THEME: MODERN PHYSICS

CHAPTER 7: QUANTUM PHYSICS

Standard content Learning standards

7.1 Quantum Theory of Light 1. Explain the initiation of the quantum theory

2. Describe quantum of energy

3. Explain wave-particle duality

4. Explain concept of photon

5. Solve problems using :

(i) photon energy, E=hf

(ii) power, P=nhf ; n is number of photon emitted per second.

7.2 Photoelectric Effect 1. Explain photoelectric effect

2. Identify four characteristics of photoelectric effect that cannot be

explained using wave theory

7.3 Einstein’s Photoelectric 1. State minimum work function needed by a metal to emit an

Theory
electron using Einstein’s equation

2. Explain threshold frequency, fo and work function, W

3. Determine work function of metal, W=hfo

4. Solve problems involving Einstein’s equation for photoelectric

effect.

5. Explain production of photoelectric current in a photocell circuit

6. Describe applications of photoelectric effect

 CHAPTER 7 (FORM 5) : QUANTUM PHYSICS

LESSON 7.1 –
QUANTUM THEORY OF LIGHT

J.J. Thomsom
1.1 Explain the background of triggering
quantum theory ideas An atom is a positively charged sphere that is
uniformly distributed onwhole atoms while
1.1.1 Intoduction electrons are uniformly dispersed in them.
This model is known as 'Plum pudding' Model’
Quantum physics involves physics on a very He discovered electrons as a result of cathode
small scale, where size is often associated with ray tube experiments.
the size of atoms and sub-atoms such as protons
and neutrons of photons etc. Earnest Rutherford
Quantum physics was first developed in the
early 1900s where classical physics failed to An atom is made up of a very small, positively
explain some phenomena at the atomic level. charged nucleus at the center of the atom, while
. negative electrons orbit around the nucleus.
This model was presented by him as a result of
1.1.2 The background of the development of the experiment of scattering alpha particles on
quantum theory from classical theory which gold foil performed by his assistants Hans
encompasses the discoveries of the following Geiger and Ernest Marsden.
physicists
Niels Bohr
Isaac Newton
Neil Bohr modified the Rutherford atomic
The three Newton's laws of motion in classical model. He suggested that every electron in an
physics can be applied to large and medium atom has a fixed amount of energy. This energy
bodies only. stores electrons that move around the nucleus in
In the 20th century Newton’s law were a certain range called the energy level
replaced by quantum mechanics and relativity Niels Bohr succeeded in constructing atomic
as the most fundamental laws of physics. theory based on quantum ideas.
Nevertheless, Newton’s laws continue to give
an accurate account of nature, except for very Max Planck
small bodies such as electrons or for bodies
moving close to the speed of light. The classic theory of black bodies by Rayleigh-
. Jeans suggests that the energy emitted by black
Thomas Young bodies is continuous.
But then Max Planck introduced the idea of a
In classical physics, the results of Young’s quartz (concrete packet) that could explain the
double-slit experiment shows that light is a part of the radiation intensity graph against the
wave because it shows the phenomena of wavelength of a black body that could not be
diffraction and interference, while the particles explained by classical theory.
do not experience both of these phenomena. Max Planck suggested that the radiation emitted
But in physics, quantum, as a result of was in discrete amounts.
photoelectric effects experiments it is found that
light is particle in nature.
Albert Einstein

John Dalton Einstein developed Planck's theory with states

that light exists in the form of a quanta known as
All matter is made up of tiny particles called a photon.
atoms. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed. Albert Einstein, one of the scientists who took
Atoms of the same element are similar, different Planck's idea seriously, proposed quantum light
elements have atoms. (photons) that behave like particles. Other
Atoms are the smallest particles and cannot Einstein theories explain the similarity of mass
divided again. and energy,, the principle of wave-particles
duality and the theory of relativity

1
 Louis de Broglie electromagnetic radiation is not continuous but is
discrete in the form of quantum or energy
De Broglie introduced the hypothesis that packets, E = nhf, where f is the frequency, h is
particles can also show wave properties. the planck constant and n = 1,2 , 3,… .in
Einstein and De Broglie's ideas led to the idea of quantum form.
the nature of wave-particle duality properties.
This means that for each temperature, the black
1.1.3 Black body body has the maximum radiation intensity
which is the peak of the graph.
Black bodies are the ideal absorbers and
radiators of electromagnetic radiation (including On the left side of the peak the energy packages
light and heat). are larger because of the short wavelength
(higher frequency) while on the right side the
peak of the energy packages is smaller due to the
high wavelength (low frequency).

