Overview: Module 2

English learners are generally grouped into the following six levels:
 Beginner
 Elementary
 Pre-intermediate
 Intermediate
 Upper intermediate
 Advanced
However, in some schools/institutions you may find different classifications. The Common
European Framework of Reference (CEFR) is widely accepted in European countries, as well as
increasingly on an international scale, and aims to standardise language learning, teaching and
assessment. There are three general categories (A-Basic User, B-Independent User, C-Proficient
User) which are further broken down into two levels.
 Basic User
A1 – Breakthrough or Beginner
A2 – Waystage or Elementary
 Independent User
B1 – Threshold or Intermediate
B2 – Vantage or Upper Intermediate
 Proficient User
C1 – Effective Operational Proficiency or Advanced C2 – Mastery or Proficiency Another
method commonly used is grouping students into classes named after the exams they are
preparing for, particularly in the case of the Cambridge ESOL examinations. These are:
 KET – Key English Test
 PET – Preliminary English Test
 FCE – First Certificate in English
 CAE – Certificate in Advanced English
 CPE – Certificate of Proficiency in English
There are additionally two Cambridge exams for young learners (ESOL YLE) known as Starters,
Movers and Flyers.
More about the CEFR
The CEFR is very important, so it’s crucial that we explore this further.
You may teach in a school where their approach and syllabus is fully built on the CEFR
classifications and terminology; thus, it’s paramount that you have a solid grasp of it. It’s not
difficult.
Background
Different terminology is used in EFL when describing a student’s proficiency/competency in
language as compared to mainstream English classes in, for example, the USA or the UK.
 As you’ll already know, measuring a student’s proficiency in language is not an exact science.
 No universal system of rating exists.
 The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR or CEF) is, perhaps, our
best guide. There are other guides.
 Many organisations adapt the CEFR levels to suit their particular levels.
 Fortunately, nearly all good coursebooks will identify which level the materials are intended for
and schools will have similar class labelling to indicate what level the students are studying. So,
there’s no need to worry!
1. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR; sometimes called
the CEF): What is it?
The CEFR is a standard, international scale of levels for language learning. It has 6 levels in
ascending order from A1 to C2.
The CEFR gives you a detailed description of learner level by skill, in a language-neutral format.
Because it is language-neutral, it can actually be used for any language in the world.
It is a useful reference document for school directors, syllabus designers, teachers, teacher
trainers and proficient learners.
Language testers and examination boards are increasingly using the CEFR as their scale of
levels, though some give each level their own name.
The table we will explore in a moment shows the 3 bands (A-C) with each of those bands
divided into two, giving us six main levels. It also describes (provides descriptors) which
represent what a student should be able to do at each level.
You may have heard of other student level terminology in EFL, i.e. Beginner, Intermediate and
Advanced. Very loosely, you can see the CEFR levels as similar to Beginner, Intermediate and
Advanced – though the CEFR levels are more precise than these terms (and calls them Basic,
Independent, and Proficient).
2. The CEFR’s approach: Communicative language competence
The CEFR’s approach is based on the notion of communicative language competence– the
increasing ability to communicate and operate effectively in the target language
It will be useful for you if we expand a bit on the CEFR’s view of communicative language
competence.
Communicative language competence has a number of component parts: it includes linguistic,
socio-linguistic and pragmatic competences. Each of these competences is made up of
knowledge, aptitudes and skills.
Linguistic competence
Linguistic competence comprises the knowledge and skills related to:
 lexis (generally, words and phrases)
 phonology (generally, relationships among the speech sounds)
 syntax (generally, the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a
language)
 and other features of language systems, considered independently of the sociolinguistic impact
of variations in use and of the pragmatic functions of the utterances produced.
It concerns not only the range and quality of knowledge (for example, the range and precision
of lexical knowledge) but also involves cognitive organisation and the way this knowledge is
stored in memory (for example, the question of how a lexical item fits into the networks of
associations the speaker has available) and the accessibility (for example, how an item can be
recalled, activated and its availability for use).
Socio-linguistic competence
Socio-linguistic competence refers to the knowledge and skills involved in using language
functionally in a social context.
Since language is a social phenomenon, its use requires sensitivity to social norms and customs
which affect to an important degree all linguistic communication between representatives of
different cultures, even if the participants are frequently unaware of them.
These social norms affect, amongst other factors, rules of address, greetings and politeness, the
way in which relations between generations, sexes, people of different social status, social
groupings are expressed through special language markers, linguistically codified rituals,
differences in register, dialect and accent, through vocal rhythms, for example.
Linguistic competence leads us to consider social and intercultural parameters and the way in
which they influence language use.
Pragmatic competence
Pragmatic competence involves the functional uses of linguistic resources (carrying out
language functions, speech acts) using scenarios or predetermined scripts of interactional
exchanges. It also involves mastery of discourse, cohesion and coherence, the recognition of
text types and genres, using irony or parody. Even more than in the case of this factor than for
linguistic competence, the development of pragmatic skills is strongly influenced by interactive
experience and by the cultural environment.
Let’s have a look at these CEFR Bands and Level Descriptors at a Global Level
You will find the Global Scale is a useful starting point. Study this well. It’s not difficult. It’s an
excellent guide, an aide-memoire, which will keep you on track when you start on your TEFL
journey.
CEFR Bands and Level Descriptors - Global Level
Level Level Descriptors
Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarise
information from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments and
C2accounts in a coherent presentation. Can express him/herself spontaneously, very
fluently and precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning even in the most
complex situations.
Proficient
Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognise implicit
User
meaning. Can express him/herself fluently and spontaneously without much obvious
searching for expressions. Can use language flexibly and effectively for social,
C1
academic and professional purposes. Can produce clear, well-structured, detailed text
on complex subjects, showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors
and cohesive devices.
Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract topics,
including technical discussions in his/her field of specialisation. Can interact with a
degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers
B2
quite possible without strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailed text on a
wide range of subjects and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the
Independent advantages and disadvantages of various options.
User Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly
encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise
whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple
B1
connected text on topics which are familiar or of personal interest. Can describe
experiences and events, dreams, hopes & ambitions and briefly give reasons and
explanations for opinions and plans.
Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most
immediate relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family information, shopping, local
geography, employment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a
A2
simple and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine matters. Can
Basic User
describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate environment and
matters in areas of immediate need.
Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed
A1
at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and others
 and can ask and answer questions about personal details such as where he/she lives,
people he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided the
other person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help.
We can also use the ‘+’ to indicate the top half of a level. For example, ‘B1+’ means the
top half of the B1 range. You will find this convention followed in various course books.
3. Why do we need the CEFR?
Even among teachers of the same language in similar contexts there can be a lot of variety in
what is meant by terms like ‘beginner’, ‘intermediate’ or ‘advanced’. This variability
increases significantly across different languages, in different countries, with different age
ranges of learners, etc. The CEFR makes it easier for all of us to talk about language levels
reliably and with shared understanding.
4. What is it used for?
The CEFR is used for many different practical purposes:
 Developing syllabuses
 Creating texts/exams
 Marking exams
 Evaluating language learning needs
 Designing courses
 Developing learning materials
 Continuous assessment of others, or self-assessment
 Teacher training programmes
5. Is it just about levels?
The CEFR has been very significant in language learning and teaching because its impact goes
beyond merely describing learner levels. It has underpinned a particular approach to language
learning as the one most commonly recommended or expected in language teaching today.
This is the Communicative Approach we explored earlier.
It not just about levels. The descriptions of levels in the CEFR are skills-based and take the form
of Can Do statements, as in the examples below. These descriptions of ability focus on
communicative purpose and make for a very practical approach, which looks at what people
can do – rather than on specific linguistic knowledge.
The CEFR is particularly useful because it applies the same set of levels to all the various sub-
skills and areas of competence:
 the basic four skills (speaking, reading, writing and listening)
 communicative language (e.g. turn-taking, asking for clarification)
 types of interaction (e.g. obtaining goods and services, interviewing)
 and more linguistic skills (e.g. vocabulary range, phonological control)
It allows you link up skills in each of these areas with the student’s overall level.
Examples of ‘can do’ statements from the CEFR
Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate environment and
matters in areas of immediate need. [A2, Global Scale]
Can understand enough to follow extended speech on abstract and complex topics beyond
his/her own field, though he/she may need to confirm occasional details, especially if the accent
is unfamiliar.[C1, Listening]
Can understand a wide range of long and complex texts, appreciating subtle distinctions of style
and implicit as well as explicit meaning. [C2, Reading]
Can write personal letters and notes asking for or conveying simple information of immediate
relevance, getting across the point he/she feels to be important.[B1, Written interaction]
Can use stock phrases (e.g. “That’s a difficult question to answer”) to gain time and keep the
turn whilst formulating what to say. [B2, Turn taking]
You can view a list of Can Do statements
at https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=
090000168045b15e
6. What’s in it for you? How can the CEFR be useful for teachers?
Understanding language levels better
The CEFR helps you to understand a standardised terminology for describing language levels.
National, local and school policies are increasingly being described in CEFR levels – and so it’s
important to understand what they mean.
Seeing more clearly what learners need to work on
The CEFR describes what learners need to be able to do to reach the next level. You will find it
particularly useful in showing how different component skills are described at each level. You
have an idea of what a B2 student is like, but what should they be able to do in terms of
listening to lectures/speeches, or writing correspondence, or spoken fluency? The CEFR helps
you see what is needed for different aspects of learning English.
Curriculum plan
If a teacher responsible for working out what is going to be taught in a class – just her own or
for the whole school – it is very helpful to use the CEFR as a broad framework. Look carefully at
the descriptors for the levels you need – not just the Global Scale, but component scales as well
where relevant.
What do you want your students to achieve in each course on their path to the target level? This
can be further elaborated by looking at the information coming from English Profile, which we’
ll come to in a moment. Of course, most teachers do not need to create their own curriculum.
By choosing a course book that is aligned to the CEFR, you have a syllabus created by experts –
which you may then choose to adapt for your own circumstances.
7. Should you introduce your students to the CEFR?
Yes, it’s very useful for students to understand how mastery of a language builds up from
beginner to mastery. Of course, this needs to be suitable for their level and age, and it is
probably adults and teenagers that will find it useful.
Scales – adapted to their language level – are really useful for self-assessment, which can be
very helpful in developing language skills.
8. English Profile
The English Profile Programme involves major research projects that are all working towards a
reliable, detailed description of the actual learner English that is typical of each CEFR level.
Initially, the focus has been on vocabulary and grammar, and the English Vocabulary Profile is
now complete for all six levels, A1-C2. A separate research team is developing a similar
resource, the English Grammar Profile, which describes the gradual mastery of grammar across
the six CEFR levels.
Cambridge University Press has given teachers around the world access to their research into
vocabulary learning across the CEFR.
Go to the English Profile website – www.englishprofile.org and click on Free Registration
English Vocabulary Profile. This will allow you to find out which words and phrases – and
individual meanings of each word – are typically mastered by learners at each CEFR level.
This is a really valuable tool to make decisions about what to teach students as they progress.
Cambridge University Press authors and editors make extensive use of this research in
developing their course materials. Use it well!
In this module we’re going to look at an overview of the grammar taught at each level as
well as going over some key grammatical terms and what they actually mean, and see how
to teach the different tenses.
Back to top

