weeks
2) Delivery by C/S
3) Avoidance of breastfeeding
ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY
· Plasma viral load and CD4 count should be reviewed by an HIV physician on a regular basis to
determine the timing and choice of antiretroviral therapy and prophylaxis against Pneumocystis
carinii pneumonia (usually when CD4 count is less than 200 million /l). Firstline agent is co
trimoxazole
· Women taking antiretroviral agents should be monitored for drug toxicity (FBC, U&E, LFT,
Lactate, blood glucose) and offered a detailed scan to detect fetal anomalied potentially attributable to
terratogenesis
· Symptoms / signs of preeclampsia, cholestasis or other signs of liver dysfunction may indicate
drug toxicity and review by HIV physician should be requested lactic acidosis is a recognised
complication of some HAART regimes. Symptoms include GI disturbance, fatigue, fever and SOB.
Other sideeffects include rash, glucose intolerance and diabetes mellitus, hepatotoxicity
· Combinations of at least 3 antiviral agents (HAART) are used outside pregnancy and are
recommended for use in pregnancy (usually at CD4 count of 200350 million / L). Optimal use should
suppress viral load to undetectable levels (<50 copies / ml)
· Women who do not require antiretroviral therapy for their own health require treatment to
prevent vertical transmission usually commenced at 2832 weeks through delivery and the postnatal
period. Discuss timing of cessation of treatment with HIV physician. Start treatment earlier in women
at risk of preterm delivery.
· Women who conceive taking HAART should continue treatment if viral load is suppressed. If
viral load is not suppressed, therapy should be changed after the first trimester
· All women receiving antiretroviral therapy in pregnancy should be registered prospectively
with the antiretroviral pregnancy registry. All women with HIV during pregnancy should be reported
to the National Study of HIV in Pregnancy & Childhood at the RCOG
MODE OF DELIVERY
· HIV positive women not taking HAART during pregnancy and those with detectable viral load
delivery by elective C/S (after 38 weeks) reduces the risk of vertical transmission and should be
recommended.
· Women taking HAART with undetectable viral load value of C/S remains uncertain.
POSTNATAL MANAGEMENT
· Avoid breastfeeding breastfeeding increases the risk of vertical transmission by 14% for
women infected before delivery and by 30% in women infected after delivery
· The neonate should receive antiretroviral therapy from birth and continued for 46 weeks
· Screen neonate for HIV infection by PCR at birth, 3, 6 weeks and 6 months and with an HIV
antibody test at 18 months
PRECONCEPTION MANAGEMENT
· Discuss pregnancy management and risk of vertical transmission.
· Woman is HIV positive but partner is HIV negative counselling and offer artificial
insemination at the time of ovulation
· Woman is HIV negative and partner is HIV positive risk of transmission to the woman ~
1:500 per unprotected sexual act reduce by limiting unprotected intercourse to the time of ovulation
or by insemination using washed sperm
IVF treatment is ethically acceptable in subfertile couples given low vertical transmission rate (2%)
and lifeexpectancy of parents taking HAART.
Influenza and ‘Swine Flu’
Influenza virus
RNA virus
Family Orthomyxoviridae – different from the parainfluenza viruses (Family:
Paramyxoviridae) which commonly cause respiratory tract infections such as croup in children
Infect birds and mammals
Transmitted by aerosols and contact with contaminated surfaces and bird droppings
Inactivated by sun light, disinfectants and detergents (soap)
New strains of the virus spread to humans from other species, causing pandemics
Virus structure
Viral envelope containing two glycoproteins, wrapped around a central core
Envelope contains Hemagglutinin (HA) and Neuraminidase (NA)
Central core contains the viral RNA genome. RNA may be doublestranded
Hemagglutinin is involved in viral binding to target cells: binds to sialic acid residues on the
surface of epithelial cells
Neuraminidase is involved in the release of new viruses from infected cells. Drugs that inhibit
neuraminidase (oseltamivir) prevent the release of new infectious viruses and halt viral
replication
Both proteins are antigenic, stimulating antibody production. They are also targets for drug
treatment
Classification
Three main genera: Influenza A, B & C
Influenza A
Most pathogenic influenza virus in humans
Undergoes antigenic shift and antigenic drift, resulting in the production of new variants that
evade host immunity with the potential for pandemics
Divided into several serotypes based on the antibody binding to the Hemagglutinin and
Neuraminidase proteins:
H1N1 – Caused 2009 pandemic (Swine flu virus). This virus is not endemic in pigs and is not
transmitted from pigs to humans. It is a recombination of several strains of H1N1 virus found in
humans, birds and pigs
H2N2 and H3N2 have caused pandemics in Asia
H5N1 – Causes highly lethal pneumonia
Influenza B
Infects humans almost exclusively
Mutations occur less frequently than in influenza A hence only one serotype with less genetic
variation. Immunity acquired in childhood provides longterm protection. However, immunity
is not lifelong
Influenza C
Infects humans, dogs and pigs
Causes mild disease in children
Influenza – Treatment
Symptomatic treatment including paracetamol for fever and as analgesia
Antiviral agents:
a) Neuraminidase inhibitors: oseltamivir (Tamiflu ®) and zanamivir (Relenza ®)
Interfere with the release of new viruses from infected cells.
Most effective if started within a few hours of the onset of symptoms.
Licensed for use in adults within 48h of the onset of symptoms but may be administered within
7 days of onset.
Reduce the duration of symptoms by 11.5 days and can reduce the risk of complications in
high risk patients
Postexposure prophylaxis: oseltamivir should be given within 48h of exposure while zanamivir
should be given within 36h
Drug treatment in pregnancy
Zanamivir is the preferred drug during pregnancy
Oseltamivir recommended in severe infection or when zanamivir cannot be used
Oseltamivir is the preferred drug in women who are breastfeeding
Oseltamivir: administered orally. Prodrug, hydrolysed by the liver to active metabolite.
Extensively metabolised by the placenta with minimal fetal drug accumulation. Present in low
concentration in breast milk
Use with caution in renal impairment
Sideeffects: Nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, headache, conjunctivitis. Less
common sideeffects include eczema, hepatitis, GI bleeding, arrhythmia, visual disturbance
Zanamivir: administered by inhalation of powder (bioavailability is 1020% after inhaled dose
compared to 2% after oral dose). 90% of absorbed drug excreted unchanged in the urine.
Present in breast milk in low concentration.
Use with caution in patients with asthma and chronic pulmonary disease because of risk of
bronchospasm
Sideeffects: bronchospasm, respiratory impairment, angioedema, urticaria, rash
b) M2 protein inhibitors (amantadine, rimantadine): stop the virus infecting cells. High levels of
drug resistance have been observed and not active against influenza B. No longer recommended.
H1N1 Influenza and pregnancy
Pregnant women are more likely to have severe disease, be admitted to ITU and die from H1N1
influenza compared to nonpregnant women. Most reported deaths occurred in women who
developed pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome requiring mechanical ventilation
Risk of morbidity from seasonal flu is also higher during pregnancy
The risk is highest in the third trimester compared to early pregnancy or postpartum
Women with asthma and morbid obesity appear to be at higher risk of severe disease
Most current data from UKOSS indicates that pregnant women admitted to ITU were less likely
to have been treated with antiviral agents within 2 days of the onset of symptoms when
compared with other pregnant women who were admitted to hospital. This indicates the
importance of prompt treatment
H1N1 infection is associated with preterm delivery, especially in women admitted to ITU
Vertical transmission of H1N1 influenza has not been reported and the virus is not known to be
present in breast milk. Breastfeeding should continue in women being treated for H1N1
influenza
The H1N1 virus is not terratogenic but there some evidence that pyrexia in early pregnancy
may be associated with an increased risk of neural tube defects
Clinical diagnosis
During a pandemic, clinical diagnosis can be made based on the following:
1) Fever > 38C plus at least 2 of the following symptoms:
Widespread muscle and joint aches
Cough
Headache
Blocked or runny nose
Sore throat
Vomiting
Diarrhoea
Women with no obstetric complications and a clinical diagnosis of H1N1 influenza should be
prescribed zanamivir (antenatal) or oseltamivir (postnatal) within 7 days of the onset of
symptoms (ideally within 48h). Paracetamol should be taken to control fever.
Women should continue home care until symptomfree and should be given advice on
respiratory and hand hygiene. Antenatal visits should be postponed until symptomfree
Women should be referred to hospital if their condition deteriorates or they are not better after 7
days of antiviral therapy
Women with obstetric complications should be referred to hospital
The following are features of severe disease:
Above symptoms / signs PLUS any of the following:
Tachypnoea (respiratory rate > 30 / min)
Dyspnoea
Hypoxia (SO2 < 92%)
Persistent tachycardia > 100 / min
Chest pain ob breathing
Dehydration & shock
Rigors
Purulent or bloodstained sputum
Women with features of severe disease or those with obstetric complications should be referred
to hospital for assessment.
In hospital, other diagnosis should be considered including thromboembolic disease,
chorioamnionitis and cardiac disease
Women with severe disease should be managed by multidisciplinary team including
obstetrician, anaesthetist, ITU physician and follow local guidelines
Preventing H1N1 Influenza in Pregnancy
1) Pregnant women who are close contacts of a case of H1N1 influenza should be given antiviral
prophylaxis
2) Pregnant women should be actively encouraged to be vaccinated with one dose of Pandemrix
(GSK) vaccine
3) Pregnant women with flulike symptoms should be assessed and treated as soon as possible.
Those with features of severe disease should be referred to hospital
H1N1 Infection control measures
Community / Primary care
Avoid contact with others as far as possible. Can return to work when symptomfree.
Advice on respiratory and hand hygiene
If postnatal, gets help looking after newborn
Keep number of staff caring for woman to a minimum. Staff should take the following
precautions:
a) Plastic apron and gloves + surgical mask +/ eye protection if facetoface contact < 1 meter.
Patient should wear surgical mask
b) Women should be seen at home or away from communal areas in a single room
c) Ensure high standard of hygiene and hand washing
Hospital
Manage in cohort or in isolation (side room) according to local guidelines
Keep number of staff caring for the woman to a minimum
Patient should wear surgical mask if moving outside designated influenza management area
Staff should wear plastic apron + gloves + surgical mask +/ eye protection if facetoface
contact < 1 meter
Ensure high standard of hygiene and hand washing
Wear gown + gloves + correctly fitted FFP3 mask + eye protection if aerosol generating
procedures
Influenza Vaccine
Can be a live vaccine or an inactivated vaccine
Produced from viruses grown in eggs although alternative methods are under investigation
Due to antigenic shift / drift, the vaccine only confers protection for a few years
Yearly prediction of the strains of virus likely to pose a threat in the next flu season allows
development of appropriate vaccine against seasonal influenza
Seasonal influenza vaccination is recommended for vulnerable individuals including children,
the elderly, asthmatics, those with heart disease, diabetes mellitus, chronic renal, liver or
neurological disease or immune compromise
Protection is conferred about 2 weeks after vaccination
Vaccination does not protect against all strains of the virus so it is still possible to get influenza
after vaccination
Sideeffects of the vaccine include influenzalike symptoms (milder and shorterlasting) and
allergic reactions to the vaccine or egg proteins
A 2007 Cochrane review on influenza vaccines in healthy adults found that while vaccines were
effective against the influenza strains they are designed to vaccinate against, this ended up
translating to only a modest impact on working days lost due to influenzalike infections
Vaccine efficacy declines with age, so elderly patients who are most at risk from influenza also
benefit least from vaccination
Seasonal flu vaccine is administered by injection or nasal spray
H1N1 Vaccine
Pandemrix™ (GSK) is a split virion, inactivated, adjuvanted vaccine and is indicated for the
prophylaxis of influenza in an officially declared pandemic situation.
The adjuvant stimulates a better immune response and contains squalene and vitamin E
Single dose recommended in adults and should be administered by intramuscular injection
preferably into the deltoid muscle or anterolateral thigh (depending on the muscle mass). If a
second dose is administered there should be an interval of at least three weeks between the first
and the second dose.
