Batangas State University

College of Engineering, Architecture and Fine Arts

Civil and Sanitary Engineering Department

SE 402
ENVIRONMENTAL AND SANITARY
CHEMISTRY

Engr. Marvin S. Benedicto

Engr. Danica Marie B. Mercado
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

SE402-ENVIRONMENTAL AND SANITARY CHEMISTRY 4

Course Rationale and Description 4

Intended Learning Outcomes 4

Assessment Criteria 4

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL AND SANITARY CHEMISTRY 4

Introduction 4

Topic Outcomes 5

Overview and importance of environmental chemistry 5

Ecosystems considerations 6

Global water and element cycles 8

Water Cycle 9

Module Exercise No. 1 11

MATTER, ENERGY AND LIFE 12

Introduction 12

Topic Outcomes 13

The Chemical and Biological Foundations of Life 13

The Structure of the Atom 14

Molecules 16

Isotopes 16

Basic concepts from General 16

Distillation 19

Three fundamentals laws of chemistry 19

Law of conservation of mass 19

Law of definite composition 20

Law of multiple proportions 20

 Conclusion 21

Module Exercise No. 2 21

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER 22

Introduction 22

Physical Characteristics of water 22

Temperature 22

Color 22

Turbidity 23

Taste and Odor 23

Chemical Characteristics of water 24

Calcium 24

Magnesium 24

Water Hardness 24

Iron 25

Manganese 26

pH 26

Heavy metals 27

Cadmium 28

Chromium 28

Zinc 30

Lead 31

Copper 31

Sulfates 32

Nitrogen Content 34

Phosphates 35

Fluoride 36
SE402-ENVIRONMENTAL AND SANITARY CHEMISTRY

Course Rationale and Description

The course focuses on the fundamentals of physical and chemical analysis of water and
sewage treatment processes. It also deals with the study of chemical principles of environmental
pollution. The course is designed with laboratory activities involving demonstration, exercises and
studies related to water and sewage analysis; principles of organic and biochemistry and
chemistry of environmental pollution.

Intended Learning Outcomes

1. Discuss and describe the basic concepts of water and wastewater chemistry including
physical and chemical characteristics of water and their significance, applicable analyses
and treatment processes.
2. Perform water and wastewater analyses such as experiments for Color, turbidity,
Biochemical oxygen demand, Dissolved oxygen, Nitrogen, Fluorides, Chlorides and other
water quality indicators or parameters.
3. Apply the principles of chemistry in the design and operation of water and wastewater
treatment processes, identify and solve through chemistry environmental problems that
will require engineering solutions.

Assessment Criteria

Midterm Examination
50%
Final Examination
Pre-laboratory report 10%
Laboratory report 20%
Peer Assessment 5%
Reflective Journal/ Assignments/
15%
Seatworks/ Quizzes

1. INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL AND SANITARY CHEMISTRY

1.1. Introduction
The course address the environmental chemistry of the hydrosphere, discusses the
fundamental properties of water, properties of bodies of water, and basic aquatic chemistry,
including acid base behavior, phase interactions, oxidation-reduction, chelation. Moreover it
introduces the atmosphere and atmospheric chemistry, including the key concept of
photochemistry. Inorganic air pollutants, including nitrogen and sulfur dioxides, carbon monoxide,
and carbon dioxide. The course deals with soil and discuss anthrospheric aspects of
environmental chemistry.

1.2. Topic Outcomes

By the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
1. Describe, at an introductory level, the concepts of environmental chemistry and
sanitary chemistry
2. Enumerate the importance of environmental chemistry.
3. Fostering knowledge on how living organisms interact with each other and their
surroundings.

1.3. Overview and importance of environmental chemistry

Environmental chemistry is a multidisciplinary study of chemical, biological, and
integrated processes of the environment at large. The natural environment includes components
of air, water, soil and land, as well as biota found in those compartments. The man-made
environment is represented by human settlements consisting of physical elements. The complex
interactions that occur between the natural and physical environments are key to defining the
broad definition of environmental chemistry, and vital for understanding the larger context of
environmental science. Its scope is considerable, ultimately encompassing targeted areas of
study including atmospheric chemistry, biogeochemistry, chemical toxicology, marine chemistry,
soil and sediment chemistry, water chemistry, astrochemistry, fire chemistry, chemistry of energy,
Earth and geochemistry, and climate change.
 Environmental chemistry draws on a myriad of concepts from chemistry, biology, statistics,
geology, and environmental science to assist in defining the
sources, reactions, transport, effects, and fates of chemical Environmental matrices
species in various environmental matrices. are surrounding substances
At the watershed scale, for example, phosphorus in which elements or
export from both point and non-point sources can result in
chemical compounds of
interest originate, or are
increased primary production and eutrophication – the over
contained.
enrichment of aquatic ecosystems leading to algal blooms and
anoxic events.