Unit 1: Grammar at every level

Needless to say, your teaching will change according to the level of the group or individual,
particularly in terms of grammar. Have a look at the following table to get an idea at what is
taught when.
Subject pronouns (I, you, he/she…)
Object pronouns (me, you, him/her…)
Verb ‘be’ – present tense (I am, you are…)
This, that, these, those
Basic prepositions (in, at, to…)
Beginner
Articles (a, an, the)
Singular/plural nouns
Possessive adjectives (my, your, his/hers…)
Possessive ‘s’
Likes and dislikes
Verb ‘be’ – present tense questions and negatives
Present simple (I walk, she walks…)
Present continuous (I’m walking, she’s walking…)
Adverbs of frequency (sometimes, often, never…)
Elementary Possessive pronouns (mine, yours…)
Past simple, regular and irregular (play> played, go>went)
Like + -ing (I like swimming)
Want, like and would like
Telling the time
Past simple, regular and irregular verbs
Past continuous (she was going, they were walking…)
So, because, but, although
Future forms: ‘going to’/present continuous for future arrangements/‘will/won’t’
Present perfect + ever, never, for and since
Pre-Intermediate
Comparatives (more/less…than, as….as)
Superlatives (the most/least….)
Modals of obligation (have to, don’t have to, must, mustn’t…)
‘Used to’
‘so/neither’ + auxiliaries (so do I, neither has he…)
Present perfect vs continuous
Past simple vs past continuous vs past perfect
Future forms: ‘going to’ vs present continuous vs ‘will/shall’
Usually vs used to
Reported speech (“I’m going to the park” > he said he was going to the park)
Intermediate Passives (the church was painted by Michelangelo)
Relative clauses (the girl who is sat over there…)
Modals of obligation and deduction (must, may, might, can’t…)
Can, could, be able to (ability)
First conditional and future time clauses (If I pass the exam, I’ll celebrate)
Second conditional ((If I was famous I’d give money to charity))
 The...the… + comparatives (the more you learn the more you know…)
Using adjectives as nouns (rich people are privileged > the rich are privileged)
Adjective order
Narrative tenses
Adverbs and adverbial phrases
Passive structures (it is said that…, he is believed to…)
Upper Future perfect and continuous (the ice caps will have melted, we will be
Intermediate using solar powered cars)
Reporting verbs (recommend, threaten, advise…)
Third conditional (if I had known, I would have come)
Past modals, ‘would rather’ and ‘had better’
Gerunds and infinitives
Used to, be used to, get used to
Structures after wish Quantifiers
Inversion for emphasis (little did he know that the dog had escaped)
Linkers (although, nonetheless, whilst…)
Mixed conditionals (If her eyesight was better she would have seen the squirrel)
Cleft sentences (the reason why I’ve come is…, the thing that annoys me
most is…)
Compound nouns
Advanced ‘So’ and ‘such’
Gerunds and infinitives
Phrasal verbs (go up, go in, go out, go on, go for…)
Unreal uses of past tenses (it’s time we left, suppose we opened our own shop…)
Uses of the verb ‘get’
Participle phrases (the horse, trotting up to the fence, hopes you have a carrot)
Passive and active voice
Although this may look a bit overwhelming, you will never be left without resources to work
from and many teacher’s books even give a step-by-step guide of how to teach all the
grammar listed above. Today we’re going to look together at an example from each level so
that you have an idea of how to teach appropriately at every stage.
Back to top

Beginner Level
When teaching absolute beginners it is crucial to ‘grade’ your language as much as possible
because even some of the simplest sentences may confuse your students. At this level you really
need to be animated and reduce the complexity of anything you say.
If, for example, you start your lesson with, “Okay guys, today we’re going to cover subject
pronouns” you will probably be greeted by a sea of blank stares. Instead, it is essential to use
visuals, for example, “Look (point to eyes) at the board (point to board)” before clearly writing
the title ‘subject pronouns’.
This is a technique called ‘modelling’ and is really necessary at this level.
Basically, it means demonstrating exactly what you’re talking about by pointing and using
visuals. In case you’re unsure, subject pronouns are used to replace the noun which is the
subject of the sentence.

If we take the sentence “Mary is American”, we can replace the noun (Mary) with ‘she’, a
subject pronoun. The subject pronouns in English are:
 I – 1st person singular
 you – 2nd person singular
 he/she/it – 3rd person singular
 we – 1st person plural
 you – 2nd person plural
 they – 3rd person plural
Rather than simply writing this list on the board and getting your students to copy it, you first
need to demonstrate. Look at the example below of how to present a lesson on subject
pronouns…
 “I (point to yourself) am a teacher”. Write the word ‘I’ on the board, then repeat the
sentence, again pointing at yourself as you emphasis the word ‘I’.
 “you (point to an individual student) have a red bag (e.g.)”. Write ‘you’ on the board
underneath ‘I’ and repeat.
 Say both sentences together, always demonstrating as you speak, “I am a teacher. You have a
red bag”
 “he (point to a male student) is tall (indicate height with your hand)”.
 Continue with this pattern until you have demonstrated all the subject pronouns.
 Get the students to repeat after you and drill pronunciation.
 At this point there are a variety of activities you could do from matching activities to sentence
completion but remember not to ignore the visual aspect: any handout should include clear
pictures that the students can relate the pronouns to.
Match the following pronouns to the pictures.

you (plural)
they
I
you (singular)
she
we
he
Check answer

More about teaching absolute beginners

You’ll notice that we have introduced the word ‘absolute’. This is to differentiate ‘true’
beginners (absolute beginners) from ‘false’ beginners, which we’ll come to in a moment.
An absolute beginner has no knowledge of English.
 Here is some further sound and practical advice for teaching absolute beginners:
1. Keep it simple
Work hard at grading your language to these groups. Keep it simple and try not to use complex
structures or complex vocabulary, e.g. Most definitely, if I were you….
You’ll need to speak slower but not too slow and deliberate such that it sounds like you are
talking to a baby, otherwise the learners may feel patronised.
But don’t miss out simple but important words and structures. Don’t say Ah, you to go to
party tonight. Learners need to hear certain structures even if you haven’t reached that
learning point with them. Otherwise, they may think that’s how English really is spoken.
And, if you are teaching adults at these levels, it’s important to utilise or create material that is
relevant to an adult. Avoid using books or materials that are too childish.
2. Use the right approach
You’ll need to be ready to use a wider variety of materials and shorter activities that involve
them in communication – more drawing on the board, more pictures and diagrams, more role
plays, more ways for getting the message across. Also, make good use of gestures and mime to
help get the message across.
3. Encourage interaction
Use pair or group activities that encourage interaction by providing learners with situations in
which they must negotiate language with partners or group members to complete a task.
4. Make a personal connection
Ensure you know the students’ names. If you have any difficulty with this, draw up a seating
plan with their names on it. When you’re away from your desk, you can use some tricks of the
trade:
1. You: Well done, Maria (whose name you have remembered). Who will I ask now? You tell me,
Maria. You can point to the person.
Maria: Juan (pointing to Juan)
You: Thank you, Maria. Juan (whose name you had forgotten), what is the dog’s name?
2. You: The next student I will ask is a boy, he has a red shirt and he sits near the window. Who is
it?
They: Alejandro!(pointing to him)
You: That’s right. Well done! Alejandro (whose name you had forgotten), what is the dog’s
name?
5. Minimise your students’ cognitive burden
Cognitive, as you will know, is the fancy word for the mental action or process of acquiring
knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.
When teaching these groups of beginner students, it’s best not to write a lot of information on
the board and have students copy it down while you continue to explain concepts. We can
easily forget these students cannot multi-task with their current language proficiency level and
it is important to break down tasks into smaller components.
Do one thing at a time.
6. Can they see and hear?
Make sure students can see and hear you. Some students may never have had their eyesight or
hearing checked. A student who appears resistant to learning may simply have needs that have
not been expressed.
7. Learn a bit of their language
 Make an effort to learn some words or phrases in the students’ L1. They will appreciate your
effort to learn their language, and they will see you more as a partner in the learning process
rather than someone who has all the answers.
The students will enjoy helping you learn a few new words each day; by learning bits of a totally
new language you will have more empathy for your students’ struggles to learn English.
8. Review constantly
Remember that with beginners you are your students’ textbook and study guide as well as
their teacher. Provide review sessions at the beginning of every class so students will practise
what they’ve learned and acquire the language.
9. Be animated
Don’t be afraid to make sound effects, play music, do mimes and take walks around the school
neighbourhood to reinforce concepts. Sometimes the best learning doesn’t even take place in
the classroom, and it doesn’t have to be serious to be effective.
We mentioned ‘false’ beginners above. Let’s explore what these are.
False beginners
It’s important that we make you aware of the phenomenon of false beginners.
By the time you are in action, you will have picked up this Very Important Point from this course
– beware of false beginners.
Note that at the beginner level, CEFR A1 Level, a distinction is often made between teaching
false beginners and absolute beginners.
False beginners are those students who have perhaps had a little English learning, or who have
picked up English more informally and inconsistently, perhaps through travelling or from bi-
lingual parents/carers.
False beginners may give the appearance of knowing some English, which initially makes them
easier to teach. However, their superficial knowledge can present some teaching challenges, as
these learners may have developed early bad errors/habits.
Their classroom motivation may also be affected, as they may think that they already know the
material just because they recognise it. Look out for false beginners.
Note that absolute beginners have a high intrinsic motivation from day 1, and will catch up to
the false beginner learner very quickly.
Back to top

Elementary Level
At elementary level your students should already be able to grasp the absolute basics but don’
t get carried away thinking you can present a lesson to them in the same way you would to an
English native speaker!
Your students should hopefully be familiar with the subject pronouns and the verb ‘be’ in
positive sentences (I am, you are, he/she/it is…) but it’s always useful to do a quick recap. At
this stage you can also introduce whatever vocabulary theme you are linking the lesson to e.g.
nationalities (I am English, you are Italian…) or feelings perhaps (she is happy, they are tired…).
 Write "+" on the board and a variety of sentences with the verb 'be' using all the subject
pronouns.
 Next to this list write " - " symbol and try to elicit from the class the negative equivalent of
each sentence, e.g:
+ -
 I am English I am not English
You are ItalianYou are not Italian
He is Scottish
She is French
 At this stage you can show the negative contractions, highlighting the fact that with every
subject pronoun except ‘I’ there are two possibilities (I’m not… compared to you’re
not/you aren’t… etc.). Get the class to practice writing a variety of sentences about themselves
and other students to then read aloud. Drill pronunciation.
 You can then introduce the question statements using a listening task where the students must
complete the gaps with the correct form of the verb be for example:
Teacher gives this instruction: "Listen and complete the dialogue"
Man: ____ you Scottish?
Woman: No, I’m Irish! Where ___ you from?
Man: I’m from the USA.
Woman: ___ he from the USA too?
Man: Yes, we ___ both from California.
 Elicit correct answers on the board then write:
o + You are Scottish
o ? Are you Scottish?
 Ask, ‘What’s the difference?’ Highlight the inversion of subject and verb using arrow
symbols
 Again once the grammar point has been presented there are any number of different task-
based activities you can give to the class to ensure they have understood and to practice.
Back to top

Pre-intermediate Level
At pre-intermediate level we often introduce modal verbs of permission and obligation.
Modal verbs are verbs such as can, must, may etc. which are always followed by another verb
but they tell us the function of that main verb.
For example, ‘you can run’ is very different in meaning from ‘you must run’. Many pre-
intermediate students will have heard a lot of these verbs before but may not be completely
sure of their meaning.
Especially because some of the modals of permission/obligation (must, may, can, should, have
to) have negatives (must not, may not, don’t have to etc.) which aren’t exactly opposite in
meaning.
There are numerous resources online and in EFL books which cover this topic but an idea of
how to present the lesson is shown below.
 Write the title ‘School Rules’ on the board and try to elicit as many as possible from the
students e.g. ‘you must switch off mobile phones in class’, ‘you have to wear a school
uniform’ etc.
 Go back through the rules and highlight all the modals of permission/obligation. If there are any
missing you can try to elicit them by writing the first letter of each in hangman-style (e.g. m_ _ )
until all are on the board.
 Write a list of definitions on the board or have a handout prepared and ask students to match
the modals (positive and negative versions) up with each definition.
 Lets look at some modal verbs. Please note, as will all these question types, you need to drag all
the answers into the correct zones.

Drag and drop the modal verbs.

It is obligatory
It is possible
It is advisable
It is forbidden
It isn't necessary
It is inadvisable
must
may not
may
cannot
must not
should
can
have to
shouldn't
don't have to
Check answer
 It’s then important to highlight that whilst certain modals have the exact opposite meaning in
the negative form (should/shouldn’t) others change meaning in the negative (have
to=obligation/don’t have to=possible but not necessary NOT forbidden).
 After this you can ask students to imagine their ideal school and write their own set of rules
using a variety of the modals covered, bringing together ideas from each individual/group to
make a full set which have a general consensus.
Back to top

Intermediate Level
Relative clauses are used to give additional information about something without starting a new
sentence. They combine sentences in a way that is natural and avoids repetition. Without
relative clauses, speech and writing can sound heavy and strange, for example:
Mark is talking to a girl. Do you know the girl?
Here we have two very short sentences, repeating the word ‘girl’. Instead we could join the
two together using the relative pronoun ‘who’
Do you know the girl who Mark is talking to?
There are five different relative pronouns (who, which, whom, that and whose) and three
relative adverbs (where, when, why) which can be used to link sentences together.
A typical exercise used to present relative clauses is to give students a number of sentences that
they have to link together using an appropriate relative clause. At intermediate level the
essential ones are who, which, that, where and when. Whom, whose and why can be taught at
higher levels.
Link the following sentences with an appropriate relative pronoun. Choose all that apply.
Link the following sentences with an appropriate relative pronoun/adjective. Choose all that
apply.That’s the girl. I invited her to the cinema.