Contraindications
Contraindicated in individuals with a history of anaphylactic (i.e. lifethreatening) reaction to
any of the constituents or trace residues of this vaccine:
egg and chicken protein
ovalbumin
formaldehyde
gentamicin sulphate and
sodium deoxycholate
If vaccination is considered necessary, facilities for resuscitation should be immediately available in
case of need.
Sideeffects
Very common (affect more than 1 in 10 users)
Headache
Tiredness
Pain, redness, swelling or a hard lump at the injection site
Fever
Aching muscles, joint pain
Common (affect 110 users per 100)
Warmth, itching or bruising at the injection site
Increased sweating, shivering, flulike symptoms
Swollen glands in the neck, armpit or groin
Uncommon (affect 110 users per 1000)
Tingling or numbness of the hands or feet
Sleepiness
Dizziness
Diarrhoea, vomiting, stomach pain, nausea
Itching, rash
Generally feeling unwell
Sleeplessness
MEDICAL DISORDERS AND PREGNANCY II: Diabetes mellitus
Definition
Normal values vary depending on the nature of the sample used (for instance, blood or plasma).
It is therefore important to check the reference range for your lab and the nature of the sample
used when interpreting Glucose Tolerance Test (GTT) results.
After 75g oral glucose tolerance test:
Normal: Fasting glucose < 6mmol/l, 2h glucose <9mmol/l
Impaired glucose tolerance: Fasting glucose 6.0 7.9mmol/l and 2h glucose 9.0 10.9mmol/l
Diabetes: Fasting glucose >8mmol/l and / or 2h glucose > 11mmol/l
Diabetes complicates ~4 / 1000 pregnancies in the UK, the majority of which is preexisting
diabetes mellitus
Pathophysiology
Pregnancy is associated with insulin resistance caused by increasing concentrations of human
placental lactogen, progesterone and cortisol
Beta cell hyperplasia and increased insulin production and secretion occurs under the influence
of oestrogen and progesterone
As a result, fasting glucose levels are lower in pregnancy compared to nonpregnant
Insulin does not cross the placenta. Glucose crosses the placenta by facilitated diffusion
Maternal hyperglycaemia leads to fetal hyperglycaemia and fetal beta cell hyperplasia with
resultant hyperinsulinaemia
Insulin is the predominant fetal growth factor and therefore fetal organomegaly (except brain)
occurs. Hyperglycaemia and hyperinsulinaemia also result in increased fetal aerobic and
anaerobic metabolism with hypoxia and lactic acidosis
Fetal hypoxia stimulates medullary and extramedullary haematopoiesis causing polycythaemia
Beta cell hyperplasia predisposes the neonate to hypoglycaemia. There is also an increased risk
of RDS, neonatal jaundice, hypocalcaemia and hypomagnesaemia
PREEXISTING DIABETES
May be insulindependent (IDDM) or noninsulin dependent (NIDDM)
IDDM accounts for 510% of all diabetes in the general population
NATURE OF DISEASE – acquired, no hereditary risks though NIDDM has a familial tendency
EFFECTS OF DIABETES ON PREGNANCY
a) Fetal risks
Miscarriage well controlled diabetes is not associated with an increased risk of miscarriage.
However, women with longstanding diabetes and vascular complications have an increased
risk of miscarriage.
Congenital anomalies 25x increase in risk, especially neural tube defects & cardiac
anomalies.
Fetal macrosomia 4050% risk, caused by fetal hyperglycaemia, beta cell hyperplasia and
hyperinsulinaemia. Associated with birth trauma (shoulder dystocia) and increased caesarean
section rate. Good glycaemic control reduces risk of macrosomia
IUGR associated with maternal hypertension + superimposed preeclampsia and nephropathy
Polyhydramnios caused by fetal polyuria
Preterm delivery – may be iatrogenic (due to IUGR, macrosomia, preeclampsia / impaired
renal function) or spontaneous.
Fetal hypoxia and acidosis thought to be initiated by increased aerobic and anaerobic
metabolism induced by hyperinsulinaemia and hyperglycaemia with increased production of
lactic acid. Maternal vascular disease may also cause fetal hypoxia
Stillbirth 5x increase in risk
Increased perinatal mortality and morbidity
Neonatal risks
Neonatal hypoglycaemia fetal beta cell hyperplasia and neonatal hyperinsulinaemia and
elimination of maternal glucose supply following clamping of the cord
Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) increased risk though precise mechanism unknown
Hypocalcaemia and hypomagnesaemia
Polycythaemia
Neonatal jaundice
b) Maternal risks / medical complications
Diabetic ketoacidosis increased insulin requirement in pregnancy. May be precipitated by
vomiting, infection and use of corticosteroids
Hypoglycaemia especially if tight control. The fall in fasting glucose concentrations in
pregnancy makes hypoglycaemia more likely.
Nephropathy presents with proteinuria. Serum creatinine and electrolytes usually remain
within normal limits. Exclude preeclampsia
Retinopathy major cause of long term handicap in diabetics and may deteriorate in pregnancy
in association with improved glycaemic control.
Increased risk of hypertension / superimposed preeclampsia associated with IUGR
Increased risk of infection
Increased caesarean section rate
EFFECTS OF PREGNANCY ON DIABETES
Insulin requirements increase during pregnancy and fall rapidly after delivery
Diabetic retinopathy has a tendency to deteriorate in pregnancy
Hypoglycaemia more likely during pregnancy
Renal function typically deteriorates during pregnancy. In women with mild renal impairment,
this is reversed after pregnancy
Symptoms of autonomic neuropathy may deteriorate during pregnancy and may be mistaken for
complications like hyperemesis
EFFECT OF DRUGS
Insulin does not cross the placenta and therefore dose administered to the woman will not have
fetal effects
Metformin is the only oral hypoglycaemic agent that has been widely used in pregnancy
Drugs used in pregnancy such as corticosteroids will worsen glycaemic control
Drugs such as beta blockers may blunt the ability of women to recognise hypoglycaemic
episodes
THE ABOVE CONCEPTS INFORM PREPREGNANCY, ANTENATAL AND POSTPARTUM
CARE
PREPREGNANCY MANAGEMENT (Based on NICE Guidelines)
Prepregnancy counselling and management plays a central role in improving pregnancy outcome in
diabetics. As most young diabetics have regular contact with their GP, primary care plays a key role
in this regard.
Explain outcomes and risks to the woman and her baby
Women should be informed that establishing good glycaemic control before conception and
throughout pregnancy will reduce the risk of miscarriage, congenital malformation, stillbirth
and neonatal death. It is important to explain that risks can be reduced but not eliminated.
Offer information about how diabetes affects pregnancy and how pregnancy affects diabetes.
The information should cover:
1) the role of diet, body weight and exercise
2) the risks of hypoglycaemia and hypoglycaemia unawareness during pregnancy
3) how nausea and vomiting in pregnancy can affect glycaemic control
4) the increased risk of having a baby who is large for gestational age, which increases the likelihood
of birth trauma, induction of labour and caesarean section
5) the need for assessment of diabetic retinopathy before and during pregnancy
6) the need for assessment of diabetic nephropathy before pregnancy
7) the importance of maternal glycaemic control during labour and birth and early feeding of the baby
in order to reduce the risk of neonatal hypoglycaemia
8) the possibility of transient morbidity in the baby during the neonatal period, which may require
admission to the neonatal unit
9) the risk of the baby developing obesity and/or diabetes in
later life.
Glycaemic control
Offer monthly measurement of HbA1c and a meter for selfmonitoring of blood glucose.
Women should be strongly advised not to get pregnant if HbA1c is above 10%.
If it is safely achievable, aim to maintain HbA1c below 6.1%. Women should be reassured that
any reduction in HbA1c towards the target of 6.1% is likely to reduce the risk of congenital
malformations.
Women who require intensification of hypoglycaemic therapy should be advised to increase the
frequency of selfmonitoring of blood glucose to include fasting and a mixture of pre and
postprandial levels.
Women with type 1 diabetes should be offered ketone testing strips and advised to test for
ketonuria or ketonaemia if they become hyperglycaemic or unwell.
Hypoglycaemia more likely in pregnancy therefore teach recognition and use of glucagon to
woman and her family.
Hypertension
Detect and treat hypertension
Retinopathy
Offer retinal assessment at the first appointment (unless an annual retinal assessment has
occurred within the previous 6 months) and annually thereafter if no diabetic retinopathy is
found.
Women should be advised to defer rapid optimisation of glycaemic control until after retinal
assessment and treatment have been completed.
Rapid improvement of glycaemic control results in deterioration of retinopathy
Nephropathy
Nephropathy associated with high risk of preeclampsia, preterm delivery and poor perinatal
outcome
Women with diabetes should be offered a renal assessment, including a measure of
microalbuminuria, before discontinuing contraception. If serum creatinine is abnormal (120
micromol/litre or more) or the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) is less than 45
ml/minute/1.73 m2, referral to a nephrologist should be considered before discontinuing
contraception.
Drug therapy review
ACE inhibitors and angiotensinII receptor antagonists should be discontinued before
conception or as soon as pregnancy is confirmed. Alternative antihypertensive agents suitable
for use during pregnancy should be substituted.
Statins should be discontinued before pregnancy or as soon as pregnancy is confirmed.
Rapidacting insulin analogues (aspart and lispro) are safe to use during pregnancy.
There is insufficient evidence about the use of longacting insulin analogues during pregnancy.
Therefore isophane insulin (NPH insulin) remains the first choice for longacting insulin during
pregnancy.
Noninsulin dependent diabetics should change therapy to insulin. Metformin may be used as
benefits outweigh risks but other oral hypoglycaemic agents should be discontinued.
Continue contraception until disease is well controlled.
Diet and dietary supplementation
Offer individualised dietary advice including alcohol and smoking cessation if appropriate.
If BMI above 27 kg/m2 offer advice on how to lose weight
Recommend folic acid (5 mg/day) until 12 weeks of gestation to reduce the risk of having a
baby with a neural tube defect.
Other preconception interventions
Check rubella status and immunise if not immune. Offer screening for Hep B and HIV
Counsel about the demands of antenatal diabetes control and the potential effects on the
woman’s work / family life
VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM (VTE) IN PREGNANCY *****
Commonest direct cause of maternal mortality in UK
Physiology
Normal pregnancy is associated with an increase in factors VII, VIII and X concentrations and a
marked increase in fibrinogen concentrations
Increased clotting factors detectable from ~ 12weeks.
Normal pregnancy associated with decreased fibrinolysis with increased concentration of fibrin
degradation products (FDP / Ddimers)
Venous stasis and compression of pelvic veins by enlargening uterus produces an increased risk
of DVT
The majority (~80%) of DVTs in pregnancy occur in the left leg
The puerparium is the most hypercoagulable period
Risk factors for VTE
Prepregnancy
Increasing age (>35)
Increasing parity (>P4)
Immobility / long haul travel / prolonged labour
Obesity (BMI >30)
Previous VTE
Sickle cell disease
White ethnic group
Thrombophilia
Malignancy
Blood group (Group O protective)
Medical disorders Congestive cardiac failure, nephrotic syndrome, polycythaemia vera,
essential thrombocythaemia, Inflammatory disorders (bowel disease, UTIs)
Pregnancyrelated
Operative delivery / surgical procedures such as ERPC and sterilisation
Dehydration hyperemesis
Preeclampsia
Excessive blood loss
THROMBOPHILIA
Persistent and identifiable hypercoagulable state which is associated with an increased risk of
VTE. May be inherited or acquired.
Inherited thrombophilias
a) Antithrombin III deficiency
b) Protein C deficiency
c) Protein S deficiency
Deficiency of naturally occurring anticoagulants. Antithrombin III deficiency carries particularly
high thrombotic risk
d) Activated protein C resistance
Commonest cause is Factor V Leiden mutation Single point mutation on Factor V gene. Commonest
inherited thrombophilia in Caucasians. Found in 2060% of women with VTE in pregnancy.
e) Prothrombin gene variant
f) Hyperhomocystinaemia
Acquired thrombophilias
Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome (APS)
The presence of lupus anticoagulant or anticardiolipin antibodies of medium to high titre on 2
occasions 8 weeks apart in association with a history of thrombosis or adverse pregnancy
outcome (recurrent first trimester miscarriage, fetal death after 10 weeks or preterm delivery
<35 weeks due to severe PET or IUGR
Risk of VTE in women with APS is >70%
Primary no associated autoimmune disease, and secondary associated with SLE.