At any temperature the black body is easier to

radiate energy in smaller packages compared to
a large energy package. That is why it is found
that the area under the curve on the right side of
the peak is greater than the area under the curve
A good example to explain the concept of a on the right side of the peak because the area
black body is when a ray of light enters a hollow under the curve represents the amount of energy
radiated.
body through a fine hole reflected several times
.
without being able to re-emerge from the hollow
body.
The energy emitted by the black body is called
the black body radiation.

The comparison of classical theory and quantum

theory on black body radiation is as follows:

According to Planck again, as the temperature

increases the probability of emitting radiation at
higher frequencies (large energy quantities)
increases. That is why the graph peak towards
shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies) with
increasing temperature.

Summary of comparisons between classical

According to classical theory, the greater the theory and quantum theory
frequency (the lower the wavelength) the greater
the intensity of the radiation until it reaches the
value of infinity known as ‘ultraviolet disaster’
But through real experiments, the shape of the
graph is very different.

In 1900, German physicists solved the problem

of 'ultra violet' by suggesting that

2
 1.2 State the meaning of quantum energy.

1.2.1 Compare the concepts of continuous

energy and discrete energy, using the visible
light spectrum (continuous energy) and the
line spectrum of mercury lamps (discrete
energy)

As the temperature of an object rises, the object acts

as a black body radiator and emits thermal radiation Visible light spectrum from white light
of all wavelengths.
When white light is radiated into a prism it
Figure 7.2 shows a graph of radiation intensity produces a continuous spectrum of visible light
against wavelengths of three types of black bodies at with various colors (wavelength or frequency)
different temperatures. that sometimes overlap between colors without
a separation gap. This shows that the energy
Usually, every curved graph of the black body released by the light is continuous.
spectrum is narrower on its left, which is an area
with short wavelengths and high frequencies.

With increasing temperatures, the wavelength

approaching maximum radiation intensity will also
get shorter.

Line spectrum of hot mercury vapour lamp

Figure below shows examples of black bodies in
daily life. But when observe at the spectrum produced by
mercury lamp, it is found that the spectrum of
lines is formed where there is a large separation
gap between the lines. The lines are for colors
(wavelength or specific frequency only)
indicating the energy emitted by the radiation is
discrete (quantum).

The line spectrum produced by an excited atom

is a series of coloured lines with unique
wavelengths and frequencies. Each element
produces a spectrum with a series of its own
distinctive lines. Therefore, the line spectrum can
be used to identify the presence of an element.
Table below shows the frequency and quantum
of energy values of the line spectrum produced
by a mercury vapour lamp.

Frequency and energy quantum values of a line

spectrum from a mercury vapour lamp

3
1.2.2 The meaning of quantum energy
But momentum . p = mv
Quantum of energy is discrete energy packet and
not a continuous energy. The energy depends on Therefore , mv = h/λ
the frequency of the waves. h

mv
According to Max Planck and Albert Einstein's
quantum theory, light energy exists in the form of an Where :
energy packet known as a photon. λ = de Broglie wavelenth
h = Planck constant
Photons are light energies transferred in quantum of m = mass of particle
energy. The photon energy is directly proportional to v = velocity of particle
the frequency of light waves. The higher the
frequency of light waves, the higher the energy
Example 1
quantum of a photon
Calculate the wavelength of de Broglie for a
Based on the light line spectrum of mercury lamp, bullet of mass 0.025 kg moving at velocity 320
then; m s-1.
Quantum means the quantity of energy that discrete
Solution
directly proportional to the frequency radiated.

