APPLIED LINGUISTICS READER AND WORKBOOK

Annex 1
Language Competence Indicators / Can-Do Statements1
TABLE 1
COMMON REFERENCE LEVELS: GLOBAL SCALE
Proficient User
C2 Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarise
information from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments and
accounts in a coherent presentation. Can express him/herself spontaneously, very fluently
and precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning even in more complex situations.
C1 Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognize implicit
meaning. Can express him/herself fluently and spontaneously without much obvious
searching for expressions. Can use language flexibly and effectively for social, academic
and professional purposes. Can produce clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex
subjects, showing controlled use of organizational patterns, connectors and cohesive
devices.

Independent User
B2 Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract topics,
including technical discussions in his/her field of specialization. Can interact with degree of
fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible
without strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects
and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of
various options.
B1 Can understand the main point of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly
encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise
whilst traveling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple connected
text on topics, which are familiar, or of personal interest. Can describe experiences and
events, dreams, hopes and ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for
opinions and plans.

Basic User
A2 Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most
immediate relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family information, shopping, local
geography, employment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and
direct exchange of information of familiar and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms
aspects of his/her background, immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate
need.
A1 Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed
at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and others and
can ask and answer questions about personal details such as where he/she lives, people
he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided the other
person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help.
TABLE 2
AREAS OF LANGUAGE USE
Domain

Locations

Institutions

Personal

Home: house, rooms, garden

Own

The family
Social networks

1 All material included in this section is from The Common European Framework for
Languages: Teaching, Learning and Assessment, produced by the Modern Languages
Division of the Council of Europe and Cambridge University Press, in 2001.

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Of family
Of friends
Of strangers
Own space in hostel, hotel
The countryside, seaside
Public

Public spaces:
Street, square, park
Public transport
Shops (super)markets
Hospitals, surgeries, clinics
Sports stadiums, fields, halls
Theatre, cinema, entertainment
Restaurant, pub, hotel
Places of worship

Public authorities
Political bodies
The law
Public health
Services clubs
Societies
Political parties
Denominations

Occupational

Offices
Factories
Workshops
Ports, railways
Farms
Airport
Stores, shops
Service industries
Hotels
Civic Service

Firms
Multinational
Corporations
Nationalised
Industries
Trade unions

Educational

Schools: hall
Classrooms, playground,
Sports fields, corridors
Colleges
Universities
Lecture theatres
Seminar rooms
Student Union
Halls of residence
Laboratories
Canteen

School
College
University
Learned societies
Professional
Institutions
Adult education
bodies

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TABLE 3
COMMUNICATIVE EVENTS
Family occasions
Encounters
Incidents, accidents
Natural phenomena
Parties, visits
Walking, cycling, motoring
Holidays, excursions
Sports events

Return to school/entry
Breaking up
Visits and exchanges
Parents days/evenings
Sports days, matches
Disciplinary problems

Incidents
Accidents, illnesses
Public meetings
Law-suits, court trials
Rag-days, fines, arrests
Matches, contests
Performances
Weddings, funerals

Meetings
Interviews
Receptions
Conferences
Trade fairs
Consultations
Seasonal sales
Industrial accidents and disputes

TABLE 4
TEXTS
Teletext
Guarantees
Recipes
Instructional material
Novels, magazines
Newspapers
Junk mail
Brochures
Personal letters
Broadcast and recorded

Business letter
Report memorandum
Life and safety notices
Instructional manuals
Regulations
Advertising material
Labeling and packaging
Job description
Sign posting
Visiting cards

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Public announcements and notices

Label and packaging
Leaflets, graffiti
Tickets, timetables
Notices, regulations
Programmes
Contracts
Menus
Sacred texts,
Sermons and hymns

Textbooks, readers
Reference books
Blackboard text
OP text
Computer screen text
Videotext
Exercise materials
Journal articles
Abstracts
Dictionaries

ILLUSTRATIVE SCALES FOR PRODUCTION2

TABLE 5
OVERALL ORAL PRODUCTION
C2 Can produce clear, smoothly flowing well-structured speech with an effective logical
structure which helps the recipient to notice and remember significant points.