Check answer

1. A dog is an animal. It is related to the wolf.

Check answer

1. That’s the house. My grandparents used to live there.

Check answer
In defining relative clauses, ‘that’ can be used as an informal substitute for ‘who’ or ‘
which’.
In which of these sentences can ‘who’ be replaced by ‘that’?

Check answer

Back to top

Relative Clauses Practice

Look at the following five sentences. Can we replace the relative pronoun with ‘that’?
1. Mrs Smith, who is very nosy, lives in the house with the blue door.

Check answer

2. The shoes which I bought yesterday aren't very comfortable

Check answer

3. The church, which we visited while we were on holiday last year, is very old
Check answer

4. He’s the man whose car was stolen last week

Check answer

5. Did you see the bird which landed on the roof?

Check answer
Back to top

Upper-Intermediate level
At upper-intermediate level your students should be comfortable writing and conversing in
English but will most likely continue to make small mistakes particularly with verb patterns.
An important feature of any upper-intermediate course should be the distinction between
gerunds and infinitives.
In sentences where more than one verb is used, the first verb determines the form of the
second.
Native English speakers do this automatically, without thinking, but for EFL students it’s not so
obvious. You would know instinctively, for example, that it is incorrect to say ‘I
enjoy listen music’. This is because the first verb ‘enjoy’ is always followed by the gerund
(the -ing form of the verb).
Likewise, the sentence ‘I’ve decided going to university’ doesn’t sound right at all
(although we do understand the meaning of the sentence). Here we need the infinitive form of
the verb (the verb in its original state) with ‘to’ : ‘I’ve decided to go to university’.
A good way to introduce upper-intermediate students to this topic is to first off give them a
variety of sentences and use their instinct to tick the correct verb form. This is because at this
level they will already have been exposed to a lot of English and will feel satisfied to know that
their subconsciouses have absorbed some valuable information!
Look at the following exercise and choose the correct verb form.
1. I play dance music when I’m sad and want ______ better.

Check answer

2. I can’t stand _______.

Check answer
 3. I can’t ________ tonight, I have to study.

Check answer
As you can see, some verbs are followed by the gerund, some by the infinitive with ‘to’ and
some by the infinitive without ‘to’.
Unfortunately, there aren’t any set rules for learning which (apart from knowing that modals,
amongst others, are always followed by the infinitive without to).
It’s a case of trying to memorise which verbs take which and practice, practice, practice!
Back to top

Advanced Level
As an example of advanced level content we’re going to look at active and passive sentences.
An active sentence is one which follows the usual formula of subject + verb +
object/complement:
 He built the stadium in 1998
A passive sentence, however, inverts this order, placing the object at the beginning.
 The stadium was built (by him) in 1998
We use passive sentences to place emphasis on the object, rather than the subject of the
sentence, or when the subject is unknown or unimportant.
In passive sentences, we call the subject the ‘agent’ and stating the agent is optional, as in
the above example.
To form a passive sentence we always use the verb ‘be’ (in the same tense as the verb from
the active sentence) + past participle. If we look at the previous example, the verb is ‘built’
which is the past simple form of the verb ‘build’.
Therefore, in the passive sentence, it is the verb ‘be’ which must change to the past simple
form ‘was’ + the past participle which in this case is ‘built’.
To recap how to form passive sentences with your class you could give them a list of active
sentences and ask them to re-write them in the passive.
Look at the following active and passive sentences. Complete the passive sentence with the
correct past participle.

Check answer

2. Active: Somebody has stolen my wallet. Passive: My wallet __________.

Check answer
Back to top

Example Grammar Practice

Whilst most of your students should feel comfortable forming passive sentences in a controlled
exercise, they may still make mistakes in their writing by using the passive form in an active
sentence or vice versa.
It can therefore be useful to find a text which uses a variety of active or passive sentences, erase
all the verb forms and have students write the correct active or passive verb in the blank spaces.
Look at the following example which you are free to use with your own lessons.
Student instruction "Fill the gaps with the active or passive form of the verbs in brackets"
Reuters 'News Agency
Martin Webb_________(work) for the Reuters News Agency for ten years. He describes the
company. "Reuters is one of the world's biggest news agencies. It__________(supply) news and
stock market price to media and financial institutions all over the world__________ (start) by Paul
Reuters in 1849 - with pigeons.
Reuter________(be) born in 1816 in Germany. During the 1840's he _________(employ) as a bank
clerk in Berlin. German bankers _________(need) to know the price on the Paris stock exchange,
but the French telegraph system only went as far as Belgium. From there the
information______________(send) to Germany by train. The journey________(take) nine hours. The
same information_______ carry by Paul Reuter's pigeons in only two hours!"
"Reuters _________(change) a lot since those days. Over the past fifty years, we _________(open)
offices in many different countries and we _______still_______(expand). Now, news and stock
market prices__________(send) all over the world within seconds."
*text taken from www.busyteacher.org
Again there are variety of resources available to teach the various grammar points but the
important thing to remember is how to teach appropriately at each level!
Back to top

Unit 1: Questions
Which of the following is an example of something you would NOT teach at elementary level?

Check answer

Can you replace ‘which’ with ‘that’ in the following sentence? ‘The flowers, which I love,
are daffodils.’ Y/N?

Check answer

Choose the correct verb form to complete the passive sentence.Active: Charlotte thinks
someone was following her.Passive: Charlotte thinks she_____________.
Check answer

The two modal verbs ‘have to’ and ‘don’t have to’ mean exactly the opposite. T/F?

Check answer

False beginners are those students who have perhaps had a little English learning, or who have
picked up English more informally and inconsistently.

Check answer

An absolute beginner has no knowledge of English.

Check answer

When teaching absolute beginner students, it’s best to write a lot of information on the board
and have students copy it down while you continue to explain concepts.

Check answer

Back to top

Unit 2: Key grammatical terms and their

functions
Many novice EFL teachers are afraid of teaching grammar because, although they can intuitively
sense if a sentence is correct or incorrect, they often don’t know how to explain why because
they themselves are unfamiliar with all the jargon.
If you struggle recognising your nouns from your pronouns, your adjectives from your adverbs
then you’re not alone. But grasping these key concepts is essential to EFL teaching.
Here we’re going to focus on the nine parts of speech (adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions,
determiners, exclamations, nouns, prepositions, pronouns and verbs) and look at them in a bit
more detail than the typical “a verb is a doing word” approach we all learned at school.
Part Of
Function Examples A Few Subcategories
Speech
to describe a noun, a pronoun or comparative (taller) superlative (most
Adjective tall intelligent
part of a sentence intelligent)…
to describe a verb, adjective or frequency (sometimes), time
quickly finally
another adverb by giving more (yesterday), manner (angrily), degree
Adverb sometimes
information about how, when (completely), quantity (few), attitude
yesterday
something happens markers (apparently)…
but addition (and), condition (since),
to connect a clause, sentence or
Conjunctions and contrast (yet), purpose (so that),
word
so reason (because), result (therefore),
 time (before)..
this articles (the), demonstrative
to clarify which noun is being
Determiners my adjectives (that), possessive
referred to
both adjectives (his), quantifiers (both)…
ouch
to express strong feeling (informal,
Exclamations wow doubt (erm), pain (ouch)…
spoken language)
oh no
milk abstract (hope), countable (people),
to name things, people, places,
Nouns parents uncountable (sugar), proper
concepts
beauty (Liverpool), collective (army)…
cause/effect (due to), contrast
to link a noun/noun at
(unlike), dependent (wait for),
Prepositions phrase/pronoun to another word or until
movement (towards), place (under),
phrase throughout
time (during)…
I
personal (subject pronouns he, object
to replace/refer to a noun or noun him
Pronouns pronouns them…), possessive (mine),
phrase ours
reflexive (himself), relative…
herself
walk
Verbs to show an action or state believe Transitive, intransitive…
try
Back to top

Further grammatical terms

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
A transitive verb, used with a direct object, transmits action to an object and may also have an
indirect object, which indicates to or for whom the action is done. In contrast, an intransitive
verb never takes an object.
Transitive verbs
A transitive verb takes a direct object; that is, the verb transmits action to an object.
He sent the letter. ( letter = direct object of sent)
She gave the lecture. ( lecture = direct object of gave)
In these sentences, something is being done to an object.
A transitive verb can also have an indirect object that precedes the direct object. The indirect
object tells to or for whom the action is done, although the words to and for are not used. In
the following examples, notice the difference between the direct and indirect objects.
The direct object ( letter) receives the action ( sent). The indirect object ( Robert) is the person to
whom the letter is sent.
He sent Robert the letter.
The direct object ( lecture) receives the action ( gave). The indirect object ( class) is the group to
whom the lecture is given.
She gave her class the lecture.
Learn to recognise words that are direct and indirect objects of verbs. When these words are
pronouns, they must be in the objective case.
Intransitive verbs
An intransitive verb does not take an object.
She sleeps too much.
He complains frequently.
In these sentences, nothing receives the action of the verbs sleep and complain.
Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive.
She sings every day. (no object = intransitive)
She sings rock 'n' roll tunes. ( rock 'n' roll tunes receives the action of sings = transitive)
Gerunds
Gerunds are words that are formed from verbs but act as nouns.
You can spot them because they will be verb+ing acting as a noun.
E.g. I love shopping!
The word ‘shop’ is a verb. Shopping is a verb with an –ing ending acting as a noun.
It is the subject of this sentence.
Back to top

Match the Parts of Speech

See if you can put the following words into the correct category.
See if you can put the following words into the correct category.
Adjective
Adverb
Conjunction
Determiner
Exclamation
Noun
Preposition
Pronoun
Verb
sometimes
quickly
but
and
that
either
ow!
table
health
on
her
us
go
walk
huge
beautiful
fastest
Check answer
Back to top

Root words
Word ‘trees’ or ‘maps’ can also be useful for identifying different parts of speech and
helping students increase their vocabulary. You essentially start with a ‘root’ word, then try to
find as many different variations on that word by adding prefixes (e.g. un-, mis-), suffixes (e.g. –
ly, -ful) or by adapting different parts of the word. Take a look at the example below using the
root word ‘believe’

Before clicking onto the next page, and using a pen and paper, see how many words you can
write down from the root ‘understand’.
Back to top

Root words continued

You will hopefully have written some of the below:
Understanding
Understandable
Understandably
Misunderstand
Misunderstanding
Pre-understood
Back to top

Unit 2: Questions
Look at the sentence, “He thought the test was really difficult even though he had studied so
hard”. Which word from the three below has a different grammatical function?

Check answer

Which of the following words which all derive from the root ‘satisfy’ is NOT an adjective?

Check answer

In the following sentence, what part of speech is the word ‘bravery? “His incredible bravery
was rewarded with the badge of honour."

Check answer

Which of the following can an adverb NOT modify?

 Check answer

Back to top

Unit 3: Sentence Structure

In this Unit, we will explore the main parts of a sentence – morpheme, word, phrase, clause,
subject and predicate. This will ensure you can discuss sentences and the key elements of
sentences in your class without having any great hang-ups or difficulties with meaning.
If you were to look for a dictionary definition of a sentence, it could be something like this:
A set of words that is complete in itself, typically containing a subject and predicate, conveying
a statement, question, exclamation or command and consisting of a main clause and sometimes
one or more subordinate clauses.
Basically, a sentence is made up of different words to complete a purpose. There are several
purposes: one might be to make a statement or another might be to ask a question.