Effect of VTE / thrombophilia on pregnancy
Fetal
Increased risk of first and second trimester fetal loss
Increased risk of stillbirth
Increased risk of fetal growth restriction
Complications of anticoagulation
Maternal
Death from PE
Postphlebitic limb syndrome swelling and skin ulceration secondary to destruction of venous
valves. Risks associated with anticoagulation
MANAGEMENT OF VTE IN PREGNANCY
Pregnant women with suspected VTE should be referred to an obstetric unit immediately
for assessment and treatment. They should not be referred to A&E or as medical
emergencies
Pregnant women with a thrombophilia should be referred for consultant antenatal
assessment as soon as pregnancy is confirmed.
History
Leg / calf pain or discomfort (especially left sided), swelling, lower abdominal pain
Dyspnoea, collapse, pleuritic chest pain, haemoptysis, fainting
Examination
Severe PE – cardiac arrest. Tachycardia, tachypnoea, cyanosis. Fever may occur in DVT / PE
DVT oedema, calf tenderness / induration and redness.
Phlegmasia alba dolens leg is pale and cold with a diminished arterial ulses usually due to iliac
and femoral vein thrombosis
Phlegmasia cerulea dolens – leg is painful, cyanosed and oedematous due to nearly total
thrombosis of the entire venous outflow
Investigations
FBC raised white cell count
ECG pregnancy related nonspecific changes reduce usefulness sinus tachycardia, S1Q3T3
not usually present
CXR usually normal
Arterial blood gases hypoxaemia with hypocapnia and respiratory alkalosis
Ddimers low level in pregnancy decreases index of suspicion of VTE raised levels are
associated with physiological change in pregnancy and preeclampsia. Ddimers are of very
limited value in pregnancy
Doppler ultrasound less sensitive in calf thrombosis, noninvasive and can be repeated
consider venogram if Doppler negative and high clinical index of suspicion
Lung ventilation perfusion scan definitive diagnosis in 25% of cases only pulmonary
angiography is gold standard but invasive and concerns about radiation exposure
Baseline assessment before anticoagulation blood for thrombophilia screen, FBC, U&E,
LFT, clotting screen
RCOG RECOMMENDATIONS Summary
Women with symptoms and signs of VTE should have objective testing as soon as possible to
avoid the risk, cost and inconvenience of inappropriate anticoagulation
In clinically suspected VTE, treatment with heparin should be given until the diagnosis is
excluded by objective testing. Continuation of therapy depends on the results of objective
testing and clinical index of suspicion high clinical index of suspicion of DVT and negative
Doppler continue heparin, consider venogram or repeat Doppler one week later.
Subcutaneous unfractionated heparin is an effective alternative to intravenous unfractionated
heparin in the initial management of DVT. APTT ratio 1.52
Low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) is more effective and associated with fewer
haemorrhagic complications than unfractionated heparin in the management of DVT. Equally
effective in management of PE (Data based on nonpregnant patients). Check antiXa levels
(peak levels 3 hours postdoes 0.4 1.0iu/ml) to ensure appropriate dosing and check platelet
count 79 days later.
Teach selfinjection and disposal of needles. Avoid oral anticoagulation as maintenance
therapy see sideeffects of warfarin
Maintain therapeutic anticoagulation for at least 6 months and for at least 6 weeks after
delivery.
Once a woman thinks she is in labour, she should be advised not to administer further heparin
injections.
DVT elevate leg, use TED stockings and encourage mobilisation
Breastfeeding not contraindicated in women taking heparin / warfarin.
PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME
PMS is a condition which:
1) Manifests with distressing physical, behavioural and / or psychological symptoms, in the
absence of organic or underlying psychiatric disease
2) Regularly recurs during the luteal phase of each menstrual cycle and
3) Disappears or significantly regresses by the end of menstruation.
4) The symptoms must be sufficiently severe to result in significant impairment of daily activities.
Prevalence ~5%
Mild PMS: Does not interfere with personal/social and professional life
Moderate PMS: Interferes with personal/social and professional life but still able to function
and interact, although may be suboptimally
Severe PMS: Unable to interact personally/socially/professionally—withdraws from social and
professional activities
Diagnosis requires prospective documentation of symptoms over at least 2 cycles using a
symptom diary (such as the Daily Record of Severity of Problems [DRSP]) and symptoms
should have been present for at least 4 of the previous 6 months
Diagnosis of exclusion
Symptoms
Psychological
Tension, irritability, restlessness, mood swings, loss of libido, depression, anxiety, fatigue,
insomnia
Somatic
Mastalgia, bloatedness, hot flushes, sensation of weight gain, dizziness, palpitations, visual
disturbance, pelvic pain, headache, change in bowel habit
Behavioural
Agoraphobia, clumsiness, reduced visuospatial and cognitive ability
Most women who seek treatment for premenstrual symptoms do not have severe PMS
AETIOLOGY
Unknown, likely to be a multifactorial psychoendocrine disorder. Ovulation and progesterone
production are also likely to play an important role
Exclude physical / psychiatric illness
Treatment
Women with severe disease should be managed by a multidisciplinary team including the GP,
community gynaecologist, psychiatrist / psychologist, dietician
General advice about exercise, diet and stress reduction should be considered before starting
treatment – some evidence that exercise reduces PMS symptoms
Women with marked underlying psychopathology as well as PMS should be referred to a
psychiatrist
Symptom diaries (DRSP) should be used to assess the effect of treatment.
Consider both conventional and alternative / complementary therapies
Conventional therapies – first line
SSRI / SNRI Continuous or luteal phase (day 15–28) lowdose SSRIs and SNRIs. Should be
prescribed by psychiatrists and doctors with a special interest, when treating women with PMS, as a
few suicides in young people with depression have been reported.
COCP / OESTRADIOL Combined newgeneration pill (such as Yasmin, cyclically or continuously)
have been shown to be effective. Continuous therapy may be more effective than cyclical treatment.
Percutaneous Oestradiol either as an implant or as a patch, combined with cyclical progestogen, has
been shown to be effective for the management of physical and psychological symptoms of severe
PMS. Should be prescribed by specialists
Surgery
• Hysterectomy with bilateral salpingooophorectomy is an effective therapy for severe PMS.
Hysterectomy on its own may be useful in women in whom dysmenorrhoea is a prominent feature but
bilateral oophrectomy is required in most women to eliminate cyclical ovarian activity. Balance
potential benefits with long term risks of hypooestrogenaemia and compliance with oestrogen
replacement.
Complementary therapies
Exercise, cognitive behavioural therapy – some evidence of benefit
Magnesium – beneficial if used in premenstrual phase
Calcium / vitamin D – some benefit
Isoflavones, Agnus Castus, Ginko biloba and pollen extract may be beneficial
THYROID DISEASE *****
PHYSIOLOGY
Normal pregnancy is associated with
1) Increased hepatic production of thyroid binding globulin
2) Increased total T4 with rise occurring mainly in the first trimester
4) Increased total T3
5) Free T4 & free T3 remain unchanged over the course of pregnancy. However, there is a rise in Free
T4 in the first trimester with a fall in the second trimester.
6) TSH falls in the first trimester as HCG levels increase (HCG has TSH activity) with a rise to pre
pregnancy levels in the second trimester. Overall, TSH is unchanged in pregnancy
7) TSH, T3 and T4 do not cross the placenta significantly
HYPERTHYROIDISM
Affects ~1:500 pregnancies.
Nature of the disease
Acquired – no implications for prenatal diagnosis.
90% due to Graves disease secondary to autoimmune thyroid stimulating antibodies (IgG,
antibodies) which cross the placenta
Effect of hyperthyroidism on pregnancy
Fetal / neonatal
Increased risk of miscarriage if untreated
Low birth weight
Increased risk of preterm delivery and stillbirth
High dose of antithyroid drugs may cause fetal hypothyroidism and goitre
Neonatal thyrotoxicosis (~10% of mothers with Graves disease, not dependent on activity of
maternal disease)
Thyroid stimulating antibodies, antithyroid drugs and iodine cross the placenta
Maternal
Severe untreated thyroid disease causes anovulation and infertility
Retrosternal extension may cause tracheal obstruction and difficult intubation
Increased risk of cardiac failure & hypertensive disorders
Increased risk of placental abruption
Thyroid storm (25% maternal mortality) especially during labour
Effect of pregnancy on thyroid disease
Symptoms of thyroid disease may be mistaken for symptoms of pregnancy
Symptoms may improve in third trimester
In Graves disease, circulating levels of TSH receptor antibodies fall during pregnancy and anti
thyroid drugs may not be needed in the third trimester
Risk of postpartum exacerbation
Effect of Drugs
Iodide treatment contraindicated in pregnancy. Diagnostic radioiodine scans also contra
indicated in pregnancy but may be undertaken if breastfeeding stop breastfeeding for 24h.
Avoid pregnancy for at least 4 months after radioiodine treatment
Antithyroid drugs cross the placenta and are present in breast milk. However, breastfeeding is
not contraindicated
MANAGEMENT OF HYPERTHYROIDISM IN PREGNANCY
History
Symptoms (Heat intolerance, irritability, increased appetite) may be attributed to pregnancy.
Other symptoms like palpitations and tremor are more specific.
Examination
Exomphalos, tremor, tachycardia / arrhythmia, pretibial myxoederma, proximal muscle
wasting, systolic hypertension, goitre, thyroid bruit
Investigations
Many symptoms are similar to symptoms of normal pregnancy making clinical diagnosis
unreliable
Suppressed TSH with raised free T3 / T4 use normal pregnancy ranges for each trimester
TSH receptor antibodies detectable in women with Graves disease
Thyroid peroxidase antibodies detectable in ~80% of women with hyperthyroidism
Treatment
Antenatal
Manage in a joint Obstetric / Endocrinology or obstetric medical clinic with close
communication between obstetrician, GP & endocrinologist
Ultrasound evaluation of thyroid gland with fine needle aspiration biopsy of solitary thyroid
nodule
Aim of treatment is to control symptoms as soon as possible, keep the woman euthyroid
(maintain Free T4 levels in upper third of normal range for pregnancy) with the minimum dose
of antithyroid drugs
Bblockers for initial symptom control discuss risks
Thioamides propylthiouracil and carbimazole equally effective. PTU is preferred as crosses
placenta less and lower concentration in breast milk but no indication for changing drug in
women already on carbimazole.
Monitor free T3/T4 to avoid maternal hypothyroidism
Reduce dose of antithyroid drugs to lowest effective dose ensure biochemically and clinically
euthyroid (TFT every 13 months, monthly if newly diagnosed)
In Graves disease, circulating levels of TSH receptor antibodies fall during pregnancy and anti
thyroid drugs may not be needed in the third trimester. However, it must be ensured that the
woman is euthyroid during labour as there is a risk of thyroid storm. There is also a risk of post
partum relapse and followup is essential.
Monitor fetal growth with growth scans
Postpartum
Risk of postpartum exacerbation monitor and treat
Evaluate neonate for goitre, hyper or hypothyroidism. Neonatal symptoms may not present for
up to a week after delivery tachycardia, poor feeding, irritability and cardiac failure in severe
cases
Breastfeeding not contraindicated
HYPOTHYROIDISM
More common in pregnant women than hyperthyroidism.
Incidence 9 (White) and 3 (Black) per 1000 pregnant women.
