03 Current Electricity

Chapter –3
Current
Electricity
The study of electric charges in motion is called current electricity.

1. Electric Current
The rate of flow of electric charges through a conductor is called electric current.
Current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge.
q
I=
t
dq
or Instantaneous current I =
dt
Conventionally, the direction of current is taken along the direction of flow of positive charge and
opposite to the direction of flow of negative charge (electron).
Current is a scalar quantity. SI unit of electric current is ampere (A).
2. Flow of Electric Charges in a Metallic Conductor
A metallic conductor contains free electrons as charge carriers, while positive ions are fixed in the
lattice. When no potential difference is applied, the motion of free electrons is random so there
is no net current in any direction. When a potential difference is applied across the conductor
the free electrons drift along the direction of positive potential so a current begins to flow in the
conductor, the direction of current is opposite to the direction of the net electron flow.
3. Drift Velocity and Mobility
Drift velocity is defined as the average velocity with which the free electrons get drifted towards the
positive end of the conductor under the influence of an external electric field applied. It is given
by the relation
"
" eE
vd = – x
m
where m = mass of electron, e = charge of electron
E = electric field applied
mean free path
x = relaxation time =
root mean square velocity of electrons
Mobility of an ion is defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field i.e.,
vd ex
n= =
E m
Its unit is m2/Vs.
Current Electricity 105

4. Relation between Drift Velocity and Mobility with Electric Current
Current, in terms of drift velocity I=neAvd,
Current, in terms of mobility I=neAµE,
where, n = number of free electrons per metre3,
A = cross-sectional area of conductor.
5. Ohm’s Law
It states that the current flowing in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
applied across the conductor provided physical conditions, e.g., temperature, pressure, etc. remain
the same.
I ? V or V ? I or V = RI
where R is called electrical resistance. Its unit is volt/metre or ohm.
Ohm’s law is not applicable to all types of conductor. It is applicable only for those conducting
materials for which V-I graph is linear.
6. Electrical Resistance
The hindrance offered by a conductor to the flow of current is called the electrical resistance of the
conductor. The electrical resistance of a conductor depends on its length l,
cross-sectional area A and nature of material and is given by
tl
R=
A
where t is the resistivity of the material and is given by
m ml
t= ` R=
ne2 x ne2 Ax
7. V-I Characteristics: Linear and Non-linear — Ohmic and Non-ohmic Conductors

The conductors or circuit elements for which
V-I graph is linear are called ohmic conductors.
The examples are metallic conductors.
On the other hand, the circuit elements for
which V-I graph is non-linear are called non-
ohmic conductors. The examples are junction
diodes and transistors.
O
Electrical Energy and Power
8. Joule’s Law of Heating
The heat which is produced (or consumed) due to the flow of current in a conductor, is expressed
in joules.
Mathematically, amount of heat produced (consumed) is proportional to square of amount of
current flowing through conductor, electrical resistance of wire and the time of current flow
through it.
So, H \ I2 Rt
I2 Rt
& H=
J
where J is a joule constant. 1 joule constant is 4.18×103 J/k cal
I2 Rt VIt V2
& H=
J
=
J
=
JR
t
Where V is the potential difference across wire.
106 Xam idea Physics–XII

9. Power
Rate of energy dissipation in a resistor is called the power i.e.,
W V2
Power P= = VI = I2 R =
t R
The unit of power is watt.
10. Fuse
It is a safety device used in electrical circuits. It is made of iron-lead alloy. The characteristics of fuse
are high resistivity and low melting point.
When high current (more than fuse-rated value) flows through a circuit, the fuse wire melts and
causes a break in the circuit.
11. Resistivity (or Specific Resistance)
Resistivity of a substance is defined as the resistance offered by a wire of that substance of 1 metre
length and 1 square metre cross-sectional area.
Resistivity depends only on the material and is independent of dimensions at a given temperature.
The SI unit of resistivity is ohm × metre (Ωm).
12. Conductance and Conductivity
The reciprocal of resistance is called the conductance (G)
1
i.e., G=
R
–1
Its SI unit is (ohm) or mho or siemen (S).
The reciprocal of resistivity is called the conductivity (σ).
1
i.e., v=
t
Its SI unit is ohm–1 metre–1 (or mho m–1) or Sm–1
13. Colour Code for Carbon Resistances
Very high resistances are made of carbon. The value of high resistance is specified by four bands of
different colours. The first three bands represent value of resistance while the last band represents
tolerance (variance). The first band represents first digit, second band represents second digit and
third band represents multiplier in powers of 10. The colour of fourth band tells the tolerance.
Absence of fourth band means a tolerance of 20%. The following table gives the colour code for
carbon resistances.
First letter of colour Colour Figure Multiplier % Tolerance
B Black 0 100=1
B Brown 1 101
R Red 2 102
O Orange 3 103
Y Yellow 4 104
G Green 5 105
B Blue 6 106
V Violet 7 107
G Grey 8 108
W White 9 109
Gold — 10–1 5
Silver — 10–2 10
No colour — — 20
To memorise these colour codes, the following sentence is of great help.
B.B. ROY (of) Great Britain (has) Very Good Wife.

14. Resistances in Series and Parallel
(i) When resistances are connected in series, the net resistance (Rs) is given by
R = R1+R2+R3+.......+Rn
In series I1 = I2 = I3 = Is (same)
voltage, Vs = V1+V2+V3+.....+Vn
(ii) When resistances are connected in parallel, the net resistance (Rp) is given by
1 1 1 1
= + + ..... +
RP R1 R2 Rn
In parallel, current IP = I1 + I2 + I3 + ....... + In
voltage V1 = V2 = V3 = VP
For two resistances R1 and R2 in parallel
1 1 1 R1 R2
RP
=
R1
+
R2
& RP =
R1 + R2
15. Temperature Dependence of Resistance
The resistance of a metallic conductor increases with increase of temperature.
Rt = R0 [1 + a (t – t0)]
where R0 is resistance at 0°C and Rt is resistance at t°C and a is temperature coefficient of resistance.
In general if variation of temperature is not too large, then
R2 – R1
a= per o C or per K
R1 (t2 – t1)
In terms of resistivity
t2 – t1
ar = per o C or per K
t1 (t2 – t1)
However, the resistance of a semiconductor decreases with rise in temperature.
16. Super Conductors
Some substance lose their resistance when cooled below a certain temperature. These substances
are called superconductors and the temperature below which they lose resistance is called transition
temperature. The transition temperature of Hg is 4.2 K.
17. Electric Cell
It is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
EMF of a cell (E) is defined as the maximum potential difference
when no current is being drawn from the cell.
Terminal Potential difference (V) is defined as the potential difference
when current is being delivered to external load resistance.
Internal Resistance (r) of a cell is the hindrance offered by the
electrolyte of cell to the flow of current. Internal resistance of a cell depends on
(i) separation between electrodes.
(ii) area of immersed part of electrodes.
(iii) concentration and nature of electrolyte.
E = V + Ir ⇒ V = E – Ir
When a current I is passed in cell in opposite direction by external battery, then terminal
potential difference V = E + Ir
18. Combination of Cells
(i) When n-identical cells are connected in series
Enet
Current, I f= p=
nE
Rext + Rint R + nr
For useful series combination, the condition is Rext >>Rint

(ii) When m-identical cells are connected in parallel
Enet E
I= =
Rext + Rint R + r/m
Condition of useful parallel combination is R < r/m.
(iii) When N = mn, cells are connected in mixed grouping (m-rows in parallel, each row containing
n cells in series)
nE mnE
Current, I= =
nr mR + nr
R+
m
Condition for useful mixed grouping is Rext = Rint
nr
i.e., R=
m
(iv) When two cells of different emfs E1 and E2 and different internal resistances r1 and r2 are
connected in parallel as shown in fig. then net emf of combination is
E1 E2
+
r1 r2 E1 r2 + E2 r1
E= =
1 1 r1 + r2
+
r1 r2
Net internal resistance rint
1 1 1 r1 r2
rint
= +
r1 r2
& rint =
r1 + r2
19. Kirchhoff ’s Laws

(i) First law (or junction law): The algebraic sum of currents meeting at any junction in an
electrical network is zero,
i.e., ∑I = 0
This law is based on conservation of charge.
(ii) Second law (or loop law): The algebraic sum of potential
differences of different circuit elements of a closed circuit
(or mesh) is zero, i.e.,
∑V = 0
This law is based on conservation of energy.
20. Wheatstone’s Bridge
It is an arrangement of four resistances P, Q, R, and S forming a closed
circuit. A potential difference is applied across terminals A and C. A
galvanometer is connected across B and D. The condition of null point
(no deflection in galvanometer) is
P R
=
Q S
21. Metre Bridge
Metre bridge is based on the principle of
Wheatstone’s bridge. In fact, it is practical
application of Wheatstone’s Bridge. It consists of
1 m long resistance wire. The resistance of wire is
divided into two resistances P and Q. R is known
resistance and S is unknown resistance.
P R
At balance
Q
=
S
& (100l – l) = RS
100 – l
& unknown resistance, S = c mR
l

22. Potentiometer
It is a device to measure the potential difference
across a circuit element accurately. The circuit
containing battery of emf E1 is the main circuit
and the circuit containing battery of emf E2
is the secondary circuit. For the working of
potentiometer emf E1 > emf E2.
When a steady current is passed through a
potentiometer wire AB, there is a fall of potential
along the wire from A to B. The fall of potential per unit length along potentiometer wire is called
the potential gradient. If L is length of wire AB and V is the potential difference across it then
V
Potential gradient k =
L
The SI unit of potential gradient is volt/metre.
It is a vector quantity.
If l is the balancing length of cell of emf E, then E = kl.
If l1 and l2 are the balancing lengths for two cells of emfs E1 and E2 for the same potential gradient,
E1 l1
then =
E2 l2
Selected NCERT Textbook Questions

Q. 1. The storage battery of a car has an emf of 12 V. If the internal resistance of the battery is 0.4 Ω,
what is the maximum current that can be drawn from the battery?
Ans. Current drawn from battery of emf E, internal resistance r, external resistance R, is
E
I=
R+r
For maximum current, external resistance, R = 0
E 12
∴ I= = = 30 A
r 0. 4
Q. 2. A battery of emf 10 V and internal resistance 3 Ω is connected to a resistor. If the current in
the circuit is 0.5 A, what is the resistance of the resistor? What is the terminal voltage of the
battery when the circuit is closed.
Ans. Given E = 10 V, r = 3 Ω, I = 0.5 A
E 10
Total resistance of circuit R + r = = = 20 X
I 0.5
External resistance R = 20 – r =20 – 3 = 17 Ω
Terminal voltage V = IR = 0.5 × 17 = 8.5 V
Q. 3. (a) Three resistors 1 Ω, 2 Ω and 3 Ω are connected in series. What is the total resistance of the
combination?
(b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 12 V and negligible internal resistance,
obtain the potential drop across each resistor.
Ans. (a) In series combination total resistance
R = R1 + R2 + R3 = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6 Ω
(b) In series current in each resistor is the same
V 12
⇒ Current in circuit I = = =2A
R 6
Potential difference across
R1 = 1 Ω, V1 = IR1 = 2 × 1 = 2 V
Potential difference across R2 = 2 Ω , V2 = IR2 = 2 × 2 = 4 V
Potential difference across R3 = 3 Ω , V3 = IR3 = 2 × 3 = 6 V

Q. 4. (a) Three resistors 2 Ω, 4 Ω and 5 Ω are connected in parallel. What is the total resistance of
the combination?
(b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 20 V and negligible internal resistance,
determine the current through each resistor and the total current drawn from the battery.
Ans. (a) In parallel combination, net resistance R is given by
1 1 1 1
= + +
R R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 10 + 5 + 4
= + + =
2 4 5 20
20
& R = 19 X
(b) In parallel combination, the potential difference across each
resistance remains the same.
V 20
Current in R1 = 2 X is I1 = = = 10 A
R1 2
V 20
Current in R2 = 4 X is I2 = = =5A
R2 4
V 20
Current in R3 = 5 X is I3 = = =4A
R3 5
∴ Total current drawn from battery
I = I1 + I2 + I3 =10 + 5 + 4 = 19 A
Q. 5. At room temperature (27.0°C), the resistance of a heating element is 100 Ω. At what temperature
does the resistance of the element change to 117 Ω? Given that the temperature coefficient of
the material of the resistor is 1.70 × 10–4 °C–1.
Ans. Given, R27 = 100 Ω, Rt = 117 Ω, t = ?, a = 1.70 × 10–4/°C
Rt – R27
Temperature Coefficient a = , temperature t is unknown
R27 (t – 27)
Rt – R27 117 – 100
& t – 27 =
R27 .a
= = 1000
100 # 1.70 # 10 –4
⇒ t = 1000 + 27 = 1027°C
Q. 6. A negligibly small current is passed through a wire of length 15 m and uniform cross-section
6.0 × 10–7 m2 and its resistance is measured to be 5.0 Ω. What is the resistivity of the material
at the temperature of the experiment?
Ans. Given, l = 15 m, A = 6.0 × 10–7 m2, R = 5.0 Ω
tl
We have, R=
A
RA 5.0 # 6.0 # 10 –7
∴ Resistivity t = = = 2.0 # 10 –7 Xm
l 15
Q. 7. A silver wire has a resistance 2.1 Ω at 27.5°C and a resistance of 2.7 Ω at 100°C. Determine the
temperature coefficient of the resistivity of silver.
Ans. Given, R1=2.1 Ω, t1 = 27.5°C, R2 = 2.7 Ω, t2 = 100°C, a = ?
Temperature coefficient of resistance,
R2 – R1
a=
R1 (t2 – t1)
2.7 – 2.1 0. 6
= = = 0.0039/ o C
2.1 (100 – 27.5) 2.1 # 72.5

Q. 8. A heating element using nichrome connected to a 230 V supply draws an initial current of 3.2 A
which settles after a few seconds at a steady value of 2.8 A. What is the steady temperature of
the heating element if the room temperature is 27°C? Temperature coefficient of resistance of
nichrome averaged over the temperature range involved is 1.7 × 10–4 per °C. [HOTS]
Ans. Resistance of heating element at room temperature t1 = 27° C is
V 230
R1 = = Ω
I1 3. 2
Resistance of heating element at steady state temperature t2°C is
V 230
R2 = = Ω
I2 2. 8
R2 – R1
Temperature coefficient of resistance α =
R1 × (t2 – t1)
230 230
d n–d n
R2 – R1 2. 8 3.2 3.2 – 2.8
` t2 – t1 = = = = 840.3°C
R1 .α 230 2.8 ×1.7 ×10 –4
×1.7×10 –4
3.2
∴ Steady state temperature, t2 = 840.3 + t1 = 840.3 + 27 = 867.3°C
Q. 9. Determine the current in each branch of the network shown in figure.
V
Ans. According to Kirchhoff ’s first law, the current in various branches of circuit are shown in figure.
Applying Kirchhoff ’s second law to mesh ABDA.
–10I1 – 5I3 + 5I2 = 0
⇒ 2I1 – I2 + I3 = 0 …(i)
Applying Kirchhoff ’s second law to mesh BCDB
–5(I1 – I3) +10 (I2+ I3) +5I3 = 0
⇒ 5I1 – 10I2 – 20 I3 = 0
⇒ I1 – 2I2 – 4I3=0 …(ii)
Applying Kirchhoff ’s second law to mesh ADCEFA
–5I2 – 10(I2 + I3) + 10 – 10 (I1 + I2) = 0 V
⇒ 2I1 + 5I2 + 2I3 = 2 …(iii)
From (i) I2 = 2I1 + I3 …(iv)
From (ii) I1 = 2I2 + 4I3 …(v)
Substituting I1 in (iv), we have
I2 = 2(2I2 + 4I3) + I3 ⇒ I2 = –3I3

From (v) –3I3= 2I1 + I3 ⇒ I1 = –2I3
Now from (iii), –4I3 – 15I3 + 2I3 = 2 ⇒ I3 = –2/17 A
4 6 10
` I1 = A, I2 = A, I = I1 + I2 = A
17 17 17
4
Current in branch AB = I1 = A,
17
6
Current in branch BC = I1 – I3 = A
17
6
Current in branch AD = I2 = A
17
4
Current in branch DC = I2 + I3 = A
17
2
Current in branch BD = I3 = – A
17
2
i.e., Current in branch= BD = A and its direction is from D to B.
17
10
Current drawn from cell, I = I1 + I2 = A
17
Q. 10. (a) In a meter bridge the balance point is found
to be at 39.5 cm from the end A, when the A B C
resistance Y is of 12.5 Ω . Determine the
resistance of X. Why are the connections
between resistors in a Wheatstone or meter
bridge made of thick copper strips?
(b) Determine the balance point of the bridge if
X and Y are interchanged.
(c) What happens if the galvanometer and cell
are interchanged at the balance point of the ( )
bridge? Would the galvanometer show any
current?
Ans. (a) The condition of balance of Wheatstone’s bridge is
X l
=
Y 100 – l
Given l = 39.5 cm
l 39.5
& X=
100 – l
Y=
60.5
# 12.5 X = 8.2 X
The connections between resistors in a meter bridge are made of thick copper strips to
minimise the resistance of connection wires, because these resistances have not been
accounted in the formula.
(b) When X are Y interchanged, then l and (100 –l) will also be interchanged, so new balancing
length l′ =100 – l =100 – 39.5 = 60.5 cm
(c) If the galvanometer and the cell are interchanged, the position of balance point remains
unchanged, but the sensitivity of the bridge changes. Now the galvanometer will not shows
any current.
Q. 11. A storage battery of emf 8.0 V and internal resistance 0.5 Ω is being charged by a 120 V dc
supply using a series resistor of 15.5 Ω. What is the terminal voltage of the battery during
charging? What is the purpose of having a series resistor in the charging circuit?