Ef
Hence E = hf,

where
h is the Planck constant. h = 6.63 x 10 -34J s

1.3.2 Application of wave properties of an

electron (particle) - Electron microscope

One of the application of the wave properties of

an electron with reference to the wavelength in
Broglie is the electron microscope.
1.3 Explain the properties of wave-particle
duality properties
A problem that arises for a light microscope
1.3.1 Hipotesis de Broglie when at high resolution. When observed objects
are about the wavelength of light, for example
The wave-particle duality properties is a looking at chromosomes in a single cell nucleus,
phenomenon when under certain conditions, a significant diffraction effect is seen. As a
particles exhibit wave properties and under solution an electron microscope is used.
other conditions waves exhibit particle
properties.
In this microscope the electron beams are
According to De Broglie Hypothesis: accelerated at high speed by a high voltage
De Broglie's hypothesis says that all materials (electrons are particles). the electron grooves
have particle and wave properties with de Broglie wavelength shorter than the
wavelength of light. (electrons are waves).
The wave-particle properties are given by the de
Broglie equation:
Then, the electron grooves will be refracted and
h
Momentum , p  focused by the electromagnetic coil acts as a
 magnetic lens to produce magnification .
Where:
(electrons are particles again). The image is
p = momentum (particle property)
λ = wavelength (wave property) formed in the form of a photograph called as
h = Planck constant electron microscopy or as an image on a TV
screen.

4
The de Broglie wavelength of an electron beam is 1.4 Explain the concept of photons
approximately 1000 – 10 000 times shorter
compared to the wavelength of light. This property Photons are the basic particles in light and other
is very important for higher magnification of electromagnetic rays. These particles have a zero
resting mass.
electron microscope. A comparison between the
images produced by an optical microscope and an Thus, photons move in a vacuum at the speed of
electron microscope is shown in figure below. light.Photons have particle-wave duality properties.
When it is a wave it can show wave phenomena
such as reflection, refraction, diffraction and
interference.

While the particle is its ability to interact with matter

through energy transfer. Therefore photons are
considered as quantities (discrete energy packages)
of light.

This is inferred through the Planck equation as

follow Energy for one photon, E = hf
c
But c = fλ or f 


hc
Therefore E 


1.5 Solve problems for energy and power

of photon

Nhc
Enegry of photon E =Nhf = 

Where ,

E = Energy of photon
N = Number of photon
h = Planck constant
λ = Wavelength of light
c = Velocity of light

E Nhf nhc
Power of photon , P    nhf 
t t 
Where,

P = Power of photon
n = Number of photon per second
h = Planck constant
λ = Wavelength of light
Example 2 c = Velocity of light
Calculate the wavelength of de Broglie for one
electron moving at a velocity of 2.0 x 10 6 m s-1

Solution

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LESSON 2 –
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
2.1 Explain the photoelectric effect

2.1.1 Introduction

In chapter 5 (Electronics chapter) you have

learned about the process of termionic emission
in which when a certain metal is heated the
electrons are released through its surface.
The equivalent process is the photoelectric Figure 2.1 Apparatus to show photoelectric effect
effect caused by radiation emitted to the metal
surface but not caused by heat as occurs in the
process of termion emission.

2.1.2 Meaning of photoelectric effect.

The photoelectric effect is the release of

electrons from the metal surface when irradiated
with electromagnetic radiation.
Electrons emitted from the metal are known as
photoelectrons

When a metal surface is illuminated by a beam of

light at a certain frequency, electrons can be
emitted from the metal. This phenomenon is
known as photoelectric effect.

2.1.3 Demonstration to show the

photoelectric effect

The characteristics of photoelectric effect can be

studied by arranging a photocell in the circuit as
shown in Figure 2.1

8
When a piece of negatively charged zinc plate is Discussion
placed on a negatively charged electroscopic metal
disc it is found that the deflection size of the gold When monochromtaic light is applied to the
leaf increased. cathode of a photo cell at a certain
voltage,electrons are released from the cathode
When the ultraviolet radiation are directed to thezinc towards the anode producing a current causing
plate it is found that deflection size of the gold leaf the galvanometer indicator to deflect and this
decreased. process is called photoelectric effect.