Commonest cause autoimmune (idiopathic), including Hashimoto's thyroiditis. Associated
with thyroid microsomal antibodies. Treated Graves disease is also a common cause of
hypothyroidism
Effect of hypothyroidism on pregnancy
Fetal / neonatal
Increased risk of miscarriage if untreated
Subclinical / untreated hypothyroidism associated with neurodevelopmental delay in the child
Increased risk of IUGR, IUD, preterm delivery, neonatal respiratory distress
Maternal
Severe untreated cases associated with anovulation and infertility
Increased risk of hypertensive disorders, placental abruption, anaemia, PPH
Effect of pregnancy on hypothyroidism
Pregnancy has no effect on the disease
MANAGEMENT
History
Symptoms Tiredness / malaise, anorexia, depression, cold intolerance, poor memory, reduced
libido, constipation
Many symptoms weight gain, constipation, fatigue, skin / hair changes, goitre are common to
normal pregnancy
Examination
Bradycardia, hypertension, loss of eyebrows, blunted deep tendon reflexes, periorbital oedema
and goitre
Investigations
Raised TSH, low free T3 / free T4
Thyroid microsomal antibodies / antithyroglobulin antibodies present in 1020% of normal
population.
Treatment
Thyroxine replacement
Monitor using TSH, free T3/T4 (every trimester) and 46 weeks after any dose adjustment
Dose of thyroxine does not need to be changed during pregnancy provided the woman is
euthyroid before pregnancy. Thyroxine requirement increases by 3050% during pregnancy,
especially during the first trimester. Dose adjustments should be based on TFTs. After delivery,
dose should be reduced to prepregnancy dose.
Transient hyperthyroidism may occur 612 weeks postpartum
Neonatal hypothyroidism is very rare and is a result of transplacental transfer of blocking
antibodies. Hyperthyroidism may occur in women with treated Graves disease
OBSTETRIC CHOLESTASIS
Pregnancyspecific and pregnancyinduced disorder
Most common pregnancyinduced liver disorder, second commonest cause of jaundice in
pregnancy (viral hepatitis is commonest)
Prevalence in European countries ~1%, higher in Scandinavia
Increased risk in multiple pregnancy
7590% recurrence rate
Caused by intrahepatic cholestasis.
Clinical features
Usually presents after 30 weeks with itching palms / soles, limbs and trunk, worsens as
pregnancy progresses and relieved within 48h of delivery
Considerable excoriation and scratch marks may occur, but there is no rash
Anorexia, malaise, steatorrhoea epigastric discomfort and dark urine may be present
Positive family history present in 35% of women
Biochemistry
Serum bile acid concentrations are markedly raised (10 100 fold) may be the only
abnormality
Conjugated hyperbilirubinaemia (less common)
Modest elevation of transaminases
Raised alkaline phosphatase (above normal pregnancy values)
Raised gamma glutamyl transpeptidase
Normal bile acids / LFTs do not exclude the diagnosis. Some women may have symptoms for
days weeks before blood tests become abnormal. If symptoms persist, repeat LFTs weekly.
Note that the upper limit of LFTs in pregnancy is 20% below values for nonpregnant women
Postnatal resolution of symptoms and return of LFTs to normal is required to confirm the
diagnosis. Delay postnatal LFTs for at least 10 days.
Differential diagnoses
Exclude viral hepatitis, biliary tract obstruction, primary biliary cirrhosis and preeclampsia:
tests include screening for infection with Hep A,B,C; EBV, CMV; Antismooth muscle and
antimitochondrial antibodies, Liver USS.
Effect of cholestasis on pregnancy
Fetal
Increased risk of
Preterm delivery (spontaneous / iatrogenic)
Stillbirth stillbirth rate similar to general population with active management
Antepartum and intrapartum fetal distress controversial
Meconium stained liquor controversial
Fetal intracranial haemorrhage controversial
There is currently no recognised correlation between LFTs / level of bile salts and outcome.
Maternal
1020% risk of obstetric haemorrhage (vitamin K malabsorption)
Increased risk of operative delivery
MANAGEMENT
Counsel regarding risks and need for fetal surveillance. No method of predicting or preventing
stillbirth. No evidence that any specific treatment improves maternal / neonatal outcome.
Therefore discuss treatment with individual woman.
Topical emollients such as calamine lotion and aqueous cream are widely used but evidence for
their efficacy is lacking
Antihistamines cause drowsiness and efficacy in relieving maternal symptoms unproven.
Ursodeoxycholic acid (not licensed for use in pregnancy but used extensively without reports of
adverse effects) efficacy in preventing stillbirth and safety for fetus / neonate unproven
Monitor liver function and clotting ursodeoxycholic acid reverses biochemical abnormalities
but no evidence that it alters fetal outcome
Prevent haemorrhagic complications oral vitamin K supplementation from 32 weeks (or from
diagnosis if later) and neonatal im vitamin K. Use watersoluble formulation as cholestasis
associated with fat malabsorption. If steatorrhoea or abnormal PT, stronger case for using
vitamin K
Monitor fetal growth / wellbeing growth scans / Dopplers / CTG these are poor predictors of
outcome. Continuous intrapartum monitoring
Timing of delivery 3738 weeks, discuss risks / benefits of early delivery
Postpartum
Offer neonatal vitamin K
Postnatal followup to ensure symptoms resolve, LFTs return to normal (test at least 10 days
postpartum)
Avoid COCP
EPILEPSY
Most common neurologic disorder in pregnant women
Nature of disorder
Acquired although there is a familial tendency. No implications for prenatal diagnosis
Effect of epilepsy on pregnancy
Fetal / Neonatal
Perinatal mortality is up to twice that in nonepileptics
Children of epileptics have 45% risk of epilepsy, 10% if one affected sibling and 1520% if
both parents are affected (~1% general population)
Maternal
Reproduction in both men and women with epilepsy is lower than in the general population.
The likelihood of pregnancy in women with epilepsy is less than half that in unaffected siblings.
Menstrual cycle disturbances with anovulation are also more common in epileptics.
Effects of pregnancy on epilepsy
Seizure frequency may increase, decrease or remain unchanged during pregnancy
Increased seizure frequency due to:
1) Stress and fatigue associated with pregnancy
2) Noncompliance with therapy because of concerns about terratogenesis
3) Decreased plasma drug levels due to decreased absorption, vomiting, increased renal and hepatic
clearance and decreased plasma albumin concentrations
Effect of antiepileptic drugs on pregnancy
All antiepileptic drugs are terratogenic with a 23fold increase in risk of congenital anomalies
risk is doserelated. Safety of newer drugs remains unknown
Risk of congenital malformation highest with first trimester exposure and higher in women
taking more than one drug. Risk appears to be higher in women on polytherapy including
valproate compared to those not taking valproate
Antiepileptic agents which induce hepatic enzymes (carbamazepine, phenytoin, primidone,
topiramate) can theoretically cause fetal vitamin K deficiency and haemorrhagic disease
Neonates may manifest signs of drug withdrawal such as jitteriness, hypotonia, hypoglycaemia,
apnoeic episodes or seizures
Phenytoin:
Causes fetal hydantion syndrome. Major anomalies include heart defects, cleft lip or palate,
skeletal malformations, and microcephaly.
Coagulopathy occurs in ~50% of babies born to mothers on phenytoin deficiency of vitamin K
dependent clotting factors very few of these babies are symptomatic.
Carbamazepine:
Associated with neural tube defects (~1% risk compared to ~0.1% background risk).
Valproic acid:
Associated with neural tube defects (12% risk).
Prepregnancy assessment and counselling
Discuss and maintain adequate contraception until seizure control is optimised. Good seizure
control, particularly for tonicclonic seizures, is vital to ensure a healthy outcome
Reassure that most women deliver normal babies
Discuss risk of congenital anomalies only partly attributable to medication
Change to monodrug therapy in consultation with neurologist, otherwise no indication for
changing medication as there is no evidence that any particular drug is safer. The risks appear to
be higher with valproate and this should be balanced against the value of appropriate seizure
control if a switch to another agent is considered.
If seizures are well controlled or if tonicclonic seizures have not occurred, one option might be
to stop medication during the first trimester or possibly during the entire pregnancy.
Valproate therapy should be changed to a 34 times daily regimen to lower peak concentration
Commence folic acid supplementation (45mg) reduces the risk of fetal malformation. The
risk of neuraltube defect and cleft palate is reduced if folic acid supplementation is started 12
weeks before conception
Discuss prenatal diagnosis and the woman's view on the management of anomalies
Educate partner on use of recovery positioning the event of seizure and the woman should be
advised to bathe in shallow water or shower
Antenatal care
Consultantled care. Liaise with neurologists if inadequate seizure control. Continue folic acid
supplementation
Offer routine screening for aneuploidy
Detailed anomaly scan and fetal cardiac scan
Monitor antiepileptic drug levels at 6 10, 1516, 28 and 3436 weeks.
However, if the woman is seizurefree, there is no need to measure drug levels
Reintroduce drugs discontinued in the first trimester later in pregnancy
Maternal vitamin K supplementation from 3436 weeks to reduce the risk of maternal and
neonatal bleeding. May be oral or im
Encourage to have adequate sleep as sleep deprivation may increase seizure frequency
Labour and delivery
The risk of seizure is highest around the time of delivery
Delivery should take place in unit with facilities for providing specialized care to epileptic
patients and a neonatal intensive care unit
Continue antiepileptic drugs during labour. Parenteral / rectal treatment may be required
because of decreased gastric emptying during labour
Neonates are at increased risk of hemorrhage risk greatest in the first day of life. Administer
im vitamin K and examine neonate for anomalies
Postpartum
Reintroduce prepregnancy drug regimen in puerparium
Discuss contraception and breastfeeding:
Maternal wishes should be taken into consideration
Breastfeeding appropriate with phenytoin or valproic acid.
Carbamazepine (40%) and phenobarbital (36%) present in breast milk in higher concentrations.
Breastfeeding is however, still appropriate
Information is lacking on the effects of lamotrigine and gabapentin
MEDICAL DISORDERS AND PREGNANCY I: Overview
Women with medical disorders in pregnancy fall into three groups:
1) Those with preexisting medical disorders
2) Those who develop a new disorder during pregnancy
3) Those who develop pregnancyspecific medical disorders
The diagnosis of new medical (or surgical disorders) during pregnancy may be delayed and the
prognosis worsened because symptoms are attributed to ‘vague’ symptoms of pregnancy
It must be remembered that pregnant women do not become immune to the various medical / surgical
conditions that afflict nonpregnant individuals.
In managing medical disorders in pregnancy, the following 4 concepts should be considered:
1) The nature of the disorder – inherited or acquired. Inherited disorders could be transmitted
to the fetus and screening / prenatal diagnosis may be available
2) Effect of the disorder on pregnancy:
a) Fetal / neonatal: could be associated with increased risk of miscarriage, fetal death, growth
restriction, preterm delivery or have neonatal consequences including neonatal disease
b) Maternal: Could increase the risk of the woman developing specific conditions during
pregnancy or affect mode of delivery
3) Effect of pregnancy on the disorder – the disease could get better or worse during pregnancy
or after delivery. The longterm prognosis of the disease could be altered by pregnancy
4) Effect of drugs:
a) The effect of pregnancy on drugs used to treat the disorder – dose may need to be increased or
decreased
b) The effect of drugs used to treat the disorder on pregnancy – drugs could be terratogenic or
have other fetal / neonatal consequences
c) The effect of pregnancyspecific drugs on the disorder / interaction with drugs used to treat the
disorder
Principles of therapeutics in pregnancy
1) Every woman of childbaring age is pregnant until proven otherwise. Drug prescription in
young women must always take account of the possibility of pregnancy
2) Every woman who is prescribed a drug that could be harmful to a pregnancy should be
informed of the risks and offered adequate contraception and preconception counselling
3) Best pregnancy outcome can only be achieved if the woman’s health is optimised.