2 Production strategies involve mobilizing resources, balancing between different competencesexploiting

strengths and underplaying weaknessesin order to mach the available potential to the nature of the task. Internal
resources will be activated, possibly involving conscious preparation (Rehearsing), possibly calculating the effect
of different styles, discourse structures or formulations (Considering audience), possibly looking things up or
obtaining assistance when dealing with a deficit (Locating resources). When adequate resources have not been
mobilized or located the language user may find it advisable to go for a more modest version of the task and, for
example, write a postcard rather than a letter; on the other hand, having located appropriate support, he or she may
choose to do the reversescaling up the task (Task adjustment). In a similar way, without sufficient resources the
learner/user may have to compromise what h or she would really like to express in order to mach the linguistic
means available; conversely, additional linguistic support, perhaps available later during re-drafting, may enable
him or her to be more ambitious in formatting and expressing his or her thoughts (Message adjustment). Was of
scaling down ambitions to fit resources in order to ensure success in a more limited area have been described as
Avoidance strategies; scaling up and finding ways to cope have been described as Achievement strategies. In
using achievement strategies the language user adopts a positive approach with what resources he or she has:
approximating and overgeneralising with simpler language, paraphrasing or describing aspects of what he or she
wants to say, even foreignising L1 (first language) expressions (Compensating); using highly accessible prefabricated language he or she feels sure ofislands of reliabilityto create stepping stones through what for the
user is a novel situation or concept he or she wants to express (Building on previous knowledge), or just having a
go with what he or she can half remember and thinks might work (Trying out). Whether or not the language user
is aware of compensating, skating over thin ice or using language tentatively, feedback in terms of facial
expression, gesture and subsequent moves in the conversation offer him or her the opportunity to monitor the
success of the communication (Monitoring success). In addition, particularly in non-interactive activities (e.g.
giving a presentation, writing a report) the language user may consciously monitor linguistically as well as
communicatively, spot slips and favourite mistakes and correct them (Self-correction).

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C1
Can give clear, detailed descriptions and presentations on complex subjects,
integrating sub-themes, developing particular points and rounding off with an appropriate
conclusion.
B2 Can give clear, systematically developed descriptions and presentations, with
appropriate highlighting of significant points, and relevant supporting detail.Can give
clear, detailed descriptions and presentations on a wide range of subjects, related to
his/her field of interest, expanding and supporting ideas with subsidiary points and
relevant examples.
B1 Can reasonably fluently sustain a straightforward description of one of a variety of
subjects within his/her field of interest, presenting it as a linear sequence of points.
A2 Can give a simple description or presentation of people, living or working conditions,
daily routines, likes/dislikes, etc. as a short series of simple phrases and sentences linked
into a list.
A1 Can produce simple mainly phrases about people and places.
TABLE 6
OVERALL WRITTEN PRODUCTION
C2 Can write clear, smoothly flowing, complex texts in an appropriate and effective style
and a logical structure which helps the reader to find significant points.
C1 Can write clear, well-structured texts of complex subjects, underlining the relevant
salient issues, expanding and supporting points of view at some length with subsidiary
points, reasons and relevant examples, and rounding off with an appropriate conclusion.
B2 Can write clear, detailed texts on a variety of subjects related to his/her field of interest,
synthesizing and evaluating information and arguments from a number of sources.
B1 Can write straightforward connected texts on a range of familiar subjects within his
field of interest, by linking a series of shorter discrete elements into a linear sequence.
A2 Can write a series of simple phrases and sentences linked with simple connectors like
and, but and because.
A1 Can write simple isolated phrases and sentences.