Ans. When battery is being charged by a 120 V d.c. supply, the
8V
current in battery is in opposite direction than normal
connections of battery of supplying current. So the potential 0.5
difference across battery
R=15.5
E = V + IR ...(i)
Given E = 8 V, r = 0.5 Ω , R = 15.5 Ω
120 – 8 112 120 V
+ –
Current in circuit I = = =7A dc
15.5 + 0.5 16
∴ V = 8 + 7 × 0.5 = 11.5 V
Series resistance limits the current drawn from external dc source. In the absence of series
resistance the current may exceed the safe-value permitted by storage battery.
Q. 12. In a potentiometer arrangement, a cell of emf 1.25 V gives a balance point at 35.0 cm length of
wire. If the cell is replaced by another cell and the balance point shifts to 63.0 cm, what is the
emf of the second cell?
Ans. Given El = 1.25 V, l1 = 35.0 cm, l2 = 63.0 cm, E2 = ?
E2 l2
We have =
E1 l1
l2 63.0
⇒ E2 = e o . E1 = d n ×1.25 V = 2.25 V
l1 35.0
Q. 13. The number density of free electrons in a copper conductor is 8.5 × 1028 m–3 .How long does
an electron take to drift from one end of a wire 3 m long, to its other end? The area of cross-
section of the wire is 2.0 ×10–6 m2 and it is carrying a current of 3.0 A.
Ans. Current in wire, I =neAvd
Given n = 8.5 × 1028 m–3, e = 1.6×10–19 C, I = 3.0 A, A = 2.0 ×10–6 m2, l =3.0 m
I 3.0
∴ Drift velocity vd = = = 1.1 # 10 –4 m/s
neA 8.5 # 10 # 1.6 # 10 –19 # 2.0 # 10 –6
28
I 3.0
∴ Time, t = v = = 2.72 # 10 4 s = 7 h 33 min
d 1.1 # 10 –4
Q. 14. The earth’s surface has a negative surface charge density of 10–9 Cm–2. The potential difference
of 400 kV between the top of atmosphere and the surface results (due to the low conductivity
of lower atmosphere) in a current of only 1800 A over the entire globe. If there were no
mechanism of sustaining atmospheric electric field, how much time (roughly) would be
required to neutralise the earth’s surface? (This never happens in practice because there is a
mechanism to replenish electric charges, namely the continual thunder storms and lightning
in different parts of the globe). (Radius of earth = 6.37 × 106 m).
Ans. Given σ = 10–9 Cm–2, I = 1800 A, R = 6.37 × 106 m
Surface area of globe, A = 4pR2
= 4 × 3.14 × (6.37 × 106)2
= 5.1 × 1014 m2
Total charge on globe, Q = σ . A = 10–9 × 5.1 × 1014
= 5.1 × 105 C
Q 5.1×105
Charge Q = It, given t = = = 283 s
I 1800
= 4 min 43 s
Q. 15. (a) Six lead-acid type of secondary cells each of emf 2.0 V and internal resistance 0.015 Ω are
joined in series to provide a supply to a resistance of 8.5 Ω. What are the current drawn
from the supply and its terminal voltage?

(b) A secondary cell after a long use has an emf of 1.9 V and a large internal resistance of 380 Ω.
What maximum current can be drawn from the cell? Could the cell drive the starting
motor of a car?
Ans. (a) Given E = 2.0 V, n = 6, r = 0.015 Ω, R = 8.5 Ω
nE
When cells are in series, I =
R + nr
6 # 2 .0 12
= = = 1.4 A
8.5 + 6 # 0.015 8.59
Terminal voltage V = IR = 1.4 × 8.5 = 11.9 V
E
(b) Current drawn from cell I =
R+r
For maximum current R = 0
E 1.9
∴ Maximum current, Imax = = A = 0.005 A
r 380
For driving the starting motor of a car a large current of the order of 100 A is required,
therefore, the cell cannot drive the starting motor of the car.
Q. 16. Two wires of equal length, one of aluminium and the other of copper have the same resistance.
Which of the two wires is lighter? Hence explain why aluminium wires are preferred for
overhead power cables.
(ρAl = 2.63 × 10–8 Ωm, ρcu = 1.72 ×10–8 Ωm, Relative density of Al = 2.7; of Cu = 8.9).
Ans. The resistance of wire of length l and cross-sectional area A is given by
tl tl
R=
A
& A=
R
…(i)
Mass of wire, m= volume × density =Ald

Substituting the value of A from (i)
tl t l2 d
m = c m ld & m=
R R
As length and resistance of two wires are same,
So, m ∝ ρd
m Al t Al dAl 2.63 # 10 –8 2.7 # 103
= =f # p = 0.46
mCu tCu dCu 1.72 # 10 –8 8.9 # 103
This indicates that aluminium wire is 0. 46 times lighter than copper wire. That is why aluminium
wires are preferred for overhead power cables.
Q. 17. Answer the following questions:
(a) A steady current flows in a metallic conductor of non-uniform cross-section. Which of
these quantities is constant along the conductor : current, current density, drift speed?
(b) Is Ohm’s law universally applicable for all conducting materials? If not, give examples of
materials which do not obey Ohm’s law.
Ans. (a) Current remains constant throughout the metallic conductor.
I
Current density J = is not constant because cross-sectional area is a variable parameter.
A
I 1
Drift velocity vd = is not constant since vd ? .
neA A
(b) No, Ohm’s law is applicable only for those conducting materials for which V-I graph is linear.
It fails for those conducting materials for which V-I graph is non-linear. It does not apply to
semiconductor diodes, electrolytes, vacuum tubes, thyristor etc.

Q. 18. (a) Given n resistors each of resistance R, how will you combine them to get (i) maximum
(ii) minimum effective resistance? What is the ratio of maximum to minimum
resistance?
(b) Given the resistances of 1 Ω, 2 Ω, 3 Ω; how will you combine them to get the equivalent
resistance of [CBSE (F) 2015]
11 11 6
(i) X (ii) X (iii) 6 X (iv) X
3 5 11
(c) Determine the equivalent resistance of network shown in figure.
R
B
i
R
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1 Ω 1Ω 1 Ω 1Ω 1Ω i
R
i
A B R
2Ω 2Ω 2Ω 2Ω 2Ω 2Ω 2 Ω 2Ω i
A
i R
(i) (ii)
Ans. (a) (i) For maximum resistance, we shall connect all the resistors in series. Maximum resistance
Rmax = nR
(ii) For minimum resistance, we shall connect all the resistors in parallel.
R
Minimum resistance, Rmin =
n
Rmax nR
Ratio, = = n2
Rmin R/n
(b) The combinations are shown in figure.
Ω c= 3 + m Ω the resistance of 3 Ω is connected in
11 2
(i) For obtaining the resistance of
3 3
series with the parallel combination of resistors of 1 Ω and 2 Ω.
Ω c= 1 + m Ω the resistance of 1 Ω is connected in

11 6
(ii) For obtaining the resistance of
5 5
series with the parallel combination of 2 Ω and 3 Ω.
(iii) All in series

RAB = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6 Ω
1 1 1 1 6
(iv) All in parallel
R AB
= + +
1 2 3
& R AB =
11
X
(c) (i) The given network consists of a series combination of 4 equivalent units.
Resistance of Each Unit: Each unit has 2 rows. The upper row contains two resistances
1 Ω, 1 Ω in series and the lower row contains two resistances 2 Ω, 2 Ω in series. These
two are mutually connected in parallel.

Resistance of upper row, R1 = 1 + 1 = 2 Ω
Resistance of lower row, R2 = 2 + 2 = 4 Ω
∴ Resistance of each unit Rl is given by
1 1 1 R1 R2 2× 4 4
= + & Rl = = = Ω
Rl R1 R2 R1 + R2 2+4 3
∴ Equivalent resistance between A and B
4 16
R AB = Rl + Rl + Rl + Rl = 4Rl = 4 × = Ω
3 3
(ii) When a battery is connected between A and B, the current in all the 5 resistances passes
undivided; so all the five resistances are connected in series, so equivalent resistance
Req = R + R + R + R + R = 5 R
Q. 19. Determine the current drawn from a 12 V supply with internal resistance 0.5 Ω by the infinite
network shown in fig. Each resistor has 1 Ω resistance. [HOTS]
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
A
12 V
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
0.5 Ω
B
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
Ans. Let R be equivalent resistance between A and B.
As 3 ! 1 = 3 , resistance between C and D is the same as between A and B, then equivalent
resistance of R and 1 Ω in parallel
R ×1
R1 =
R+1
C 1Ω
∴ Net resistance between A and B will be A
RAB = R1 + 1 + 1
12 V
Therefore, by hypothesis R1 + 1 + 1 = R R 1Ω
0.5 Ω
R
⇒ +2=R
R+1 D
B
1Ω
⇒ R + 2(R + 1) = R(R + 1)
⇒ 3R + 2 = R2 + R
⇒ R2 – 2R – 2 = 0
2 ! 4 – 4 ×1× (–2) 2 ! 12
⇒ R= = = (1 + 3 ) Ω
2 2
= 1 + 1.732 = 2.732 Ω
12 12
Current drawn I = = = 3.7 A
2.732 + 0.5 3.232
Q. 20. Figure shows a potentiometer with a cell of 2.0 V and
internal resistance of 0.40 Ω maintaining a potential drop 2V 0.40
across the resistor wire AB. A standard cell which maintains
a constant emf of 1.02 V (for very moderate currents upto a A B
few mA) gives a balance point at 67.3 cm length of the wire.
To ensure very low current is drawn from the standard cell, G
a very high resistance of 600 kΩ is put in series with it, 600 k
which is shorted close to the balance point. The standard
cell is then replaced by a cell of unknown emf ε and the balance point found similarly, turns
out to be at 82.3 cm length of the wire.

(a) What is the value of ε?
(b) What purpose does the high resistance of 600 kΩ have?
(c) Is the balance point affected by this high resistance?
(d) Is the balance point affected by the internal resistance of the driver cell?
(e) Would the method work in the above situation if the driver cell of the potentiometer had
an emf of 1.0 V instead of 2.0 V?
(f) Would the circuit work well for determining extremely small emf, say of the order of few
mV (such as the typical emf of a thermo couple)? If not, how would you modify the circuit?
Ans. (a) For same potential gradient of potentiometer wire, the formula for comparison of emfs of cells is
ε2 l2 ε l
ε1
=
l1
& εs
=
ls
l
ε = εs
ls
εs = emf of standard cell = 1.02 V
ls = balancing length with standard cell = 67.3 cm
l = balancing length with cell of unknown emf = 82.3 cm
(82.3 cm)
∴ Unknown emf ε = ×1.02 V = 1.25 V
(67.3 cm)
(b) The purpose of high resistance is to reduce the current through the galvanometer. When
jockey is far from the balance point, this saves the standard cell from being damaged.
(c) The balance point is not affected by the presence of high resistance because in balanced-
position there is no current in cell-circuit (secondary circuit).
(d) No, the balance point is not affected by the internal resistance of driver cell, because we have
already set the constant potential gradient of wire.
(e) No, since for the working of potentiometer the emf of driver cell must be greater than emf
(ε) of secondary circuit.
(f) No, the circuit will have to be modified by putting variable resistance (R) in series with the
driver cell; the value of R is so adjusted that potential drop across wire is slightly greater
than emf of secondary cell, so that the balance point may be obtained at a longer length. This
will reduce the error and increase the accuracy of measurement.
B1
Q. 21. Figure shows a potentiometer circuit for comparison
of two resistances. The balance point with a standard
resistance R = 10.0 Ω is found to be 58.3 cm, while that A J
B
with the unknown resistance X is 68.5 cm. Determine
the value of X. What might you do if you failed to find a R
balance point with the given cell ε. X
Ans. In first case resistance R is in parallel with cell ε, so p.d.
across R = ε. ε
i.e., ε = RI ...(i)
In second case X is in parallel with cell ε, so p.d. across X = ε
i.e., ε = XI ...(ii)
Let k be the potential gradient of potentiometer wire. If l1 are l2 the balancing lengths
corresponding to resistance R and X respectively, then
ε = kl1 ...(iii)
ε = kl2 ...(iv)
From (i) and (iii) RI = kl1 ...(v)
From (ii) and (iv) XI = kl2 ...(vi)

Dividing (vi) by (v), we get
X l2 l2
∴
R
=
l1
& X= R
l1
Here R = 10.0 Ω, l1 = 58.3 cm, l2 = 68.5 cm
68.5
X= ×10.0 = 11.75 X
58.3
If we fail to find the balance point with the given cell ε, then we shall take the driver battery (B1)
of higher emf than emf (ε).
Q. 22. Given figure shows a 2.0 V potentiometer used for the
determination of internal resistance of a 1.5 V cell. The
balance point of the cell in open circuit is 76.3 cm. When a
resistor of 9.5 Ω is used in the external circuit of the cell, the
balance point shifts to 64.8 cm length of the potentiometer
wire. Determine the internal resistance of the cell.
Ans. Internal resistance of the cell
l1
r = a – 1 kR = f – 1 p R
f
V l2
Here, l1 = 76.3 cm, l2 = 64.8 cm, R = 9.5 Ω
76.3 (76.3 – 64.8)
∴ r =c – 1 m # 95 X = # 9. 5 X
64.8 64.8
11.5 # 9.5
= = 1.7 X
64.8
Multiple Choice Questions [1 mark]