Discontinuing essential medication in order not to affect the pregnancy is therefore almost always
counter productive
4) When any drug is used in pregnancy, therapy must adhere to the following principles:
a) The minimum effective dose of the drug should be used
b) Where there are alternative treatment agents, the safest agent or that with the largest body of
clinical experience should be used, taking into account the efficacy of the different agents
c) Where appropriate, women should be explicitly informed that the drugs they are taking are
safe for use in pregnancy (including breastfeeding) otherwise some may fail to comply with treatment
d) Where drugs are known to pose a risk to pregnancy, women should be informed of the risk
and the logical analysis that led the clinician to conclude that the benefits of the drug outweigh its
risks
e) Women should be supported if they make an informed decision not to take a recommended
treatment
Commonly used drugs that are terratogenic
Anticonvulsants: Phenytoin, Carbamazepine, Sodium valproate
Warfarin
Retinoids
Danazol
Lithium
Drugs that can affect fetal growth and development
ACEInhibitors Fetal / neonatal renal failure
Angiotensin II receptor antagonists – may lead to fetal death. Should not be used to treat
hypertension in women who may become pregnant
Antithyroid drugs Fetal hypothyroidism
Benzodiazepines & Barbiturates Drug dependence in the fetus
Beta blockers – fetal growth restriction with prolonged use
NSAIDs Constriction of ductus arteriosus and renal impairment
Tetracyclines Tooth discoloration / inhibit bone growth (brief exposure
Warfarin – fetal haemorrhage
PSYCHIATRIC DRUGS AND PREGNANCY – NICE GUIDANCE
Antidepressants
The risks of taking tricyclic antidepressants during pregnancy and when breastfeeding are better
established than those of newer drugs, although the issues of tolerability and risk in overdose remain.
Most antidepressants appear in some concentration in breast milk although the effects on the infant
are not well understood.
If a woman taking paroxetine is planning a pregnancy or has an unplanned pregnancy, she
should be advised to stop taking the drug.
When choosing an antidepressant for pregnant or breastfeeding women, prescribers should,
while bearing in mind that the safety of these drugs is not well understood, take into account
that:
Tricyclic antidepressants such as amitriptyline, imipramine and nortriptyline, have lower
known risks during pregnancy than other antidepressants
most tricyclic antidepressants have a higher fatal toxicity index than selective serotonin
reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
fluoxetine is the SSRI with the lowest known risk during pregnancy
imipramine, nortriptyline and sertraline are present in breast milk at relatively low levels
citalopram and fluoxetine are present in breast milk at relatively high levels
SSRIs taken after 20 weeks’ gestation may be associated with an increased risk of persistent
pulmonary hypertension in the neonate
paroxetine taken in the first trimester may be associated with fetal heart defects
venlafaxine may be associated with increased risk of high blood pressure at high doses, higher
toxicity in overdose than SSRIs and some tricyclic antidepressants, and increased difficulty in
withdrawal
all antidepressants carry the risk of withdrawal or toxicity in neonates; in most cases the effects
are mild and selflimiting.
Benzodiazepines
Benzodiazepines should not be routinely prescribed for pregnant women, except for the short
term treatment of extreme anxiety and agitation. This is because of the risks to the fetus (for
example, cleft palate) and the neonate (for example, floppy baby syndrome). Consider gradually
stopping benzodiazepines in women who are pregnant.
Antipsychotics
Women taking antipsychotics who are planning a pregnancy should be told that the raised
prolactin levels associated with some antipsychotics (notably amisulpride, risperidone and
sulpiride) reduce the chances of conception. If prolactin levels are raised, an alternative drug
should be considered.
If a pregnant woman is taking clozapine, switching to another drug and careful monitoring
should be considered. Clozapine should not be routinely prescribed for women who are
pregnant (because there is a theoretical risk of agranulocytosis in the fetus) or for women who
are breastfeeding (because it reaches high levels in breast milk and there is a risk of
agranulocytosis in the infant).
When deciding whether to prescribe olanzapine to a woman who is pregnant, risk factors for
gestational diabetes and weight gain, including family history, existing weight and ethnicity,
should be taken into account.
Depot antipsychotics should not be routinely prescribed to pregnant women because there is
relatively little information on their safety, and their infants may show extrapyramidal
symptoms several months after administration of the depot. These are usually selflimiting.
Anticholinergic drugs should not be prescribed for the extrapyramidal side effects of
antipsychotic drugs except for acute shortterm use. Instead, the dose and timing of the
antipsychotic drug should be adjusted, or the drug changed.
Valproate
Increases the risk of neural tube defects (mainly spina bifida and anencephaly) from around 6 in
10,000 pregnancies in the general population to around 100 to 200 in 10,000. It also has effects
on the child’s intellectual development. Many pregnancies are unintended and/or not confirmed
until after the 28th day (when the neural tube closes) so care is needed when prescribing the
drug.
Valproate should not be routinely prescribed to women of child‑bearing potential. If there is no
effective alternative, the risks of taking valproate during pregnancy, and the importance of
using adequate contraception, should be explained.
Valproate should not be prescribed to women younger than 18 years because of the risk of
polycystic ovary syndrome and increased risk of unplanned pregnancy in this age group.
If a woman who is taking valproate is planning a pregnancy, or is pregnant, she should be
advised to stop taking the drug. Where appropriate in the treatment of bipolar disorder, an
alternative drug (usually an antipsychotic) should be considered.
If there is no alternative to valproate, doses should be limited to a maximum of 1 gram per day,
administered in divided doses and in the slow release form, with 5 mg/day folic acid. However,
it is not clear how the serum level of valproate affects the risk of abnormalities.
Lithium
Lithium increases the rate of fetal heart defects to around 60 in 1000, compared with the risk of
8 in 1000 in the general population. It is estimated that lithium increases the risk of Ebstein’s
anomaly (a major cardiac malformation) from 1 in 20,000 to 10 in 20,000.
Lithium should not be routinely prescribed for women, particularly in the first trimester of
pregnancy (because of the risk of cardiac malformations in the fetus) or during breastfeeding
(because of the high levels in breast milk).
If a woman taking lithium is planning a pregnancy, and is well and not at high risk of relapse,
she should be advised to stop taking the drug because of the risk of cardiac malformations in the
fetus.
If a woman who is taking lithium becomes pregnant:
· if the pregnancy is confirmed in the first trimester, and the woman is well and not at high risk of
relapse, lithium should be stopped gradually over 4 weeks; it should be explained that this may not
remove the risk of cardiac defects in the fetus
· if the woman is not well or is at high risk of relapse, the following should be considered:
switching gradually to an antipsychotic, or
stopping lithium and restarting it in the second trimester if the woman is not planning to
breastfeed and her symptoms have responded better to lithium than to other drugs in the past, or
continuing with lithium if she is at high risk of relapse.
If a woman continues taking lithium during pregnancy, serum lithium levels should be checked
every 4 weeks, then weekly from the 36th week, and less than 24 hours after childbirth; the
dose should be adjusted to keep serum levels towards the lower end of the therapeutic range,
and the woman should maintain adequate fluid intake.
Women taking lithium should deliver in hospital, and be monitored during labour by the
obstetric team. Monitoring should include fluid balance, because of the risk of dehydration and
lithium toxicity (in prolonged labour, it may be appropriate to check serum lithium levels).
Carbamazepine and lamotrigine
Carbamazepine is estimated to increase the risk of neural tube defects from 6 in 10,000 to
around 20 to 50 in 10,000, and carries a risk of other major fetal malformations including
gastrointestinal tract problems and cardiac abnormalities. Lamotrigine carries the risk of oral
cleft (estimated at nearly 9 in 1000 exposed fetuses).
If a woman who is taking carbamazepine or lamotrigine is planning a pregnancy or has an
unplanned pregnancy, healthcare professionals should advise her to stop taking these drugs
because of the risk of neural tube defects and other malformations in the fetus. If appropriate an
alternative drug (such as an antipsychotic) should be considered.
Carbamazepine or lamotrigine should not be routinely prescribed for women who are pregnant
because of the lack of evidence of efficacy and the risk of neural tube defects in the fetus.
Lamotrigine should not be routinely prescribed for women who are breastfeeding because of the
risk of dermatological problems in the infant, such as Stevens–Johnson syndrome.
Special considerations arising from the use of psychotropic drugs during early pregnancy or
while breastfeeding
If a pregnant woman was taking drugs with known teratogenic risk (lithium, valproate,
carbamazepine, lamotrigine and paroxetine) at the time of conception and/or in the first
trimester:
· confirm the pregnancy as quickly as possible
· offer appropriate screening and counselling about the continuation of the pregnancy, the need for
additional monitoring and the risks to the fetus if the woman continues to take medication
· undertake a full paediatric assessment of the newborn infant
· monitor the infant in the first few weeks after delivery for adverse drug effects, drug toxicity or
withdrawal (for example, floppy baby syndrome, irritability, constant crying, shivering, tremor,
restlessness, increased tone, feeding and sleeping difficulties and, rarely, seizures); if the mother was
prescribed antidepressants in the last trimester, these may result from serotonergic toxicity syndrome
rather than withdrawal.
Infants of mothers who are breastfeeding while taking psychotropic medication should be monitored
for adverse reactions.
Ref: NICE clinical guideline 45. Antenatal and postnatal mental health: clinical management and
service guidance
http://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG45/NiceGuidance/doc/English
HYPERTENSIVE DISORDERS OF PREGNANCY I – GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Definitions
Hypertension during pregnancy is defined as a diastolic blood pressure ≥ 90 mmHg on two occasions
more than 4 hours apart OR a single diastolic blood pressure ≥110 mmHg. Hypertensive disorders
affect ~10% of pregnant women.
Diastolic BP (mmHg) Systolic BP (mmHg)
Mild hypertension 90–99 140–149
Moderate hypertension 100–109 150–159
Severe hypertension ≥110 ≥160
Chronic hypertension: Hypertension that is present at booking or before 20 weeks or if the
woman is already taking antihypertensive medication when referred for antenatal care.
Prevalence ~2%
Gestational hypertension: new hypertension presenting after 20 weeks WITHOUT significant
proteinuria.
Preeclampsia: new hypertension presenting after 20 weeks WITH significant proteinuria.
However, Preeclampsia is a clinical syndrome and both clinical signs and symptoms and
haematological or biochemical abnormalities can occur in the absence of significant proteinuria.
Severe preeclampsia is preeclampsia with severe hypertension and/or with symptoms, and/or
biochemical and/or haematological impairment
· Note: Significant proteinuria is > 300 mg protein in a 24hour urine collection or more than 30
mg/mmolin a spot urinary protein : creatinine sample
· Severe preeclampsia:The definition of severe preeclampsia varies and local guidelines
should be followed. However, the following are suitable criteria:
1) BP >110mmHg diastolic or > 170mmHg systolic on two occasions plus proteinuria > 1g/24h
2) Lower degrees of hypertension plus at least 2 signs / symptoms of imminent eclampsia
3) HELLP syndrome
Clinical impact of hypertensive disorders
Maternal
Preeclampsia was second commonest cause of maternal mortality in the UK in 2006 – 2008.
Cerebrovascular accidents (particularly intracranialhaemorrhage) were the commonest cause of
death in women dying due to eclampsia / preeclampsia
onethird of severe maternal morbidity in the UK is a consequence of hypertensive conditions
Increased lifetime risk of cardiovascular disease
Fetal
Stillbirth: ~ 5% of stillbirths in structurally normal babies in the UK occur in women with pre
eclampsia
Prematurity: 10% of all preterm births are as a consequence of hypertensive disorders
Fetal growth restriction: ~ 20% of term births and 25% of preterm births in women with pre
eclampsia have birth weight < 10thcentilefor gestation age
Postnatal management of hypertension & breastfeeding
The MHRA advised against the use of ACE inhibitors in breastfeeding women in 2009.
Although the levels transferred to an infant via breastfeeding are unlikely to be clinically
relevant, there are insufficient data to exclude a possible risk of profound neonatal hypotension,
particularly in preterm babies.
After reviewing the same data, the NICE hypertension in pregnancy guidelines group concluded
that the benefits of breastfeeding far outweigh potential risks to the baby. If ACE inhibitors are
needed during the postnatal period then enalapril and captopril are the recommended drugs.
Neonatal wellbeing and adequacy of feeding should be assessed at least daily for the first 2 days
after the birth.