ILLUSTRATIVE SCALES FOR COMPREHENSION / RECEPTION3

TABLE 7
OVERALL LISTENING COMPREHENSION
C2 Has no difficulty in understanding any kind of spoken language, whether live or
broadcast, delivered at fast native speed.
C1 Can understand enough to follow extended speech on abstract and complex topics
beyond his/her own field, though he/she may need to confirm occasional details, especially
if the accent is unfamiliar. Can recognize a wide range of idiomatic expressions and
colloquialisms, appreciating register shifts. Can follow extended speech even when it is not
clearly structured and when relationships are only implied and not signaled explicitly.
B2 Can understand spoken language, live or broadcast, on both familiar and unfamiliar

Reception strategies involve identifying the context and knowledge of the world relevant to it,
activating in the process what are thought to be appropriate schemata. These in turn set up expectations
about the organisation and content of what is to come (Framing). During the process of receptive
activity cues identified in the total context (linguistic and non-linguistic) and the expectations in relation
to that context set up by the relevant schemata are used to build up a representation of the meaning
being expressed and a hypothesis as to the communicative intention behind it. Through a process of
successive approximation, apparent and possible gaps in the message are filled in order to flesh out
representation of meaning, and the significance of the message and of its constituent parts are worked
out (Inferring). The gaps filled through inference may be caused by linguistic restriction, difficult
receptive conditions, lack of associated knowledge, or by assumed familiarity, obliqueness,
understatement or phonetic reduction on the part of the speaker/writer. The viability of the current
model arrived at through this process is checked against the evidence of the incoming co-textual and
contextual cues to see if they fit the activated schemathe way one is interpreting the situation
(Hypothesis testing). An identified mismatch leads to a return to step one (Framing) in the search for an
alternative schema which would better explain the incoming cues (Revising Hypotheses).

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topics normally encountered in personal, social, academic or vocational life. Only extreme
background noise, inadequate discourse structure and/or idiomatic usage influences the
ability to understand. Can understand the main ideas of propositionally and linguistically
complex speech on both concrete and abstract topics delivered in a standard dialect,
including technical discussions in his/her field of specialisation. Follow extended speech
and complex lines of argument provided the topic is reasonably familiar, and the direction
of the talk is sign-posted by explicit markers.
B1 Can understand straightforward factual information about common everyday or job
related topics, identifying both general messages and specific details, provided speech is
clearly articulated in a generally familiar accent. Can understand the main points of clear
standard speech on familiar matters regularly encountered in work school, leisure etc.,
including short narratives.
A2 Can understand enough to be able to meet of a concrete type provided speech is
clearly and slowly articulated. Can understand phrases and expressions related to areas of
most immediate priority (e.g. very basic personal and family information, shopping, local
geography, employment) provided speech is clearly and slowly articulated.
A1 Can follow speech which is very slow carefully articulated, with long pauses for him/her
to assimilate meaning.
TABLE 8
OVERALL READING COMPREHENSION
C2 Can understand and interpret critically virtually all forms of the written language
including abstract, structurally complex, or highly colloquial literary and non-literary
writings. Can understand a wide range of long and complex texts, appreciating subtle
distinctions of style and implicit as well as explicit meaning.
C1 Can understand in detail lengthy, complex texts, whether or not they relate to his/her
own area of speciality, provided he/she can reread difficult sections.
B2 Can read with a large degree of independence, adapting style and speed of reading to
different texts and purposes, and using appropriate reference sources selectively. Has a
broad active reading vocabulary, but may experience some difficulty with low frequency
idioms.
B1 Can read straightforward factual texts on subjects related to his/her field and interest
with a satisfactory level of comprehension.
A2 Can understand short, simple texts on familiar matters of a concrete type which
consist of high frequency everyday or job-related language.
Can understand short, simple texts containing the highest frequency vocabulary, including
a proportion of shared international vocabulary items.
A1 Can understand very short, simple texts a single phrase at a time, picking up familiar
names, words and basic phrases and rereading as required.
The Common European Framework of Reference also deals with to interactive activities and strategies for
both spoken and written interaction.
SPOKEN INTERACTION
In interactive activities the language user acts alternately as speaker and listener with one or more
interlocutors so as to construct conjointly, through the negotiation of meaning following the co-operative
principle, conversational discourse.
Reception and production strategies are employed constantly during interaction. There are also classes of
cognitive and collaborative strategies (also called discourse strategies and co-operation strategies)
concerned with managing co-operation and interaction such as turn-taking and turn-giving, framing the issue
and establishing a line of approach, proposing and evaluating solutions, recapping and summarizing the
point reached, and mediating in a conflict.
Examples of interactive activities include:

transactions

casual conversation

informal discussion

formal discussion

debate

interview

negotiation

co-planning

practical goal-oriented co-operation

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Illustrative scales are provided for:

Overall spoken interaction

Understanding a native speaker interlocutor

Conversation

Informal discussion

Formal discussion and meetings

Goal-oriented co-operation

Transactions to obtain goods and services

Information exchange

Interviewing and being interviewed

Below, find examples of illustrative scales for overall spoken interaction:
TABLE 9
OVERAL SPOKEN INTERACTION
C2 Has a good command of idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms with awareness of
connotative levels of meaning. Can convey finer shades of meaning precisely by using,
with reasonable accuracy, a wide range of modification devices. Can backtrack and
restructure around a difficulty so smoothly the interlocutor is hardly aware of it.
C1 Can express him/herself fluently and spontaneously, almost effortlessly. Has good
command of a broad lexical repertoire allowing gaps to be readily overcome with
circumlocutions. There is little obvious searching for expressions or avoidance strategies;
only a conceptually difficult subject can hinder a natural, smooth flow of language.
B2 Can use the language fluently, accurately and effectively on a wide range of general,
academic, vocational or leisure topics, marking clearly the relationships between ideas.
Can communicate spontaneously with good grammatical control without much sign of
having to restrict what he/she wants to say, adopting a level of formality appropriate to the
circumstances. Can interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular
interaction, and sustained relationships with native speakers quite possible without
imposing strain on either party. Can highlight the personal significance of events and
experiences, account for and sustain views clearly by providing relevant explanations and
arguments.
B1 Can communicate with some confidence on familiar routine and non-routine matters
related to his/her interests and professional field. Can exchange, check and confirm
information, deal with less routine situations and explain why something is a problem.
Can express thoughts on more abstract, cultural topics such as films, books, music etc.
Can exploit a wide range of simple language to deal with most situations likely to arise
whilst traveling. Can enter unprepared into conversation on familiar topics, express
personal opinions and exchange information on topics that are familiar, of personal
interest or pertinent to everyday life (e.g. family, hobbies, work, travel and current events).
A2 Can interact with reasonable ease in structured situations and short conversations,
provided the other person helps if necessary. Can manage simple, routine exchanges
without undue effort; can ask and answer questions and exchange ideas and information
on familiar topics in predictable everyday situations. Can communicate in simple and
routine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine
matters to do with work and free time. Can handle very short social exchanges but is
rarely able to understand enough to keep conversation going of his/her own accord.
A1 Can interact in a simple way communication is totally dependent on repetition at a
slower rate of speech, rephrasing and repair. Can ask and answer simple questions,
initiate and respond to simple statements in areas of immediate need or on very familiar
topics.
WRITTEN INTERACTION
Interaction through the medium of written language includes such activities as:

passing and exchanging notes, memos, etc. when spoken interaction is impossible and
inappropriate;

correspondence by letter, fax, e-mail, etc.;

negotiating the text of agreements, contracts, communiqus, etc. by reformulating and exchanging
drafts, amendments, proof corrections, etc.;

participating in on-line or off-line computer conferences.

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Face-to-face interaction may of course involve a mixture of media: spoken, written, audio-visual,
paralinguistic (see section 4.4.5.2) and paratextual (see 4.4.5.3).
With the increasing sophistication of computer software, interactive machine communication is coming to
play an ever more important part in the public, occupational, educational and even personal domains.
Illustrative scales are provided for:

overall written interaction

correspondence

notes, messages and forms

Below, find examples of illustrative scales for overall spoken and written interaction:
TABLE 10
OVERALL WRITTEN INTERACTION
C2 As C1
C1 Can express him/herself with clarity and precision, relating to the addressee flexibly
and effectively.
B2 Can express news and views effectively in writing, and relate to those of others.
B1 Can convey information and ideas on abstract as well as concrete topics, check
information and ask about or explain problems with reasonable precision. Can write
personal letters and notes asking for or conveying simple information of immediate
relevance, getting across the point he/she feels to be important.
A2 Can write short, simple formulaic notes relating to matters in areas of immediate need.
A1 Can ask for or pass on personal details in written form.
INTERACTION STRATEGIES
Interaction encompasses both receptive and productive activity as well as activity unique to the construction
of joint discourse and therefore all reception strategies and all production strategies mentioned above are
also involved in interaction. However, the fact that spoken interaction entails the collective creation of
meaning by the establishment of some degree of common mental context, defining what can be taken as
given, working out where people are coming from, converging towards each other or defining and
maintaining a comfortable distance, usually in real time, means that in addition to receptive and productive
strategies there is a class of strategies exclusive to interaction concerned with the management of this
process. In addition, the fact that interaction is primarily face to face tends to provide far greater redundancy
both in textual, linguistic terms and with regard to paralinguistic features, contextual cues, all of which can be
made more or less elaborate, more or less explicit to the extent that the constant monitoring of the process
by the participants indicates that this is appropriate.
Planning for spoken interaction involves the activation of schemata or a praxeogram (i.e. a diagram
representing the structure of communicative interaction) of the exchanges possible and probable in the
forthcoming activity (Framing) and consideration of the communicative distance from other interlocutors
(Identifying information/opinion gap; Judging what can be taken as given) in order to decide on options and
prepare possible moves in those exchanges (Planning moves). During the activity itself, language users
adopt turn-taking strategies in order to obtain the discourse initiative (Taking the floor), to cement the
collaboration in the task and keep the discussion on course (Co-operating: interpersonal), to help mutual
understanding and maintain a focused approach to the task at hand (Co-operating: ideational), and so that
they themselves can ask for assistance in formulating something (Asking for Help). As with Planning,
Evaluation takes place at a communicative level: judging the fit between the schemata thought to apply,
and what is actually happening (Monitoring: schemata, praxeogram) and the extent to which things are
going the way one wants them to go (monitoring: effect, success); miscomprehension or intolerable
ambiguity leads to requests for clarification which may be on a communicative or linguistic level (Asking for,
giving clarification), and to active intervention to re-establish communication and clear up misunderstandings
when necessary (Communication Repair).
Planning

framing (selecting praxeogram)

identifying information/opinion gap (felicity conditions)

judging what can be presupposed

planning moves
Execution

taking the floor

co-operating (interpersonal)

co-operating (ideational)

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dealing with the unexpected

asking for help

Evaluation

monitoring (schema, praxeogram)

monitoring (effect, success)

Repair

asking for clarification

giving clarification

communication repair
Illustrative scales are provided in the Common European Framework for:

taking the floor;

co-operating;

asking for clarification.

Below is an example of the illustrative scales for Taking the floor:
TABLE 11
TAKING THE FLOOR (TURNTAKING)
C2 As C1
C1 Can select a suitable phrase from a readily available range of discourse functions to
preface his/her remarks appropriately in order to get the floor, or to gain time and keep the floor
whilst thinking.
B2 Can intervene appropriately in discussion, exploiting appropriate language to do so. Can
initiate, maintain and end discourse appropriately with effective turntaking.
Can initiate discourse, take his/her turn when appropriate and end conversation when he/she
needs to, though he/she may not always do this elegantly. Can use stock phrases (e.g. Thats
a difficult question to answer) to gain time and keep the turn whilst formulating what to say.
B1 Can intervene in a discussion on a familiar topic, using a suitable phrase to get the floor.
Can initiate, maintain and close simple, face-to-face conversation on topics that are familiar or
for personal interest.
A2 Can use simple techniques to start, maintain, or end a short conversation. Can initiate,
maintain and close simple, face-to-face conversation. Can ask for attention
A1 No descriptor available.
Communication also involves mediating activities and strategies, which are described in the Common
European Framework as follows:
In mediating activities, the language user is not concerned to express his/her own meanings, but simply to
act as an intermediary between interlocutors who are unable to understand each other directlynormally
(but not exclusively) speakers of different languages. Examples of mediating activities include spoken
interpretation and written translation as well as summarizing and paraphrasing texts in the same language,
when the language of the original text is not understandable to the intended recipient e.g.:
Oral mediation