Choose and write the correct option(s) in the following questions.
1. Two resistors of resistance R1 and R2 having R1 > R2 are connected in parallel. For equivalent
resistance R, the correct statement is:
(a) R > R1 + R2 (b) R1 < R1 < R2
(c) R2 < R1 < (R1 + R2) (d) R < R2 < R1
2. The current in the adjoining circuit will be
i
1 1
(a) A (b) A 30 Ω
45 15 2V 30 Ω
1 1
(c) A (d) A 30 Ω
10 5
3. Dimensions of a block are 1cm × 1cm × 100 cm. If specific resistance of its material is
3 × 10–7 Ω m, then the resistance between the opposite rectangular faces is
(a) 3 × 10–9 Ω
(b) 3 × 10–7 Ω
(c) 3 × 10–5 Ω
1 cm
(d) 3 × 10–3 Ω
4. In the figure a carbon resistor has bands of different 1 cm
Silver
colours on its body as mentioned in the figure. The value
of the resistance is
(a) 24 × 106 Ω ± 5%
(b) 35 × 106 Ω ± 10%
(c) 5.6 k Ω Red
(d) 24 × 105 Ω ± 10% Yellow Green

5. A cell of emf E and internal resistance r is connected across an external resistor R. The graph
showing the variation of P.D. across R versus R is
(a) V (b) V (c) V (d) V
E E E E
R R R R
6. In a Wheatstone bridge, all the four arms have equal resistance R. If resistance of the
galvanometer arm is also R, then equivalent resistance of the combination is
R R
(a) R (b) 2R (c) (d)
2 4
7. A potentiometer is an accurate and versatile device to make electrical measurement of EMF
because the method involves
(a) potential gradients
(b) a condition of no current flow through the galvanometer
(c) a combination of cells, galvanometer and resistance
(d) cells
8. Consider a current carrying wire (current I ) in the shape of a circle. Note that as the current
progresses along the wire, the direction of j (current density) changes in an exact manner,
while the current I remain unaffected. The agent that is essentially responsible for is
[NCERT Exemplar]
(a) source of emf.
(b) electric field produced by charges accumulated on the surface of wire.
(c) the charges just behind a given segment of wire which push them just the right way by
repulsion.
(d) the charges ahead.
9. Two batteries of emf ε1 and ε2 (ε2 > ε1) and internal resistances r1 and r2 respectively are
connected in parallel as shown in Figure. [NCERT Exemplar]
(a) The equivalent emf εeq of the two cells is between ε1 and ε2,
i.e., ε1< εeq < ε2
(b) The equivalent emf εeq is smaller than ε1.
(c) The εeq is given by εeq = ε1 + ε2 always.
(d) εeq is independent of internal resistances r1 and r2.
10. The drift velocity of the free electrons in a conducting wire carrying a current i is v. If in a
wire of the same metal, but of double the radius, the current be 2I, then the drift velocity of
the electrons will be
(a) v/4 (b) v/2 (c) v (d) 4v
11. A resistance R is to be measured using a meter bridge. Student chooses the standard resistance
S to be 100 Ω. He finds the null point at l1 = 2.9 cm. He is told to attempt to improve the
accuracy. Which of the following is a useful way? [NCERT Exemplar]
(a) He should measure l1 more accurately.
(b) He should change S to 1000 Ω and repeat the experiment.
(c) He should change S to 3 Ω and repeat the experiment.
(d) He should give up hope of a more accurate measurement with a meter bridge.

12. Two cells of emf ’s approximately 5 V and 10 V are to be accurately compared using a
potentiometer of length 400 cm. [NCERT Exemplar]
(a) The battery that runs the potentiometer should have voltage of 8V.
(b) The battery of potentiometer can have a voltage of 15 V and R adjusted so that the potential
drop across the wire slightly exceeds 10 V.
( ) The first portion of 50 cm of wire itself should have a potential drop of 10 V.
(d) Potentiometer is usually used for comparing resistances and not voltages.
13. The resistivity of iron is 1 ×10–7 ohm-meter. The resistance of the given wire of a particular
thickness and length is 1 ohm. If the diameter and length of the wire both are doubled the
resistivity will be (in ohm-meter)
(a) 1 ×10–7 (b) 2 ×10–7 (c) 4 ×10–7 (d) 8 ×10–7
14. Figure represents a part of a closed circuit. The potential difference between points A and B
(VA – VB) is
(a) +9 V (b) – 9 V (c) +3 V (d) + 6 V

15. A student connects 10 dry cells each of emf E and internal resistance r in series, but by
mistake the one cell gets wrongly connected. Then net emf and net internal resistance of the
combination will be
r
(a) 8E, 8r (b) 8E, 10r (c) 10E, 10r (d) 8E,
10
1
16. A metal rod of length 10 cm and a rectangular cross-section of 1cm × cm is connected to a
2
battery across opposite faces. The resistance will be [NCERT Exemplar]
1
(a) maximum when the battery is connected across 1 cm × cm faces.
2
(b) maximum when the battery is connected across 10 cm × 1 cm faces.
1
(c) maximum when the battery is connected across 10 cm × cm faces.
2
(d) same irrespective of the three faces.
17. Which of the following characteristics of electrons determines the current in a conductor?
[NCERT Exemplar]
(a) Drift velocity alone
(b) Thermal velocity alone
(c) Both drift velocity and thermal velocity
(d) Neither drift nor thermal velocity.
18. Temperature dependence of resistivity ρ(T) of semiconductors insulators and metals is
significantly based on the following factors. [NCERT Exemplar]
(a) Number of charge carriers can change with temperature T.
(b) Time interval between two successive collision can depend on T.
(c) Length of material can be a function of T.
(d) Mass of carriers is a function of T.
19. A wire of resistance 12Ω/m is bent to form a complete circle of radius 10 cm. The resistance
between its two diametrically opposite points A and B as shown in figure is
(a) 3 Ω (b) 6 rX (c) 6 Ω (d) 0.6 rX

20. Kirchhoff ’s junction rule is a reflection of [NCERT Exemplar]
(a) conservation of current density vector.
(b) conservation of charge.
(c) the fact that the momentum with which a charged particle approaches a junction is
unchanged (as a vector) as the charged particle leaves the junction.
(d) the fact that there is no accumulation of charged at a junction.
Answers
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (a)
7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (b)
13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (a), (b)
19. (d) 20. (b), (d).
Fill in the Blanks [1 mark]

1. The resistivities of semi conductors _______________ with increasing temperatures.
2. The dimension of temperature co-efficient of resistivity is _______________.
3. In nature, free charged particles do exist like in upper strata of atmosphere called the
_______________.
4. Increasing the potential difference between the ends of a conductor result in _______________.
5. Two identical metal wires have their lengths is ration 2 : 3. Their resistance shall be in the ratio
_______________.
6. There is a metal block of dimensions 20 × 10 × 15 cm. The ratio of the maximum and minimum
resistance of the block is _______________.
7. A cell of emf E and resistance r is connected across an external resistance R.
The potential difference across the terminals of a cell for r = R is _______________.
8. Kirchhoff ’s II law for electric network is based on _______________.
9. Kirchhoff ’s I law for electric network is based on ________________.
10. The value of resistances used in electric and electronic circuit vary over a very wide range.
Such high resistances used are usually _______________ resistances and the value of such
resistances are marked on them according to a colour code.
Answers
1. decrease 2. (temperature)–1 3. inosphere
4. increase in the current 5. 2:3 6. 4:1 7. E/2
8. conservation of energy 9. conservation of charge 10. carbon
Very Short Answer Questions [1 mark]

Q. 1. Define the term drift velocity of charge carriers in a conductor. Write its relationship with
current flowing through it. [CBSE Delhi 2014]
Ans. Drift velocity is defined as the average velocity acquired by the free electrons in a conductor
under the influence of an electric field applied across the conductor. It is denoted by vd.
Current, I = NeA vd

Q. 2. Define the term ‘Mobility’ of charge carries in a conductor. Write its SI unit. What is its relation
with relaxation time? [CBSE Delhi 2014, (North) 2016]
Ans. Mobility is defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity acquired by it in a unit electric field.
vd eEx ex
n=
E
=
mE
=
m
& n?x
where τ is the average collision time for electrons.
The SI unit of mobility is m2/Vs or m2 V –1s–1.
Q. 3. How does the mobility of electrons in a conductor change, if the potential difference applied
across the conductor is doubled, keeping the length and temperature of the conductor
constant? [CBSE 2019 (55/1/1)]
Ans. Mobility is defined as the magnitude of drift velocity per unit electric field.
vd eE e
µ= = x= m x
E m. E
1
At constant temperature and length, there is no change in relaxation time i.e., τ ∝ . Also it
T
does not depend on potential difference.
Hence, on changing the potential difference, there is no change in mobility of electrons.
Q. 4. Define electrical conductivity of a conductor and give its SI unit. On what factors does it
depend? [CBSE Delhi 2014, (East) 2016]
Ans. The conductivity of a material equals the reciprocal of the resistance of its wire of unit length and
unit area of cross-section.
Its SI unit is
c m or ohm–1 m–1 or (mho m–1) or siemen m–1
1
ohm - metre
It depends upon number density, nature of material, relaxation time and temperature.
Q. 5. Plot a graph showing variation of current versus voltage for the material GaAs.
[CBSE Delhi 2014]
Ans. The variation of electric current with applied voltage for GaAs is as shown.
Q. 6. Graph showing the variation of current versus voltage for a material GaAs is shown in the figure.
Identify the region of
(i) negative resistance (ii) where Ohm’s law is obeyed. [CBSE Delhi 2015]
Ans. (i) In region DE, material GaAs (Gallium Arsenide) offers negative resistance, because slope
TV
< 0.
TI

(ii) The region BC approximately passes through the origin, (or current also increases with the
TV
increase of voltage). Hence, it follows Ohm’s law and in this region > 0.
TI
Q. 7. Plot a graph showing the variation of resistance of a conducting
wire as a function of its radius, keeping the length of the wire and
its temperature as constant. [CBSE (F) 2013]
Ans. Resistance of a conductor of length l, and radius r is given by
l 1
R=t 2
; thus R?
rr r2
Q. 8. The emf of a cell is always greater than its terminal voltage. Why? 1
Give reason. [CBSE Delhi 2013] r2
Ans. (i) In an open circuit, the emf of a cell and terminal voltage are same.
(ii) In closed circuit, a current is drawn from the source, so, V = E – Ir, it is true/valid, because
each cell has some finite internal resistance.
Q. 9. Two materials Si and Cu, are cooled from 300 K to 60 K. What will be the effect on their
resistivity? [CBSE (F) 2013]
Ans. In silicon, the resistivity increases.
In copper, the resistivity decreases.
For Silicon For Copper
Q. 10. Plot a graph showing the variation of current ‘I’ versus resistance ‘R’, connected to a cell of
emf E and internal resistance ‘r’.
E
Ans. I =
r+R
I
R
Q. 11. Give an example of a material each for which temperature coefficient of resistivity is
(i) positive, (ii) negative. [CBSE Sample Paper 2016]
Ans. (i) Copper (Cu) (Temperature coefficient of resistivity (a) is positive for metals and alloys.)
(ii) Silicon (Si) (For semiconductors, a is negative)
Q. 12. Define the current sensitivity of a galvanometer. Write its SI unit. [CBSE (AI) 2013]
Ans. Ratio of deflection produced in the galvanometer and the current flowing through it is called
i
current sensitivity. Si =
I
SI unit of current sensitivity Si is division/ampere or radian/ampere.
Q. 13. A cell of emf ‘ε’ and internal resistance ‘r’ draws a current ‘I’.
Write the relation between terminal voltage ‘V’ in terms of ε, I
and r. [CBSE Delhi 2013]
Ans. The terminal voltage V < ε, so V = ε – Ir

Q. 14. Distinguish between emf and terminal voltage of a cell. [CBSE Patna 2015]
Ans. The emf of a cell is equal to the terminal voltage, when the circuit is open.
The emf of a cell is less than the terminal voltage, when the cell is being charged, i.e.,
V = E + ir
Q. 15. Under what condition will the current in a wire be the same when connected in series and in
parallel of n identical cells each having internal resistance r and external resistance R ?
[CBSE 2019 (55/4/1)]
Ans. When internal resistance of cell r is equal to external resistance.
Let n identical cell of internal resistance r connected in series and parallel with external resistance R.
nf f nf
IS = and IP = r = Rn + r
R + nr R+ n
According to question
IS = IP
nf nf
=
R + nr Rn + r
⇒ R + nr = Rn + r
⇒ nr – r = Rn – R
⇒ r (n –1) = R(n –1)
r=R
Q. 16. Two identical cells, each of emf E, having negligible internal resistance, are connected in
parallel with each other across an external resistance R. What is the current through this
resistance? [CBSE (AI) 2013]
f
Ans. Current, I =
R
Concept: (i) emf of combination of two (or more) cells in parallel remain same.
(ii) Internal resistance is negligible i.e., zero.

f eq f
So, I = = (req = 0)
R + req R
Q. 17. Two wires, one of copper and the other of manganin, have same resistance and equal thickness.
Which wire is longer? Justify your answer. [CBSE Guwahati 2015]
Ans. Copper
Reason: Let l1 and l2 be lengths of copper and manganin wires having same resistance R and
thickness i.e., area of cross-section (A).
t1 l1
Resistance of copper wire, R =
A
t2 l2
Resistance of manganin wire R =
A
⇒ ρ1l1 = ρ2l2 (As ρl = constant)
Since ρ1 <<< ρ2
So, l1 >>> l2
i.e., copper wire would be longer.

Q. 18. Two wires one of manganin and the other of copper have equal length and equal resistance.
Which one of these wires will be thicker? [CBSE (AI) 2012, (South) 2016] [HOTS]
tl tl
Ans. Resistance R = = 2
A rr
Resistivity ρ of manganin is much greater than that of copper, therefore to keep same resistance
for same length of wire, the manganin wire must be thicker.
Q. 19. Nichrome and copper wires of same length and same radius are connected in series. Current
I is passed through them. Which wire gets heated up more? Justify your answer.
[CBSE (AI) 2017]
Ans. Nichrome wire gets heated up more.
Heat dissipated in a wire is given by
H = I2Rt
tl tl
H = I2 t da R = n
A A
Here, radius is same, hence area (A) is same. Also, current (I) and length (l) are same.
∴ H∝ρ
But ρnichrome > ρcopper
∴ Hnichrome > Hcopper
Q. 20. I – V graph for a metallic wire at two different temperatures, T1 and T2 is as shown in the
figure. Which of the two temperatures is lower and why? [CBSE Allahabad 2015]
Ans. If a constant current I flows through the conductor, resistance at

temperature T1 and T2 is
V1
R1 =
I
V2
and R2 =
I
Since V2 > V1 ⇒ R2 > R1
The resistance of the wire increases with rise of temperature. Hence, T1 is lower than T2 .
Q. 21. Two metallic resistors are connected first in series and then in parallel across a dc supply. Plot
of I –V graph is shown for the two cases. Which one represents a parallel combination of the
resistors and why? [CBSE Bhubaneshwer 2015]

Ans. Line A represents the parallel combination.
Reason: At a given potential difference V, current in the combination A I
is more than in the combination B.
i.e., IA > I B
V
Since RA = and RB = V
IA IB
⇒ RA < RB
Q. 22. The variation of potential difference V with length l in the case of two
potentiometer P and Q is as shown. Which of these two will you prefer
for comparing the emfs of two primary cells and why?
[CBSE (East) 2016] [HOTS]
V
Ans. For greater accuracy of potentiometer, the potential gradient (slope)
l
V
must be as small as possible. In the graph given the slope is smaller for
l
a potentiometer Q; hence we shall prefer potentiometer Q for comparing the emfs of two cells.
Q. 23. I – V graph for two identical conductors of different materials
A and B is shown in the figure. Which one of the two has higher
resistivity? [CBSE (Chennai) 2015] [HOTS]
Ans. The resistivity of material B is higher.
Reason: If the same amount of the current flows through them,
then VB>VA, and from Ohm’s law RB > RA. Hence the resistivity
of the material B is higher.
Q. 24. A carbon resistor is shown in the figure. Using colour code,
write the value of the resistance. [CBSE 2019 (55/3/1)]
Ans. From colour code table,

Green Violet Red No 4th band
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
5 7 2 ±20%
∴ R = 57 × 102Ω ± 20%
Q. 25. A carbon resistor is marked in colour bands of red, black, orange and silver. What is the
resistance and tolerance value of the resistor?
Ans. From colour-code table
Red Black Orange Silver
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
2 0 3 ±10%
R = 20 # 103 X ! 10% = 20 kX ! 10%
Q. 26. For household electrical wiring, one uses Cu wires or Al wires. What considerations are kept
in mind? [NCERT Exemplar]
Ans. Two considerations are required: (i) cost of metal, and (ii) good conductivity of metal. Cost factor
inhibits silver. Cu and Al are the next best conductors.