If antihypertensive treatment is required in the postnatal period in breastfeeding women, they
should be informed that the following drugs have NO known adverse effects on babies:
a) Labetalol, Atenolol and metoprolol
b) Nifedipine
c) Enalapril and captopril
· Diuretics should be AVOIDED.
Measuring BP in pregnancy
Remove tight clothing, ensure arm is relaxed and supported. Use sitting or semireclining
position so that the arm to be used is at the level of the heart
Do not take the blood pressure in the upper arm with the woman on her side as this will give
falsely lower readings
Use cuff of appropriate size. The cuff should indicate the arm circumference for which it is to
be used.
Upper arm circumference 1822cm: Small cuff
Upper arm circumference 23 – 32 cm: Standard (13x23cm) adult cuff
Upper arm circumference 33 – 41 cm: Large (33x15 cm) adult cuff
Upper arm circumference > 41 cm: Thigh (18x36cm)
Too small a cuff results in overestimation of BP. A cuff that is too large may underestimate
BP although the error is much smaller
Inflate cuff to 20–30 mmHg above palpated systolic blood pressure
Obtain an estimated systolic pressure by palpation, to avoid auscultatory gap.
Lower column slowly, by 2 mmHg per second or per beat
Read blood pressure to the nearest 2 mmHg
Measure diastolic blood pressure as disappearance of sounds (Korotkoff phase V), as this is
subject to less intraobserver and interobserver variation than Korotkoff IV (muffling of heart
sounds) and seems to correlate best with intraarterial pressure in pregnancy.
In the 15% of pregnant women whose diastolic pressure falls to zero before the last sound is
heard, then both phase IV and phase V readings should be recorded (e.g. 148/84/0 mmHg)
Assessment of proteinuria
Visual reading of urinary reagent strips (dipsticks) is a poor test for the diagnosis of
preeclampsia and a negative result does not exclude significant proteinuria.
At a cutoff of 1+, visual reading of dipsticks has a sensitivity of 55% and a specificity of 84%.
The use of an automated reagentstrip reading device has a sensitivity of 82% and specificity of
81% using a 1+ threshold, and appears to be cost saving. Automated analysis is costeffective
when compared to visual analysis
For the initial diagnostic test in secondary care, there is a balance to be struck between the
convenience of an automated reagentstrip reading device and a laboratory test that would
provide accurate quantification of proteinuria (spot protein : creatinine ratio) for which results
will be available after several hours
Both automated reagentstrip reading and spot protein : creatinine ratio are suitable for
estimating proteinuria in secondary care in women with newonset hypertension. There is
insufficient evidence to recommend using the spot albumin : creatinine ratio at present.
Quantification of proteinuria should follow diagnosis. Where the protein : creatinine ratio has
been used for diagnosis, the results obtained can be used directly for quantification, with 30
mg/mmol being the most pragmatic cutoff point to define significant proteinuria. Where an
automated reagentstrip reading device has been used with a result of +1 or more, either a spot
protein : creatinine ratio or 24hour urinary protein can be used to quantify proteinuria with a
cutoff of greater than 300 mg protein in 24hours
Preventing hypertensive disorders of pregnancy
1) Prophylaxis
Risk factors for preeclampsia: High risk
Hypertensive disease in a previous pregnancy
Chronic hypertension
Chronic renal disease
Autoimmune disease (SLE or antiphospholipid syndrome)
Thrombophilias
Diabetes mellitus
Recommended intervention: Aspirin 75 mg daily from 12 weeks until delivery. Risk of preeclampsia
reduced by 10% with a 10% reduction in risk of preterm birth.
Risk factors for preeclampsia: Moderate risk
First pregnancy
Age ≥40 years
Interpregnancy interval > 10 years
BMI ≥ 35 kg/m2 at booking
Family history of preeclampsia
Previous preeclampsia
Multiple pregnancy
Recommended intervention: If ≥ 2 moderate risk factors, Aspirin 75 mg of daily from 12 weeks until
delivery.Aspirin prophylaxis significantly reduces the occurrence of preeclampsia, preterm birth and
fetal and neonatal mortality in women at moderate or high risk. However, Aspirin does NOT reduce
the risk of gestational hypertension or other potential adverse outcomes such as antepartum
haemorrhage, placental abruption or postpartum haemorrhage.
The following are ineffective / NOT recommended:
· Nitric Oxide donors
· Progesterone
· Diuretics
· Low molecular weight heparin
· Magnesium
· Antioxidant vitamins
· Folic acid
· Fish oil
· Garlic
· Salt restriction
· Calcium supplementation reduces the risk of preeclampsia in areas with low dietary calcium
intake. The effect of calcium supplementation is greatest in women at high risk of preeclampsia.
Where calcium intake is known to be adequate, there is no reduction in risk.
2) Prompt diagnosis
Pregnant women should be made aware by both GPs and community midwives that they need to seek
immediate advice from a healthcare professional if they experience symptoms of preeclampsia
including:
Severe headache
Visual problems, such as blurring or flashing before the eyes
Severe pain just below the ribs
Vomiting
Sudden swelling of the face, hands or feet
GPs and community midwives should refer all such women to secondary care / antenatal assessment
unit for further review.
HYPERTENSIVE DISORDERS OF PREGNANCY II – MANAGEMENTOF CHRONIC HYPERTENSION
IN PREGNANCY
Prepregnancycounselling
Women planning a pregnancy should be offered preconception counseling and have risks of
pregnancy explained.
Drug therapy should be reviewed and drugs with adverse fetal effects (ACEinhibitors and
angiotensin II receptor antagonists, diuretics) should be discontinued. First line options include
methyldopa and Nifedipine. Beta blockers are an alternative.
Women should continue effective contraception until BP is well controlled on the new
treatment
Once pregnant, women should be referred to an obstetrician.
History
· Exclude secondary causes of hypertension including endocrine disorders (Cushing’s / Conn’s
syndrome, phaeochromocytoma), cardiovascular disease (coarctation of the aorta) and renal disease
including renal artery stenosis. Most common cause of chronic hypertension in pregnancy is essential
hypertension.
Examination
BMI
BP
Other examination as deemed relevant to secondary causes of hypertension
Basic Investigations
Urine dipstix for proteinuria +/ spot protein : creatinine ratio or 24h urine protein
Renal function tests (including electrolytes)
Prophylaxis for preeclampsia
Offer low dose aspirin 75 mg daily. Usually done in secondary care therefore early referral is
necessary.
Frequency of antenatal visits
Women with chronic hypertension should have anindividualisedschedule for antenatal care and
reviews should be more frequently than in healthy women without hypertension. If proteinuria
develops, women should be managed as for preeclampsia.
Antihypertensive therapy
Treatment of chronic hypertension does not significantly reduce the incidence of preeclampsia.
However, antihypertensive treatment significantly reduces the risk of severe hypertension.
Women with evidence of targetorgan damage from hypertension will need a lower target blood
pressure than women without such changes. In women with uncomplicated chronic
hypertension BP should be maintained at < 150/100 mmHg and diastolic BP should not be
lowered below 80 mmHg. Whereas, in women with targetorgan damage secondary to chronic
hypertension (e.g. kidney disease) treatment should aim to maintain BP < 140/90 mmHg.
Women with secondary chronic hypertension should be offered referral to a specialist in
hypertensive disorders.
Fetal monitoring
In women with chronic hypertension, carry out ultrasound fetal growth and amniotic fluid
volume assessment and umbilical artery Doppler velocimetry between 28 30 weeks and
between 32 34 weeks. If results are normal, do not repeat at more than 34 weeks, unless
otherwise clinically indicated.
Timing of delivery
If blood pressure < 160/110 mmHg (with or without treatment), delivery should not be offered
before 37 weeks.
Delivery is indicated in women with refractory severe chronic hypertension, after a course of
corticosteroids (if required).
Postpartum care
Continue antenatal antihypertensive treatment
If a woman has taken methyldopa during pregnancy, stop within 2 days of birth and restart the
antihypertensive treatment the woman was taking before she planned the pregnancy.
Measure BP daily for the first 2 days after birth
Measure BP at least once between day 3 and day 5 after birth
Monitor BP as clinically indicated if antihypertensive treatment is changed after birth
Aim to keep blood pressure < 140/90 mmHg
Review longterm antihypertensive treatment 2 weeks after the birth.
Offer a medical postnatal review (6–8 weeks after the birth) with the prepregnancy care team.
HYPERTENSIVE DISORDERS OF PREGNANCY III – MANAGEMENT OF GESTATIONAL
HYPERTENSION
Initial assessment
The function of the initial assessment is to:
Determine the level of hypertension and whether treatment is required
Consider additional tests to guide further care by identifying those women most likely to
develop proteinuria (preeclampsia) or those with underlying pathology
History
1) Risk factors for hypertensive disease / progression to preeclampsia: see notes above (preventing
hypertensive disorders in pregnancy)
2) Symptoms of severe hypertensive disease
Severe headache
Visual problems, such as blurring or flashing before the eyes
Severe pain just below the ribs
Vomiting
Sudden swelling of the face, hands or feet
Examination
BMI
BP
Abdominal examination – fundal height, epigastric tenderness
Investigations & Treatment
Depend on level of hypertension, gestation age at presentation (< 35 weeks may be associated
with greater risks) and presence of other risk factors / symptoms.
Women with any degree of newonset hypertension require full assessment in a secondary care
setting by a healthcare professional who is trained in the management of hypertensive disorders.
Management:
Mild hypertension (140149 / 90 99 mmHg)
Outpatient management
Antihypertensive therapy not recommended
Monitor BP no more than once a week
Test for proteinuria at every visit
No blood tests for hypertensive disorders
In women with mild hypertension presenting before 32 weeks, or at high risk of preeclampsia,
measure blood pressure and test urine twice weekly.
Moderate hypertension (150159 / 100 – 109)
Outpatient management
Treat with antihypertensive: oral labetalol is first line; methyldopa and nifedipine may be used
after considering sideeffects. Keep systolic BP < 150 mmHg and diastolic BP between 80 –
100 mmHg
Monitor BP at least twice a week
Test for proteinuria at every visit
FBC, renal (including electrolytes) & liver function tests. Do not repeat if no proteinuria at
subsequent visits
Fetal monitoring, mild & moderate gestational hypertension
Ultrasound fetal growth + amniotic fluid volume + umbilical artery Doppler if diagnosis is
confirmed at < 34 weeks. If results are normal, do not repeat unless clinically indicated.
Severe hypertension (≥ 160/100 mmHg)
Inpatient treatment until BP ≤ 159/109 mmHg
Treat with antihypertensive: oral labetalol is first line; methyldopa and nifedipine may be used
after considering sideeffects . Keep systolic BP < 150 mmHg and diastolic BP between 80 –
100 mmHg
Monitor BP at least every 6 hours
Test for proteinuria daily
FBC, renal (including electrolytes) & liver function tests at presentation and then weekly
In women receiving outpatient care after severe hypertension has been effectively controlled in
hospital, measure blood pressure and test urine twice weekly and carry out weekly blood tests.
Fetal monitoring in severe gestational hypertension
Carry out cardiotocography at diagnosis of severe gestational hypertension.
If conservative management of severe gestational hypertension is planned, ultrasound fetal
growth + amniotic fluid volume + umbilical artery Doppler should be performed. Do not
routinely repeat these tests more than every 2 weeks.
If the results of all fetal monitoring are normal, do not routinely repeat cardiotocography more
than weekly except if clinically indicated.
Timing of delivery
Delivery not recommended before 37 weeks in women with gestational hypertension whose
blood pressure is < 160/110 mmHg, with or without antihypertensive treatment
Delivery recommended in women with refractory severe gestational hypertension after a course
of corticosteroids (if required).
Postnatal care
BP monitoring
Peak blood pressure in the postnatal period occurs 3–5 days after birth
Additional BP monitoring is appropriate if treatment is altered.
BP should be monitored:
Daily for the first 2 days after birth
At least once between day 3 and day 5 after birth
As clinically indicated if antihypertensive treatment is changed after birth.