This is because when ultraviolet rays hit the zinc The resulting electrons are named as
surface, electrons escape out of the zinc surface photoelectrons and the resulting current are
and the number of negative charges on the zinc called photoelectric current. For electrons to
plate decreases. escape , the voltage across photocell must exceed
the stopping voltage, Vs.
The release of electrons from the zinc surface when
exposed to ultraviolet light is known as the **Formulae such as E = hf and λ = h/p , involve
photoelectric effect. Planck's constant, h. How can the value of this
constant, h be determined in the laboratory?
2.1.4 Experiment to show photoelectric effect
2.1.5 Experiment to determine the value of
Aim
Planck constant, h
To show the photoelectric effects
Aim
List of apparatus and materials
Photo cell, battery, rheostat, galvanometer,
To determine the value of the planck constant, h
voltmeter, connecting wire and monochromatic
light source.
List of apparatus and material
Arrangement of apparatus
LED various colors of light, voltmeter,
galvanometer, battery, rheostat and connecting
wires.

Arrangement of apparatus

Procedure

Arrange the circuit as shown.

The monochromtic light source is directed to the Procedure
photo cell cathode.
Adjust the rheostat so that the voltmeter reading Arrange the circuit as shown in the diagram
change up and observe the galvanometer Adjust the rheostat until the LED starts to light
pointer. up and the galvanometer starts to deflect.
Record the voltmeter reading, = V
Observation
Refer to website to determine the value of the
At a certain voltage value it is observed that the light color frequency emitted from the LED, = f
galvanometer pointer shows a deflection. Repeat the experiment using LED of different
colours.
Plot graph V against f

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Data 2.2 The Characteristics of the Photoelectric
Effect

Photoelectric effect occurs when light strikes the

surface of a metal. The electrons in the metal absorb
energy from the light and escape from the metal
surface.

According to classical theory, light in wave form is a

spectrum with continuous energy and photoelectric
Calculation effect should be able to occur at any light wave
frequency.

eV  h f Bright light which has high energy should be able to

h emit electrons quickly. Dim light has low energy so
V f
e the electrons need a longer time to absorb enough
h energy to escape from the metal surface.
Gradient of graph 
e
h  (e ) X ( gradient of graph) However, the results of the photoelectric effect
experiments show that the emission of
photoelectrons only apply to light waves with
frequencies that exceed a certain value without being
The activation voltage, Va can be obtained through
affected by the intensity of the light. Photoelectrons
V-intercept from the graph of I against V as shown
are also emitted instantaneously at those light
in Figure 2.2.The activation voltage, Va has a linear
frequencies even at low light intensities.
relationship with 1/λ as shown in Figure 2.3.

Gradient of a graph of Va against 1/λ, m is equal to

the value of hc/e. Therefore, the value of Planck's
constant can be determined as me/c

Figure 2.2

***The threshold frequency, f0

is the minimum frequency required to
produce photoelectric effect on a metal

Figure 2.3

10
 .4. Photoelectrons emit instantaneous when
emitted with light.
But according to classical wave theory, electrons
take time to absorb enough energy to release them
from the metal surface. Therefore, there will be time
elapsed before the photoelectron is emitted

EXERCISES : LESSON 7.2

1 The photoelectric effect is the release of

electrons from the metal surface when irradiated
with

A heat radiation
B alpha radiation
C beta ray radiation
D electromagnetic radiation.
Identify four features of photoelectric effects
2 In photo electric effect, emission of electrons is
that cannot be explained using wave theory. due to

Some features of photoelectric effects fail to be A electromagnetic radiation

explained by classical wave theory: B radioactive radiation
C magnetic field
1. The photoelectron radiation rate does not D electric field
depend on the frequency of light but depends on
3 What aspect of wave- particle duality is shown
the intensity of the light beam. by the photoelectric effect?
When the photoelectron radiation rate increases,
then the photoelectric current increases. But A Light is made up of particles
according to classical wave theory, increasing the B Particles made up of light
frequency of light (at a fixed amplitude) will C Particles can behave like waves
increase the photoelectron radiation rate D Waves can behave like particles