1.4. Ecosystems considerations

A closer examination of the term environment reveals Point source pollution is
discharged from an
both biological (biotic) and physical (abiotic) factors that affect
identifiable point, including
living organisms on earth. The environment can be subdivided
pipes, outfalls, and
into functional units termed ecosystems, where dynamic municipal and industrial
interactions between plants, animals, microorganisms, and treatment processes.
abiotic factors (e.g., soil, water, nutrients, and light) exist. The
global sum of all ecosystems is referred to as the biosphere, one of four separate components of
the geosphere, the other three being lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. A related
term, biome, is an extensive area comprising many similar ecosystems and characterized by
dominant biological communities. Biomes can be grouped into eight major types: freshwater,
marine, desert, savannah, coniferous forests, deciduous forests, tropical rainforests, and tundra.
All ecosystems are characterized by flow of energy through food webs, production and
degradation of organic matter, and transformation and cycling of nutrients. Food webs are
networks of interrelated food chains in a given area. It is the production of organic matter that
serves as an energy platform for biological communities within ecosystems. At the base of the
platform, producers (or autotrophs) actively convert solar energy into stored chemical energy
through a process termed photosynthesis:

Here, light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll with subsequent conversion of H2O and
carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air to the simple carbohydrate glucose (C6H12O6). Further
reactions between glucose and other sugar molecules combine to form cellulose, the structural
component of plants. Respiration is the process by which most living organisms (including
animals, plants, fungi, and microorganisms) use to obtain energy from glucose and oxygen with
CO2 and H2O forming as wastes:

Consumers, including herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and decomposers must

consume plants or other creatures to obtain nutrients and energy needed to sustain life. The
general model of energy flows through ecosystems. Ultimately depicts decomposers feeding on
detritus, the decomposed remains of producers, herbivores, and carnivores. This process allows
for essential nutrients to be recycled through a given ecosystem. A general diagram showing how
both energy and inorganic nutrients flow through a given ecosystem. The ultimate source of
energy is the sun. Energy and nutrients are passed from producers to herbivores to carnivores
through the food chain. Decomposers remove the last energy from the remains of organisms, and
inorganic nutrients are cycled back to the producers. Ultimately, the energy originally captured is
transformed and lost as heat. Thus, energy is not recycled.

1.5. Global water and element cycles

Illustrated diagram of the major global environmental processes. This depiction considers
chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes, together with their interactions, which
determine the characteristics of environmental compartments.
 Anthropogenic activities
are those within ecosystems
caused by sustained direct
human influence, including
agriculture, forestry, and
other land uses,
urbanization, and
industrially-related
processes.

Understanding such processes is key in interpreting the environmental behavior,

transport, and fate of chemical substances within and between environmental compartments,
environmental equilibria, transformations of such chemicals, and assessing the influence of and
perturbation by anthropogenic activities.

1.6. Water Cycle

Water cycle, also called hydrologic cycle, cycle that involves the continuous circulation
of water in the Earth-atmosphere system. Of the many processes involved in the water cycle, the
most important are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and runoff. Although
the total amount of water within the cycle remains essentially constant, its distribution among the
various processes is continually changing.

The figure below shows the schematic representation of the hydrologic cycle. A
convenient starting point to describe the cycle is in the oceans. Water in the oceans evaporates
due to the heat energy provided by solar radiation. The water vapour moves upwards and forms
clouds. While much of the clouds condense and fall back to the oceans and rain, a part of the
clouds is driven to die land areas by winds. There they condense and precipitate onto the land
mass as rain, snow, hail, sleet etc. A part of the precipitation may evaporate back to the
atmosphere or move down to the ground surface.
A portion of the water that reaches the ground enters the earth’s surface through
Infiltration, enhances the moisture content of the soil and reaches the groundwater body.
Vegetation sends a portion of the water from under the ground surface back to the
atmosphere through the process of transpiration. The precipitation reaching the ground surface
after meeting the needs of m filtration and evaporation moves down the natural slope over the
surface and through a network of gullies, streams and rivers to reach the ocean. The groundwater
may conic to the surface through springs and other outlets after spending a considerably longer
time than the surface How. The portion of the precipitation which by a variety of paths above and
below the surface of the earth reaches the stream channel is called runoff. Once it enters a stream
channel, runoff becomes stream flow.
Each path of the hydrologic cycle involves one or more of the following aspects: (1)
transportation of water, (ii) temporary storage and (iii) change of state.

The quantities of water going

through various individual paths of the
hydrological cycle in a given system can
be described by the continuity principle
known as the water budget equation or
hydrologic equation.

Module Exercise No. 1

1. Describe the characteristics of point and non-point sources of pollution. Provide

specific examples of each.
2. What are meant by the terms abiotic and biotic factors? Provide specific examples of
each.
 3. Water in a sealed container would be an example of:
a. An open system
b. A closed system
c. An isolated system
d. None of the above
4. Name two ways in which energy can be transferred.
5. The water cycle ends with what process?
a. Evaporation
b. Condensation
c. Percolation
d. None of the above
6. Describe how increased surface runoff could possibly lead to drought conditions.
7. Discuss why the interactions between the elemental cycles and climate are of
significant importance
8. Which of the following does not have a significant atmospheric component to its
cycle?
a. Nitrogen
b. Carbon
c. Phosphorus
d. Water
9. What are the major fluxes and reservoirs of phosphorus in the global environment?

