Chapter Two

2. Water Balance and its Components

2.1. Equation of water balance
Water balance or water budget or hydrologic budget indicates the mass balance in water input
and output for a system over a certain time period.
Water balance is defined as the change in volume of the permanent pool resulting from the total
Inflow, minus the total outflow. This can be expressed as
ΔV = Σ Inflow - Σ Outflow
Where:
ΔV = change in the permanent pool
Σ Inflow = sum of all inflows over a period of time
Σ Outflow = sum of all outflow over a period time.
 A hydrologic balance equation provides a quantitative means of evaluating the
hydrologic cycle.
The inflows consist of:-
 Rainfall (P)
 Runoff (R) and
 Base-flow (Bf) into the pond
The outflows consist of:-
 Infiltration (I),
 Evaporation (E),
 Evapo-transpiration (Et) and
 Surface overflow (O) out of the pond or wetland
Therefore, the changes in inflow and outflow can be expressed as:
ΔV = [P + R + Bf] – [I + E + ET + O]

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2.2. Precipitation
 Precipitation is defined as the condensation of water vapor into liquid water droplets and
ice particles that fall to the earth’s surface.
 Precipitation is the primary source of the earth's water supplies. It includes all water that
falls from the atmosphere to the earth's surface.
 Precipitation or atmospheric water is the first form of water, 2 nd is surface water and the
3rd is subsurface water/percolation
2.2.1. Measurement of precipitation
A variety of measurement device have been developed for precipitation. Rain gauges have been
used to record rainfall totals. Two types of rain gauges: - non-recording and recording.
1. Non-recording
Gauges consist simply of a cylindrical container and a calibrated measuring stick, which may be
part of the gauge. Non-recording gages generally consist of open receptacles with vertical sides,
in which the depth of precipitation is measured by a graduated measuring cylinder or dipstick.
The two types of non-recording gages are: - standard gages and storage gages.
a) Standard gages are ordinarily used for daily rainfall readings and consist of a collector
above a funnel leading into a receiver. Rain gages for locations where only weekly or
monthly readings are used are similar in design to the daily type but have a larger
capacity receiver. The standard gages are the most widespread rainfall data measurement
devices used in hydrology.
b) Storage gages are used to measure rainfall over an entire season, usually in remote,
sparsely inhabited areas. These rain gages consist of a collector above a funnel that leads
into a storage area large enough for the season rainfall volume.
2. Recording rain gauges
It is known as self recording gauge. Automatically it measure rainfall at temporal resolutions
of one minute or even shorter.
Radar and Satellite remote sensing
 Radar is an acronym (radio detection and ranging)
 Radar looks from the earth up into the atmosphere and tries to estimate the amount of
precipitation falling over an area.

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  But, Satellite remote sensing looks from space down towards the earth surface and
attempts to estimate the amount of precipitation falling over an area.
2.3. Interception
Interception is the term that covers a variety of processes that results from the temporary store of
precipitation by vegetation or manmade cover. Intercepted precipitation can be either evaporated
to the atmosphere or ultimately transmitted to the ground surface.
The main components of interception by vegetation are;
 Through fall
 Stem flow
 Interception loss.
Through fall occurs either when precipitation falls through spaces in the vegetation canopy or
when precipitation drips from leaves and twigs.
Stem flow designates water that flows along twigs and branches with its ultimate delivery to the
ground surface at the main stem or trunk.
Interception loss accounts for precipitation that is retained by plant surfaces and later
evaporated or absorbed by the plant. Thus, the intercepted precipitation may follow one of the
three possible ways:
A. It may retain by the vegetation as surface storage and returned to the atmosphere by
evaporation; a process known as interception loss.
B. It can drop off the plant leaves to join the ground surface or the surface flow called
through fall.
C. The rainwater may run along the leaves and branches and down the stem to reach the
ground surface called stem flow.

Furthermore, vegetation can “harvest” water from the atmosphere directly through the
interception of fog or cloud water and this is known as horizontal or occult interception.
 Factors on which interception depends are the followings;
(a) Intensity and duration of storm
(b) Density of trees
(c) Types of trees and other obstructions
(d) Season of the year and
(e) Wind velocity at the time of precipitation.