Here’s what you need to know:

1. Sentence
A sentence is a set of words standing on their own as a unit of sense, its conclusion marked by a
full stop or equivalent (question mark; exclamation mark).
In English, of course, sentences begin with a capital letter and include a verb. There is no
minimum number of words a sentence must contain in order to be a sentence. The only pre-
requisite is a main subject and a main verb.
For example, I exist is as much of a sentence as is The early bird catches the worm.
2. Morpheme
A morpheme is the lowest unit of language that can convey meaning. You cannot break a
morpheme down into anything smaller that has meaning. Many simple words are morphemes,
e.g. boy, hut, talk.
Some words consist of two or more morphemes:
 child + ren
 talk + s
 blind +ness
ren, s and ness all convey some meaning, even though none of them is a word in its own right.
If we try to break them down any further, we just end up with graphemes or phonemes:
r + e+ n
A grapheme is a term from linguistics meaning the smallest unit in writing that can change
meaning. This is a letter or group of letters representing a single phoneme, e.g.
b ng ea
A phoneme is a distinctive speech sound. We express ourselves using words. In writing, each
word is made up of letters, and in speech a word is made up of a series of phonemes. There are
 44 phonemes in standard modern English, fairly evenly divided between vowels and
consonants. The phonemes in a word do not correspond to the letters with which we write it.
For example, the word singing contains 7 letters but only 5 sounds : s-i-ng-i-ng.
3. Word
A word is the smallest meaningful bit of sense in a sentence. Each of these words has a different
job to do. Here are four words:
roared, mighty, lion, the
Roared is a verb. Its job is to tell us what happens in a sentence.
Mighty is an adjective. Its job is to tell us more about a noun. We don’t have to have an
adjective in a group of words when we are trying to make a sentence.
Lion is a noun. Its job here is to name things or people or places in a sentence.
The is called a definite article. We use the definite article in front of a noun when we believe the
hearer/reader knows exactly what we are referring to or because there is only one of this thing
in that place or in those surroundings. As you know, articles form part of a larger class of words
known as ‘determiners’.
So, a definite article’s job is to tell us which particular noun we are talking about. We don’t
have to have a definite article in a group of words when we are trying to make a sentence.
We put words together to make a phrase.
4. Phrase
A phrase is a short, single piece of information. It can be a word, or a small group of words, that
forms a meaningful unit within a sentence:
mighty lion
Two important types are the noun phrase and the verb phrase.
Noun phrase
The noun phrase can be a word or group of words based on a noun or pronoun that can
function in a sentence as a subject object or prepositional object; it can be very simple or very
complex. A noun phrase is built around a single noun or pronoun; for example (bolded):
A pile of books lay on the table.
He was reading a book about the rise and fall of Napoleon.
Verb phrase
In grammar a verb phrase is a verb of more than one word. It includes one or more helping
(auxiliary) verbs and one main verb:
 can see (helping verb can + main verb see)
 would have sent (helping verbs would + have + past participle of main verb send)
 may have been planning (helping verbs may + have + be + present participle of main verb plan)
The main verb expresses the chief idea in the verb phrase. The other verbs are there only to help
it.
The main verb is always the last verb in the phrase. Often its form changes as in the last two
examples in which send becomes sent and plan becomes planning.
We use phrases to make a clause.
5. Clauses
A clause is a larger word group that includes a little more information. It consists of at least two
phrases - one is a noun phrase known as the subject, and the other is the verb.
 A clause is kind of a mini-sentence: a set of words which makes a sense unit, but it might not be
concluded by a full stop. A sentence may consist of two or more clauses, e.g. She left (1)
because it was late (2) and she was tired (3); this sentence contains three clauses.
A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a verb. For example:
The mighty lion / roared.
In this clause, the noun phrase is the mighty lion and the verb is roared.
A useful way to begin identifying clauses in sentences is to count main verbs. For each main
verb there will be a clause.
This all leads us to the sentence.
6. Subject
The subject of a sentence is the person, place, thing, or idea that is doing or being something.
You can find the subject of a sentence if you can find the verb.
For instance, in the sentence The computers in the Learning Centre must be replaced, the verb
is must be replaced. What must be replaced? The computers. So the subject is computers.
A simple subject is the subject of a sentence stripped of modifiers. Remember: Modifiers are
any word or group of words that change or add to the meaning of another word. The simple
subject of the following sentence is issue:
The really important issue of the debate, stripped of all other considerations, is the morality of
the nation.
Sometimes, though, a simple subject can be more than one word, even an entire clause:
What he had already forgotten about computer repair could fill whole volumes.
The simple subject is not computer repair, nor is it what he had forgotten, nor is it he. Ask what
it is that could fill whole volumes. Your answer should be that the entire bolded clause is the
simple subject, i.e. What he had already forgotten about computer repair
7. Predicate
A predicate is the completer of a sentence. This is just a term used to label the part of a
sentence or clause which contains a verb and states something about the subject.
So, the subject names the ‘do-er’ or ‘be-er’ of the sentence; the predicate does the rest of
the work. A simple predicate consists of only a verb, verb string, or compound verb (all bolded):
The glacier melted.
The glacier has been melting.
The glacier melted, broke apart, and slipped into the sea.
More Examples
The part before the slash is the subject and the part after it is the predicate:
 People in glasshouses/shouldn’t throw stones.
 Sebastián and Alejandro/went on vacation.
 I/love eating cocido madrileño.
8. More about sentences and clauses
Now that you’ve grasped the terminology and usage, particularly ‘sentence’ and ‘clause’,
we’re sure you’re ready to move on a bit further to types of sentences and clauses.
If we put a capital letter at the beginning of the clause we've used, and a full stop at the end, we
have a sentence. From a linguistic point of view sentences are the largest grammatical units.
They are also intuitively complete in two senses:
 first they may stand alone as informative units
 second and more importantly they include all required grammatical elements
 The mighty lion roared. (has a subject and verb and can stand alone as a meaningful unit)
This is a simple sentence.
Back to top

Simple sentences
A simple sentence consists of one clause that has a subject and a verb. A simple sentence puts
across one simple idea or thought. It’s a sense unit – a complete unit of meaning.
Here are some examples of simple sentences:
 Carlos smiled. (Carlos is the subject; smiled is the verb)
 The dog barked. (The dog is the subject; barked is the verb)
 The boys are playing soccer. (The boys is the subject; are playing is the verb)
 Will you help me? (you is the subject; will help is the verb)
There is no minimum number of words a sentence must contain in order to be a sentence.
Again the only pre-requisite is a main subject and a main verb. For example, He phoned is as
much of a sentence as is Atlético Madrid is one of the best teams in Europe.
Note: A simple sentence is a complete unit of meaning which contains a subject and a verb. It
may have other words which help to make up the meaning.
But look at this group of words:
Made in France.
This is correct English but it is not a sentence. It doesn’t have a subject. To make it into a
complete sentence with a subject and verb, we would need to change it to something like:
My fridge was made in France.
So, that’s simple sentences done. But there are other types of sentences too.
Back to top

Compound sentences
Another main type of sentence that speakers and writers use is called a compound sentence.
This is a sentence of two or more main clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (also called
a connective).
Compound sentences contain two or more pieces of information and the pieces are linked by
connectives. Coordinating conjunctions are connectives which link text together, such as:
 but
 and
 or
Two simple sentences can be joined together with a connective to make a compound
sentence. For example:
I do not like eating strawberries is a simple sentence.
I love eating carrots is also a simple sentence.
If we join them together we have a compound sentence:
I do not like eating strawberries but I love eating carrots.
Note: but is the connective
Here are other examples of compound sentences with the connectives written in bold:
 The boys walked down the road and they met their friends at the bus stop.
 The postman came to the door so the dog barked loudly.
One advantage of compound sentences is that a writer can build more variety into her writing.
However, one problem is that some writers can get carried away and write long rambling
sentences:
We went the park and we met some friends and then we went into town which was not too far
but I was quite tired when I got there so I sat down.
Writers and speakers need to take care with connectives. Two in a sentence is usually adequate,
and they don't need to be used in every sentence.
There is one other main sentence type – complex sentences.
Back to top

Complex sentences
A complex sentence is used to put across more detailed ideas. A complex sentence contains
one main clause that can make sense on its own and one or more minor or subordinate clauses
that are linked to it. We’ll call these minor clauses subordinate clauses from now on. It just
sounds better.
When the noisy vehicle passed, the mighty lion roared.
The main clause is the mighty lion roared because it has a subject and a verb and makes sense
by itself.
The subordinate clause is when the noisy vehicle passed. Although it is a clause with a subject
and a verb, it doesn't make sense on its own. It needs to be attached to a main clause for it to
make sense.
We can add more subordinate clauses to make a more complex sentence. In the following
examples the main clause is in bold and the two subordinate clauses are underlined.
When the vehicle passed the mighty lion roared because it was annoyed.
We can even split the main clause with a minor clause and still have a complex sentence .
When the vehicle passed, the mighty lion which was annoyed roared.
Another example
In a complex sentence there is one main idea and one or more subordinate ideas. We can take
the main idea out of a complex sentence so that the idea stands on its own. Let’s consider this
sentence:
The alarm was raised as soon as the fire was spotted.
We can cut out the main idea (the main clause) and it will stand on its own as a meaningful
unit:
The alarm was raised (main idea/main clause because it is meaningful on its own, has a subject
and a verb)
What we are left with is:
as soon as the fire was spotted (even although it has a subject and verb, this clause cannot
stand on its own; it’s not a meaningful unit as it stands and is therefore regarded as
subordinate to the main clause, i.e. it is a subordinate clause.
Note:
The main clause in the example above is also called an independent clause. It contains both a
subject and a verb and can stand alone as a sentence.
The subordinate clause in the example above is called a dependent clause. It contains a subject
and verb but cannot stand alone as a sentence. It’s dependent on the main clause for it to
make sense.
Back to top

Unit 3: Questions
A sentence is a set of words standing on their own as a unit of sense, its conclusion marked by a
full stop or equivalent (question mark; exclamation mark).

Check answer

I eat. This is not a sentence.

Check answer

You can break a morpheme down into smaller parts that have meaning.

Check answer

A verb phrase is a verb of more than one word. It includes one or more helping (auxiliary) verbs
and one main verb.

Check answer

A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a verb.

Check answer

A simple sentence consists of one clause that has a subject and a verb.

Check answer

Manufactured in Germany. This is correct English and is a sentence.

Check answer

A subordinate clause is also called an independent clause.

Check answer

Back to top

Unit 4: Tenses
Part of the difficulty of teaching tenses is not only that many of us take for granted subtle
distinctions (‘I went to Brazil in 2006’ vs ‘I’ve been to Brazil’).
It’s also the assumption that many of us have that other languages have neatly corresponding
tenses. This, unfortunately, is not the case.
Whilst there are obviously overlaps, especially with many of the European languages, other
cultures may have entirely different concepts of the relationship between time and tense.
Rosemary Aitken suggests an approach known as CASSIAL (Choose, Analyse, Sequence, Select,
Identify context, Auxiliary materials, Learner error).
Although this acronym may seem a tad long-winded, her approach is relatively self-explanatory:
you need to think about the tense you’ve chosen to teach (what’s its purpose? When do we
use it? Are there any exceptions).
Make sure you have enough material to illustrate your point and pre-empt any problems your
students may have with grasping the nuances of that particular tense.
A deeper understanding of tenses will develop as you become more and more familiar with
teaching them and the contrast between each but here we will see an overview of the various
English tenses for you to get to grips with.
Look back at the two example sentences given in the first paragraph of this unit.
The first “I went to Brazil in 2006” is an example of a past simple sentence, it’s the verb ‘go
’ in its past form.
The second, “I’ve been to Brazil” is the present perfect tense. We form the present perfect
by using the have/has + the ‘past participle’ of the verb.
In this case the past participle of the verb ‘go’ is ‘been’. Don’t get confused with the
name ‘present perfect’ though, we’re still referring to the past. But if we’re talking about
the past in both cases, why do we need two different tenses? Why can’t we say “I’ve been to
Brazil in 2006”? This is where your ‘Analyse’ and ‘Identify context’ steps come in.
See if you can answer the following questions.
1. Which of the two tenses talks about general past experience?