Antihypertensive therapy
Continue use of antenatal antihypertensive treatment
Consider reducing antihypertensive treatment if their blood pressure falls below 140/90 mmHg
Reduce antihypertensive treatment if their blood pressure falls below 130/80 mmHg.
If a woman has taken methyldopa to treat gestational hypertension, stop within 2 days of birth.
Methyldopa has a wellrecognisedassociation with clinical depression and should be avoided in
the postnatal period
For women not on antihypertensive treatment, start treatment if BP > 149/99 mmHg.
All women should be offered a medical review at the postnatal review (6–8 weeks post
partum).
Women who still need antihypertensive treatment at the 68 weeks postnatal review should be
offered a specialist assessment of their hypertension.
HYPERTENSIVE DISORDERS OF PREGNANCY IV – MANAGEMENT OF PREECLAMPSIA
Clinical management is often determined by the balance between maternal and fetal
considerations
History
1) Risk factors for hypertensive disease / progression to preeclampsia: see notes above (preventing
hypertensive disorders in pregnancy)
2) Symptoms of severe hypertensive disease
Severe headache
Visual problems, such as blurring or flashing before the eyes
Severe pain just below the ribs
Vomiting
Sudden swelling of the face, hands or feet
Examination
BMI
BP
Abdominal examination – fundal height, epigastric tenderness.
Fundoscopy and reflexes may be indicated
Neurological examination may be indicated
Investigations
Proteinuria
Automated reagentstrip reading or spot protein : creatinine ratio +/ 24h urine protein
Haematology & Biochemistry
FBC, liver & renal function tests (including electrolytes)
Rising serum uric acid is associated with severe preeclampsia
Tests of coagulation are not helpful where the platelet count is > 100 x 109/L
Treatment of hypertension & maternal monitoring
Mild hypertension (BP 140149 / 9099 mmHg)
Admit
No antihypertensive therapy
Monitor BP at least 6 hourly
Do not repeat proteinuria quantification
Blood tests twice a week
Moderate hypertension (BP 150159 / 100109)
Admit
Treat with antihypertensive: oral labetalol is first line; methyldopa and nifedipine may be used
after considering sideeffects. Keep systolic BP < 150 mmHg and diastolic BP between 80 –
100 mmHg
Monitor BP at least 6 hourly
Do not repeat proteinuria quantification
Blood tests three times a week
Severe hypertension (BP ≥ 160/100 mmHg)
Admit
Treat with antihypertensive: oral labetalol is first line; methyldopa and nifedipine may be used
after considering sideeffects. Keep systolic BP < 150 mmHg and diastolic BP between 80 –
100 mmHg
Monitor BP more than 4 times a day depending on clinical circumstances
Do not repeat proteinuria quantification
Blood tests three times a week
Fetal monitoring
Cardiotocography at diagnosis of preeclampsia
If conservative management of preeclampsia is planned, the following tests are recommended
at diagnosis:
Ultrasound fetal growth + amniotic fluid volume
Umbilical artery Doppler
If the results of all fetal monitoring are normal, do not routinely repeat cardiotocography
more than weekly
Do not routinely repeat ultrasound fetal growth + amniotic fluid volume assessment +
umbilical artery Doppler more than every 2 weeks.
Intrapartum care: BP monitoring
During labour, measure blood pressure:
Hourly in women with mild or moderate hypertension
Continually in women with severe hypertension
Continue use of antenatal antihypertensive treatment
HYPERTENSIVE DISORDERS OF PREGNANCY V – MANAGEMENT OF SEVERE PREECLAMPSIA /
ECLAMPSIA
Clinical features of severe preeclampsia include:
· Severe headache
· Visual disturbance
· Epigastric pain / vomiting
· Epigastric tenderness
· Papilloedema
· Falling platelet count
· Abnormal LFTs
MANAGEMENT
Initial Assessment
• Initial assessment of women with suspected severe preeclampsia / eclampsia should be by senior
obstetric,anaestheticand midwifery staff. Symptoms / signs may vary from headache, abdominal pain,
nausea & vomiting to convulsions
• Automated sphygmomanometers may underestimate systolic BP in preeclampsia
• A spot urine protein / creatinine ratio or 24h urine protein excretion should be used to confirm
proteinuria. However, 24h urine collection remains the recommended assessment unless clinical
condition indicates immediate delivery.
• Check BP every 15min until womans condition is stable then every 30 mins during initial
assessment. Stable and asymptomatic women who are managed conservatively should have BP
measured 4 hourly
• Measure FBC, renal and liver function tests. Repeat daily if normal and more often if abnormal or
womans condition changes
• Monitor clotting if platelet count falls below 100 x10E9/L
• Monitor fluid balance use catheter with hourly output in acute situation or postpartum
• Assess fetal wellbeing using CTG in the acute situation. Subsequent assessment should be by
growth scan, umbilical artery Dopplers and liquor volume
Treatment of Hypertension
• The mean arterial pressure is the key indicator for antihypertensive therapy in the acute situation
(diastolic + one third of the pulse pressure). Above a MAP of 125mmHg, cerebral autoregulation is
lost and the woman is at risk of cerebrovascular accidents. Many units therefore set the limit at 160
170 / 110 mmHg. Confidential Enquiry recommends 160mmHg systolic.
• Options include oral /iv labetalol, oral nifedipine or iv hydralazine
• If BP is < 160/100mmHg, there is no immediate need for antihypertensive therapy unless there is
marked proteinuria or abnormal biochemistry
• Use methyldopa or labetalol for longterm BP control.
Seizure prevention
• MgSO4 prophylaxis has been shown to reduce the risk of eclampsia in women with preeclampsia
and is recommended around the time of delivery in women with severe preeclampsia (continue for
24h after delivery or after the last seizure)
Management of eclampsia
• Call for help senior midwife /anaesthetist/ obstetrician
• Know that the unit should have agreed protocol which should be followed
• Assess and maintain airway. Position the woman to prevent aspiration. Protect airway and
administer oxygen
• Treatment / prevention of fits. IV diazepam effective in terminating seizure if this does not occur
spontaneously. MgSO4 drug of choice for preventing further seizures
•Stabilisematernal condition control hypertension, identify and correct coagulopathy.
• Assess fetal condition (CTG) and prepare for delivery at 32 weeks gestation, C/S would be
recommended unless the woman is multiparous with a veryfavourablecervix
• Ensure good communication with SCBU,anaesthetistand the womans family
• Ensure HDU care with 1:1 nursing and care by a single lead clinician
• Required monitoring of maternal condition includes: BP, SO2, urine output & renal function, FBC,
clotting, LFT, tendon reflexes, respiratory rate
• Strict fluid balance to prevent pulmonaryoedema
• Maternal condition may deteriorate after delivery but full recovery is to be expected with supportive
care
• Assess risk of VTE and thromboprophylaxis
• Fill Incident form
Fluid balance
• Fluid restriction recommended tominimisethe risk of pulmonaryoedema
• Poor urine output, especially anuria should be investigated further and hypovolaemia caused by
active bleeding or underestimation of blood loss (especially after operative delivery) should be
considered
• Fluid input of 80ml/h in a woman who is only passing 510ml/h, if prolonged, may lead to fluid
overload.
Timing of delivery
• Ensure woman is clinically stable and involve senior obstetrician,anaesthetistand neonatologist if
premature. Consider the benefits of corticosteroids if < 34 weeks with the risks of continuing
pregnancy.
• The potential benefits of conservative management to prolong pregnancy must be balanced against
maternal wellbeing which should take precedence
• Aim for vaginal delivery but C/S if < 3234 weeks
• Continue antihypertensive treatment and monitoring during labour
• Continuous monitoring during labour
• Manage third stage actively with oxytocin. Ergometrine should be avoided
Postnatal Care
• Women should be informed that they will need to be in hospital for at least 5 days after delivery
• Continue BP monitoring andhaematology/ biochemistry depending on the results
• Continue antihypertensive therapy may be required for up to 3 months. Consider investigation to
exclude renal disease if hypertension and proteinuria persist 6 weeks after delivery
• Avoid use of methyldopa because of risk of depressive illness
• Appropriatecounsellingif adverse neonatal outcome
• Postnatal appointment in hospital or GP depending on specific patient / neonatal circumstances
• Discuss recurrence risk and management of future pregnancies.
THROMBOPROPHYLAXIS IN PREGNANCY AND THE PUERPERIUM
Pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE) is the commonest cause of direct maternal deaths in the UK and
the second commonest cause of maternal deaths.
Most recent Confidential Enquiry: 8/13 fatal antenatal PTE occurred in the first trimester. 10/14 post
partum deaths followed vaginal delivery.
Most VTE occurs antenatally but the risk per day is greatest in the weeks immediately following
delivery. Therefore, the threshold for recommending thromboprophylaxis should be lower in the
postpartum period compared to the antenatal period because the risk per day is higher and the duration
of risk is shorter.
Caesarean section is an important risk factor for VTE but 55% of postpartum maternal deaths from
VTE in the UK in 1997 – 2005 occurred following vaginal delivery.
Note: Thrombotic risk exists from the beginning of the first trimester and antenatal booking is usually
at the end of the first trimester.
LMWH is recommended for use in pregnancy as it is as effective as unfractionated heparin with fewer
sideeffects.
All women should undergo an assessment of risk factors for VTE prepregnancy or in early pregnancy
and should be repeated if the woman is admitted or develops intercurrent problems
RISK FACTORS FOR VTE
Preexisting
Previous VTE
Medical comorbidities
Age > 35 years
Parity > 3
Obesity (BMI > 30)
Smoking
Gross varicose veins
Immobility
Inherited thrombophilia – found in 2050% of VTE in pregnancy
Acquired thrombophilia (lupus anticoagulant, anticardiolipin antibodies,
Obstetric
Multiple pregnancy and assisted reproduction
Preeclampsia
Caesarean section
PPH > 1L
Prolonged labour, rotational operative delivery
Transient
Surgical intervention
Dehydration
Ovarian Hyper stimulation Syndrome
Systemic sepsis
Postpartum wound infection
Long distance travel (> 4h).
PREPREGNANCY / EARLY CARE
All women should have documented assessment of risk factors for VTE in early pregnancy or pre
pregnancy.
Women at high risk of VTE should be offered prepregnancy counselling with a prospective
management plan. Take detailed history to identify risk factors. Women at high risk of VTE should
be referred to secondary care for a consultant led care.
High risk women who are pregnant without prior counselling should be referred for expert assessment
as soon as possible.
Risk assessment should be repeated if women are admitted to hospital or develop additional problems
in the community.
Women with a previous single provoked VTE (excluding oestrogenrelated) and no other risk factors
should undergo close surveillance and antenatal LMWH is not routinely recommended.
Screen for inherited and acquired thrombophilia in women with a nonoestrogenrelated VTE
provoked by a minor risk factor. Testing for thrombophilia not recommended in women with a prior
unprovoked or oestrogenrelated VTE as this will not alter management.
Antenatal thromboprophylaxis should begin as early in pregnancy as possible
ANTENATAL LMWH THROMBOPROPHYLAXIS
Antenatal LMWH thromboprophylaxis is recommended in the following:
a) Women with a history of recurrent VTE
b) Women with a history of unprovoked VTE
c) Women with a history of oestrogenrelated VTE
d) Women with a history of pregnancyrelated VTE
e) Women with a previous VTE and a history of VTE in a first degree relative
f) Women with a previous VTE and a documented thrombophilia
g) Women with three or more risk factors (other than previous VTE or thrombophilia)
Women receiving antenatal LMWH thromboprophylaxis should be treated for 6 weeks postpartum
with a postpartum risk assessment.