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The amount of water intercepted in a given area is extremely difficult to measure. It depends on
the species composition of vegetation, its density and also on the storm characteristics. It is
estimated that of the total rainfall in an area during a plant growing season the interception loss is
about 10% to 20%.
2.3.1 Measurement of Interception
Interception on a single plant may be described in terms of the canopy storage (C) i.e. the
volume of water that can be held. The water drops that passes through the canopy to reach the
ground directly through the gaps in the canopy without striking the plant are known as through
fall (Tf). The volume of water lost by evaporation from the wetted canopy during some period of
time is known as the canopy interception loss (I).
The canopy storage (C) has often been estimated by using measurements of the weight gained by
a specimen (sample) canopy that is exposed to simulated rain. The volume of I has been
measured by measuring
 The above canopy rainfall (P)
 The below canopy through fall (T)
 The stem flow (S)

I = P-T-S
Measuring instruments:
 Use of separate precipitation gauge (above the canopy)
 Use of separate through fall gauges
 Stem flow collars (the collector tray technique)
2.4. Evaporation
Evaporation is defined as the rate of water transformation to vapor from open water, bare soil or
vegetation with soil beneath. Evaporation is the conversion of a liquid to a vapor, and is arguably
the most important “hydrological” process in the global climate system: it provides moisture to
the atmosphere and uses energy. Evaporation requires energy to excite water molecules so that
they leave the water surface. The energy required is termed the latent heat of vaporization.

2.4.1 Factors Affecting Evaporation

 Vapor pressure: The rate at which molecules leave the water depends on the vapor
pressure of the liquid. Similarly, the rate at which molecules enter the water depends on

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 the water pressure of the air. That means, the rate of evaporation depends on the
difference between the saturation vapor pressure at the water temperature and the actual
vapor pressure in the air.
 Temperature: The rate of emission of molecules from liquid water is a function of its
temperature. The higher the temperature, the greater energy of the molecules and the rate
of emission.
 Wind: For example, a large water body has high-speed turbulent winds which cause
maximum rate of evaporation.
 Atmospheric pressure: Other factors remaining same, a decrease in barometric pressure,
as in high altitude, increases evaporation. The number of air molecules per unit volume
increases, with pressure. Consequently, with high pressure there is more chance that
vapor molecules escaping from the water surface will collide with air molecules and
rebound into the liquid.
 Quality of water: The rate of evaporation is less for salt water than for fresh water and
decreases as specific gravity increases. Evaporation from seawater has been estimated to
be about 2 to 3 percent, less than fresh water when other conditions are the same.
Turbidity appears to have noticeable effect on evaporation rate.
2.5. Transpiration

Plants absorb water from the soil through minute root hairs at the tips of their rootlets. Mineral
salts are also absorbed in very dilute solution, using water as the vehicle. The solutions are
transported through roots and stems to the leaves where plant food is produced from the sap and
carbon dioxide absorbed from the atmosphere, using the energy from the sun operating
chlorophyll. These plant foods, again using water as the vehicle, are distributed through the plant
for cell growth and tissue building. Most of the water absorbed through the roots is discharged
from the plant as vapor in the process known as transpiration. As much as 99% of the total water
received by a plant through its roots is lost to the atmosphere by this process.

There are two types of evaporation from vegetation. These are transpiration and the evaporation
of intercepted water. Transpiration is the process by which water evaporates from a plant.
Essentially, water is evaporated through small holes (known as stomata) in the leaves and this
draws water up through the plant (in microscopic tubes termed xylem) from the soil. This

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“transpiration stream” brings water to the plant, to be used in photosynthesis, to produce
carbohydrates, to maintain turgidity (rigidness) in the cells and tissues, and to bring dissolved
minerals from the soil. Very little of the water is actually used in photosynthesis, and most of the
water sucked up from the soil is evaporated through the stomata, whose primary purpose is
actually to exchange carbon dioxide and oxygen with the atmosphere.
2.5.1. Factors affecting transpiration
 Temperature
 Wind
 Solar radiation
 Soil moisture
 Character of the vegetation
2.5.2. Evapo-transpiration