Check answer

2. Which of the two tenses requires a specific time period?

Check answer
Back to top

Present and Past Tenses

Now let’s look at the other English tenses in more detail...
Present
 Present simple: routine/habitual actions or things which are generally true
 e.g. ‘I work every Saturday’, ‘cats chase mice’
Present continuous/ Present progressive: happening now or around now
 Form: am/is/are + verb + -ing
 e.g. ‘John is working today’
Past
Past simple: completed, finished actions with a specific time reference
 Form: use the past tense of the verb
 e.g. ‘I wrote 10 letters yesterday’
Past continuous/ Past progressive: actions in progress at a particular time in the past, actions
interrupted in the past, two actions happening simultaneously in the past
 Form: was/were + verb + -ing
 e.g. ‘What were you doing at 10.00 last night?’, ‘I was writing letters’
Back to top

Future Tense
Future
Present continuous: fixed future plans/arrangements with a specific time reference
 Form: am/is/are + verb + -ing
 e.g. ‘He’s seeing Jim on Sunday afternoon’
‘going to’ + infinitive verb: future intentions and predictions
 e.g. ‘She’s going to have a baby!’
‘will/won’t/shall’ + infinitive verb: predictions, instant decisions, promises, suggestions
and offers
 e.g. ‘I think it will rain tomorrow’, ‘I promise I’ll do my homework later’
Future Continuous/ Future Progressive: an action in progress at a particular time in the future
 Form: will + be + verb + -ing
 e.g. ‘In 2050 we will all be driving electric cars’
Back to top

Perfect Aspect
Present Perfect (simple): general past experiences with no specific time reference, past actions
that have importance in the present, in expressions with yet, since, for, already, just, actions
which started in the past and continue now (non-action verbs only)
 Form: have/has + past participle
 e.g. ‘I’ve worked here for 3 years’, ‘a car has crashed into a house’, ‘I’ve known her
since I was at school’
Present Perfect Continuous: actions which started in the past and continue now (action verbs),
recent continuous actions
 Form: have/has + been + verb + -ing
 e.g. ‘I’ve been learning English for 4 years’, ‘You’re all red, what have you been doing?’
– ‘I’ve been sunbathing in the garden’
Past Perfect (simple): when we’re already talking about the past but want to refer to an
earlier past time
 Form: had + past participle
 e.g. ‘I couldn’t get in because I had forgotten my keys’
Past Perfect Continuous: an action in progress in the past leading up to another past moment
 Form: had + been + verb + -ing
 e.g. ‘He had been cleaning the car for an hour before he stopped because of the rain’
Future Perfect (simple): an action that will have already happened before a specific point in the
future
 Form: will + have + past participle
 e.g. ‘I’ll have already left by the time you arrive’
Future Perfect Continuous: an action that will continue up until a certain future point
 Form: will + have + been + verb + -ing
 e.g. ‘I’ll have been working here for 10 years when I retire’
Back to top

Tenses Practice
See if you can match the following sentences up with the correct tense.
I was sleeping when you called
I've been working in the garden all afternoon
I'm playing tennis with Joe tomorrow
I just ate a sandwich for lunch
Don't worry I'll have finished by 5pm
present perfect progressive
past continuous/progressive
past simple
future perfect
present continuous/progressive
Check answer
Back to top

FULL Tense Table: Introduction

You will already have a reasonably good grasp of tenses from the introductory materials above.
But it’s wise go a bit deeper into this.
So, we have provided you with a FULL Tense Table which you should always keep by your side,
just in case you are asked a question and your mind goes blank for a moment. It happens to us
all!
The table covers the 3 main verb structures for each tense:
 Positive: You like Edinburgh.
 Question: Do you like Edinburgh?
 Negative: You do not like Edinburgh.
This is useful when you decide to cover, say, the positive form and the negative form one after
the other. The table will keep you right.
Also, you may get an off-the-wall question from an advanced student: What’s the difference
between the two forms of the Future Continuous (Progressive) Tense: will be or be going to?
Again, your mind may go blank for a moment, particularly when you’re deep into another
tense. You have your table to keep you right.
In this scenario, you could give the student a copy of the relevant pages for her to read later
and she can ask you questions later if she’s still not sure. Just for interest, there’s little
difference between the two forms!
In addition, the table has been constructed so that you can copy a page for a specific tense and
give this out to your class. This will save you time rummaging around and making up your own
table for that particular tense.
Here is the tense table. Study it well and keep it by your side. It’s not difficult; it just takes a
bit of time if you’re a little bit rusty.
FULL Tense Table: Twelve tenses in modern English
A. There are three simple tenses:
1. Present Simple: showing whether an action or condition occurs
2. Past Simple: showing whether an action or condition occurred
3. Future Simple: showing whether an action or condition will occur
B. There are three perfect tenses
4. Present Perfect: showing whether an action or condition has occurred relative to the present
5. Past Perfect: showing whether an action or condition had occurred relative to the past
6. Future Perfect: showing whether an action or condition will have occurred relative to the
future.
C. There are six continuous (also called progressive) tenses:
7. Present Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition is occurring in the
present
8. Past Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition was occurring in the past
9. Future Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition will be occurring in the
future
10. Present Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition has been
occurring relative to the present
11. Past Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition had been
occurring relative to the past
12. Future Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition will have been
occurring relative to the future.
Back to top

FULL Tense Table

Tense 1: Present Simple Tense (also called the Simple Present Tense)
In regular verbs, this tense is formed by using the verb stem, adding -s in the third person
singular (he, she, it).
Subject Verb Stem
I like
you (singular)like
he/she/it likes
we like
you (plural) like
they like
Positive: You like Edinburgh.
Question: Do you like Edinburgh?
Negative: You do not like Edinburgh.
Tense 2: Past Simple Tense (sometimes called the Simple Past Tense)
This tense refers to actions in the past. In regular verbs, it is formed by adding –ed to the verb
stem (or -d if the verb stem already ends in e):
Subject Verb Stem (adding –ed)Verb stem (adding -d)
I requested liked
you (singular)requested liked
he/she/it requested liked
we requested liked
you (plural) requested liked
they requested liked
Positive: You played tennis.
Question: Did you play tennis?
Negative: You didn’t play tennis.
Note: In irregular verbs, there is a variety of past tense forms: become → became, blow → blew,
catch → caught. These just have to be learned.
Note: The past simple can also be formed with the verb be. The past of be, i.e. was and were, is
used:
Positive: I was annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment.
Question: Were you annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment?
Negative: I wasn’t annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment.
Tense 3: Future Simple Tense (also called the Simple Future Tense) Form 1
For this tense, we use will or shall, followed by the verb stem:
Subject will, shall Verb Stem
I ‘ll, will, and also shallclose the door.
you (singular)‘ll, will close the door.
he/she/it ‘ll, will close the door.
we ‘ll, will, and also shallclose the door.
you (plural) ‘ll, will close the door.
they ‘ll, will close the door.
Note that we often use contractions when using will and shall, e.g. I’ll and We shan’t. Shall is
much more common in British English than in American English.
With will:
Positive: You will see her on Sunday
Question: Will you see her on Sunday?
Negative: You won’t see her on Sunday.
With shall:
Positive: We shall see her on Sunday.
Question: Shall we see her on Sunday?
Negative: We shan’t see her on Sunday.
Tense 3 continued: Future Simple Tense (also called the Simple Future Tense) Form 2
Often called the going to future, this form is a combination of be + going to + verb stem.
Subject am/is/aregoing toVerb Stem
I am; ‘m going to object.
you (singular)are; ‘re going to object.
he/she/it Is; ‘s going to object.
we are; ‘re going to object.
you (plural) are; ‘re going to object.
they are; ‘re going to object.
Note that we often use contractions when using the verb be, e.g. I’m, you’re
Positive: You are going to see the show tonight.
Question: Are you going to see the show tonight?
Negative: You are not going to see the show tonight.
Tense 4: Present Perfect Tense
The present perfect tense is formed by combining the present tense of the verb have with the
past participle of the main verb.
Subject Present Tense of the verb havePast Participle of the Main Verb
I have washed the dishes.
you (singular)have washed the dishes.
he/she/it has washed the dishes.
we have washed the dishes.
you (plural) have washed the dishes.
they have washed the dishes.
Note that we often use contractions when using have, e.g. I’ve and we’ve
Positive: You have visited the Prado Museum before.
Question: Have you visited the Prado Museum before?
Negative: You have not visited the Prado Museum before.
Tense 5: Past Perfect Tense
This tense is formed by had, followed by the past participle:
Subject hadPast Participle of the Main Verb
I had failed again!
you (singular)had failed again!
he/she/it had failed again!
we had failed again!
you (plural) had failed again!
they had failed again!
Note that we often use contractions when using had, e.g. I hadn’t
Positive: You had studied Spanish before you went to Madrid.
Question: Had you studied Spanish before you went to Madrid?
Negative: You hadn’t studied Spanish before you went to Madrid.
Tense 6: Future Perfect Tense
This is a tense formed by will have followed by the past participle.
Subject will havePast Participle of the Main Verb
I will have finished my work by 7pm.
you(singular)will have finished my work by 7pm.
he/she/it will have finished my work by 7pm.
we will have finished my work by 7pm.
you (plural) will have finished my work by 7pm.
they will have finished my work by 7pm.
Positive: Dad will have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
Question: Will Dad have cooked dinner by the time we get back?
Negative: Dad won’t have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
Sometimes, the going to format is used (am/is/are + going to have + past participle]:
Positive: Dad is going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
Question: Is Dad going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back?
Negative: Dad is not going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
Either form can usually be used.
Tense 7: Present Continuous Tense (also called the Present Progressive Tense)
This tense is formed by using the present tense of the verb be and the present participle of the
main verb.
Subject am/is/arePresent Participle of the Main Verb
I am drinking Coke.
you (singular)are drinking Coke.
he/she/it is drinking Coke.
we are drinking Coke.
you (plural) are drinking Coke.
they are drinking Coke.
Positive: You are watching TV.
Question: Are you watching TV?
Negative: You are not watching TV.
Tense 8: Past Continuous Tense (also called the Past Progressive Tense)
This tense is formed by was or were followed by the present participle of the main verb.
Subject was/werePresent Participle of the Main Verb
I was drinking Coke.
you (singular)were drinking Coke.
he/she/it was drinking Coke.
we were drinking Coke.
you (plural) were drinking Coke.
they were drinking Coke.
Positive: You were sleeping when she phoned.
Question: Were you sleeping when she phoned?
Negative: You were not sleeping when she phoned.
Tense 9: Future Continuous Tense (also called the Future Progressive Tense) Form 1
There are two forms. Form 1: This tense is formed by will be followed by the present participle.
Subject will bePresent Participle of the Main Verb
I will be dining late.
you (singular)will be dining late.
he/she/it will be dining late.
we will be dining late.
you (plural) will be dining late.
they will be dining late.
Positive: You’ll be cooking dinner when they arrive.
Question: Will you be cooking dinner when they arrive?
Negative: You won’t be cooking dinner when they arrive.
Tense 9 continued: Future Continuous Tense (also called the Future Progressive Tense)
Form 2
Form 2: This form is made up of: am/is/are + going to be + present participle
Subject am/is/aregoing to bePresent Participle
I am going to be jogging to work.
you (singular)are going to be jogging to work.
he/she/it is going to be jogging to work.
we are going to be jogging to work.
you (plural) are going to be jogging to work.
they are going to be jogging to work.
Positive: You are going to be sleeping when she gets home.
Question: Are you going to be sleeping when she gets home?
Negative: You are not going to be sleeping when she gets home.
Remember this: It is possible to use either will be or be going to in order to create the Future
Continuous tense. There’s not much difference.
Tense 10: Present Perfect Continuous Tense (also called the Present Perfect Progressive
Tense)
This tense is formed by combining the present perfect of the verb be with the present participle
of the main verb.
Subject has/have beenPresent Participle of the Main Verb
I have been serving customers for nine hours.
you (singular)have been serving customers for nine hours.
he/she/it has been serving customers for nine hours.
we have been serving customers for nine hours.
you (plural) have been serving customers for nine hours.
they have been serving customers for nine hours.
Positive: You have been standing here for two hours.
Question: Have you been standing here for two hours?
Negative: You have not been standing here for two hours.
Tense 11: Past Perfect Continuous Tense (also called the Past Perfect Progressive Tense)
This tense is formed by using had been followed by the present participle.
Subject had beenPresent Participle of the Main Verb
I had been waiting for four hours.
you (singular)had been waiting for four hours.
he/she/it had been waiting for four hours.
we had been waiting for four hours.
you (plural) had been waiting for four hours.
they had been waiting for four hours.
Positive: You had been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.
Question: Had you been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived?
Negative: You had not been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.
Tense 12: Future Perfect Continuous Tense
Usual Form: This tense is formed by using will have been followed by the present participle.
Subject will have beenPresent Participle of the Main Verb
I will have been studying for three hours.
you (singular)will have been studying for three hours.
he/she/it will have been studying for three hours.
we will have been studying for three hours
you (plural) will have been studying for three hours.
they will have been studying for three hours.
Positive: You will have been waiting here for two hours.
Question: Will you have been waiting here for two hours?
Negative: You will not have been waiting here for two hours.
Another Form: am/is/are + going to have been + present participle. This is not used as much as
the usual form above.
Positive: You are going to have been driving for more than six hours by the time you get
back.
Question: Are you going to have been driving for more than six hours by the time you get
back?
Negative: You are not going to have been driving for more than six hours by the time you
get back.
NOTE: It’s possible to use either form with little or no difference in meaning.
Back to top

Unit 4: Questions
Which tense do we use to talk about a finished past action with a specific time?