2. MATTER, ENERGY AND LIFE

2.1 Introduction
The accumulation and transfer of energy and nutrients allows living systems to exist.
These processes tie together the parts of an ecosystem—or an organism; you could think of the
accumulation and circulation of energy and nutrients as the basis of life. Understanding how
nutrients and energy function in a system, and where they come from, and where they go, are
essential to understanding ecology , the scientific study of relationships between organisms and
their environment.
In this chapter we’ll introduce a number of concepts that are essential to understanding
how living things function in their environment. We review what matter and energy are, and then
explore the ways organisms acquire and use energy and chemical elements. Then we’ll
investigate feeding relationships among organisms— the ways that energy and nutrients are
passed from one living thing to another—forming the basis of ecosystems. In other words, we’ll
trace components from atoms to elements to compounds to cells to organisms to ecosystems.

2.2 Topic Outcomes

By the end of this chapter, students will be able to:

1. Describe, at an introductory level, the basic chemical and biological foundations of life on
Earth.
2. Define environment, ecosystems, and environmental sciences.
3. Give examples of the interdisciplinary nature of environmental science.
4. Define sustainability and sustainable development.
5. Explain the complex relationship between natural and human systems, pertaining to
environmental impact, the precautionary principle, and environmental justifications.
6. Describe the scientific approach and begin to apply/use the scientific method.

2.3 The Chemical and Biological Foundations of Life

Elements in various combinations comprise all matter on Earth, including living things.
Some of the most abundant elements in living organisms include carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus. These form the nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids
that are the fundamental components of living matter. Biologists must understand these important
building blocks and the unique structures of the atoms that make up molecules, allowing for the
formation of cells, tissues, organ systems, and entire organisms.

At its most fundamental level, life is made up of matter. Matter is any substance that
occupies space and has mass. Elements are unique forms of matter with specific chemical and
physical properties that cannot be broken down into smaller substances by ordinary chemical
reactions. There are 118 elements, but only 92 occur naturally. The remaining elements are
synthesized in laboratories and are unstable. The five elements common to all living organisms
are oxygen (O), carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). In the non - living
world, elements are found in different proportions, and some elements common to living
organisms are relatively rare on the earth as a whole (Table 1.1). For example, the atmosphere
is rich in nitrogen and oxygen but contains little carbon and hydrogen, while the earth’s crust,
although it contains oxygen and a small amount of hydrogen, has little nitrogen and carbon. In
spite of their differences in abundance, all elements and the chemical reactions between them
obey the same chemical and physical laws regardless of whether they are a part of the living or
non-living world.

Biosphere Atmosphere Lithosphere

Oxygen (O) 65% 21% 46%

Carbon (C) 18% trace trace

Hydrogen (H) 10% trace trace

Nitrogen (N) 3% 78% trace

Phosphorus (P) trace trace >30%

Table 1. Approximate percentage of elements in living organisms (from bacteria to humans)

compared to the non-living world. Trace represents less than 1%

2.3.1 The Structure of the Atom

An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains all of the chemical properties of an
element. For example, one gold atom has all of the properties of gold in that it is a solid metal at
room temperature. A gold coin is simply a very large number of gold atoms molded into the shape
of a coin and containing small amounts of other elements known as impurities. Gold atoms cannot
be broken down into anything smaller while still retaining the properties of gold. An atom is
composed of two regions: the nucleus, which is in the center of the atom and contains protons
and neutrons, and the outermost region of the atom which holds its electrons in orbit around the
nucleus, as illustrated in the figure. Atoms contain protons, electrons, and neutrons, among other
subatomic particles. The only exception
is hydrogen (H), which is made of one
proton and one electron with no
neutrons.

Protons and neutrons have

approximately the same mass, about
1.67 × 10-24 grams. Scientists
arbitrarily define this amount of mass as
one atomic mass unit (amu) (Table 1.2).
Although similar in mass, protons and neutrons differ in their electric charge. A proton is positively
charged whereas a neutron is uncharged. Therefore, the number of neutrons in an atom
contributes significantly to its mass, but not to its charge.