simultaneous interpretation (conferences, meetings, formal speeches, etc.);

consecutive interpretation (speeches of welcome, guided tours, etc.);

informal interpretation:
of foreign visitors in own country
of native speakers when abroad
in social and transactional situations for friends, family, clients, foreign guests, etc.
of signs, menus, notices, etc.
Written mediation

exact translation (e.g. of contracts, legal and scientific texts, etc.);

literary translation (novels, drama, poetry, libretti, etc.);
summarizing gist (newspaper and magazine articles, etc.) within L2 or between L1 and L2;
paraphrasing (specialized texts for lay persons, etc.).

Mediation strategies reflect ways of coping with the demands of using finite resources to process information
and establish equivalent meaning. The process may involve some pre-planning to organize and maximize
resources (Developing background knowledge; Locating supports; Preparing a glossary) as well as

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consideration of how to tackle the task at hand (Considering the interlocutors needs; Selecting the size of
interpretation unit). During the process of interpretation, glossing, or translation, the mediator needs to look
ahead at what is coming next whilst formulating what has just been said, generally juggling with two different
chunks or interpretation units simultaneously (previewing). He or she needs to note ways of expressing
things to extend his or her glossary (Noting possibilities, equivalences), and to construct islands of reliability,
(prefabricated chinks) which free up processing capacity for previewing. On the other hand he or she also
needs to use techniques to skate over uncertainty and avoid breakdownwhilst maintaining previewing
(Bridging gaps). Evaluation takes place at a communicative level (Checking congruence) and at a linguistic
level (Checking consistency of usage) and, certainly with written translation, leads to repair through
consultation of reference works and people knowledgeable in the field concerned (refining by consulting
dictionaries, thesaurus; consulting experts, sources).

Planning
Developing background knowledge;
Locating supports;
Preparing a glossary;
Considering interlocutors needs;
Selecting unit of interpretation.

Execution
Previewing: processing input and formulating the last chunk simultaneously in real time;
Noting possibilities, equivalences;
Bridging gaps.

Evaluation
Checking congruence of two versions;
Checking consistency of usage.

Repair
Refining by consulting dictionaries, thesaurus;
Consulting experts, sources.
Finally, the Common European Framework also describes activity involved in non-verbal communication
Practical actions accompanying language activities (normally face-to-face oral activities) include:

pointing, e.g. by finger, hand, glance, nod. These actions are used with deictics for the
identification of objects, persons, etc., such as, Can I have that one? No, not that one, that one;

demonstration, accompanying deictics and simple present verbs and pro-verbs, such as, I take this
and fix it here, like this. Now you do the same!;

clearly observable actions, which can be assumed as known in narrative, comment, orders, etc.,
such as, Dont do that!, Well done there!, Oh no, hes dropped it!. In all these cases, the
utterance is un-interpretable unless the action is perceived.
Paralinguistics includes:
Body language. Paralinguistic body language differs from practical actions accompanied by language in that
it carries conventionalized meanings, which may well differ from one culture to another. For example, the
following are used in many European countries:

gesture (e.g. shaken first for protest);

facial expression (e.g. smile or scowl);

posture (e.g. slump for despair or sitting forward for keen interest);

eye contact (e.g. a conspiratorial wink or a disbelieving stare);

body contact (e.g. kiss or handshake);

proxemics (e.g. standing close or aloof).

Use of extra-linguistic speech-sounds. Such sounds (or syllables) are paralinguistic in that they carry
conventionalised meanings but lie outside the regular phonological system of a language, for example, (in
English):
sh requesting silence
s-s-s expressing public disapproval
ugh
expressing disgust
humph
expressing disgruntlement
tut, tut
expressing polite disapproval
Prosodic qualities. He use of these qualities is paralinguistic if they carry conventionalized meanings (e.g.
related to attitudes and states of mind), but fall outside the regular phonological system in which prosodic
features of length, tone, stress may play a part, for example:
voice quality
(gruff, breathy, piercing, etc.)
pitch
(growling, whining, screaming, etc.)
loudness
(whispering, murmuring, shouting, etc.)