Check answer

Can we use non-action verbs (e.g. know, like, be etc.) in a continuous/progressive tense? Y/N?

Check answer

How do we form the past perfect continuous?

Check answer

Which tense do we use for future plans without a specific time?

Check answer

You scored goals. This statement is in the Past Simple Tense (also called the Simple Past Tense).

Check answer

Are you going to watch the game tonight? This question is in the Future Simple Tense (also
called the Simple Future Tense).

Check answer

You hadn’t eaten paella before you went to Spain. This statement is in the Present Perfect
Tense.

Check answer

The match will have finished by the time we get back. This statement is in the Future Perfect
Tense.
 Check answer

You were not driving when she phoned. This statement is in the Present Continuous Tense (also
called the Present Progressive tense).

Check answer

Back to top

Unit 5: Teaching grammar

Well, now you know all the requisite grammar. But how do you teach it?
We’re going to show you how so that you’ll be able to handle this from Day 1 – and get it
right first time.
We’re going to cover the 3 key areas which will ensure you get it right first time:
1. Understanding prescriptive and descriptive grammar
2. Different modes of presenting grammar
3. Teaching grammar to different levels
If you take your time with this and absorb it all, it’s unlikely you’ll ever have to check
any book or site about teaching grammar. Unless, of course, you really like reading
grammar books!
Back to top

Understanding prescriptive and descriptive

grammar
1. Understanding prescriptive and descriptive grammar
The term grammar generally refers to the rules and conventions by which words are ordered
and changed to form a sentence.
Grammar can be prescriptive or descriptive.
Prescriptive grammar sets out rules which should be followed if you wish to write ‘correct’ or
’good’ English. Sometimes, these ‘rules’ are based on observation of the way in which ‘
educated’ speakers actually use the language.
At other times, they are based on what the speaker was taught at school, many years ago. For
example: My teacher always said you should never start a sentence with And or But. Oh, really?
Prescriptive grammar rules are the right rules, according to some ‘experts’, e.g. Never start a
sentence with And or But.
Prescriptive rules make a value judgment about the correctness of an utterance.
Descriptive grammar seeks to describe how language is actually used in the real world.
Descriptive rules accept the patterns a speaker actually uses and try to account for them.
Descriptive rules allow for different varieties of a language; they don't ignore a construction
simply because some prescriptive grammarian doesn't like it.
Descriptive rules describe the way grammar is actually used. Descriptive grammar is a reaction
to the way people speak and is accepting of alternative, less nit-picking forms.
Descriptive rules also tend to change since language itself is always undergoing change.
Have a look at these example sentences:
1. Let’s start at the very beginning.
Prescriptive rules of grammar would tell us that this is wrong because the beginning is a specific
start point and you can’t make it any more specific by using very. But descriptive rules say that
this type of phrase is common in spoken English, So, we’ll align with the descriptive side and
we’ll keep very in.
2. That’s very true, absolutely true.
Native speakers also say very true or absolutely true. Again, prescriptive rules of grammar would
tell us that this is wrong because you can’t have anything stronger than true. Something
cannot be more true. But, again, descriptive rules say that this type of phrase is common in
spoken English. So, again we’ll align with the descriptive side and use very true and absolutely
true.
3. Who do you want to speak to?
A proponent of descriptive rules would say this sentence is fine.
A proponent of prescriptive rules would say the sentence is incorrect; we should never end a
sentence with a preposition (i.e. to). To satisfy the prescriptive group we would need to change
this to: To whom do you want to speak?
To us, this seems a bit cumbersome and out-dated but you decide which is best.
4. Never start a sentence with And or But.
Let’s have a look at this prescriptive rule a bit further by exploring these sentences:
It’s a pretty smart long-term business plan but do you think those changes go far enough?
It’s a pretty smart long-term business plan. But do you think those changes go far enough?
The first sentence fits with the prescriptive rule. The second does not and fits with the
descriptive approach. There’s no doubt in our minds that the second sentence creates a more
forceful effect. The introductory conjunction But gives more weight to the thought expressed in
the sentence and is more emphatic.
So, again, we’ll align with the descriptive side in this particular context.
But don’t get the impression that prescriptive rules are not important:
1. When we adhere to most prescriptive rules, we are adhering to a standard form of a language
that is accepted by most speakers of that language. By doing so, this allows us to be
understood by the greatest possible number of individuals.
2. Most prescriptive rules are critical for those who are learning a foreign language. It just
wouldn’t work if there were no guidelines for, say, learning English.
3. Most prescriptive rules allow a speaker of a non-standard dialect to learn the rules of the
standard dialect and employ them in appropriate social circumstances – if they wish to.
Unfortunately, non-standard dialects are still frowned upon and not accepted by many groups
and can inhibit a person’s progress in society, and in business.
Here are some common prescriptive rules relating to English. If these didn’t exist, there would
be lots of confusion:
The subject of a sentence must agree with the verb. We mustn’t say He go to school.
In English, capitalise the first letter of a sentence: My computer isn’t working. It needs to be
fixed.
Use subject pronouns after the verb be (It was I who phoned you NOT It was me who phoned
you.)
Use the definite article the before names of rivers and geographical areas but not before the
names of lakes or continents (the Amazon, the Far East; Lake Superior, Europe).
Being able to distinguish between the two types is important since you will need to ensure that
your learners are familiar with some prescriptive grammar rules, while also alerting them to
alternative or more informal descriptive uses.
Both types of grammar have their supporters and their detractors, which in all probability
suggests that both have their strengths and weaknesses.
You need to decide how you will approach the teaching of grammar.
Back to top

Different modes of presenting grammar to

learners
2. Different modes of presenting grammar to learners
There is no doubt that a sound knowledge of key grammatical rules is essential for the mastery
of a language. But it’s the way that you teach these rules that paves the way to success by
better embedding the learning.
Here are some practical ideas you can use to do this:
1. Present material visually
One effective way to show how a given structure is formed, what it means, and how it is used is
to present the material visually, using board drawings, illustrations, pictures, objects or props.
You could show them pictures and ask: What differences do you notice in the pictures? To
practise, for example, must/must have (as in He must have fallen.) and could/could have (as
in He could have been hit by a car.).
2. Use timelines
Another powerful visual is the timeline, which you can draw on the board. Timelines are simple
diagrams that can help learners see relationships between verb forms and their time reference.
They are a visual representation of the passage of time. Students can see how the verb works.
We have made this simple timeline to explain the simple past tense.
Yesterday, I walked to school.

There are is no set format for making a timeline. Just make sure you explain it first of all. You
can use an X or any symbol to mark the event.
Here’s another one to demonstrate the simple future progressive (continuous) tense:
Next year he is climbing Kilimanjaro.

Here we have used a squiggly line to demonstrate the event continuing.

The following exercise will give you huge opportunities for embedding timelines – and it will
make grammar learning interesting and fun. The key point is the grammar part is integrated
into the key skills of speaking, reading, writing, listening as much as possible.
Exercise –Timelines
As they get used to these, you could introduce the idea of My Timeline where students draw up
a timeline of important events in their lives from the past till now.
Older students will easily come up with a range of important events. Young students could ask
their parents/carers for important dates in the students’ short lives– when the student was
born, when the student first walked and talked, when the student first went to school, etc.
And you could add in when the student did something silly (this last one will create a lot of fun
later when they read out what they’ve completed).
Then you can change the format – student A interviews student B and draws up a timeline for
student B. Then they change roles, and after this they read out the other student’s timeline to
the class.
You can also give them a short list of important historical past events that have happened in
their country and future events the country hopes to accomplish by some date in the future and
get them to plot them on the timeline.
These dates could be mixed up on the list. Keep away from serious ‘political’ events such as
attempted coups. Or you could centre it on a world event such as space exploration or the
Olympic Games or the key successes in the development of medicine.
You could also give the students a short written text and ask them to read it for comprehension
and then they prepare a timeline based on the important facts in that text.
As they progress with the verb timelines, their My Timeline can be expanded to marking future
events on their personal timeline, for example: when will they be going to the ‘big’ school,
when they hope to accomplish something; when they think they will start working etc.
Remember. Ensure the grammar part – relationships between verb forms and their time
reference – is integrated into, and reinforced by, the key skills of speaking, listening, reading
and writing.
3. Present material through situations
Let’s imagine you are presenting the concept of going to. Draw a face on the board with a
name under it. Name her Maria. Put a thought bubble above her. Introduce Maria. Say: This is
Maria and she’s thinking about something nice. I wonder what it is.
Draw an aeroplane. Say: Ah, she’s thinking of her holiday next week. Next week. (Using
gestures of forward movement.) She’s going to fly on an aeroplane. She’s going to fly.
Repeat this class: She’s going to fly. Class repeats.
Say: I wonder where she is going.
Draw or show a big picture of the Sagrada Familia in Barcelona – elicit until you get the
response. Yes, she’s going to visit the Sagrada Familia. Repeat this class: She’s going to visit
the Sagrada Familia. Class repeats.
Say: She’s so lucky. I wonder what she will do there.
Next, draw a camera on the board. She’s going to take pictures. She’s going to take pictures.
What is she going to do? Class repeats.
Say: I wish I was her. What other things is she going to do? Elicit answers to this.
When the correct response comes up, e.g. She’s going to walk around Barcelona, drill this
(with the whole class and some individuals). Write this response on the board.
Follow the same format now with some additional going to questions, then writing the correct
response on the board. Then check with concept questions (checking understanding) at
random. So, tell me: What is Maria going to do next week. Where is she going to visit?
You can then recap on the structure avoiding metalanguage (language about language, e.g.
noun, verb), and move them on to practising it with different activities, e.g. a gap-fill exercise
 and then move them on to producing the correct structure, say, by conversation in pairs and a
writing activity.
By giving several different examples through a situation, or specific context, you help the class
to build up a clear idea of what the structure means and how it is used. After giving a few
examples, you can simply present the situation and try to get the students to give the example.
This will verify how well the students have understood the concept, and this also helps to get
the class more involved.
4. Present material through demonstration
Yet another way of showing meaning is to present the learning material through physical
demonstration.
Let’s just use the language item above – going to. You could also demonstrate the concept
of going to. You could tell them that you’re:
 going to open the door
 going to give a prize in a few minutes to whoever is best behaved
 going to open to the window because it’s too hot
 going to close the window because it’s too cold
and so on.
Using the same format above for situations, it will be another successful way for you to get
them to grasp the grammatical concept.
Back to top

Teaching grammar to different levels

3. Teaching grammar to different levels
Presenting grammar in the EFL classroom is no different from teaching other skills, in that you
need to take into account a range of factors, e.g. age, level of competence, previous grammar
experiences in the native language and the like.
It would be foolhardy for anyone to say that a specific grammar structure should always be
presented to a specific learner at a specific age. There are several variables at play.
So, bearing this in mind, it’s best to look at grammar presentations in fairly general age
groups. You’ll soon know it’s time to focus more on grammar when learners start asking you
questions, such as: Mr. Brown, why does this word have an extra letter (dogs) but the other one
hasn’t (dog)?
Here is a pretty useful grouping:
1. Young learners: younger young learners
2. Young learners: older young learners
3. Teenagers
4. Adults
Back to top