4 Which of the following shows particle nature of

2. Existence of threshold frequency. light?
Threshold frequency is the minimum frequency light
required to release photoelectrons from metal A Photoelectric effect
surfaces. The frequency of the threshold depends on B Interference
the type of metal emitted by the light. C Diffraction
D Refraction
But according to classical wave theory, light energy
is continuously absorbed by free electrons in metals. 5 What is the name of the constant h in the
When enough energy has been absorbed, the equation E = h f?
electrons will free themselves from the metal.
Therefore the frequency of light does not require a A De Broglie’s constant
B Eintein’s constant
certain minimum value
C Planck’s constant
D Bohr’s constant
3. The maximum kinetic energy of electrons
released depends on the frequency of light and is
independent of the intensity of light
But according to classical wave theory the higher the
intensity of light the more the kinetic energy of the
released electrons is used

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LESSON 3 – EINSTEIN’S
PHOTOELECTRIC THEORY

3.1 State the minimum work function required

by a metal to radiate electrons through the
Einstein’s equation.

In 1905, Albert Einstein introduced a photoelectric

theory that successfully explained all the
characteristics of photoelectric effect in related
experiments. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in
1921 for this achievement. This theory is named Diagram above shows the graph the kinetic energy
Einstein’s Photoelectric Theory. of photoelectron against the light frequency.is
plotted
Einstein applied Max Planck’s idea of energy
quantum. He suggested that energy is carried by Based on the principle of conservation of energy,
light particles called photons. The energy of each
photon is directly proportional to the frequency of
light, f and can be determined by the following Light energy (photons) = Energy used by electrons
equation. to escape from metal surfaces + Kinetic energy of
photoelectron
1
hf  W  mv 2
2
1
mv 2  hf - W
2
Each quantum of light is a discrete packet of energy.
There are many energy packets in a beam of light This equation is known as the Einstein’s equation,
that shines on the metal surface. When a photon where W is known as a work function.
arrives at a metal surface, the photon energy will be
fully absorbed by an electron in the metal. This equation corresponds to the graph above.
x-intercept = threshold frequency fo
This energy is used to release the electron from the y-intercept = - (work function, W)
metal and the extra energy will become the kinetic Gradient of graph = Planck constant, h
energy of the photoelectron. Usually, the electrons
on a metal surface will acquire maximum kinetic 3.2 Threshold frequency, fo and work
energy compared to the electrons inside the metal. function,W for Photoelectric effect.

The minimum energy required for a photoelectron to

be emitted from a metal surface is known as work
function. The minimum frequency for a light photon
to produce photoelectric effect is called threshold
frequency.

Figure 3.1
13
The relationship between the maximum kinetic 3.3. Determine the work function of metal
energy of photoelectrons, Kmax and the light based on the formula, W = hfo
frequency, f is shown by the graph in Figure 3.1.
The graph is a straight line with a positive gradient Based on the quantum energy principle;
and not passing through the origin. The threshold
E = hf
frequency, f0 is the value of the intercept on the
Emin = hfmin
frequency axis.
W = hfo
Example 1
The relationship between work function and
threshold frequency of a metal can be determined by The threshold frequency for zinc metal is
the relationship W = hf0 . Photoelectrons will
1.038 x 1015 Hz. Calculate the work function of zinc
acquire kinetic energy when light frequency exceeds
metal.
threshold frequency. The higher the threshold
frequency of a metal, the higher the work function. Solution
This means the minimum energy required for
photoelectric effect to occur is higher. Different
metals have different threshold frequencies as shown
in Figure 3.2.

3.4 Solve problems involving Einstein’s

equation for photoelectric effect

Example 2

The work function of a metal is 5.81 x 10-19 J.

Ultraviolet radiation with a frequency of 1 x 10 15 Hz
is directed to the surface of the metal.
Figure 3.2 Calculate
(a) The threshold frequency of the metal
Figure 3.3 shows the graph the kinetic energy of (b) The maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectron against the light frequency of three photoelectron released from the metal surface
different metals. Based on the graph above, the
threshold frequency f0 and the working function, W Solution
depends on the type of metal.

Figure 3.3

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Example 3 3.5 Generating Photoelectric Current in a
Photocell Circuit
Diagram shows a graph of the kinetic energy of a
photonectron against the frequency of an Figure 3.4 shows a photocell circuit consisting of a
electromagnetic radiation resulting from a glass vacuum tube. The semi-cylindrical cathode is
photoelectric effect experiment. coated with a light-sensitive metal and connected to
the negative potential.