Q. 27. Why are alloys used for making standard resistance coils? [NCERT Exemplar]
Ans. Alloys have
(i) low value of temperature coefficient and the resistance of the alloy does not vary much with
rise in temperature.
(ii) high resistivity, so even a smaller length of the material is sufficient to design high standard
resistance.
Q. 28. Why do we prefer a potentiometer to measure the emf of a cell rather than a voltmeter?
Ans. A voltmeter has a finite resistance and draws current from a cell, therefore voltmeter measures
terminal potential difference rather than emf, while a potentiometer at balance condition, does
not draw any current from the cell; so the cell remains in open circuit. Hence potentiometer
reads the actual value of emf.
Q. 29. What is the advantage of using thick metallic strips to join wires in a potentiometer?
[NCERT Exemplar]
Ans. The metal strips have low resistance and need not be counted in the potentiometer length l of
the null point. One measures only their lengths along the straight segments (of length l metre
each). This is easily done with the help of centimeter rulings or meter ruler and leads to accurate
measurements.
Q. 30. The I-V characteristics of a resistor are observed to deviate from a straight
line for higher values of current as shown in the adjoining figure why?
[HOTS]
Ans. At higher value of current, sufficient heat is produced which raises the
temperature of resistor and so causes increase in resistance.
Q. 31. V-I graphs for parallel and series combinations of two metallic resistors
are shown in figure. Which graph represents parallel combination?
Justify your answer. [HOTS]
Ans. Graph ‘A’ represents parallel combination.
V
Reason: In series combination the effective resistance, R = is more than
I
parallel combination. The slope of a line of V-I graph represents resistance.
The slope of B is more than A. Therefore B represents series combination
and A represents parallel combination.
Q. 32. Draw a graph to show a variation of resistance of a metal wire as a function of its diameter
keeping its length and material constant. [CBSE Sample Paper 2017]
1 l 4l
Ans. R=t ⇒ t =t
A rr 2
rD 2
1
i.e. Ra ⇒ R is inversely proportional to diameter
D2
Hence, graph of resistance (R) versus diameter (D) is of the following form.
D

Short Answer Questions–I [2 marks]
Q. 1. Define the terms (i) drift velocity, (ii) relaxation time. [CBSE Delhi 2011, (AI) 2013]
Ans. (i) Drift Velocity: The average velocity acquired by the free electrons of a conductor in a
direction opposite to the externally applied electric field is called drift velocity. The drift
velocity will remain the same with lattice ions/atoms.
(ii) Relaxation Time: The average time of free travel of free electrons between two successive
collisions is called the relaxation time.
Q. 2. (a) You are required to select a carbon resistor of resistance 47 kΩ ± 10% from a large collection.
What should be the sequence of colour bands used to code it?
(b) Write the characteristics of manganin which make it suitable for making standard resistance.
[CBSE (F) 2011]
Ans. (a) Resistance = 47 kX ! 10% = 47 # 103 X ! 10%
Sequence of colour should be: Yellow, Violet, Orange and Silver
(b) (i) Very low temperature coefficient of resistance.
(ii) High resistivity
Q. 3. A 10 V cell of negligible internal resistance is connected in parallel across a battery of emf
200 V and internal resistance 38 Ω as shown in the figure. Find the value of current in the
circuit.
10 V
200 V 38 Ω
Ans. Applying Kirchoff ’s law for the loop ABCDA, we have

+200 – 38I – 10 = 0 10 V
38I = 190 D C
190
I= = 5A
38
Alternatively: A B
The two cells are in opposition. 200 V 38 Ω
∴ Net emf = 200 V – 10 V = 190 V
V 190 V
Now, I= = =5 A
R 38 X
Q. 4. Plot a graph showing variation of voltage Vs the current drawn from
the cell. How can one get information from this plot about the emf of
the cell and its internal resistance? [CBSE (F) 2016]
f–V
Ans. V = f – Ir & r =
I
At I = 0, V = f
f
When V = 0, I = I0, r =
I0
The intercept on y-axis gives the emf of the cell. The slope of graph
gives the internal resistance.
Q. 5. Two cells of emfs 1.5 V and 2.0 V having internal resistances 0.2 Ω and 0.3 Ω respectively are
connected in parallel. Calculate the emf and internal resistance of the equivalent cell.
[CBSE Delhi 2016]

Ans. E1 = 1.5 V, r1 = 0.2 X
E2 = 2.0 V, r2 = 0.3 X
emf of equivalent cell
E1 E2
+
r1 r2 E1 r2 + E2 r1 1 . 5 # 0 . 3 + 2 # 0 .2 0.45 + 0.40
E= = = c m= V = 1.7 V
1 1 r1 + r2 0.2 + 0.3 0. 5
+
r1 r2
Internal resistance of equivalent cell
r1 r2 0. 2 # 0 . 3
=c mX =
1 1 1 0.06
r
= +
r1 r2
& r=
+
r1 r2 +
0.2 0.3 0.5
X = 0.12 X
Q. 6. When 5 V potential difference is applied across a wire of length 0.1 m, the drift speed of
electrons is 2.5 × 10–4 m/s. If the electron density in the wire is 8 × 1028 m–3, calculate the
resistivity of the material of wire. [CBSE (North) 2016]
V l
Ans. We know I = neAvd, I = and R = t
R A
V
So = neAvd
R
V RA V
nevd l
=
l
& t=
nevd l
5
t= 28 –19
Xm = 1.56 × 10–5 Ωm
8 # 10 # 1.6 # 10 # 2.5 # 10 –4 # 0.1
. 1.6 # 10 –5 Xm
Q. 7. Two conducting wires X and Y of same diameter but different materials are joined in series
across a battery. If the number density of electrons in X is twice that in Y, find the ratio of drift
velocity of electrons in the two wires. [CBSE (AI) 2011]
Ans. In series current is same,
So, IX = IY = I = neAvd
For same diameter, cross-sectional area is same
A X = AY = A
` IX = IY & nx eAv x = n y eAv y
vx ny ny 1
Given n x = 2n y & vy
=
nx
=
2n y
=
2
Q. 8. A conductor of length ‘l’ is connected to a dc source of potential ‘V’. If the length of the
conductor is tripled by gradually stretching it, keeping ‘V’ constant, how will (i) drift speed of
electrons and (ii) resistance of the conductor be affected? Justify your answer. [CBSE (F) 2012]
eVx 1
Ans. (i) We know that vd = – ?
ml l
When length is tripled, the drift velocity becomes one-third.
l
(ii) R = t , ll = 3l
A
New resistance
ll 3l
Rl = t = t# = 9R ⇒ R′ = 9R
Al A/3
Hence, the new resistance will be 9 times the original.

Q. 9. A potential difference V is applied across the ends of copper wire of length l and diameter D.
What is the effect on drift velocity of electrons if [CBSE Ajmer 2015]
(i) V is halved? (ii) l is doubled?
(iii) D is halved?
I V/ R V V
Ans. Drift velocity, vd = = = =
neA neA tl net l
neA c m
A
(i) As vd \ V , when V is halved the drift velocity is halved.
1
(ii) As vd \ , when l is doubled the drift velocity is halved.
l
(iii) As vd is independent of D, when D is halved drift velocity remains unchanged.
Q. 10. Estimate the average drift speed of conduction electrons in a copper wire of cross-sectional
area 1.0 × 10–7 m2 carrying a current of 1.5 A. Assume the density of conduction electrons to
be 9 × 1028 m–3. [CBSE (AI) 2014]
Ans. Flow of current in the conductor due to drift velocity of the free electrons is given by
I = neAvd
I 1. 5
vd = =
neA 9 # 10 # 1.6 # 10 –19 # 1.0 # 10 –7
28
= 1.042 # 10 –3 m/s - 1 mm/s

Q. 11. Two electric bulbs P and Q have their resistances in the ratio of 1 : 2. They are connected in
series across a battery. Find the ratio of the power dissipation in these bulbs.
Ans. We know that power, P = I 2 R
 The current in the two bulbs is the same as they are connected in series.
P1 = I 2 R1 ⇒ P2 = I 2 R2
P1 I 2 R1 R1 1
= = =
P2 2
I R2 R2 2
Q. 12. Two bulbs are rated (P1, V) and (P2, V). If they are connected (i) in series and (ii) in parallel
across a supply V, find the power dissipated in the two combinations in terms of P1 and P2.
[CBSE 2019 (55/1/1)]
Ans. Let R1 and R2 be the resistance of the two bulbs. According to question
V2 V2
R1 = and R2 =
P1 P2
(i) If these two resistors are connected in series, the equivalent resistance
V2 V2 1 1
Rs = R1 + R2 = + = V2 e P + P o
P1 P2 1 2
P1 + P2
Rs = V2 > H
P1 P2
V2 V2 ×P1 P2
Power dissipated, Ps = =
R s V 2 [P + P ]
1 2
P1 P2
Ps =
P1 + P2
(ii) If R1 and R2 are connected in parallel
1 1 1 1 1
= + = + 2
RP R1 R2 V2 /P V /P2
1

1 P1 P2 P1 + P2
= 2+ 2=
RP V V V2
V2
` RP =
P1 + P2
Now power dissipation in parallel combination
V2 V2 V2 P + P
PP = = = _ 1 2i
RP V2 V2
P1 + P2
PP = P1 + P2
Q. 13. In the circuit shown in the figure, find the total
resistance of the circuit and the current in the
arm CD. [CBSE (F) 2014]
Ans. It can be seen that resistances BC and CD are in series
and their combination is in parallel with AD.
1 1 1
Then
RP
= +
6 3
& RP = 2 X
Total resistance of circuit is 2+ 3 = 5 Ω

(Due to capacitor, resistor 3 Ω in EF will not be counted)
15
Total current = = 3 A.
5
This current gets divided at junction A.
Voltage across DF = 3 Ω × 3 A = 9 V and Voltage across AD = 15 – 9 = 6 V
6
I across CD = =1 A
3+3
Hence, current through arm CD = 1 A.
Q. 14. Use Kirchhoff ’s laws to determine the value of current I1 in the given electrical circuit.
[CBSE Delhi 2007]
Ans. From Kirchhoff ’s first law at junction C
20 Ω
I3 = I1 + I2 …(i) E F
Applying Kirchhoff ’s second law in mesh CDFEC I1

40 Ω 40 V
40I3 – 40 + 20I1 = 0 or 20 (2I3 + I1) = 40 C D
⇒ I1 + 2I3 = 2 ...(ii) I3
Applying Kirchhoff ’s second law to mesh ABFEA I2

A B
80 – 20I 2 + 20I1 = 0 80 V 20 Ω
⇒ 20 (I1 – I2) = – 80
⇒ I2 – I1 = 4 …(iii)
Substituting value of I3 from (i) in (ii), we get
I1 + 2(I1 + I2) = 2 ⇒ 3I1 + 2I2 = 2 …(iv)
Multiplying equation (iii) by 2, we get
2I2 – 2I1 = 8 …(v)
Subtracting (v) from (iv), we get
6
5I1 = – 6 ⇒ I1 = – A = – 1.2 A
5

Q. 15. Find the magnitude and direction of current in 1Ω resistor in the given circuit.
[CBSE (South) 2016]
Ans. For the mesh APQBA

– 6 – 1(I2 – I1) + 3I1 =0
or – I2 + 4I1= 6 ...(i)
For the mesh PCDQP
2I2 – 9+3I2+1(I2 – I1)=0
or 6I2–I1 = 9 ...(ii)
Solving (i) and (ii), we get
45 42
I1 = A and I2 = A
23 23
–3
∴ Current through the 1 Ω resistor = (I2 – I1) = A
23
Hence the direction of current in 1 Ω resistor from Q to P in the circuit.
Q. 16. A set of ‘n’ identical resistors, each of resistance ‘R’ when connected in series have an effective
resistance ‘X’. When they are connected in parallel, their effective resistance becomes ‘Y’.
Find out the product of X and Y. [CBSE 2019 (55/5/1)]
Ans. When n resistors are connected in series, the resistance is given by
X = R + R + ....................upto n terms
X = nR
Again, when n resistors are connected in parallel,
1 1 1
= + + ................ upto n terms
Y R R
R
Y= n
R
` XY = nR × n = R2
Q. 17. Figure shows two circuits each having a galvanometer and a battery of 3 V. When the
R1
galvanometers in each arrangement do not show any deflection, obtain the ratio .
R2
[CBSE (AI) 2013]
R

Ans. For balanced Wheatstone bridge, if no current flows through the galvanometer
4 6
=
R1 9
4#9
& R1 =
6
= 6X
For another circuit
6 R
& R2 = 6128 = 4 X
2 #
=
12 8
R1 6 3
` = =
R2 4 2
Q. 18. A potentiometer wire of length 1 m has a resistance of 10 Ω. It is connected to a 6 V battery

in series with a resistance of 5Ω. Determine the emf of the primary cell which gives a balance
point at 40 cm. [CBSE Delhi 2014]
Ans. Here, l = 1m, R1 = 10 Ω, V = 6 V, R2 = 5 Ω , l′ = 0.4 m
Current flowing in potentiometer wire,
V 6 6
I= = = = 0.4 A
+
R1 R2 +
10 5 15
Potential drop across the potentiometer wire
V′= IR = 0.4 × 10 = 4 V
Vl 4
Potential gradient, k = = = 4 V /m
l 1
Emf of the primary cell = kl′ = 4 × 0.4 = 1.6 V
Q. 19. In a potentiometer arrangement for determining the emf of a cell, the balance point of the cell
in open circuit is 350 cm. When a resistance of 9 Ω is used in the external circuit of the cell,
the balance point shifts to 300 cm. Determine the internal resistance of the cell.
Ans. Here, l1 = 350 cm, l2 = 300 cm, R = 9 Ω
The internal resistance of the cell is given by
l1 – l2
r =f pR
l2
r =c m ×9 =
350 – 300 50
× 9 = 1. 5 X
300 300
Q. 20. In the potentiometer circuit shown, the null point is at X. State with reason, where the balance
point will be shifted when:
(a) resistance R is increased, keeping all other parameters
unchanged;
(b) resistance S is increased, keeping R constant.
[CBSE Bhubaneshwer 2015]
Ans. Let l be the balance length of the segment AX on the
potentiometer wire for given resistance R and S.
(a) If resistance R is increased, the current flow in the main circuit (or wire AB) will decrease.
tI
From relation k = the potential gradient along the wire AB will decrease. To balance the
L
emf of the cell, the point X will shift toward the point B, i.e.,
ε = kl = k′l′
If k′ < k, so l′ > l
(b) For the given resistance R, the potential gradient along the wire remain same. Balance
length ‘l’ remain constant. ε = kl and no current flows in the resistance S. If resistance S is
increased/decreased there is no change in the balance length.