Charge Mass (amu) Location in atom

Proton +1 1 nucleus
Neutron 0 1 nucleus
Electron -1 0 orbitals
Table 1.2. Protons, neutrons, and electrons

Electrons are much smaller in mass than protons, weighing only 9.11 × 10-28 grams, or
about 1/1800 of an atomic mass unit. Hence, they do not contribute much to an element’s overall
atomic mass. Although not significant contributors to mass, electrons do contribute greatly to the
atom’s charge, as each electron has a negative charge equal to the positive charge of a proton.
In uncharged, neutral atoms, the number of electrons orbiting the nucleus is equal to the number
of protons inside the nucleus. In these atoms, the positive and negative charges cancel each
other out, leading to an atom with no net charge. Accounting for the sizes of protons, neutrons,
and electrons, most of the volume of an atom—greater than 99 percent—is, in fact, empty space.
With all this empty space, one might ask why so-called solid objects do not just pass through one
another. The reason they do not is that the electrons that surround all atoms are negatively
charged and negative charges repel each other. When an atom gains or loses an electron, an ion
is formed. Ions are charged forms of atoms. A positively charged ion, such as sodium (Na+), has
lost one or more electrons. A negatively charged ion, such as chloride (Cl-), has gained one or
more electrons.
2.3.2 Molecules
Molecules are formed when two or more atoms join together through chemical bonds to
form a unit of matter. Throughout your study of environmental science, you will encounter many
molecules including carbon dioxide gas. Its chemical formula is CO2, indicating that this molecule
is made up of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms. Some molecules are charged due to the
ions they contain. This is the case for the nitrate (NO3- ), a common source of nitrogen to plants.
It contains one nitrogen atom and three oxygen atoms, and has an overall charge of negative
one.

2.3.3 Isotopes
Isotopes are different forms of an element that have the same number of protons but a
different number of neutrons. Some elements—such as carbon, potassium, and uranium—have
naturally occurring isotopes. Carbon-12 contains six protons, six neutrons, and six electrons;
therefore, it has a mass number of 12 (six protons and six neutrons). Carbon-14 contains six
protons, eight neutrons, and six electrons; its atomic mass is 14 (six protons and eight electrons).
These two alternate forms of carbon are isotopes. Some isotopes may emit neutrons, protons,
and electrons, and attain a more stable atomic configuration (lower level of potential energy);
these are radioactive isotopes, or radioisotopes. Radioactive decay describes the energy loss
that occurs when an unstable atom’s nucleus releases radiation, for example, carbon-14 losing
neutrons to eventually become carbon-12.

2.4 Basic concepts from General

● Matter – anything that has mass and volume
● Changes
o Physical (a change not involving a change in the substance's chemical identity)
o Chemical (a process in which chemical bonds are broken and new ones are
made)
 Matter
Occupies space and possesses mass; may
exist as solid, liquid, or gas

Mixture
Pure substance
Matter of consisting of two or more
Matter having an invariant chemical pure substances that retain their
composition and distinct properties individual identities and can be
seperated by physicalmethods

Compound
Substance
Element composed of two or Homogeneous
Heterogeneous
Fundamental more elements in Mixture having a
substance; cannot fixed proportions; uniform Mixture not uniform
be seperated into can be seperated composition and in composition and
simpler substances into simpler properties properties
by chemincal substances and throughout (also throughout
methods elements only by called a solution)
chemical methods

● A pure chemical substance is any matter that has a fixed chemical composition and
characteristic properties. Oxygen, for example, is a pure chemical substance that is a
colorless, odorless gas at 25°C.
● Very few samples of matter consist of pure substances; instead, most are mixtures,
which are combinations of two or more pure substances in variable proportions in which
the individual substances retain their identity.
 ● If all portions of a material are in the same state, have no visible boundaries, and are
uniform throughout, then the material is homogeneous. Homogeneous mixtures are also
called solutions.
● If the composition of a material is not completely uniform, then it is heterogeneous.

2.4.1 Distillation
Distillation makes use of differences in volatility, a measure of how easily a substance is
converted to a gas at a given temperature.
A simple distillation apparatus can be used for separating a mixture of substances, at least
one of which is a liquid. The most volatile component boils first and is condensed back to a liquid
in the water-cooled condenser, from which it flows into the receiving flask.
The Distillation of a Solution of Table Salt in Water. The solution of salt in water is heated
in the distilling flask until it
boils. The resulting vapor is
enriched in the more volatile
component (water), which
condenses to a liquid in the
cold condenser and is then
collected in the receiving
flask.

2.5 Three fundamentals

laws of chemistry

2.5.1 Law of conservation of mass

The law of conservation of mass states that mass in an isolated system is neither created
nor destroyed by chemical reactions or physical transformations.
 According to the law of conservation of mass, the mass of the products in a chemical
reaction must equal the mass of the reactants.
The law of conservation of mass is useful for a number of calculations and can be used to
solve for unknown masses, such the amount of gas consumed or produced during a reaction.
“Mass is neither created nor destroyed in ordinary chemical and physical changes” It must start
and end with the same amount.

2.5.2 Law of definite composition

The law of definite composition was
proposed by Joseph Proust based on his
observations on the composition of
chemical compounds. Proust proposed that
a compound is always composed of the
same proportions of elements by mass.
Though initially controversial, the law of
definite composition was supported by
Dalton’s atomic theory.