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length

(e.g. ve-e-e-ery good!)

Many paralinguistic effects are produced by combinations of pitch, length, loudness and voice quality.
Paralinguistic communication should be carefully distinguished from developed sign languages, which fall
outside the present scope of CEF, though experts in that field may find many of its concepts and categories
relevant to their concerns.
Paratextual features: a similarly paralinguistic role is played in relation to written texts by such devices as:

illustrations (photographs, drawings, etc.)

charts, tables, diagrams, figures, etc.

typographic features (fonts, pitch, spacing, underlining, layout, etc.)

Finally, the Common European Framework describes communicative language processes:
To act as a speaker, writer, listener or reader, the learner must be able to carry out a sequence of skilled
actions.
To speak, the learner must be able to:

plan and organize a message (cognitive skills);

formulate a linguistic utterance (linguistic skills);

articulate the utterance (phonetic skills).

To write, the learner must be able to:

organise and formulate the message (cognitive and linguistic skills);

hand-write or type the text (manual skills) or otherwise transfer the text to writing.
To listen, the learner must be able to:

perceive the utterance (auditory phonetic skills);

identify the linguistic message (linguistic skills);
understand the message (semantic skills);
interpret the message (cognitive skills).

To read, the reader must be able to:

perceive the written text (visual skills);

recognise the script (orthographic skills);
identify the message (linguistic skills);
understand the message (semantic skills);
interpret the message (cognitive skills).

The observable stages of these processes are well understood. Others (events in the central nervous
system) are not. The following analysis, provided in the Common European Framwrork, is intended to
identify some parts of the process relevant to the development of language proficiency.
Planning
The selection, interrelation and co-ordination of components of general and communicative language
competences (see Chapter 5) to be brought to bear on the communicative event in order to accomplish the
user/learners communicative intentions.
Execution
Production, the process of which involves two components:
The formulation component takes the output from the planning component and assembles it into linguistic
for. This involves lexical, grammatical, phonological (and in the case of writing, orthographic) processes
which are distinguishable and appear (e.g. in cases of dysphasia) to have some degree of independence but
whose exact interrelation is not fully understood.
The articulation component organizes the motor innervations of the vocal apparatus to convert the output of
the phonological processes into co-ordinated movements of the speech organs to produce a train of speech
waves constituting the spoken utterance, or alternatively the motor innervations of the musculature of the
hand to produce hand-written or typewritten text.

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APPLIED LINGUISTICS READER AND WORKBOOK

Reception, the process of which involves four steps which, while they take place in linear sequence (bottomup), are constantly updated and reinterpreted (top-down) in the light or real world knowledge, schematic
expectations and new textual understanding in a subconscious interactive process.

the perception of speech and writing: sound/character and word recognition (cursive and print);

the identification of the text, complete or partial, as relevant;

the semantic and cognitive understanding of the text as a linguistic entity;

the interpretation of the message in context.

The skills involved include:

perceptual skills;

memory;

decoding skills;

inferencing;

predicting;

imagination;

rapid scanning;

referring back and forth.

Comprehension, especially of written texts, can be assisted by the proper use of aids, including reference
materials such as:

dictionaries (monolingual and bilingual);

thesauruses;

pronunciation dictionaries;

electronic dictionaries, grammars, spell-checkers and other aids;

reference grammars.
Interaction
The processes involved in spoken interaction differ from a simple succession of speaking and listening
activities in a number of ways:

productive and receptive processes overlap. Whilst the interlocutors utterance, still incomplete, is
being processed, the planning of the users response is initiatedon the basis of a hypothesis as
to its nature, meaning and interpretation.

Discourse is cumulative. As an interaction proceeds, the participants converge in their readings of

a situation, develop expectations and focus on relevant issues. These processes are reflected in
the form of the utterances produced.
In written interaction (e.g. a correspondence by letter, fax, e-mail, etc.) the processes of reception and
production remain distinct (though electronic interaction, e.g. via the Internet, is becoming ever closer to real
time interaction). The effects of cumulative discourse are similar to those for spoken interaction.

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