Teaching grammar to younger young

learners
1. Teaching grammar to younger young learners
1. Key points
 Here’s what to do and what not to do:
1. It just wouldn’t be appropriate to teach grammar formally and explicitly to students under
the age of, say, 8-9 years old. That’s a general age guide. But that doesn’t mean you won’
t be involved in grammar activities!
2. You should not use any metalanguage with your younger young learners. However, there is
the possibility that your younger young learners may already be aware of some metalanguage,
e.g. naming word, noun, and adjective – from their learning in their native/first language (L1)
classes.
You need to find out if this is the case. If so, you can use the terms naming word and noun etc.
3. Your aim is to get them to notice some forms and patterns, and then use them automatically
after lots of practice.
4. The grammar you help them to notice must emerge from meaningful contexts and there
should be some sort of meaningful communication that leads to a focus on grammar,
e.g. listening to you reading a story or singing a song such as This is the way we wash our
hands.
Remember this: Never teach grammar in isolation when teaching younger young learners.
This would be a recipe for disaster.
5. Younger young learners need to be able to see (gradually) the relationship between form,
function, meaning and use, i.e. what form is used to express what functions and meanings,
e.g. Please Miss, can I have a pencil?
You should strive to balance form, meaning, function and use. Learners should understand not
only the mechanics of the language, but also (gradually) the how, why, and where a particular
structure, word, or phrase gets used.
6. Where grammar progress is slow, don’t think that this is all down to influences of, and
differences in, the learners’ L1. Some learners have difficulties with grammar in their L1. In
addition, some aspects of difficulty in grammar are pretty universal.
7. Developing foreign language knowledge, understanding and application skills is a lengthy
and complex process. It is not a linear process, so take your time with them.
Your key role is to help them to notice grammar. Here’s an extended example of how to
go about this:
An extended example: Noticing grammar
Younger young learners need grammar to take their language learning forward to the next step.
They won’t know they are getting grammar input. Unknown to them, you will be selecting
grammatical features in stories, dialogues, songs, chants, rhymes etc. so that you can bring their
attention to these features in non-formal ways.
At this early stage the form-focusing techniques you use will be very simple but very important
at the same time.
Imagine you are reading them a story that goes like the one below.
Note:
 The words in bold should be emphasised.
 Take into class three real apples and hold up the requisite number when each number is
mentioned.
One day, Piggy the pig ate one apple
One day, Lionel the lion ate two apples

One day, Ellie the elephant ate three apples.

Remember: Here our goal is form-focusing, grasping a correct structure. So, it would go
something like this:
T: Can anyone tell me what Piggy ate?
Camila: One apple.
T: That’s right Camila. One apple. Hugo, can you tell me what Piggy ate?
Hugo: One apple.
T: That’s right, Hugo. One apple. Let’s say it together – One apple.
SS: One apple. (We’re using SS to stand for all students.)
T: Well done, class. Can anyone tell me what Lionel ate? Yes, Alana?
Alana: Two apple.
T: Yes, Alana, he ate two apples. Listen everyone, he ate two apples. Again, who can tell me
what Lionel ate?
Camila: Two apples.
T: That’s right, Camila. Two apples. Two apples. Lionel ate two apples. Let’s say it
together. Two apples.
Piggy ate one apple. Lionel ate two apples. Let’s say it together: Piggy ate one apple. Lionel
ate two apples.
Good!
Can anyone tell me what they hear? Is it the same? One apple, two apples.
Alvaro: Not same.
T: Why is it not the same, Alvaro?
Alvaro: Two apples has sss sound.
T: That’s right, Alvaro. Two apples has a sss sound at the end.
Everyone, when we have one apple we say apple. When we have two apples we say apples – a
sss sound at the end. If we have more apples than one, we say apples – a sss sound at the
end.
Can anyone tell me what Ellie ate?
Daniel: Three apples.
That’s right, Daniel. He ate more than one apple. He ate three apples. So, Piggy ate one
apple. Lionel ate two apples. Ellie ate three apples.
Then you could finish the story and recap with an oral exercise on the plural sound with other
animals, to reinforce the plural ending –s.
Of course, you wouldn’t mention the word plural. And you can leave exceptions to this plural
formation till another time.
Remember this: Do your research and find out beforehand how the plural form is
constructed in the learners’ native language (L1). This can help you with your planning,
particularly where the construction in the native language is much different from English.
You may even be able to impress them by using a bit of their language to show differences or
similarities in plural forms. They will love that.
 In this example, your prime role is to help the learners notice this aspect of form – the –s at the
end of plural nouns. Further fun exercises based on the topic will help to internalise this
grammatical point into their internal grammar system in their memory bank.
Once it is internalised, they should be able to draw on this knowledge and form later as
required.
This is an example of learning-centred grammar, taking the opportunity to highlight and help
them notice some grammar form point whilst they are in the midst of the learning process -
listening to and speaking about a story.
So, at this very early stage of learning, we are taking an opportunity to attend to form, without
them being aware of it.
Also, remember this: Frequently, the best way to get a learning point over is to make up
your own material. At these early stages, a story may only last one or two pages, with very
few words.
So, it’s easy to construct something that fits the bill, using only a few words and relevant
pictures you can draw, download from the internet, or take in as realia, particularly where you
feel the class materials are not exactly what you want.
We just made up the apples bit when we got to this part of the course. It only took 10 minutes
or so. If we had built a little story around it, we doubt if it would have taken more than 20
minutes.
As children get older, you can introduce more explicit forms of instruction but with younger
young learners it’s much too early to bog them down with too much explicit grammar input.
Abstract and formal presentations of grammar with difficult words and concepts such
as adjective just won’t work with younger young learners.
Softly, softly is the key. Your role for these learners is to help them notice and then try and use
some grammatical forms and items as they crop up, assuming they are ready to take these on
board.
In the early years, your teaching of English as a Foreign Language will centre mostly
on meaning, e.g. This is a dog. This makes sense. But it’s important that we do not
overlook accuracy, so opportune moments should be grasped to help the learners with the
form of the language.
Clearly, fun exercises and games will be useful tools to make the grammar input more enjoyable
and less abstract for your younger young learners.
Remember: They need to learn words and expressions in context.
2. Different practical techniques for increasing younger young learners’ grammar
1. Classroom routines
Younger young learners start to learn a language by picking up chunks of language, primarily
from you in the classroom, e.g. Good Morning, Mr Brown; Please Miss …
So, the first steps have been taken in building their internal grammar.
2. Whole class instructions
Whole class instructions can be fairly easily grasped and again you can introduce them to
patterns and new vocabulary. Backed up with gestures and mime from you and perhaps a game
such as Simon Says, these can be transferred to their grammar memory banks:
1. Speak quietly, please.
2. Stand up, please.
3. Sit down, please.
4. Choose a partner, please.
3. Chants and rhymes
Chants and rhymes also provide excellent opportunities for introducing grammatical
constructions and patterns. You can use many of the traditional songs and chants, e.g. This is
the way we wash our hands or you can be more adventurous and write your own to suit the
targeted language form.
Your song/rhyme to the same tune as This is the way we wash our hands could easily be
something like:
This is the way we stand up quietly
This is the way we sit down quietly etc.
Use your imagination and don’t hang back from singing, even if you can’t keep a tune very
well. You could always try rapping!
4. Little planned conversations
With younger young learners, it’s important to build in planned little chats as an integral part
of your daily routine. You can do this with individuals, pairs or groups.
In addition to building bonds, these chats will bring out useful information about their language
competence and their interests. This is quality information for you.
You may learn about some structure that you can help them with:
My foot sore. (Oh, your foot is sore? Why is it sore?)
My books is wet. (Oh, your books are wet. Why are they wet?)
This corrective feedback is an essential tool for helping all learners of all ages.
Or your chat may give you useful information about their likes and dislikes. You then have good
information as to what your next topic might be – pets, football, superheroes and so on.
5. Increasing their noticing skills
As their learning progresses, you can step up the work on their noticing skills. They may now be
ready for more controlled noticing activities. So the story you read is not just for listening and
improving their speaking skills, it is also for enhancing their noticing skills.
Example-noticing skills
Prepare a worksheet with statements and drawings:
1. The cup is ……….. the table (with a picture/drawing of a cup on a table). Write the words on,
under beside the picture/drawing.
2. The plate is ……….. the table (with a picture/drawing of a plate on a table). Write the words on,
under beside the picture/drawing.
3. The spoon is ……….. the table (with a picture/drawing of a spoon under the table). Write the
words on, under beside the picture/drawing).
Teach them the meanings of the prepositions: on, under – via visual presentation, miming, via
puppets or dolls/action men, board work, a little bit of drilling etc.
Now read your prepared story, which might be something like this:
It was time for baby Alexa’s dinner.
Mummy put baby Alexa’s cup on the table.
Daddy put baby Alexa’s plate on the table.
Baby Alexa was watching. She wanted to help. She took her spoon to the table but she put
it under the table.
Now give your instructions re what they need to do to complete the exercise in pairs. Read the
story slowly, and then read it again at normal pace.
 Guide them through the exercise. Read each statement through. Ask them to tick the right
choice – on or under.
You can then build on this simple exercise as time goes on, e.g. increasing the number of
prepositions, removing the drawings, putting the questions in a random order so that they are
not sequenced in line with the story sequence etc.
You could involve the learners by getting one of them to do the actions, e.g. sitting on your
chair, crawling under your chair etc.
6. Language practice activities for enhancing form/structure
Here are some examples of activities, most of which have been discussed before in other units.
1. Story reading
2. Drilling
3. Cloze Activities
4. Questionnaires, surveys and quizzes
5. Information gap activities - a worksheet activity where learners work out missing and different
information that each have on their worksheet.
6. Intentional little chats with individual learners to check their progress and give corrective
feedback on the spot
7. Projects. For example, if you are using an excellent story book such as The Very Hungry
Caterpillar you could extend this into project work and keep caterpillars in the classroom. The
opportunities for grammatical work would be immense, e.g. Alejandra, your caterpillar is big.
But, look, Pablo’s is bigger.
Back to top

Teaching grammar to older young learners

2. Teaching grammar to older young learners
As mentioned before, we hesitate to name an age range as all children are unique and cultural
approaches to learning grammar vary.
But to help you, some would say that grammar learning and metalanguage are best left until
children are aged about 8 or 9 years old. So, this section focuses on these older young
learners from 8-9 up to the age of 12 or so.
If they are ready for it, you can start to introduce some language analysis and some
metalanguage.
1. Key points
1. Everything we have said above for younger young learners applies to older young learners.
Similar activities can be used but they will be a bit more in-depth and a bit more complex. So,
continue to use activities such as:
1. Rhymes
2. Chats with individual learners and groups – and discussions amongst themselves
3. Some drilling
4. Cloze activities
5. Questionnaires and surveys
6. Information gap activities
7. Presentations
8. Fun activities and games for motivation and learning
2. Gradually, for older young learners it will be possible to introduce some explicit activities which
focus on separating grammar for study. If a set curriculum is not prescribed by the school
organisation, you need to decide when to do this. You’ll know it’s time to do it when your
older young learners show an active interest in grammar forms such as: Why is it that eat
becomes ate but beat doesn’t become bate?
3. Ensure you are aware of what grammar they have learned and are learning in their first
language and make yourself aware of what metalanguage they know. Don’t overdo this. Of
course, sometimes it may be necessary to introduce some of these words.
4. Generally, they should be ready for work on some tenses and punctuation and may be ready for
some self-correcting.
5. Also, they should enjoy puzzles and crosswords where they can start to discover some basic
grammar rules for themselves, e.g. most nouns are formed in the plural with adding –s or –
es but other groups make the plural in different ways.
6. They may be ready for creating basic sentences with models, e.g. Pronoun + Verb + Noun, e.g . I
like apples or Pronoun + Verb + Adjective + Noun, e.g. I like green apples.
Remember this: Always think: How can I make this easier for them to grasp? So, for example,
you could give all the word classes a different colour.
To make it more challenging, you could mix up the order of the words and your learners have to
rearrange them to the order of the model.
7. Fun grammar activities are important for older young learners, so include puzzles where
students are encouraged to discover grammar rules for themselves, e.g. describing differences
between two pictures, which can be used to practise prepositions. Also use some of the
grammar activities we will explore later, adapting them accordingly.
8. As with all learning, recycling is critical for success. To embed words and meanings in their
memory banks and recall them when they need them is dependent on lots of factors,
particularly the number of times they hear and come across a word (frequency). This is language
recycling: meeting and using a word several times so that eventually it is remembered and
recalled naturally.
Learning grammar can be a tricky business for older young learners. It needs a lot of meaningful
practice, recycling and guidance in attending to language form.
Back to top