The anode is a metal rod fixed at the axis of the

semi-cylindrical cathode and connected to the
positive potential. When the photocell is illuminated
by light, the production of photoelectric current is
produced in the circuit.

Based on the graph determine

(a) threshold frequency
(b) work function of metal released
photoelectron
(c) Planck constant Figure 3.4 : A photocell circuit
(d) the maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron Two examples of common photocells. Table below
released by an electromagnetic radiation shows the production of photoelectric current by
has a frequency of 5 x1014 Hz. photocells coated with caesium and lithium.

Solution On the whole, the higher the work function, the

shorter the maximum wavelength required to
produce photoelectric current. As the light intensity
increases, the photoelectric current in the photocell
circuit also increases.

15
 Solar cells (or photovoltaics) convert solar
energy into electrical energy. Whether solar
cells are used in calculators or satellites, solar
cells depends on sunlight to produce the next
photoelectric effect

Solar cells contain p-type and n-type

semiconductors, which are joined together and
p-n junctions are formed between the two
semiconductor materials.

LED lamps along the road which are powered by

solar cells are energy efficient and
environmentally friendly. In daylight, the
photoelectric effect of solar cells enables
electrical energy to be stored in the battery. At
night, the LED lamps will light up with the
power from the battery.
3.6 Describe the application of photoelectric
effect
3.6.2 Automatic light detector on the door
3.6.1 Solar cell

When there are no objects near the door, the

transmitter produces a radiation and is exposed
to the photo cell and a photoelectric effect
occurs and the motor works to close the door.
On the other hand, if an object near the door
radiation is exposed to the object and is not
exposed to the photo cell and the motor
functions to open the door.

Light detectors at the automatic doors use

infrared beam and photocells as switches. When
the light path is disturbed, photoelectric current
in the photocell circuit will be disconnected and
the door will remain open.

3.6.3 Image sensor

An image detector is an electronic device that

converts optical images into electronic signals.
Image detectors are used in digital cameras and
imaging devices to convert the light received on
the camera or lens of the imaging device into

16
digital images. The digital signals are in the 3.6.5 Other uses
form of small picture elements called pixels.
- Photocopier
- Photo diode / photo transistor
- Light alarm
- Lux meter (meter to mesaure the intensity of
light)

EXERCISES : LESSON 7.3

1 Photoelectric effect is based on the principle of

conservation of

A mass B energy
3.6.4 Solar panels on ISS spacecraft
C momentum D mass - energy

2 The Einstein’s photoelectric equation in the

word equation is

A Energy used by electron to escape from

metal surface = Light energy + Kinetic
energy of photoelectron
B Kinetic energy of photoelectron = Kinetic
energy of photoelectron + Light energy
C Light energy = Energy used by electron to
escape from metal surface + Kinetic energy
of photoelectron

The electric power supply system used by ISS 3 Einstein’s photoelectric equation is
spacecraft is using solar panels whose total area 1
A hf  hf o  mv 2 max
is estimated to be more than half the area of the 2
football field. There are four rows of solar 1
B hf o  hf  mv 2
max
panels and each solar panel contains tens of 2
thousands of solar cells. 1
C hf  mv 2max
2
Thus the working principle of solar panels is 1
D hf  hf o  mv 2
max
similar to solar cells (photovoltaics) converting 2
solar energy into electrical energy that uses
photoelectric effect when sunlight strikes 4 A radiation of frequency f is irradiated on a
silicon solar cells (semiconductor material) surface of metal caused the emiting of electron
which release photoelectrons and even holes. with the maximum kinetic energy K.
[ The planck’s constant = h ]
The solar panel strip is automatically adjusted
The threshold frequency , fo of the metal is
to always face the sunlight. When the panel
strip is shielded from the shadow of an ISS or A f o  K  hf B f  hf  K
o
spacecraft, a ‘power bank’ system is used.
K  hf hf  K
The ISS has 16 wings of solar panels and each C fo  D fo 
h h
wing which measures 35 m × 12 m has 33
thousand solar cells. These panels are capable of
generating 84 – 120 kW of electricity

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