2.5.3 Law of multiple proportions

When the same two elements combine to form more than one compound: the ratios of the
mass of one element in the first compound to its in the second, (as it combines with the same
mass of the other element), can always be expressed as ratios of small whole numbers
Conclusion

Matter is conserved as it cycles over and over through ecosystems, but energy is always
degraded or dissipated as it is transformed or transferred from one place to another. These laws
of physics and thermodynamics mean that elements are continuously recycled, but that living
systems need a constant supply of external energy to replace that lost to entropy. Some
extremophiles, living in harsh conditions, such as hot springs or the bottom of the ocean, capture
energy from chemical reactions. For most organisms, however, the ultimate source of energy is
the sun. Plants capture sunlight through the process of photosynthesis, and use the captured
energy for metabolic processes and to build biomass (organic material).

Module Exercise No. 2

1. Define an atom and an element. Are these terms interchangeable?

2. Your body contains vast numbers of carbon atoms. How is it possible that some of these
carbon atoms may have been part of the body of a prehistoric creature?
3. In the biosphere, matter follows a circular pathway while energy follows a linear pathway.
Explain.
4. Ecosystems require energy to function. Where does this energy come from? Where does
it go? How does the flow of energy conform to the laws of thermodynamics?
5. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are complementary processes. Explain how they
exemplify the laws of conservation of matter and thermodynamics.
3. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER

3.1. Introduction
Water quality is determined by physical, chemical and microbiological properties of water.
These water quality characteristics throughout the world are characterized with wide variability.
Therefore the quality of natural water sources used for different purposes should be established
in terms of the specific water-quality parameters that most affect the possible use of water. That
is why the aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of water quality characteristics - Physical,
and chemical.

3.2. Physical Characteristics of water

Physical characteristics of water (temperature, colour, taste, odour and etc.) are
determined by senses of touch, sight, smell and taste. For example temperature by touch, colour,
floating debris, turbidity and suspended solids by sight, and taste and odour by smell.

3.2.1. Temperature
The temperature of water affects some of the important physical properties and
characteristics of water: thermal capacity, density, specific weight, viscosity, surface tension,
specific conductivity, salinity and solubility of dissolved gases and etc. Chemical and biological
reaction rates increase with increasing temperature. Reaction rates are usually assumed to
double for an increase in temperature of 10 °C. The temperature of water in streams and rivers
throughout the world varies from 0 to 35 °C.

3.2.2. Color
Colour in water is primarily a concern of water quality for aesthetic reasons. Coloured
water give the appearance of being unfit to drink, even though the water may be perfectly safe for
public use. On the other hand, colour can indicate the presence of organic substances, such as
algae or humic compounds. More recently, colour has been used as a quantitative assessment
of the presence of potentially hazardous or toxic organic materials in water.
Measured by comparing water samples to standards prepared with various concentrations
of potassium chloroplatinate and cobaltous chloride.
 3.2.3. Turbidity
Turbidity is a measure of the light-transmitting properties of water and is comprised of
suspended and colloidal material. “Cloudiness” or “muddiness” of water. It is important for health
and aesthetic reasons.
Can be caused by suspended
solids, microscopic algae, bacteria dissolved
organic substances, suspended clay particle
and colloidal solids that are invisible to the
naked eye
Units of Measure
● Jackson Turbidity Units (JTU)
● Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU)

3.2.4. Taste and Odor

Taste and odour are human perceptions of water quality. Human perception of taste
includes sour (hydrochloric acid), salty (sodium chloride), sweet (sucrose) and bitter (caffeine).
Relatively simple compounds produce sour and salty tastes. However sweet and bitter tastes are
produced by more complex organic compounds. Human detect many more tips of odour than
tastes. Organic materials discharged directly to water, such as falling leaves, runoff, etc., are
sources of tastes and odour-producing compounds released during biodegradation.
Petroleum, gasoline, turpentine, fuel, or solvent odors: These odors are rare, but
potentially serious. Do not use the water. A leaking underground storage tank may be
contaminating your water supply. Immediately contact your water utility or local health agency.
● Metallic taste: Iron or copper, may leach into the water from the pipes. Less common
metals, such as zinc and manganese, could also be a problem.
● Chlorine, chemical, or medicinal taste or odors: Adding chlorine to the water or the
interaction of chlorine with a build-up of organic matter in your plumbing system may cause
the taste or odor to be strong. This is not usually an immediate health threat.
● Sulfur or rotten egg odor: Bacteria growing in your sink drain or hot water heater may
cause odor. Naturally occurring hydrogen sulfide in your water supply may also cause this
odor.
 ● Moldy, musty, earthy, grassy, or fishy odor: Bacteria growing in a sink drain or from
organic matter such as plants, animals, or bacteria that are naturally present in lakes and
reservoirs during certain times of the year may cause odor.
● Salty taste: High levels of naturally occurring sodium, magnesium, or potassium may
cause a salty taste. If you live in a coastal area, seawater may be seeping into the
freshwater supply.

3.3. Chemical Characteristics of water

The chemical characteristics of natural water are a reflection of the soils and rocks with
which the water has been in contact. In addition, agricultural and urban runoff and municipal and
industrial treated wastewater impact the water quality. Microbial and chemical transformations
also affect the chemical characteristics of water

3.3.1. Calcium
● Calcium occurs in water naturally. Seawater contains approximately 400 ppm calcium.
● Calcium is a determinant of water hardness
● Calcium is a dietary requirement for all organisms apart from some insects and bacteria.