Q. 21. State the underlying principle of a potentiometer. Write two factors by which current sensitivity
of a potentiometer can be increased. Why is a potentiometer preferred over a voltmeter for
measuring the emf of a cell? [CBSE Patna 2015]
Ans. Principle: The potential drop across a part of the potentiometer wire is directly proportional to
the length of that part of the wire of uniform cross section.
V=kl
where k is potential gradient.
Current sensitivity of potentiometer wire is also known as potential gradient, and it can be
increased.
(i) By increasing the total length of the wire, keeping terminal voltage constant.
(ii) By connecting a suitable extra resistance R in series with the potentiometer. So, less amount
of the current flows through the potentiometer wire.
Reasons: At the balance point, there is no net current drawn from the cell, and cell is in open
circuit condition. Voltmeter has some resistance, when connected across the cell. Some current
is drawn, as a result emf of the cell decreases. Hence, emf of the cell cannot be measured by the
voltmeter.
Q. 22. Answer the following:
(a) Why are the connections between the resistors in a meter bridge made of thick copper strips?
(b) Why is it generally preferred to obtain the balance point in the middle of the meter bridge
wire?
(c) Which material is used for the meter bridge wire and why? [CBSE (AI) 2014] [HOTS]
Ans. (a) A thick copper strip offers a negligible resistance, so it does not alter the value of resistances
used in the meter bridge.
(b) If the balance point is taken in the middle, it is done to minimise the percentage error in
calculating the value of unknown resistance.
(c) Generally alloys magnin/constantan/nichrome are used in meter bridge, because these
materials have low temperature coefficient of resistivity.
Q. 23. Two students X and Y perform an experiment on potentiometer separately using the circuit
diagram shown here. Keeping other things unchanged. (i) X increases the value of resistance
R. (ii) Y decreases the value of resistance S in the set up. How would these changes affect the
position of the null point in each case and why?
[CBSE (South) 2016] [HOTS]

Ans. (i) By increasing resistance R, the current in main circuit decreases, so potential gradient
decreases. Hence a greater length of wire would be needed for balancing the same potential
difference. So, the null point would shift towards right (i.e., towards B).
f
(ii) By decreasing resistance S, the terminal potential difference V = ε – Ir, where I =
(r + S)
f
V= r across cell decreases, so balance is obtained at small length i.e., point will be
1+
S
obtained at smaller length. So, the null point would shift towards left (i.e., towards A).

Q. 24. Two students ‘X’ and ‘Y’ perform an experiment on potentiometer separately using the circuit
given.
Keeping other parameters unchanged, how will the
position of the null point be affected if
(i) ‘X’ increases the value of resistance R in the set-up by
keeping the key K1 closed and the key K2 open?
(ii) ‘Y’ decreases the value of resistance S in the set-up, while
the key K2 remain open and the key K1 closed? Justify
your answer in each case. [CBSE (F) 2012] [HOTS]
Ans. (i) By increasing resistance R the current through AB
decreases, so potential gradient decreases. Hence a
greater length of wire would be needed for balancing
the same potential difference. So the null point would shift towards B.
(ii) By decreasing resistance S, the current through AB remains the same, potential gradient
does not change. As K2 is open so there is no effect of S on null point.
Q. 25. What will be the value of current through the 2 Ω resistance for the circuit shown in the
figure? Give reason to support your answer. [CBSE (F) 2013] [HOTS]
Ans. No current will flow through 2 Ω resistor, because in a closed loop, total p.d. must be zero. So
10 – 5I1 = 0 ...(i)
20 – 10I2 = 0 ...(ii)
and resistor 2 Ω is not part of any loop ABCD and EFGH
Q. 26. Using Kirchoff ’s rules determine the value of

unknown resistance R in the circuit so that no
current flows through 4 Ω resistance. Also find
the potential difference between A and D.
[CBSE Delhi 2012] [HOTS]
Ans. Applying Kirchhoff's loop rule for loop ABEFA,
–9 + 6 + 4 × 0 + 2I = 0
I = 1.5 A ...(i)
For loop BCDEB
3 + IR + 4 × 0 – 6 = 0
∴ IR = 3

Putting the value of I from (i) we have
3
# R = 3 & R = 2X
2
Potential difference between A and D through path ABCD
9 – 3 – IR = VAD
3
or 9 – 3 – # 2 = VAD
2
& VAD = 3 V
Q. 27. Calculate the value of the resistance R in the circuit shown in the figure so that the current in
the circuit is 0.2 A. What would be the potential difference between points B and E?
[CBSE (AI) 2012] [HOTS]

Ans. Here, RBCD = 5Ω + 10Ω = 15 Ω
Effective resistance between B and E
1 1 1 1
RBE
= +
30 10 15
+ & RBE = 5X
Applying Kirchhoff's Law
5 × 0.2 + R × 0.2 + 15 × 0.2 = 8 – 3 ⇒ R = 5 Ω
Hence, VBE =IRBE = 0.2 × 5 = 1 volt
Q. 28. In the circuit shown in the figure, the galvanometer
‘G’ gives zero deflection. If the batteries A and B have
negligible internal resistance, find the value of the
resistor R. [CBSE (F) 2013] [HOTS]
Ans. If galvanometer G gives zero deflection, than current
of source of 12 V flows through R, and voltage across R
becomes 2 V.
f 12
Current in the circuit I = =
R1 + R2 500 + R
and V = IR = 2
12.0
c mR = 2
500 + R
12R = 1000 + 2R
10R = 1000
⇒ R = 100 Ω
Q. 29. The plot of the variation of potential difference across a combination
of three identical cells in series, versus current is shown alongside.
What is the emf and internal resistance of each cell?
[CBSE (Central) 2016] [HOTS]
Ans. We know that for a circuit
V = Eeq – Ireq ...(i)
From graph, when I = 0 A, then V = 6 V and when I = 1 A
then V = 0 V

Putting, V = 6 V and I = 0 A in eq. (i)
6 = Eeq – 0. req ⇒ Eeq = 6 V
Eeq
Eeq = ε1 + ε2 + ε3 ⇒ ε1 = ε2 = ε3 = ε = =2V
3
And, when I = 1 A, and V = 0 V
0 = 6 – 1. req ⇒ req = 6 Ω
req
req = r1 + r2 + r3 ⇒ r1 = r2 = r3 = r = =2Ω
3
Q. 30. A voltmeter of resistance 998 Ω is connected across a cell of emf 2 V and internal resistance
2 Ω. Find the potential difference across the voltmeter and also across the terminals of the cell.
Estimate the percentage error in the reading of the voltmeter. [CBSE 2019 (55/5/1)]
Ans. V = E – Ir
V
998 × I = 2 – 2I
1000 × I = 2
2
I= = 0.002 A
1000
V = 0.002 × 998
2
V = 1.996 V + –
∆V = 2 – 1.996 2V
= 0.004 V
0.004
% error = ×100 = 0.2%
2
Q. 31. Two electric bulbs have the following specifications.
(i) 100 W at 220 V (ii) 1000 W at 220 V.
Which bulb has higher resistance? What is the ratio of their resistances?
Ans. The resistance of filament,
V V2
R= =
I P
At constant voltage V, the resistance
1
R?
P
That is the resistance of filament of 100 W bulb is greater than that of 1000 W bulb.
R1 P2 1000 10
The ratio of resistances = = = = = 10 : 1
R2 P1 100 1
Q. 32. Two wires A and B of the same material and having same length, have their cross sectional
areas in the ratio 1 : 6. What would be the ratio of heat produced in these wires when same
voltage is applied across each? [CBSE Sample Paper 2017]
Ans. AA : AB = 1 : 6
tl
H = V2 t/R and R=
A
V2 t V2 t HA V2 t×A A tl HA AA
HA = ; HB = ⇒ = × 2 & = = 1: 6
tl/A A tl/AB HB tl V tA HB AB
B
Q. 33. Two cells of emf 10 V and 2 V and internal resistance 10 Ω and 5 Ω respectively, are connected
in parallel as shown. Find the effective voltage across R. [CBSE Sample Paper 2016]
R
2V
10 V

f1 f2
e10 2
– m + o c
r1
10 5 r2
Ans. The effective voltage across R is given by f eq = =
1 1 1 1
dr + r n c + m
1 2 10 5
⇒ εeq= 2 V
Q. 34. Two primary cells of emfs wire ε1 and ε2 (ε1 > ε2) are
connected to a potentiometer wire AB as shown in fig.
If the balancing lengths for the two combinations of the
cells are 250 cm and 400 cm, find the ratio of ε1 and ε2.
Ans. In first combination ε1 and ε2 are opposing each other
while in second combination ε1 and ε2 are adding each
other, so
f1 – f 2 = kl1
f1 + f2 = kl2
f1 – f2 l1
=
f1 + f2 l2
f1 – f2 250 f1 – f2 5
⇒
f1 + f2
=
400
& f1 + f2
=
8
⇒ 8ε1 – 8ε2 =5ε1+5ε2 ⇒ 3ε1=13ε2
f1 13
∴ = ` f1 : f2 = 13 : 3
f2 3
Q. 35. First a set of n equal resistors of R each are connected in series to a battery of emf E and
internal resistance R. A current I is observed to flow. Then the n resistors are connected in
parallel to the same battery. It is observed that the current is increased 10 times. What is n?
[NCERT Exemplar] [HOTS]
E
Ans. When n resistors are in series, I = ;
R + nR
E
When n resistors are in parallel, = 10I
R
R+ n
1+n 1+n
= 10 & n = 10 ⇒ n = 10.
1 n+1
1+
n
Q. 36. Two cells of same emf E but internal resistance r1 and r2 are connected in series to an external
resistor R (Fig.). What should be the value of R so that the potential difference across the
terminals of the first cell becomes zero. [NCERT Exemplar] [HOTS]
E+E
Ans. I=
R + r1 + r2
2E
V1 = E – Ir1 = E – r =0
r1 + r2 + R 1
2Er1
or E=
r1 + r2 + R
⇒ r1+ r2 +R=2r1
⇒ R = r1 – r2

Q. 37. The potential difference across a resistor ‘r’ carrying current ‘I’ is Ir.
(i) Now if the potential difference across ‘r’ is measured using a voltmeter of resistance ‘RV’, show
that the reading of voltmeter is less than the true value.
(ii) Find the percentage error in measuring the potential difference by a voltmeter.
(iii) At what value of RV, does the voltmeter measures the true potential difference?
[CBSE Sample Paper 2016] [HOTS]
Ans. (i) V = Ir (without voltmeter RV)
IrRV Ir
Vl = =
r + RV r
1+
RV
V′ < V
(ii) Percentage error
V – Vl r
c m # 100 = c m # 100
V r + RV
(iii) RV → ∞, V ′ = Ir = V
Short Answer Questions–II [3 marks]

Q. 1. (i) Derive an expression for drift velocity of free electrons.
(ii) How does drift velocity of electrons in a metallic conductor vary with increase in
temperature? Explain. [CBSE (Central) 2016]
Ans. (i) When a potential difference is applied across a conductor, an electric field is produced
and free electrons are acted upon by an electric force (Fe). Due to this, electrons accelerate
and keep colliding with each other and acquire a constant (average) velocity vd called drift
velocity.
Electric force on electron Fe =– eE
If m is the mass of electron, then its acceleration
F –eE
a= =
m m
Now, v = u + at
Here, u = 0, t = x (relaxation time), v = v d
eE
vd = 0 – x
m
ex
⇒ vd = – E
m
(ii) With rise of temperature, the rate of collision of electrons with ions of lattice increases, so
relaxation time decreases. As a result the drift velocity of electrons decreases with the rise of
temperature.
Q. 2. (a) State Kirchhoff ’s rules and explain on what basis they are justified.
(b) Two cells of emfs E1 and E2 and internal resistances r1 and r2 are connected in parallel.
Derive the expression for the (i) emf and (ii) internal resistance of a single equivalent cell
which can replace this combination. [CBSE Patna 2015]
Ans. (a) Kirchhoff ’s Laws
(i) First law (or junction law): The algebraic sum of currents meeting at any junction is
zero, i.e., ∑I = 0
This law is based on conservation of charge.

(ii) Second law (or loop law): The algebraic sum of potential differences of different circuit
elements of a closed circuit (or mesh) is zero, i.e.,
∑V = 0
This law is based on conservation of energy.
(b)
eq
Let I1 and I2 be the currents leaving the positive, terminals of the cells, and at the point B
I = I1 + I2 …(i)
Let V be the potential difference between points A and B of the combination of the cells, so
V = E1 – I1r1 …(ii) (across the cells)
and V = E 2 – I 2r 2 …(iii)
From equation (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
(E1 – V) (E2 – V)
I= r1 + r2
E E2
=f 1 + p–V dr + r n
1 1
...(iv)
r1 r2 1 2
Fig. (b) shows the equivalent cell, so for the same potential difference
V = Eeq – Ireq
Eeq
V
or I= r – r ...(v)
eq eq
On comparing Eq. (iv) and (v), we get
Eeq E1 E2
req = r1 + r2
1 1 1 r1 r2
and req = r1 + r2 & req =
r1 + r2
On further solving, we have
E1 E2
Eeq d r + r n = r + r
1 1
1 2 1 2
E1 r2 + E2 r1
⇒ Eeq =
r1 + r2
Q. 3. The following table gives the length of three copper wires, their diameters, and the applied
potential difference across their ends. Arrange the wires in increasing order according to the
following:
(i) the magnitude of the electric field within them,
(ii) the drift speed of electrons through them, and
(iii) the current density within them.
Wire No. Length Diameter Potential Difference
1 L 3d V
2 2L d V
3 3L 2d 2V

V V 2V
Ans. (i) E1 = ,E = ,E =
L 2 2L 3 3L
& E2 < E3 < E1
(ii) vd \ E
⇒ vd < vd < vd
2 3 1
(iii) I = nAevd
where, I = Current produced
A = Cross-sectional area of conductor
n = no. of electrons per unit volume in the conductor
vd = drift velocity
e = charge on electron = –1.6 × 10–19 C
I
Current diversity J =
A
∴ J = nevd & J \ vd & J2 < J3 < J1
Q. 4. Using the concept of free electrons in a conductor, derive the expression for the conductivity
of a wire in terms of number density and relaxation time. Hence obtain the relation between
current density and the applied electric field E.
e
Ans. The acceleration, a = – m E
eE
The average drift velocity is given by, vd = – m x
(τ = average time between collisions or relaxation time)
If n is the number of free electrons per unit volume, the current I is given by
I = neA vd
e2 A
= m xn |E|
But I = | j | A (where j= current density)
Therefore, we get
ne 2
| j |= m x | E |.
ne 2
The term m x is conductivity.
ne2 x
` v= m
& J = vE
Q. 5. A metal rod of square cross-sectional area A having length l has current I flowing through it
when a potential difference of V volt is applied across its ends (figure (i)). Now the rod is cut
parallel to its length into two identical pieces and joined as shown in figure (ii). What potential
difference must be maintained across the length 2l so that the current in the rod is still I?
[CBSE (F) 2016]