Women with 2 or more risk factors (other than previous VTE or thrombophilia) should be considered
for postpartum prophylactic LMWH for at least 7 days
MANAGEMENT OF WOMAN AT HIGH RISK OF VTE
WOMEN WITH A PREVIOUS VTE
a) Recurrent VTE or those already on warfarin – high risk of recurrence during pregnancy and
women are likely to be on warfarin prepregnancy. Stop warfarin as soon as pregnancy confirmed
(within 2 weeks of missed period) and convert to LMWH. If not on warfarin, start LMWH as soon as
pregnancy test is positive. Refer women immediately to secondary care where they should be
managed by a clinician with expertise in haemostasis and pregnancy
b) Previous VTE plus inherited thrombophilia – A therapeutic or intermediate dose should be used
and continued for at least 6 weeks postpartum or until converted to warfarin. Refer to secondary care
and management should be with haematologist
c) Previous VTE plus acquired thrombophilia – Manage with antenatal LMWH plus postpartum
prophylaxis for at least 6 weeks. Women on warfarin should be converted to LMWH before 6 weeks
gestation and continued in the postnatal period until converted to warfarin. Women not on warfarin
should start LMWH as soon as pregnancy is diagnosed. Refer to secondary care as soon as possible.
d) Previous VTE associated with temporary risk factor – recurrent risk is low if DVT was associated
with a transient major risk factor that is no longer present (surgery, trauma, intravenous drug abuse).
In the absence of other risk factors, antenatal LMWH not recommended. Postnatal prophylaxis
recommended for 6 weeks.
WOMEN WITHOUT VTE OR THROMBOPHILIA
Three or more risk factors (excluding thrombophilia or previous VTE as above) consider antenatal
prophylaxis.
Two risk factors consider antenatal prophylaxis if admitted to hospital.
Ensure mobilisation and avoid dehydration
INTRAPARTUM THROMBOPROPHYLAXIS
Women should be advised not to inject further doses of heparin if they think they are in labour or have
vaginal bleeding.
Reduce therapeutic dose to prophylactic dose on the day before IOL or C/S and continue prophylactic
dose during labour. Keep woman hydrated during labour.
Regional analgesia should not be used until 12h after prophylactic or 24h after therapeutic dose of
LMW heparin. Catheter should not be removed within 1012h of the most recent injection.
Delivery by C/S prophylactic dose LMW heparin day before surgery, omit morning dose on day of
surgery and administer prophylactic dose by 3 hours postop or 4h after insertion or removal of
catheter
POSTPARTUM THROMBOPROPHYLAXIS
Thromboprophylaxis should continue for at least 6 weeks in high risk women and 7 days for
intermediate risk women
Women with BMI > 40 should receive LMWH for 7 days even if there are no additional risk factors.
Additional postpartum risk factors include prolonged labour, immobility, infection, haemorrhage,
blood transfusion.
All women should receive LMWH for 7 days after emergency CS. All women who have an elective
CS plus one or more additional risk factors should receive LMWH for 7 days.
COCP should not be prescribed in the first 3 months for women with other risk factors for VTE
GRADUATED ELASTIC COMPRESSION STOCKINGS
Should be used by:
1) All women with a previous VTE or a thrombophilia throughout pregnancy and for 612 weeks
after delivery
2) Hospitalised women in whom LMWH is contraindicated
3) PostCS
4) Long distance travel > 4h
Contraindications to LMWH
Active bleeding
Women at increased risk of major haemorrhage (placenta previa)
Bleeding disorder
Low platelet count (< 75 x 10 9
Stroke in the previous 4 weeks
Severe renal impairment
Severe liver disease
Uncontrolled hypertension (systolic BP > 200 mmHg or diastolic > 120 mmHg).
THE SECOND STAGE OF LABOUR *****
Begins with the diagnosis of full cervical dilatation and ends with the delivery of the fetus
Passive second stage of labour: the finding of full dilatation of the cervix prior to or in the
absence of involuntary expulsive contractions.
Onset of the active second stage of labour: the fetus is visible or there are expulsive
contractions with a finding of full dilatation of the cervix or other signs of full dilatation of the
cervix OR active maternal effort (pushing) following confirmation of full dilatation of the
cervix in the absence of expulsive contractions.
In nulliparous women, birth would be expected to take place within 3 hours of the start of the
active second stage. A diagnosis of delay in the active second stage should be made when it has
lasted 2 hours. This ensures that the total duration of the active second stage is no longer than
3h.
In parous women, birth would be expected to take place within 2 hours of the start of the active
second stage. A diagnosis of delay in the active second stage should be made when it has lasted
1 hour. This ensures that the total duration of the active second stage is no longer than 2h.
Women with regional analgesia are usually allowed 1 hour passive second stage followed by
active pushing.
Observations during the second stage
Hourly BP and Pulse
4hourly temperature
Halfhourly documentation of the frequency of contractions with subjective assessment of
strength of contractions
Frequency of emptying the bladder
Fetal heart rate by intermittent auscultation for 1 minute immediately after a contraction at least
every 5 minutes.
Maternal pulse should be palpated if there is any fetal heart rate abnormality to differentiate the
two heart rates.
Assessment of progress based on maternal behaviour, effectiveness of pushing and descent of
the fetus.
There should be ongoing assessment of level of hydration, level of pain and need for pain relief.
The Partogram
First developed by Hugh Philpott in 1972, it is a standardised form which provides a pictorial
overview of the woman’s labour and was intended to help identify abnormally slow progress in
labour
Partograms from different units may be laid out differently and contain different information
including
1. Demographic information
2. Risk factors / risk profile
3. Date and time of membrane rupture
4. Fetal heart rate
5. Vaginal loss – none, clear, bloodstained, blood or meconium
6. Cervical dilatation and station of the presenting part
7. Frequency and strength of contractions
8. Maternal temperature, pulse & BP
9. Drugs administered including oxytocin
Some partograms contain action lined intended to indicate when the progress of labour has
become abnormal and therefore lead to prompt medical assessment
The impact of partograms on the outcome of labour has been assessed by randomised trials in a
variety of settings. The available evidence is that partograms do not significantly alter caesarean
section rates or any other aspect of care in labour
The availability of information on a single sheet (rather than several pages of text in the medical
records) makes clinical assessment of women in labour much easier.
THE THIRD STAGE OF LABOUR
Begins with the delivery of the fetus and ends with the expulsion of the placenta and
membranes
Management of the third stage may be ‘Active’ or ‘Physiological’
Active management significantly shortens the duration of the third stage and reduces the risk of
postpartum haemorrhage and the need for blood transfusion.
Active management is not associated with an increased risk of retained placenta
Active management associated with drug sideeffects
Active management involves:
1) Routine use of uterotonic drugs (oxytocin, ergometrine or a mixture of both drugs [syntometrine
® ])
2) Early clamping and cutting of the cord and
3) Controlled cord traction.
Physiological management of the third stage involves
1) No use of uterotonic drugs
2) No clamping of the cord until pulsation has ceased
3) Delivery of the placenta by maternal effort.
Oxytocin Vs Ergometrine for the third stage of labour
Advantages of oxytocin
Rapid action – effective within 2.5 minutes of im injection
Not associated with sideeffects
Disadvantages of oxytocin
Causes spasmodic contractions – uterus contracts and relaxes
More expensive
Effects are shortlasting
Advantages of ergometrine
Causes tetanic contraction – uterus contracts and does not relax
Effects last for 24h
Cheaper
Disadvantages of ergometrine
Slowacting – effective 67 minutes after im injection
Causes nausea, vomiting and hypertension. Contraindicated in hypertension
The combination of ergometrine + oxytocin takes advantage of the speed of oxytocin action and the
longterm effects of ergometrine. However, it is associated with the sideeffects of ergometrine.
Oxytocin is associated with a small but significant increase in the risk of postpartum haemorrhage
over 500 ml when compared to syntometrine® . Risk of blood loss over 1000ml is not altered.
When 100 women are treated with oxytocin + ergometrine instead of oxytocin alone, 3 additional
episodes of blood loss >500 ml will be prevented but 1 additional case of hypertension and 10
additional cases of vomiting, will be observed.
Managing the third stage
Haemorrhage poses the greatest risk to the woman during the third stage. Clinicians should
resist the temptation to lower their guard following delivery of the fetus
In a woman with no risk factors for postpartum haemorrhage, the options for the management
of the third stage (active / physiological) should be discussed antenatally and during labour
History
There should be an ongoing assessment of the woman’s perception of pain and need for
psychological support while at the same time enabling her interaction with the neonate
Examination
Assess overt blood loss, maternal pulse and BP, the woman’s colour & responsiveness and
uterine tone
There are no standards for the frequency of any such assessment but regular assessment should
be documented as the third stage becomes prolonged.
Treatment
Active management – Oxytocin 10 IU intramuscularly is recommended.
Physiological management – no treatment required
Prolonged third stage
Failure to deliver the placenta within 30 minutes of delivery of the fetus (or 60 minutes if
physiological management)
Clinicians will generally not intervene until after 60 minutes. Earlier intervention to deliver the
placenta is indicated if there is evidence of maternal haemorrhage
I – Stages of labour & mechanism
Normal labour: WHO definition: ‘Labour is normal when it is spontaneous in onset, low risk at the
start and remaining so throughout labour and birth. The baby is born spontaneously and in the vertex
position between 37–42 completed weeks of pregnancy. After birth woman and baby are in good
condition
The first stage of labour *****
Begins with the onset of labour and ends with the diagnosis of full dilatation
The onset of labour is a retrospective diagnosis and it is impossible to identify the precise
moment when labour started
The first stage is further divided into a latent and an established phase (NICE)
Latent first stage of labour – a period of time, not necessarily continuous, when:
a) there are painful contractions, and
b) there is some cervical change, including cervical effacement and dilatation up to 4 cm.
Established first stage of labour – when:
1) there are regular painful contractions, and
2) there is progressive cervical dilatation from 4 cm
Duration of the first stage (NICE)
Length of established first stage of labour varies between women.
First labours last on average 8 hours and are unlikely to last over 18 hours.
Second and subsequent labours last on average 5 hours and are unlikely to last over 12 hours.
MANAGEMENT OF THE ESTABLISHED FIRST STAGE OF LABOUR
History / Communication
Ongoing assessment of the woman’s emotional and psychological needs, including her desire
for pain relief.
Examination
4hourly temperature and blood pressure
Hourly maternal pulse
Halfhourly documentation of frequency of contractions and a subjective assessment of strength
of contractions
Hourly documentation of vaginal loss – clear, bloodstained, meconium
Vaginal examination offered 4hourly or in response to the woman’s wishes (after abdominal
palpation and assessment of vaginal loss)
Intermittent auscultation of the fetal heart using Doppler or a Pinard stethoscope for at least
1 minute immediately after a contraction, at least every 15 minutes.
Maternal pulse should be palpated if a FHR abnormality is detected to differentiate the two
heart rates.
PAIN RELIEF IN LABOUR – NICE GUIDELINES
Painrelieving strategies
Women who choose to use breathing and relaxation or massage techniques in labour should be
supported in their choice.
The opportunity to labour in water is recommended for pain relief.
Acupuncture, acupressure and hypnosis should not be provided, but women who wish to use
these techniques should not be prevented from doing so.
Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) should not be offered
Inhalational analgesia
Entonox (a 50:50 mixture of oxygen and nitrous oxide) should be available in all birth settings
as it may reduce pain in labour, but women should be informed that it may make them feel
nauseous and lightheaded
Intravenous and intramuscular opioids
Pethidine, diamorphine or other opioids should be available in all birth settings. Women should
be informed that these will provide limited pain relief and may have significant side effects for
both the woman (drowsiness, nausea and vomiting) and her baby (shortterm respiratory
depression and drowsiness which may last several days).
Women should be informed that pethidine, diamorphine or other opioids may interfere with
breastfeeding.
If an intravenous or intramuscular opioid is used, it should be administered with an antiemetic.
Women should not enter water (a birthing pool or bath) within 2 hours of opioid administration
or if they feel drowsy.
Regional analgesia
Before choosing epidural analgesia, women should be informed about the risks and benefits,
and the implications for their labour including:
1) It is only available in obstetric units.
2) It provides more effective pain relief than opioids.
3) It is associated with a longer second stage of labour and an increased chance of vaginal
instrumental birth.
4) It is not associated with longterm backache.
5) It is not associated with a longer first stage of labour or an increased chance of caesarean
birth.
6) It will be accompanied by a more intensive level of monitoring and intravenous access.