3.3.2. Magnesium
● Magnesium is washed from rocks and subsequently ends up in water.
● Magnesium is a dietary mineral for any organism but insects. It is a central atom of the
chlorophyll molecule, and is therefore a requirement for plant photosynthesis.
● The human body contains about 25 g of magnesium, of which 60% is present in the bones
and 40% is present in muscles and other tissue.

3.3.3. Water Hardness

Hard waters are undesirable because they may lead to greater soap consumption, scaling
of boilers, causing corrosion and incrustation of pipes, making food tasteless etc.
● Temporary Hardness: If bicarbonates and carbonates of calcium and magnesium are
present in water, the water is render hard temporarily as this hardness can be removed to
some extent by simple boiling or to full extent by adding lime to water. Such a hardness is
known as temporary hardness or carbonate hardness.
● Permanent Hardness: If sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium or magnesium are
present in water, they can not be removed at al by simple boiling and therefore, such water
 require special treatment for softening. Such a hardness is known as permanent hardness or
non-carbonate hardness.

It is caused by sulphates, chlorides, nitrates of Ca and Mg.

Carbonate hardness = Total hardness or Alkalinity (which ever is less)

Non-carbonate hardness = Total hardness – Alkalinity

● Carbonate hardness is equal to the total hardness or alkalinity which ever is less
● Non-carbonate hardness is the total hardness in excess of the alkalinity. If the alkalinity is
equal to or greater than the total hardness, there is no non-carbonate hardness.
● One French degree of hardness is equal to 10mg/l of CaCO3.
● One British degree of hardness is equal to a hardness of 14.25mg/l.
● Water with hardness upto 75 ppm are considered soft and above 200 ppm are considered
hard and in between is considered as moderately hard.
● Underground waters are generally harder than surface waters.
● The prescribed hardness limit for public supplies range between 75 to 115 ppm.

3.3.4. Iron
Iron is mainly present in water in two forms: either
the soluble ferrous iron or the insoluble ferric iron. Water
containing ferrous iron is clear and colorless because the
iron is completely dissolved. When exposed to air in the
pressure tank or atmosphere, the water turns cloudy and a
reddish brown substance begins to form. This sediment is
the oxidized or ferric form of iron that will not dissolve in
water.
Dissolved ferrous iron gives water a disagreeable
metallic taste. When the iron combines with tea, coffee and
other beverages, it produces an inky, black appearance and
a harsh, unacceptable taste. Vegetables cooked in water
containing excessive iron turn dark and look unappealing.
Concentrations of iron as low as 0.3 mg/L will leave
reddish brown stains on fixtures, tableware and laundry that
are very hard to remove. When these deposits break loose from water piping, rusty water will flow
through the faucet.
Ferrous iron can be removed by two methods. The most common way is to use a water
conditioner (softener) . This method can be used on almost any level of iron. A second method to
remove ferrous iron, is a two step process called oxidation filtration. The iron is first oxidized by
the use of either oxygen, chlorine or potassium permanganate. The oxidation causes the ferrous
iron to form ferric iron. The ferric iron is then removed by filtration.

3.3.5. Manganese
Manganese is one of the most abundant metals in Earth’s crust, usually occurring with
iron. Manganese is an element essential to the proper functioning of both humans and animals,
as it is required for the functioning of many cellular enzymes.
Manganese compounds may be present in the atmosphere as suspended particulates
resulting from industrial emissions, soil erosion, volcanic emissions and the burning of MMT-
containing petrol

3.3.6. pH

If H+ concentration increases, pH decreases and then it will be acidic.

If H+ concentration decreases, pH increases and then it will be alkaline.

[H+][O H-] = 10-14

pH + pOH = 14

If the pH of water is more than 7, it will be alkaline and if it is less than 7, it will be acidic.

The alkalinity is caused by the presence of bicarbonate of calcium and magnesium or by

the carbonates of hydroxides of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium. Some, but not all
of the compounds that cause alkalinity also cause hardness. the pH value of water can be
measured quickly and automatically with the help of a pH meter.
The pH can also be measured by indicators as given below:
 pH range of indicator
Indicator Original Color Final Color produced
dye

Methyl orange 2.8 – 4.4 Red Yellow

Methyl red 4.4 – 6.2 Red Yellow

Phenol red 6.8 – 8.4 Yellow Red

Phenolphthalein 8.6 – 10.3 Yellow Red

3.4. Heavy metals

The term heavy metal refers to any metallic chemical element that has a relatively high
density and is toxic or poisonous at low concentrations.Heavy metals are natural components of
the Earth's crust. The three most pollutants heavy metals are Lead, Cadmium, and Mercury.
 3.4.1. Cadmium
Cadmium derives its toxicological properties from
its chemical similarity to zinc, an essential micronutrient
for plants, animals and humans.
In humans, long-term exposure is associated with
renal dysfunction, lung cancer and bone defects.
The average daily intake for humans is estimated
as 0.15µg from air and 1µg from water. Smoking a packet
of 20 cigarettes can lead to the inhalation of around 2-4µg
of cadmium.