Ans. Let resistance of metal rod having cross sectional area A and length l be R1
l
& R1 = t
A
A
Also, resistance of metal rod having cross sectional area and length 2l
2
2l l
R2 = t ;a R = t E
A A
2
= 4 R1
Let V′ be potential difference maintained across rod. When the rod is cut parallel and rejoined
A
by length, the length of the conductor becomes 2l and area decreases by .
2
For maintaining same current,
V Vl
I= =
R1 R2
V Vl
I=
R1
=
4R1
& V l = 4V
The new potential applied across the metal rod will be four times the original potential (V).
Q. 6. Two metallic wires, P1 and P2 of the same material and same length but different cross-sectional
areas, A1 and A2 are joined together and connected to a source of emf. Find the ratio of the
drift velocities of free electrons in the two wires when they are connected (i) in series, and
(ii) in parallel. [CBSE (F) 2017]
Ans. We know that,
I
I = neAvd & vd = neA
Let R1 and R2 be resistances of P1 & P2 and A1 & A2 are their cross sectional areas respectively.
l l
∴ R1 = t and R2 = t
A1 A2
P1 P2
(i) When connected in series,
e
tl tl
vd e + o neA1
1
A1 A2 A2
∴ vd = e =
2
A1
tl tl ε
e + o neA2
A1 A2 P1
(ii) When, connected in parallel,
e 1
. P2
tl neA1
vd A1
1
vd = =1
e 1
2 .
tl neA2
ε
A2
Q. 7. Two heating elements of resistance R1 and R2 when operated at a constant supply of voltage,
V, consume powers P1 and P2 respectively. Deduce the expressions for the power of their
combination when they are, in turn, connected in (i) series and (ii) parallel across the same
voltage supply. [CBSE (AI) 2011]
Ans. (i) In series combination
Net resistance, R = R1 + R2 ...(i)

As heating elements are operated at same voltage V, we have
V2 V2 V2
R= , R1 = and R 2 =
P P1 P2
∴ From equation (i)
V2 V2 V2 1 1 1
= + ⇒ = +
P P1 P2 P P1 P2
(ii) In parallel combination
1 1 1 P P P
Net resistance = + ⇒ 2
= 12 + 22
R R1 R 2 V V V
& P = P1 + P2
Q. 8. (a) The potential difference applied across a given
resistor is altered so that the heat produced per
second increases by a factor of 9. By what factor
does the applied potential difference change?
(b) In the figure shown, an ammeter A and a resistor
of 4 Ω are connected to the terminals of the source.
The emf of the source is 12 V having an internal
resistance of 2 Ω. Calculate the voltmeter and
ammeter readings. [CBSE AI 2017]
V2
Ans. (a) Heat produced per second, P = I2R =
R
Given, P′ = 9P
V l2 V2
∴ =9 #
R R
⇒ V′2 = 9 × V2 ⇒ Vl= 9 # V
∴ V′ = 3V
∴ Potential difference increases by a factor of 9 i.e., 3.
(b) Given: emf E = 12 V
Internal resistance r = 2 Ω
External resistance R = 4 Ω
Ammeter Reading,
E 12 12
I= = = A
R+r 4+2 6
∴ I=2A
Voltmeter Reading,
V = E – Ir = 12 – (2 × 2)
∴ V=8V
Q. 9. Calculate the steady current through the 2 Ω resistor in the circuit shown below.
[CBSE (F) 2010]

Ans. In steady state there is no current in capacitor branch, so equivalent circuit is shown in fig.
Net resistance of circuit,
2#3
Req = + 2.8 = 1.2 + 2.8 = 4 X
2+3
Net emf, E = 6 V
E 6
Current in circuit, I = = = 1. 5 A
Req 4
Potential difference across parallel combination of 2 Ω and 3 Ω
resistances.
V′ = IR′ = 1.5 × 1.2 = 1.8 V
Current in 2 Ω resistance
Vl 1. 8
I1 = = = 0.9 A
R1 2
Q. 10. Two identical cells of emf 1.5 V each joined in parallel supply energy to an external circuit
consisting of two resistances of 7 Ω each joined in parallel. A very high resistance voltmeter
reads the terminal voltage of cells to be 1.4 V. Calculate the internal resistance of each cell.
[CBSE (North) 2016]
Ans. Here, E = 1.5 V, V = 1.4 V
Resistance of external circuit = Equivalent resistance of two
resistances of 7Ω connected in parallel
R1 R 2 7#7 =
or R= = X 3.5 X
R1 + R2 7 + 7
Let r′ be the total internal resistance of the two cells, then
E-V 1.5 - 1.4
r ' =d nR = d n 3 . 5 = 0 . 25 X
V 1.4
As the two cells of internal resistance r each have been
connected in parallel, so
1 =1 +1 1 2
r r ⇒ = r ⇒ r = 0.252 × 2 = 0.5 X
r' 0 .25
Q. 11. In the meter bridge experiment, balance point was observed at J with AJ = l.
(i) The values of R and X were doubled and then
interchanged. What would be the new position of
balance point?
(ii) If the galvanometer and battery are interchanged
at the balance position, how will the balance
point get affected? [CBSE (AI) 2011]
R rl
Ans. (i) =
X r (100 − l )
R l
⇒ = ...(i)
X 100 − l
When both R and X are doubled and then interchanged, the new balance length becomes l′
given by
2X l'
= ...(ii)
2R (100 − l ')
X l'
⇒ =
R 100 − l '
From (i) and (ii),
100 – l l'
= ⇒ l′=(100 – l)
l 100 – l'
(ii) If galvanometer and battery are interchanged, there is no effect on the balance point.

Q. 12. Show, on a plot, variation of resistivity of (i) a conductor, and (ii) a typical semiconductor as a
function of temperature.
Using the expression for the resistivity in terms of number density and relaxation time
between the collisions, explain how resistivity in the case of a conductor increases while it
decreases in a semiconductor, with the rise of temperature. [CBSE 2019 (55/2/1)]
Ans. We know that
m
m)
t= 2 0.4
ne x
(10–8
Where m is mass of electron
0.2
t = charge density, τ = relaxation time
Resistivity
e = charge on the electron.
(i) In case of conductors with increase in
temperature, relaxation time decreases, 50 100 150
so resistivity increases.
(ii) In case of semiconductors with increase in temperature number density (n) of free electrons
increases, hence resistivity decreases.
Q. 13. Twelve wires each having a resistance of 3Ω are connected to form a cubical network. A battery
of 10 V and negligible internal resistance is connected across the diagonally opposite corners
of this network. Determine its equivalent resistance and the current along each edge of the
cube. [CBSE 2019 (55/3/1)]
Ans. Applying loop rule to ABCC'EFA
I
3I + 3 + 3I – 10 = 0
2
15
I = 10
2
2 ×10 20 4
I= = A= A
15 15 3
V 10 ×15
Req = = = 2.5 X
3I 3 × 20
4
Current = I AB (= I AA' = I AD = ID'C' = IB'C' = ICC') =A
3
2
= IDDl (= I Al Bl = I AlDl = IDC = I BC = IBBl) = A
3
Q. 14. In a meter bridge shown in the figure, the balance point
is found to be 40 cm from end A. If a resistance of 10 Ω is
connected in series with R, balance point is obtained 60 cm
from A. Calculate the value of R and S. [CBSE Patna 2015]
R 40 2S
Ans. = & 3R = 2S & R= ...(i)
S 60 3
R + 10 60
= & 2R + 20 = 3S ...(ii)
S 40
From equation (i) and (ii), we get
2S
2# + 20 = 3S
3
⇒ S = 12 Ω
From equation (i), we get
2 # 12
R= ⇒ R=8Ω
3

Q. 15. In the circuit diagram shown, AB is a uniform wire of resistance 15 Ω and length 1 m. It is
connected to a cell E1 of emf 2 V and negligible internal
resistance and a resistance R. The balance point with another
cell E2 of emf 75 mV is found at 30 cm from end A. Calculate
the value of the resistance R.
[CBSE Chennai 2015]
Ans. Current drawn from the cell, E1 = 2 V
E1 2
I= =
15 + R 15 + R
Potential drop across the wire AB
2 # 15 30
VAB = I # 15 = =
15 + R 15 + R
Since wire length is 1 m or 100 cm.
So, potential gradient along the wire,
VAB 30
K= =
100 cm 100 (15 + R)
At the balance point
E2 = kl2
30
75 mV = # 30 cm
100 (15 + R)
75 × 10–3 × 100 (15 + R) = 900
9000
15 + R =
75
∴ R =120 – 15 = 105 ohm
Q. 16. Calculate the value of the current drawn from a 5 V battery in the circuit as shown.
[CBSE (F) 2013]

Ans. The equivalent wheatstone bridge for the given combination is shown in figure alongside.
The resistance of arm ACD, RS1 =10 + 20 = 30Ω
Also, the resistance of arm ABD, RS2 = 5+ 10= 15Ω
P R
Since the condition = is satisfied, it is a balanced
Q S
bridge.
No current flows along arm BC.
RS1 × RS 2
∴ Equivalent resistance R =
eq
RS1 + RS 2
30 × 15 30 ×15
= = = 10 Ω
30 + 15 45 +
Current drawn from the source,
V 5 1
I= = = A = 0.5 A
Req 10 2

Q. 17. State Kirchhoff ’s rules. Use these rules to write the expressions for the currents I1, I2 and I3
in the circuit diagram shown. [CBSE (AI) 2010]
Ans. Kirchhoff ’s Rules:

(i) The algebraic sum of currents meeting at any junction is zero, i.e.,
∑I = 0
(ii) The algebraic sum of potential differences across circuit elements of a closed circuit is zero,
i.e., ∑V = 0
From Kirchhoff ’s first law
I3 = I1 + I2 …(i)
Applying Kirchhoff ’s second law to mesh ABDCA
–2 – 4I1 + 3I2 +1 = 0
⇒ 4I1 – 3I2 = – 1 …(ii)
Applying Kirchoff ’s second law to mesh ABFEA
– 2 – 4I1 – 2I3 + 4 = 0
⇒ 4I1 + 2I3 = 2 or 2I1 + I3 = 1
Using (i) we get
⇒ 2I1 + (I1 + I2 ) = 1
or 3I1 + I2 = 1 …(iii)
Solving (ii) and (iii), we get
2 7
I1 = A, I2 = 1 – 3I1 = A
13 13
9
so, I3 = I1 + I2 = A
13
Q. 18. Use Kirchhoff ’s rules to determine the potential
difference between the points A and D when
no current flows in the arm BE of the electric
network shown in the figure.
[CBSE Allahabad 2015]
Ans. According to Kirchhoff ’s junction rule at E or B
I3 = I2+I1
Since I2 = 0 in the arm BE as given in the
question
⇒ I3 = I1
Using loop rule in the loop AFEBA
– 2I3+1 – 3I3 – I2 R1+ 3 +6 = 0
⇒ 2I3 + 3I3+ I2R1=10
Since I2 = 0, so
5I3 = 10
⇒ I3 = 2 A
∴ I3 = I1 = 2A

The potential difference between A and D, along the branch AFED of the closed circuit.
VA – 2I3 + 1 – 3 I3 –VD=0
⇒ VA – VD = 2I3 –1 + 3I3
=2×2–1+3×2=9V
Q. 19. (a) Using Kirchhoff ’s rules, calculate the current in the arm AC of the given circuit.
(b) On what principle does the meter bridge work? Why are the metal strips used in the
bridge? [CBSE South 2016]
Ans. (a) For the mesh EFCAE
– 30I1 + 40 – 40(I1+I2) = 0
or – 7I1 – 4I2 = – 4
or 7I1 + 4I2 = 4 ...(i)
For the mesh ACDBA
40(I1 + I2) – 40 + 20I2 – 80 = 0
or 40 I1 +60I2 – 120 = 0
or 2I1 + 3I2 = 6 ...(ii)
Solving (i) and (ii), we get
–12
I1 = A
13
34
I2 = A
13
22
∴ Current through arm AC = I1 + I2 = A
13
(b) Metre bridge works on Wheatstone’s bridge balancing condition.
Metal strips will have less resistance to maintain continuity without adding to the resistance
of the circuit.
Q. 20. (a) Write the principle of working of a metre bridge.
(b) In a metre bridge, the balance point is found at a distance l1 with resistances R and S as
shown in the figure.
An unknown resistance X is now connected in parallel to the resistance S and the balance
point is found at a distance l2. Obtain a formula for X in terms of l1, l2 and S.
[CBSE (AI) 2017]
Ans. (a) Working of a meter bridge is based on the principle of
balanced Wheatstone bridge.
According to the principle, the balancing condition is
P R
= (When Ig = 0)
Q S
For balancing lengths in a meter bridge,
P R l R
= & =
Q S 100 – l S
100 – l
` S= R
l

(b) For balancing length l1, the condition is
R l1
= ...(i)
S 100 – l1
When a resistance X is connected in parallel with S, the net resistance becomes
XS
Seq =
X+S
For balancing length l2, the condition is
R l2 R l2
= & =
c m
Seq 100–l2 XS 100 – l2
X+S
R (X + S) l2
⇒ = ...(ii)
XS 100 – l2
From (i) and (ii), we have
l1 X+S l2
× =
100 – l1 X 100 – l2
X+S l2 (100 – l1) S l2 (100 – l1)
⇒ = & +1 =
X l1 (100 – l2) X l1 (100 – l2)
S l2 (100 – l1) S l2 (100 – l1) – l1 (100 – l2)

⇒ = –1 & =
X l1 (100 – l2) X l1 (100 – l2)
S 100l2 – l1 l2 – 100l1 + l1 l2 S 100 (l2 – l1)

⇒ = & =
X l1 (100 – l2) X l1 (100 – l2)
X l1 (100–l2) l1 (100 – l2)

⇒ = & X= ×S
S 100 (l2 – l1) 100 (l2 – l1)
Q. 21. A potentiometer wire of length 1 m is connected to a driver
cell of emf 3 V as shown in the figure. When a cell of 1.5 V emf
is used in the secondary circuit, the balance point is found to
be 60 cm. On replacing this cell and using a cell of unknown
emf, the balance point shifts to 80 cm.
(i) Calculate unknown emf of the cell.
(ii) Explain with reason, whether the circuit works, if the driver
cell is replaced with a cell of emf 1 V.
(iii) Does the high resistance R, used in the secondary circuit affect the balance point? Justify
our answer. [CBSE Delhi 2008]
Ans. (i) Unknown emf f2 is given by
f2 l2 l2
f1 = & f 2
= f
l1 l1 1
Given ε1=1.5 V, l1 = 60 cm, l2 = 80 cm

80
∴ f2 = ×1.5 V = 2.0 V
60
(ii) The circuit will not work if emf of driver cell is 1 V (less than that of cell in secondary circuit),
because total voltage across wire AB is 1 V which cannot balance the voltage V.
(iii) No, since at balance point no current flows through galvanometer G i.e., cell remains in
open circuit.

Q. 22. In a meter bridge with R and S in the gaps, the null point is found at 40 cm from A. If a
resistance of 30Ω is connected in parallel with S, the null point occurs at 50 cm from A.
Determine the values of R and S. [CBSE East 2016]
Ans. In first case l1 =40cm

R l1 R 40 2 …(i)
= ⇒ = =
S 100 − l1 S 60 3
In second case when S and 30Ω are in parallel balancing length l2=50 cm, so
30S
S′ = …(ii)
30 + S
R 50
= =1 ⇒ S′= R …(iii)
′
S 100 − 50
3
From (i) S= R
2
Substituting this value in (ii), we get
3
30 # c R m
2 45R
Sl = =
3 3
30 + c R m 30 + R
2 2
Also from equation (iii), S′ = R
45R 3
∴ =R ⇒ 45 = 30 + R
3 2
30 + R
2
3 3 3
⇒ R =15 or R = 10 Ω & S = ×R = ×10 = 15X
2 2 2
Q. 23. In the circuit shown, R1 = 4Ω , R2 = R3 = 15Ω, R4 = 30Ω and E = 10 V. Calculate the
equivalent resistance of the circuit and the current in each resistor. [CBSE Delhi 2011] [HOTS]
Ans. Given R1 = 4Ω, R2 = R3 = 15Ω, R4 = 30Ω, E = 10 V.