Teaching grammar to teenagers

3. Teaching grammar to teenagers
The sections above have focussed on young learners up to about age 12. Young teenagers up
to age 16 to 17 or so will continue their progress in grammar in the school environment, doing
more of the type of study we have cited for the older young learners but at a more complex
level.
Some will continue to progress during the period, so for that group there’s not much to add in
terms of grammar input. It will be a continuation of the grammar syllabus.
Sometimes, though, this group can be a bit challenging, often because the learners have
reached a plateau or because some of them act as if they are a bit ‘too cool for school’ and
they lack interest in learning grammar.
 Here’s what to do to make your grammar input more interesting, particularly with those
who are struggling a bit or are a bit disenchanted with grammar:
1. Avoid using metalanguage
Instead, you could say, for example: Let’s look at another way of describing things you’ll be
doing tomorrow by using an –ing word (i.e. am going to)
2. Empathise with them
Tell them you also had struggles with some aspects of grammar when you were younger. But,
with a bit of extra effort, you came through. And look at you now!
Remind them, from time to time, how useful grammar is for writing blogs and stories that
others will admire, for passing examinations (not only in English), for helping them in later years
when they may wish to travel or work in an English-speaking country, and so on.
3. Play to their interests as much as possible
Make a huge effort to find out what they really like. It may be watching action movies, or soccer
or fashion programmes on video. Catch their interest.
Then it’s easier to introduce some grammatical aspect by stopping the video at one or two
specific parts, to ask, for example, why the character made two similar meaning statements but
used different words for each statement.
4. Add in a bit of controlled competitiveness
Always do the competitive grammar activity in pairs or groups, so that students are not alone
and may feel embarrassed if they can’t find the solution. Put time limits on these types of
activities to heighten the tension. The activity shouldn’t be complicated in any way.
Using the am going to example above, it could be:
I’m going to give out a sheet to each group. On the sheet you’ll see the words will and won
’t several times. Put in am going to or am not going to in place of will or won’t. Be careful.
There may be some parts where you can’t do this. (For example, the text may include the
construction Will you come back tomorrow?)
One person in each group must put their hand up when their group has finished the exercise
and checked it all over. Remember, it needs to be correct to get points added for your end-of-
term group prize. If it’s not fully correct, no points. I’ll then pass it to the second group to
have a go at getting points for the prize. Are you ready?
Remember this: When doing this type of competitive activity, ensure that it’s not the same
group that wins all of the time. You may have to change the groups around from time to time
to achieve a better balance, but you wouldn’t tell them the reason for this.
5. Inspire them by giving them more autonomy
For example:
 Let them do the dictionary work to find synonyms they can use in a passage.
 On occasions, ask those who have grasped a concept to help teach those who haven’t.
 Sometimes, let them choose the video they want to watch or the story they want to read (say,
from a choice of three). With lots of effort beforehand, you will have chosen areas of grammar
in each of the three items that you want to major on.
6. Make it fun
Use lots of games to keep up their interest such as snakes and ladders where they pick up cards
you have prepared and they have to decide whether the sentence is correct or not if they are to
move up the board.
Again, give the groups some autonomy in deciding what’s correct or not, but you need to be
moving around, monitoring and listening to ensure they’ve got it right.
Back to top

Teaching grammar to adults

4. Teaching grammar to adults
In this section, we focus on the older teenager as a young adult, and adults themselves.
Our key focus is not on the grammar items you will cover, because these may very much be the
same as we have discussed for older young learners above.
So, what is our key focus? It’s to ensure you have the best practices and approaches in place
for meeting the needs of this diverse group.
This adult class will be a diverse group, diverse in educational background (and therefore
competency), age, employment history and culture.
They will have different goals for attending your English class. Some may be immigrants who
need to grasp English quickly if they are to secure a job and some may be young adults who
need this learning to help them secure entry to college or a vocational programme.
Some may be adults who need this additional learning for their job and some may be young or
older adults who want to travel, work overseas or just want to learn English as it’s good to
have. There may be other goals.
The challenge is evident. How do you satisfy the grammar needs of a diverse group with diverse
goals? There is no easy answer to this. However, the challenge is lessened for you due to one
key characteristic of this group.
All of the learners in your group have a desire to succeed in learning English. Otherwise, why
would they be there?
So, they will be motivated. This is a huge plus point. So, what remains to be resolved is deciding
on the best practices and approaches to meet their needs.
Here’s what you need to do:
1. Don’t assume adults are competent in grammar.
Remember this: Do not fall into the trap of thinking that teaching young and older adults will be
easier because they will have made more progress in grammar learning before you have met up
with them. It might be the case on some occasions; however, there is no guarantee.
Some may not be any more competent in grammar than a young learner.
2. Don’t worry about the level.
When you are teaching grammar to young and older adults, all of the above information about
young learners and teenagers is wholly relevant. The key differences will be that there will likely
be more explicit sessions on grammar and you will be helping them to be much more
autonomous, identifying and fixing the errors themselves where possible.
And with all the work you have completed during this course, you’ll be armed and dangerous,
ready to handle any query about the Present Perfect Continuous or Phrasal Verbs.
3. Do a needs analysis.
This is imperative.
A needs analysis is a process of finding out what needs a learner has. Don’t make this into a
big formal event. Do it informally. You could do it during your first meeting with the class or an
individual where you explain that you need to find out their purpose for attending your class.
 What you’re trying to find out is:
1. What are the learner’s communicative competence needs at present?
Whilst chatting, think about questions such as:
 How good is her use of English at present?
 What aspects of her English need to be improved to get her to the target situation?
 What are her grammar needs?
2. What are the learner’s communicative needs in terms of her goal for learning English?
Ask directly, questions such as:
 When you go to college next year, what do you have to do in English?
 When you’re at work, what do you have to do in English?
Later, analyse, identify and decide what needs to done, via your teaching, to get the learners to
their desired situation in the future.
4. Help them to become grammar detectives.
In general, young adults and adults will be able to handle concepts much easier than young
learners. This is a key difference between adult and younger learner classes.
Because of their adult ability to handle concepts, you can introduce them to some concepts
directly, whilst using the appropriate metalanguage. By doing so, all of this will save time and
get them faster to their goals. They will appreciate your plan.
Your aim is not just to introduce them to concepts: it is to ensure they can put these into
practice.
Let’s explore 4 concepts that are critical in the grammar classroom. They relate to words and
their positions and functions in a sentence. By understanding what these are, your adult learners
can quickly become grammar detectives.
They will better and faster understand word classes, word order and the nature of words
themselves.
If you ensure that they are fully au fait with the terminology and meaning of these concepts,
you’ll be off to an excellent start. These concepts are:
 Meaning
 Form
 Framework
 Function
If adult learners understand these terms, it will make their grammar learning easier. Not only
that, it will involve them in analysing a sentence and working out themselves where something
may have gone wrong. They will be able to self-correct, to a degree. Adults enjoy and get great
benefit from this technique.
1. Meaning
This seems easy. But it’s not that easy. Words can have two meanings:
 A literal meaning - what the word normally means in everyday communication
 A meaning for the context it’s being used in
The literal and usual meaning of wet is something like this: not dry; covered in water or another
liquid, as in:
Examples
I slipped on the wet floor.
However, in the next sentence, the meaning of wet bears no resemblance to the meaning
above:
Come on, John, don’t be such a tiresome wet.
In the UK, wet is a disapproving term for someone who displays weak character and does not
express any forceful opinions. He ‘sits on the fence’ most of the time.
So, understanding meaning is crucial. But it’s not just dictionary definitions which help us to
know meaning. Grammar constructions help us to work out meanings by creating mental
images in our mind which help us to work out meaning.
For example, when reading John was a tiresome… and coming to the last part of the sentence,
we expect the sentence to finish with some kind of complement, some kind of explanation as to
who he was. In this case, it’s a wet.
We can then work out that the meaning of wet here is not the not-dry wet (adjective), but a
wet (noun), some kind of person. We know that it can’t be wet with the meaning not-dry, as
that wouldn’t make sense after the word a.
So, grammatical constructions help us to work out meaning. Grammar and meaning are
intertwined. If the adult learner understands this process, in many cases she will be able to
identify the meaning of a word from grammatical analysis.
2. Form
Form is what a word looks like, how it is structured, e.g. boy, boy’s in this sentence:
Example
The big boy took the small boy’s ball.
In our analysis, we can have a good go at working out that boy is a noun, not just because we
know its meaning. We know that nearly all nouns add endings in the plural and in possession,
so that’s a good clue to this being a noun.
We can add –s to boy and it still makes sense. We know too, for example that adjectives,
adverbs, determiners etc. don’t do this – they don’t add plural or possessive endings.
There are other ways to confirm this is a noun but these are not related to form, e.g. it
immediately precedes the verb, so it’s likely to be a noun or pronoun. Then we can eliminate
the pronoun forms, e.g. he, she, it. Yes, it’s a noun
Knowing all about form can help us work out what part a word is playing in a sentence.
3. Function
Function is another key element.
Function is what a word does in a sentence. Earlier, you will have taught them that nouns are
primarily subjects, objects and complements in a sentence. That is, the noun can function as a
subject, the object or the complement in a sentence. (It can function as other things too).
With this bit of knowledge, students can better analyse a sentence. Have a look at this
interesting sentence:
Example
The ugggawagga kicked a thnollanugga.
Even if they don’t know what an ugggawagga is, they can work it out its function from
analysis. They know that nouns commonly function as subjects, so this is likely to be a noun. It
can’t be a pronoun, as there is The before it.
Plus, the verb functions as a doing word and the shape of the verb tells us that
the ugggawagga is doing something, i.e., something is not being done to it. So, they can work
out that ugggawagga is functioning as the subject of the sentence and it is a noun.
4. Setting
In a sentence, words form a setting into which other words can fit.
If we recognise the setting, we have a good idea of what type of word can be placed in that
setting.
Examples
1. The/A/An ---------------- ate the apple.
We know that most nouns can fit after the, a, an. So, the word to complete the sentence is likely
to be a noun. It’s not a pronoun, verb, adjective etc. We could work out again that the missing
word is the subject due to the action word ate and the object word apple.
At this stage we don’t know if the noun is singular or plural. If we take away The, then we
know it’s singular. If we take away The and A, we know it’s singular and begins with a vowel.
In any case, we know it’s a noun that fits this frame.
2. The big boy ---------------the small boy’s ball.
If we are told that when this is completed it will be a sentence, then it’s easy. Into the frame
steps a verb. We don’t know which verb it is but we do know it is a verb because it can’t be a
sentence without a verb. We also know it’s a transitive verb because there is an object.
Encourage your adult students to become grammar detectives applying these four tests/tools in
order to work out word classes, to find what or who is doing what in the sentence, to find out
what’s wrong, and most of all to enable them to identify and repair errors on their own, where
possible.
5. Use games and drills sparingly.
Use games and drills sparingly with young adults and adult students. All of them are there to
achieve a goal within a time limit. Although you may see great benefit in these, some of your
students are unlikely to look at it the same way. This can have a dampening effect on the class
atmosphere.
You could use the odd game or two, so long as you carefully explain the end goal.
Many adults see drilling as a childish activity. You can often see a disgruntled look on some of
the faces. Why let this spoil the good atmosphere you have built up?
You’ll need to play this by ear. If you feel it’s right to introduce these techniques now and
again, then we’re sure it will work out fine.
Back to top

Unit 5: Questions
Descriptive grammar seeks to describe how language is actually used in the real world.

Check answer

Prescriptive rules are not important.

Check answer

Timelines are simple diagrams that can help learners see relationships between verb forms and
their time reference.
Check answer

There is a set format for making a timeline.

Check answer

It would be appropriate to teach grammar formally and explicitly to students under the age of,
say, 8-9 years old.

Check answer

Never teach grammar in isolation when teaching younger young learners.

Check answer

Language recycling is when a student meets and uses a word several times so that eventually it
is remembered and recalled naturally.

Check answer

When teenagers are struggling a bit, or are a bit disenchanted with grammar, use
metalanguage.

Check answer

A needs analysis is a process of finding out what needs a learner has.

Check answer

Function is what a word does in a sentence.

Check answer

Back to top