3.4.2. Chromium
Chromium is an odorless and tasteless metallic element.
Chromium is found naturally in rocks, plants, soil and volcanic dust,
and animals.
The most common forms of chromium that occur in natural
waters in the environment are:
● Trivalent chromium (chromium-3)
● Hexavalent chromium (chromium-6)
Hexavalent chromium exists in alkalie, strongly oxidizing
environments, readily soluble in water.
Chromium-3 is an essential human dietary element.
It can also be produced by industrial processes
The human body contains approximately 0.03 ppm of chromium.
Responsible Industry
● Used on a large scale in the metallurgical and chemical
industries.
● The metallurgical industry: production of stainless steels,
alloy cast iron and non-ferrous alloys, plating steels
● The chemical industry pigments and dyes, metal finishing
and electroplating, wood preservatives and leather tanning
and glass manufacturing.

Biological Role – Chromium (III)

● An essential elements in human
● High concentration of this can led to DNA damage
● Sold as nutritional supplement to treat type 2 diabetes and promote weight loss
● Dietary supplements : Cr (III) picolinate and polynicotinate

Biological Role – Chromium (IV)

● Its genotoxic carcinogenic
● The respiratory tract is the major target organ for Cr(IV) toxicity, for acute and chronic
inhalation property.
● Kidney damage, liver failure, blood cell damage happen due to its oxidation property.
● Pneumonia, asthma, ulcerations of the skin and bronchitis

Environmental Impact of Chromium

● Dissolved Cr also lost through adsorption onto sediment particles
● High organic matter supports a reductive and complexing environment
● In anoxic lakes, both concentration and speciation vary with depth and season.
 3.4.3. Zinc
Zinc is naturally present in water. The average zinc
concentration in seawater is 0.6-5 ppb. Rivers generally contain
between 5 and 10 ppb zinc. Algae contain 20-700 ppm, sea fish and
shells contain 3-25 ppm, oysters contain 100-900 ppm and lobsters
contain 7-50 ppm.

Biological Role of Zinc

● Zinc is a dietary mineral for humans and animals. (skeletal

muscle ~57%)
● Overdose may negatively influence human and animal health
and over a certain boundary concentration, zinc may even be toxic with ingestion of
greater than 225 mg.

Environmental Impact of Zinc

● Can be introduced into the water naturally by erosion of minerals from rocks, though zinc
ores are only slightly soluble in water.
● Industry – galvanizing, paint and agriculture
● Zinc was not attributed to a water hazard class, because it is not considered a hazard.
This however only concerns elementary zinc. Some zinc compounds, such as zinc
arsenate and zinc cyanide, may be extremely hazardous.
 3.4.4. Lead
Lead is a soft gray metal element that occurs naturally on earth. Lead
has a low melting point and can easily be aerosolized by heating. Lead can
be formed into organic compounds by some organisms, and some organic
compounds such as leaded gasoline have industrial uses.

Biological Role of Lead

● Lead is stored for long periods in mineralized tissue such as teeth

and bones
● Lead can be released again into the bloodstream from these
sources during times of bodily stress such as:
o Pregnancy
o Breastfeeding
o Calcium deficiency
o Osteoporosis
● The human body contains approximately 120 mg of lead. About 10-20% of lead is absorbed
by the intestines.
● Lead generally, effects of lead poisoning are neurological or teratogenic.
● Women are generally more susceptible to lead poisoning than men.

Environmental Impact of Lead

● Lead and lead compounds are generally toxic pollutants. Lead(II)salts and organic lead
compounds are most harmful ecotoxicological.
● Lead salts are attributed to water hazard class 2, and consequently are harmful.
● Lead accumulates in organisms, sediments and sludge. Lead in wastewater mostly stems
from streets and roofs.

3.4.5. Copper
Copper transition metal that is stable in its metallic state. Metallic copper is malleable,
ductile and a good thermal and electrical conductor. It has many commercial uses because of its
versatility. Copper is used to make electrical wiring, pipes, valves, fittings,
coins, cooking utensils and building materials

Biological Role of Copper

● Copper proteins have diverse roles in biological electron transport

and oxygen transportation, processes that exploit the easy
interconversion of Cu(I) and Cu(II)
● Copper is also component of other proteins associated with the
processing of oxygen
● Copper is an essential trace element in plants and animals, but
not some microorganisms.
● Excluding hair and nails, the highest concentrations of copper under normal conditions
are found in the liver, brain, heart and kidneys with moderate concentrations found in the
intestine, lung and spleen.
● Overexposure – nausea, vomiting, and liver failure