Equivalent Resistance:
R2, R3 and R4 are in parallel, so their effective resistance (R) is given by
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + = + +
R R2 R3 R4 15 15 30
⇒ R = 6Ω

R1 is in series with R, so equivalent resistance
Req = R + R1 = 6 + 4 = 10 Ω.
Currents:
E 10
I1 = = =1 A ...(i)
Req 10
This current is divided at A into three parts I2, I3 and I4.
∴ I2 + I3 + I4 = 1 A ....(ii)
Also, I2 R2 = I3 R3 = I4R4
⇒ I2 × 15 = I3 × 15 = I4 ×30
⇒ I2 = I3 = 2I4 ...(iii)
Substituting values of I2, I3 in (ii), we get
2I4 + 2I4 + I4 = 1 A ⇒ I4 = 0.2 A
∴ I2 = I3 = 2 × 0.2 = 0.4 A
Thus, I1 = 1 A, I2 = I3 = 0.4 A and I4 = 0.2 A
Q. 24. In the following potentiometer circuit AB is a uniform
wire of length 1 m and resistance 10Ω. Calculate the
potential gradient along the wire and balance length AO.
[CBSE Delhi 2016] [HOTS]
Ans. Current flowing in the potentiometer wire
E 2.0 2
I= = = A
Rtotal 15 + 10 25
2 20
Potential difference across the wire VAB = × 10 = = 0.8 V
25 25
VAB 0.8
Potential gradient k = = = 0.8V / m
lAB 1.0
Now, current flowing in the circuit containing experimental cell,
1. 5
= 1A
1.2 + 0.3
Potential difference across length AO = 0.3 × 1 = 0.3 V
0.3 0.3
Length AO = m= × 100 cm = 37.5cm
0.8 0.8
Q. 25. (a) Give reason why a potentiometer is preferred over a voltmeter for the measurement of emf
of a cell.
(b) In the potentiometer circuit given below, calculate the balancing length l. Give reason,
whether the circuit will work, if the driver cell of emf 5 V is replaced with a cell of 2 V,
keeping all other factors constant. [CBSE 2019 (55/2/1)]
5V 450 Ω
10 m
A B
l
RAB = 50 Ω
300 mV
Ans. (a) The potentiometer is preferred over the voltmeter for measurement of emf of a cell because
potentiometer draws no current from the voltage source being measured.

(b) V = 5 V, RAB = 50 Ω, R = 450 Ω
5 1
I= = = 0.01 A
450 + 50 100
VAB = 0.01 × 50 = 0.5 V
0. 5
k= = 0.05 Vm –1
10
V 300 ×10 –3
l= = =6 m
k 0.05
2
With 2 V driver cell current in the circuit is I = = 0.004 A .
450 + 50
Potential difference across AB is =0.004 × 50 = 200 mV. Hence the circuit will not work.
Q. 26. (a) Give reason:
(i) Why the connections between the resistors in a metre bridge are made of thick copper
strips,
(ii) Why is it generally preferred to obtain the balance length near the mid-point of the
bridge wire.
(b) Calculate the potential difference across the 4Ω resistor in the given electrical circuit,
using Kirchhoff ’s rules. [CBSE 2019 (55/2/1)]
8V
2Ω
A B
6V 1Ω
D C
4Ω
E F
Ans. (a) (i) Thick copper strips are used to minimize resistance of connections which are not
accounted for in the bridge formula.
(ii) Balance point is preferred near midpoint of bridge wire to minimize percentage error
in resistance (R).
(b) I = I1 + I2 ...(i)
In loop ABCDA
−8+ 2I1 −1 × I2 + 6 = 0 ...(ii)
In loop DEFCD
−4I −1 × I2 + 6 =0 I1 8V
2Ω
A B
4I + I2 =6
I2 6V 1Ω
4(I1 + I2 ) + I2 =6 D C
4I1 +5I2= 6 ...(iii)
I
From equations (i), (ii) and (iii) we get 4Ω
8 2 10 E F
I1 = A, I2 = A, I = A
7 7 7
Potential difference across resistor 4Ω is:
10 40
V= ×4= volt
7 7
Q. 27. (a) Draw a graph showing the variation of current versus
0.16
voltage in an electrolyte when an external resistance is
also connected.
R (Ω)
0.08
(b) The graph between resistance (R) and temperature (T) for Hg TC
is shown in the figure. Explain the behaviour of Hg near 4K.
0 2 4 6 8
[CBSE 2019 (55/4/1)]
T(K)

Ans. (a)
I I
OR
V V
(b) At a temperature of 4 K, the resistance of Hg becomes zero.
Long Answer Questions [5 marks]

Q. 1. Derive an expression for drift velocity of free electrons in a conductor in terms of relaxation
time of electrons. [CBSE Delhi 2009]
OR
Explain how the average velocity of free electrons in a metal at constant temperature, in an
electric field, remains constant even though the electrons are being constantly accelerated by
this electric field.
Ans. Consider a metallic conductor XY of length l and
cross-sectional area A. A potential difference V
is applied across the conductor XY. Due to this – – – – –
→
potential difference an electric field E is produced – – – – –
in the conductor. The magnitude of electric field

V
strength E = and its direction is from X to Y.
l
This electric field exerts a force on free electrons;
due to which electrons are accelerated.
" "
The electric force on electron F = – eE (where e = +1.6 × 10–10 coulomb).
If m is the mass of electron, then its acceleration
F eE
a = m =– m …(i)
This acceleration remains constant only for a very short duration, since there are random forces
which deflect the electron in random manner. These deflections may arise as
(i) ions of metallic crystal vibrate simple harmonically around their mean positions. Different
ions vibrate in different directions and may be displaced by different amounts.
(ii) direct collisions of electrons with atoms of metallic crystal lattice.
In any way after a short duration called relaxation time, the motion of electrons become random.
Thus, we can imagine that the electrons are accelerated only for a short duration. As average
velocity of random motion is zero, if we consider the average motion of an electron, then its
→
initial velocity is zero, so the velocity of electron after time τ (i.e., drift velocity v d) is given by the
→ → →
relation v = u+ a t
eE
(here u = 0, v = v d, t = x, a = – m )
eE ex
v d = 0 – m x & vd = – m E …(ii)
At given temperature, the relaxation time τ remains constant, so drift velocity remains constant.

Q. 2. Establish a relation between electric current and drift velocity. [CBSE (AI) 2013]
OR
Prove that the current density of a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the drift
speed of electrons.
Ans. Relation between electric current and drift velocity:
Consider a uniform metallic wire XY of
length l and cross-sectional area A. A
potential difference V is applied across the
ends X and Y of the wire. This causes an
electric field at each point of the wire of
strength
V ...(i)
E= .
l
Due to this electric field, the electrons gain a drift velocity vd opposite to direction of electric
field. If q be the charge passing through the cross-section of wire in t seconds, then
q
Current in wire I = ...(ii)
t
The distance traversed by each electron in time t =average velocity × time = vd t
If we consider two planes P and Q at a distance vd t in a conductor, then the total charge flowing
in time t will be equal to the total charge on the electrons present within the cylinder PQ.
The volume of this cylinder = cross sectional area × height
= A vd t
If n is the number of free electrons in the wire per unit volume, then the number of free electrons
in the cylinder = n (Avd t)
If charge on each electron is – e (e=1.6 ×10–19C), then the total charge flowing through a
cross-section of the wire
q = (nAvd t) (– e) =–neAvd t ..(iii)
∴ Current flowing in the wire,
q − neAvd t
I= =
t t
i.e., current I = – neAvd ...(iv)
This is the relation between electric current and drift velocity. Negative sign shows that the
direction of current is opposite to the drift velocity.
Numerically I = – neAvd ...(v)
I
∴ Current density, J = = nevd
A
⇒ J \ vd .
That is, current density of a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the drift velocity.
Q. 3. Deduce Ohm’s law using the concept of drift velocity.
OR
Define the term ‘drift velocity’ of charge carriers in a conductor. Obtain the expression for the
current density in terms of relaxation time. [CBSE (F) 2014]
OR
Define relaxation time of the free electrons drifting in a conductor. How is it related to the
drift velocity of free electrons? Use this relation to deduce the expression for the electrical
resistivity of the material. [CBSE (AI) 2012]

OR
(i) On the basis of electron drift, derive an expression for resistivity of a conductor in terms
of number density of free electrons and relaxation time. On what factors does resistivity
of a conductor depend?
(ii) Why alloys like constantan and manganin are used for making standard resistors?
[CBSE Delhi 2016]
Ans. Relaxation time of free electrons drifting in a conductor is the average time elapsed between two
successive collisions.
Deduction of Ohm’s Law: Consider a conductor of length l and cross-sectional area A. When a
potential difference V is applied across its ends, the current produced is I. If n is the number of
electrons per unit volume in the conductor and vd the drift velocity of electrons, then the relation
between current and drift velocity is
I = – neAvd …(i)
–19
where – e is the charge on electron (e = 1.6 × 10 C)
V
Electric field produced at each point of wire, E = …(ii)
l
If τ is relaxation time and E is electric field strength, then drift velocity
eτ
vd = − …(iii)
m
Substituting this value in (i), we get
 eτ  ne 2 τ …(iv)
I = − neA  − E  or I = AE
 m  m
V
As E= [From (ii)]
l
ne2 x A V V m l
I= or = . …(v) E
m l I ne2 x A
ne2 x
Current density J e= o=
I A
V.
A ml
This is relation between current density J and applied
potential difference V. l
Under given physical conditions (temperature,

pressure) for a given conductor
V
m l
2 . A
= Constant
ne x
∴ This constant is called the resistance of the conductor (i.e. R).
m .l
i.e., R= …(vi)
n e2 τ A
V
From (v) and (vi); =R …(vii)
I
This is Ohm’s law. From equation (vi) it is clear that the resistance of a wire depends on its length
(l), cross-sectional area (A), number of electrons per m3 (n) and the relaxation time (τ)
Expression for resistivity:
ρl
As R= …(viii)
A
Comparing (vi) and (viii), we get
m
Resistivity of a conductor ρ = …(ix)
ne2 τ

Clearly, resistivity of a conductor is inversely proportional to number density of electrons and
relaxation time.
Resistivity of the material of a conductor depends upon the relaxation time, i.e., temperature
and the number density of electrons.
This is because constantan and manganin show very weak dependence of resistivity on temperature.
Q. 4. Derive condition of balance of a Wheatstone bridge.
OR
Draw a circuit diagram showing balancing of Wheatstone bridge. Use Kirchhoff ’s rules to
obtain the balance condition in terms of the resistances of four arms of Wheatstone Bridge.
[CBSE Delhi 2013, 2015]
Ans. Condition of balance of a Wheatstone bridge:
The circuit diagram of Wheatstone bridge is shown in fig.
P, Q, R and S are four resistance forming a closed bridge, called
Wheatstone bridge. A battery is connected across A and C, while a
galvanometer is connected between B and D. When the bridge is
balanced, there is no current in galvanometer.
Derivation of Formula: Let the current flowing in the circuit in the
balanced condition be I. This current on reaching point A is divided
into two parts I1 and I2. As there is no current in galvanometer
in balanced condition, current in resistances P and Q is I1 and in
resistances R and S it is I2.
Applying Kirchhoff ’s I law at point A
I − I1 − I2 = 0 or I = I1 + I2 ...(i)
Applying Kirchhoff ’s II law to closed mesh ABDA
− I1 P + I 2 R = 0 or I1 P = I2 R ...(ii)
Applying Kirchhoff ’s II law to mesh BCDB
− I1 Q + I2 S = 0 or I1Q = I2 S ...(iii)
Dividing equation (ii) by (iii), we get
I1 P I2 R P R
= or = ...(iv)
I1Q I2 S Q S
This is the condition of balance of Wheatstone bridge.
Q. 5. Using the principle of Wheatstone Bridge, describe the method to determine the specific
resistance of a wire in the laboratory. Draw the circuit diagram and write the formula used.
Write any two important precautions you would observe while performing the experiment.
OR
Draw a circuit diagram of a Metre Bridge and write the mathematical relation used to determine
the value of an unknown resistance. Why cannot such an arrangement be used for measuring
very low resistance? [CBSE East 2016, CBSE 2019 (55/4/1)]
Ans. Metre Bridge: Special Case of Wheatstone Bridge
It is a practical device based on the principle of
Wheatstone bridge to determine the unknown
resistance of a wire.
If ratio of arms resistors in Wheatstone bridge
is constant, then no current flows through the
galvanometer (or bridgewire).
Construction: It consists of a uniform 1 metre
long wire AC of constantan or manganin fixed
along a scale on a wooden base (fig.) The ends A
and C of wire are joined to two L-shaped copper

strips carrying connecting screws as shown. In between these copper strips, there is a third
straight copper strip having three connecting screws. The middle screw D is connected to a
sensitive galvanometer. The other terminal of galvanometer is connected to a sliding jockey B.
The jockey can be made to move anywhere parallel to wire AC.
Circuit: To find the unknown resistance S, the circuit is complete as shown in fig. The unknown
resistance wire of resistance S is connected across the gap between points C and D and a resistance
box is connected across the gap between the points A and D. A cell, a rheostat and a key (K) is
connected between the points A and C by means of connecting screws. In the experiment when
the sliding jockey touches the wire AC at any point, then the wire is divided into two parts.
These two parts AB and BC act as the resistances P and Q of the Wheatstone bridge. In this way
the resistances of arms AB, BC, AD and DC form the resistances P, Q, R and S of Wheatstone
bridge. Thus the circuit of metre bridge is the same as that of Wheatstone bridge.
Method: To determine the unknown resistance, first of all key K is closed and a resistance R is
taken out from resistance box in such a way that on pressing jockey B at end points A and C, the
deflection in galvanometer is on both the sides. Now jockey is slided on wire at such a position
that on pressing the jockey on the wire at that point, there is no deflection in the galvanometer
G. In this position, the points B and D are at the same potential; therefore the bridge is balanced.
The point B is called the null point. The length of both parts AB and BC of the wire are read on
the scale. The condition of balance of Wheatstone bridge is
P R
=
Q S
⇒ Unknown resistance, S =  Q  R ...(i)
P
 
To Determine Specific Resistance:
If r is the resistance per cm length of wire AC and l cm is the length of wire AB, then length of
wire BC will be (100 – l) cm
∴ P = resistance of wire AB=lr
Q = resistance of wire BC= (100 – l)r
Substituting these values in equation (i), we get
(100 − l ) r 100 − l
or S= × R or S= R ...(ii)
lr l
As the resistance (R) of wire (AB) is known, the resistance S may be calculated.
A number of observations are taken for different resistances taken in resistance box and S is
calculated each time and the mean value of S is found.
2
Specific resistance ρ = SA = Sπr
l L
Knowing resistance S, radius r by screw gauge and length of wire L by metre scale, the value of ρ
may be calculated.
If a small resistance is to be measured, all other resistances used in the circuit, including the
galvanometer, should be low to ensure sensitivity of the bridge. Also the resistance of thick
copper strips and connecting wires (end resistences) become comparable to the resistance to be
measured. This results in large error in measurement.
Precautions:
(i) In this experiment the resistances of the copper strips and connecting screws have not been
taken into account. These resistances are called end-resistances. Therefore very small resistances
cannot be found accurately by metre bridge. The resistance S should not be very small.
(ii) The current should not flow in the metre bridge wire for a long time, otherwise the wire will
become hot and its resistance will be changed.