Environmental Impact of Copper

● Copper is found in surface water, groundwater, seawater and drinking-water but it is

primarily present in complexes or as particulate matter.
● Dissolve copper can sometimes impart a light blue or blue-green color and an unpleasant
metallic, bitter taste to drinking water. The concentration at which 50% could detect the
taste of copper as the sulfate or chloride salt in tap or demineralized water ranged from
2.4 to 2.6 mg/L

3.4.6. Sulfates
Sulfate is one of the major dissolved components of rain. High concentrations of sulfate in
the water we drink can have a laxative effect when combined with calcium and magnesium, the
two most common constituents of hardness. Bacteria, which attack and reduce sulfates, form
hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S).
Some soils and rocks contain sulfate minerals. As
groundwater moves through these, some of the sulfate is dissolved
into the water.
Some minerals that contain sulfate are sodium sulfate (Glauber's
salt), magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt), and calcium sulfate
(gypsum).

Biological Role of Sulfates

● Animals are also sensitive to high levels of sulfate. In young

animals, high levels may cause severe, chronic diarrhea, and in
some cases, death.
● Sulfate gives a bitter or medicinal taste to water if it exceeds
a concentration of 250 mg/l. This may make it unpleasant to drink
the water.
● People not used to drinking water with high levels of sulfate can experience dehydration
and diarrhea. Kids are often more sensitive to sulfate than adults.

Industrial sources

● Sulfates and sulfuric acid products are used in the production of fertilizers, chemicals,
dyes, glass, paper, soaps, textile, fungicides, insecticides, astringents and emetics.
● Aluminum Sulfate (alum) is used as a sedimentation agent in the treatment of drinking
water.
● Copper sulfate has been used for the control of algae in raw and public water supplies.

Environmental Impact of Sulfates

● When sulfate is less than 0.5 mg/L, algal growth will not occur
● Not considered toxic to plants or animals at normal concentrations. In humans,
concentration of 500 – 750 mg/L cause a temporary laxative effect.
 3.4.7. Nitrogen Content
Nitrate and nitrite are naturally occurring ions that are part of the nitrogen cycle. The nitrate ion
(NO3 − ) is the stable form of combined nitrogen for oxygenated systems. Although chemically unreactive,
it can be reduced by microbial action.

The presence of nitrogen in water may occur in one or more of the following reasons:

o Free ammonia: It indicates very first stage of decomposition of organic matter. It should
not exceed 0.15mg/l
o Albuminous or Organic Matter: It indicates the quantity of nitrogen present in water before
the decomposition of organic molten has started. It should not exceed 0.3mg/l
o Nitrites: Not fully oxidized organic matter in water.
o Nitrates: It indicates fully oxidized organic matter in water (representing old pollution).
o Nitrites is highly dangerous and therefore the permissible amount of nitrites in water
should be nil.
o Ammonia nitrogen + organic nitrogen = kjeldahl nitrogen
o Nitrates in water is not harmful. However the presence of too much of nitrates in water
may adversely affect the health of infants causing a disease called methemoglobinemia
commonly called blue baby disease.

Eutrophication - Eutrophication is an enrichment of water by nutrient salts that causes structural

changes to the ecosystem such as: increased production of algae and aquatic plants, depletion
of fish species, general deterioration of water quality and other effects that reduce and preclude
use.
Hypoxia - Hypoxia means “low oxygen.” In aquatic ecosystems, low oxygen usually means a
concentration of less than 2-3 milligrams of oxygen per liter of water (mg/l). A complete lack of
oxygen (0 mg/L) is called anoxia. Since organisms that can live without oxygen (such as some
microbes) are the only residents in these areas, they are sometimes called “dead zones”. Hypoxia
is primarily a problem in estuaries and coastal waters, although it can also be a problem in
freshwater lakes.

3.4.8. Phosphates
Phosphates are chemical compounds containing phosphorus. Phosphorus is a non-
metallic element which is necessary for life and is found in rock as inorganic phosphates.
As water runs over and through rocks it carries off small amounts of minerals such as calcium,
magnesium, and phosphates.

Can also lead to eutrophication of natural water systems. Artificial Sources:

● Sewage
● Laundry, cleaning fluids
● Synthetic fertilizers

Health Effects of Phosphates

● It is part of DNA molecules which carry genetic information
● It Is part of ATP and ADP that store chemical energy for use by organisms in cellular
respiration
● Forms bones, teeth and shells of animals as calcium phosphate compounds.
 3.4.9. Fluoride
Fluoride compounds are salts that form when the element
fluorine, combines with minerals in soil or rocks.

Uses of Fluorides

● It prevents tooth decay, or cavities. But fluoride can help even

after your teeth are formed. It works with saliva to protect tooth
enamel from plaque and sugars. By using fluoride toothpaste,
for instance, everyone can enjoy some cavity protection.
● Many communities add fluoride to their drinking water to
promote dental health.

Fluorides in drinking water

• It is added in drinking water

• Water fluoridation is controlled addition of fluoride to the public water supply to reduce
tooth decay. Fluoridated water has fluoride at a level that is effective for preventing
cavities; this can occur naturally or by adding fluoride.