Q. 6. (a) State the principle of working a potentiometer. [CBSE Delhi 2010, 2016]
(b) Draw a circuit diagram to compare the emf of two primary cells. Write the formula used.
How can the sensitivity of a potentiometer be increased?
(c) Write two possible causes for one
sided deflection in the potentiometer
experiment. [CBSE Delhi 2013]
Ans. (a) Principle of Potentiometer: When a constant
current flows through a wire of uniform area
of cross-section, the potential drop across any
length of the wire is directly proportional to
the length.
Circuit Diagram. It consists of a long
resistance wire AB of uniform cross-section. Its one end A is connected to the positive
terminal of battery B1 whose negative terminal is connected to the other end B of the wire
through key K and a rheostat (Rh). The battery B1 connected in circuit is called the driver
battery and this circuit is called the primary circuit. By the help of this circuit a definite
potential difference is applied across the wire AB; the potential falls continuously along the
wire from A to B. The fall of potential per unit length of wire is called the potential gradient.
It is denoted by ‘k’. A cell is connected such that its positive terminal is connected to end A
and the negative terminal to a jockey J through the galvanometer G. This circuit is called the
secondary circuit.
In primary circuit the rheostat (Rh) is so adjusted that the deflection in galvanometer is on
one side when jockey is touched on wire at point A and on the other side when jockey is
touched on wire at point B.
The jockey is moved and touched to the potentiometer wire and the position is found where
galvanometer gives no deflection. Such a point P is called null deflection point.
VAB is the potential difference between points A and B and L metre be the length of wire,
then the potential gradient
VAB
k=
L
If the length of wire AP in the null deflection position be l, then the potential difference
between points A and P,
VAP = kl
∴ The emf of cell, ε = VAP = kl
In this way the emf of a cell may be determined by a potentiometer.
(b) Comparison of emf ’s of two cells: First of
all the ends of potentiometer are connected
to a battery B1 key K and rheostat Rh such
that the positive terminal of battery B1
is connected to end A of the wire. This
completes the primary circuit.
Now the positive terminals of the cells C1
and C2 whose emfs are to be compared are
connected to A and the negative terminals
to the jockey J through a two-way key and
a galvanometer (fig). This is the secondary
circuit.
Method: (i) By closing key K, a potential
difference is established and rheostat is so adjusted that when jockey J is made to touch
at ends A and B of wire, the deflection in galvanometer is on both sides. Suppose in this
position the potential gradient is k.

(ii) Now plug is inserted between the terminals 1 and 3 so that cell C1 is included in the
secondary circuit and jockey J is slided on the wire at P1 (say) to obtain the null point.
The distance of from A is measured. Suppose this length is l1 i.e. AP1 = l1
∴ The emf of cell C1ε1 = kl1 ...(i)
(iii) Now plug is taken off between the terminals 1 and 3 and inserted in between the
terminals 2 and 3 to bring cell C2 in the circuit. Jockey is slided on wire and null deflection
position P2 is noted. Suppose distance of P2 from A is l2 i.e., AP2 =l2
∴ The emf of cell C2, ε2= kl2 ...(ii)
ε1 l1
Dividing (i) by (ii), we get = ...(iii)
ε2 l2
Thus emf ’s of cells may be compared. Out of these cells if one is standard cell, then the
emf of other cell may be calculated.
Sensitivity: (i) To increase the sensitivity of measurement, the value of potential gradient is
kept least possible. Smaller the value of k, greater is the length (l) of the null deflection; and
so greater at will be the accuracy of measurement. That is why a very long wire is used in
potentiometer.
(ii) In the null position of potentiometer, there is no current in secondary circuit, i.e., cell is
in open circuit. Therefore accurate value of emf of cell is obtained.
(c) Possible causes for one side deflection:
(i) The emf ε1 (or ε2) is more than the emf of driver cell (auxiliary battery).
(ii) The end of the potentiometer wire connected to +ve of auxiliary battery is connected to
negative terminal of the cell whose emf is to be determined.
Q. 7. Draw the circuit diagram of a potentiometer which can be used to determine the internal
resistance of a given cell of emf (E). Describe a method to find the internal resistance of a
primary cell. [CBSE (AI) 2013; (F) 2011, 2016, 2019 (55/2/1)]
Ans. Determination of Internal Resistance of Potentiometer.
Circuit: A battery B1 a rheostat (Rh) and a
key K is connected across the ends A and B
of the potentiometer wire such that positive
terminal of battery is connected to point A.
This completes the primary circuit.
Now the given cell C is connected such that
its positive terminal is connected to A and
negative terminal to jockey J through a
galvanometer. A resistance box (R ) and a
key K1 are connected across the cell. This
completes the secondary circuit.
Method:
(i) Initially key K is closed and a potential difference is applied across the wire AB. Now rheostat
Rh is so adjusted that on touching the jockey J at ends A and B of potentiometer wire, the
deflection in the galvanometer is on both sides. Suppose that in this position the potential
gradient on the wire is k.
(ii) Now key K1 is kept open and the position of null deflection is obtained by sliding and
pressing the jockey on the wire. Let this position be P1 and AP1 = l1
In this situation the cell is in open circuit, therefore the terminal potential difference will be
equal to the emf of cell, i.e.,
emf ε =kl1 ...(i)

(iii) Now a suitable resistance R is taken in the resistance box and key K1 is closed. Again, the
position of null point is obtained on the wire by using jockey J. Let this position on wire be
P2 and AP2= l2.
In this situation the cell is in closed circuit, therefore the terminal potential difference (V) of
cell will be equal to the potential difference across external resistance R, i.e.,
V = kl2 ...(ii)
ε l1
Dividing (i) by (ii), we get =
V l2
ε l 
∴ Internal resistance of cell, r =  − 1  R =  1 − 1  R
V   l2 
From this formula r may be calculated.
Q. 8. (a) (i) State the principle on which a potentiometer works. How A
V
can a given potentiometer be made more sensitive? B
(volts)
(ii) In the graph shown below for two potentiometers, state with
reason which of the two potentiometer, A or B, is more sensitive.
(b) Two metallic wires, P1 and P2 of the same material and same
length but different cross-sectional areas, A1 and A2 are joined l
together and connected to a source of emf. Find the ratio of the
drift velocities of free electrons in the two wires when they are connected (i) in series, and
(ii) in parallel. [CBSE (A) 2017]
Ans. (a) (i) Principle: When a constant current flows through a wire of uniform area of cross section,
the potential drop across any length of the wire is directly proportional to the length.
To make it more sensitive, the value of potential gradient K is kept least possible. Smaller
the value of K, greater is the length (l) for the null deflection, and so greater will be the
accuracy of measurement.
V
(ii) Potential gradient =
l
∴ Potential gradient of wire A is more than wire B
So, wire B is more sensitive than A.
(b) We know that,
I
I = neAvd ⇒ vd =
neA
Let R1 and R2 be resistances of P1 & P2 and A1 & A2 are their cross sectional areas respectively.
l l
R1 = t and R2 = t
A1 A2
When connected in series,
f
tl tl
vd f + p neA1
1
A1 A 2 A2
∴ vd = f =
2
A1
tl tl
f + p
A1 A2 neA2
When, connected in parallel,

f I
.
tl neA1
vd A1
1
vd = f I
=1
2 .
tl neA2
A2

Q. 9. You are given two sets of potentiometer circuits to measure the emf E1 of a cell.
Set A: consists of a potentiometer wire of a material of resistivity ρ1, area of cross-section A1
and length l.
l
Set B: consists of a potentiometer of two composite wire of equal lengths each, of resistivity
2
ρ1, ρ2 and area of cross-section A1, A2 respectively.
(i) Find the relation between resistivity of the two wires with respect to their area of cross
section, if the current flowing in the two sets is same.
(ii) Compare the balancing length obtained in the two sets. [CBSE Sample Paper 2016]
ε ε
Ans. (i) I = for set A and I = for set B
ρl ρ1 l ρl
R+ 1 R+ + 2
A1 2 A1 2 A2
Equating the above two expressions, we have
ε ε
=
ρl ρ1 l ρl
R+ 1 R+ + 2
2 A1 2 A1 2 A2
ρ1 l ρ1 l ρ2 l ρ1 l ρ1l ρ2 l
⇒ R+ = R+ + ⇒ − = ...(i)
A1 2 A1 2 A2 A1 2 A1 2 A2
t1 t2
& A1
=
A2
ρ1
(ii) Potential gradient of the potentiometer wire for set A, K = I
A1
Potential drop across the potentiometer wire in set B
t1 l t2l I t1 t2
V=I
2A1
+
2A 2
& V=
2 A1
+
A2
l
I t1 t2
Kl = + , using the condition (i), we get
2 A1 A2
ρ1
K' = I , which is equal to K.
A1
Therefore, balancing length obtained in the two sets is same.

Self-Assessment Test
Time allowed: 1 hour Max. marks: 30
1. Choose and write the correct option in the following questions. (3 × 1 = 3)

(i) A carbon resistor of (47 ± 4.7) kΩ is to be marked with rings of different colours for its
identification. The colour code sequence will be
(a) Violet—Yellow—Orange—Silver (b) Yellow—Violet—Orange—Silver
(c) Yellow—Green—Violet—Gold (d) Green—Orange—Violet—Gold
(ii) Kirchhoff ’s first and second laws of electrical circuits are consequences of
(a) conservation of energy and electric charge respectively.
(b) conservation of energy.
(c) conservation of electric charge and energy respectively.
(d) conservation of electric charge.
(iii) A, B and C are voltmeters of resistance R, 1.5R and B
3R respectively as shown in the figure. When some
potential difference is applied between X and Y, the X A Y
voltmeter readings are VA, VB and VC respectively.
C
Then
(a) VA = VB ≠ VC (b) VA ≠ VB ≠ VC
(c) VA = VB = VC (d) VA ≠ VB = VC
2. Fill in the blanks. (2 × 1 = 2)

(i) Wheatstone Bridge experiment is most sensitive when all the resistances are of
______________.
(ii) A battery of emf 2 volt and internal resistance 0.1 Ω is being charged with a current of 5
ampere. The p.d. between the two terminals of the battery is ______________ volt.
3. State the two Kirchhoff ’s rules used in electric networks. How are these rules justified? 1
4. Show variation of resistivity of copper as a function of temperature in a graph. 1
5. A 5 V battery of negligible internal resistance is connected across a 200 V battery and a resistance
of 39 Ω as shown in the figure. Find the value of the current flowing in the circuit. 1
6. It is found that when R = 4 Ω, the current is 1 A and when R is increased to 9 Ω , the current
reduces to 0.5 A. Find the values of the emf E and internal resistance r. 2
7. A cell of emf ‘E’ and internal resistance ‘r’ is connected across a variable resistor ‘R’. Plot a graph
showing variation of terminal voltage ‘V’ of the cell versus the current ‘I’. Using the plot, show
how the emf of the cell and its internal resistance can be determined. 2
8. Estimate the average drift speed of conduction electrons in a copper wire of cross-sectional
area 2.5 × 10–7m2 carrying a current of 1.8A. Assume the density of conduction electrons to be
9 × 1028m–3. 2

9. A wire of 20Ω resistance is gradually stretched to double its original length. It is then cut into two
equal parts. These parts are then connected in parallel across a 4.0 volt battery. Find the current
drawn from the battery. 2
10. Using Kirchhoff ’s rules, calculate the current through the 40 Ω and 20 Ω resistors in the
following circuit: 3
80 V
20 Ω
– +
A B
40 Ω
D C
10 Ω
E + – F
40 V
11. Two cells E1 and E2 of emf ’s 5 V and 9 V and internal resistances

of 0.3 Ω and 1.2 Ω respectively are connected to a network of
3
resistances as shown in the figure. Calculate the value of current
flowing through the 3 Ω resistance.
12. (i) State the principle of working of a meter bridge.
(ii) In a meter bridge balance point is found at a distance l1
with resistance R and S as shown in the figure.
When an unknown resistance X is connected in parallel with
3
the resistance S, the balance point shifts to a distance l2. Find
the expression for X in terms of l1, l2 and S.
13. (a) A cell of emf E and internal resistance r is connected to
two external resistances R1 and R2 and a perfect ammeter.
The current in the circuit is measured in four different
situations:
(i) without any external resistance in the circuit.
(ii) with resistance R1 only
(iii) with R1 and R2 in series combination
(iv) with R1 and R2 in parallel combination.
The currents measured in the four cases are 0.42 A, 1.05 A, 1.4 A and 4.2 A, but not necessarily
in that order. Identify the currents corresponding to the four cases mentioned above.
(b) A variable resistor R is connected across a cell of emf E and internal
resistance ‘r’ as shown in the figure.
Plot a graph showing the variation of
(i) Terminal voltage V and
(ii) The current I, as a function of R. 5
Answers
1. (i) (b) (ii) (c) (iii) (c) 2. (i) same order (ii) 2.5
–4
5. 5 A 6. r = 1 Ω, E = 5 V 8. vd = 5 × 10 m/s 9. 0.2 A
1
10. 0 A, 4 A 11. A
3
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Chapter –3

The study of electric charges in motion is called current electricity.

Current Electricity 105

7. V-I Characteristics: Linear and Non-linear — Ohmic and Non-ohmic Conductors

Where V is the potential difference across wire.

106 Xam idea Physics–XII

Current Electricity 107

108 Xam idea Physics–XII

19. Kirchhoff ’s Laws

Current Electricity 109

Selected NCERT Textbook Questions

110 Xam idea Physics–XII

Current Electricity 111

112 Xam idea Physics–XII

Current Electricity 113

114 Xam idea Physics–XII

Mass of wire, m= volume × density =Ald

Current Electricity 115

Ω c= 1 + m Ω the resistance of 1 Ω is connected in

(iii) All in series

116 Xam idea Physics–XII

Current Electricity 117

118 Xam idea Physics–XII

Multiple Choice Questions [1 mark]

Current Electricity 119

120 Xam idea Physics–XII

(a) +9 V (b) – 9 V (c) +3 V (d) + 6 V

(a) 3 Ω (b) 6 rX (c) 6 Ω (d) 0.6 rX

Current Electricity 121

Fill in the Blanks [1 mark]

Very Short Answer Questions [1 mark]

122 Xam idea Physics–XII

Current Electricity 123

124 Xam idea Physics–XII

(ii) Internal resistance is negligible i.e., zero.

Current Electricity 125

Ans. If a constant current I flows through the conductor, resistance at

126 Xam idea Physics–XII

Ans. From colour code table,

Current Electricity 127

128 Xam idea Physics–XII

Ans. Applying Kirchoff ’s law for the loop ABCDA, we have

Current Electricity 129

130 Xam idea Physics–XII

= 1.042 # 10 –3 m/s - 1 mm/s

Current Electricity 131

Total resistance of circuit is 2+ 3 = 5 Ω

Applying Kirchhoff ’s second law in mesh CDFEC I1

Applying Kirchhoff ’s second law to mesh ABFEA I2

132 Xam idea Physics–XII

Ans. For the mesh APQBA

Current Electricity 133

Q. 18. A potentiometer wire of length 1 m has a resistance of 10 Ω. It is connected to a 6 V battery

134 Xam idea Physics–XII

[CBSE (South) 2016] [HOTS]

Current Electricity 135

Q. 26. Using Kirchoff ’s rules determine the value of

136 Xam idea Physics–XII

[CBSE (AI) 2012] [HOTS]

Current Electricity 137