The combination of two separate processes where by water is lost from the surface of water
bodies and from the soil surface by evaporation and from plants by transpiration.
Evapotranpiration (ET) is a collective term for all processes through which water in liquid or
solid form becomes atmospheric water vapor. It includes evaporation from bare soil, lakes and
rivers and vegetative surfaces. It also includes transpiration, which represents evaporation from
within the leaves of plants through stomata openings. ET is the primary link in the global
hydrologic cycle between the land and the atmosphere.
2.5.3 Measurement of Evapo-Transpiration
The rate of evaporation is defined as the amount of water evaporated from a unit surface area per
unit of time. It can be expressed as the mass or volume of liquid water evaporated per area in unit
of time. The unit of time is normally a day. The amount of evaporation should be read in
millimeters. Evaporimeter is the instrument that used to measure Evapo-transpiration.
2.6. Infiltration
Infiltration is the process of water entry from surface sources such as rainfall, snowmelt or
irrigation into the soil. The infiltration process is a component in the overall unsaturated
redistribution process that results in soil moisture availability for use by vegetation transpiration,
infiltration (or evaporation) processes, chemical transport and groundwater recharge.

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Some basic principles that govern the movement of water into the soil can be used to predict
infiltration. The infiltration capacity is the maximum rate that a soil in a given condition can
absorb water and generally decreases as soil moisture increases. If the rainfall rate is less than the
infiltration capacity, then infiltration proceeds at the capacity rate. However, if the rainfall rate
exceeds the infiltration capacity, then infiltration proceeds at the capacity rate and the excess
rainfall ponds on the surface or runs off. As the time from the onset of rainfall increases,
infiltration rates decrease due to soil moisture increases, raindrop impact, and the clogging of soil
pores, until a steady-state infiltration rate is reached.

2.6.1 Factors Affecting Infiltration

 Surface factor: If a soil surface is bare, the impact of raindrops causes in washing of
finer particles and clogs the surface. This retards infiltration. An area covered by grass
and other bushy plants has better infiltration capacity than a barren land. Furthermore,
soil covered with vegetation has greater infiltration than barren land. Because of growth
and decay of roots and bacterial activities, dense natural forest provides good infiltration
than sparsely planted crops.
 Soil moisture condition: Infiltration depends on the presence of moisture in the soil. For
the second storm in succession, the soil will have lesser rate of infiltration than the first
maiden storm of the season. Except sandy soil most other soils have swelling ingredients,
which swells in presence of water and reduce infiltration rate to the extent of their
presence.
 Climatic factors: Temperature affects the viscosity of water and the flow being directly
related to viscosity. In summer therefore, less viscous water causes more infiltration than
in winter.
 Rainfall intensity: Other climatic factor that influence infiltration rate. During heavy
rainfall, the topsoil is affected by mechanical compaction and by the wash of finer
material. This leads to faster decrease in the rate of infiltration than with low intensities
of rainfall.
 Human activities: When crops are grown or grass covers a barren land, the rate of
infiltration is increased. On the other hand construction of roads, houses etc reduce
infiltration capacity of an area considerably.

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 2.7. Moisture over Supply and Moisture Saving
Moisture over surplus season occurs when precipitation exceeds potential evapo -transpiration
and the soil has reached its field capacity. If this water runs off into nearby streams and rivers it
could cause flooding. Thus, the intensity (amount) and duration (length of season) of surplus can
be used to predict the severity of potential flooding.
In a post drought year, soil moisture will take center stage for many farmers as they look ahead
to next season. But in most years during a normal growing season, farmers experience soil
moisture shortages through annual short-term droughts Soil management is a big part of any
strategy that tries to deal with drought. Research suggests it will be a good year to consider the
value of soil organic matter, which is essential to soil water availability. “As organic matter
increases, soils develop more macro pores. That happens because, as plant residue and other
organic amendments decompose, sticky substances bind soil particles and create pore spaces
between them. And, organic matter itself can hold water. Strategies for increasing organic matter
are well known. Applying manure or composts, seeding cover crops, and reducing tillage are all
effective. Crop diversification is another approach. Through reducing tillage or lengthening the
crop rotation, a 10% to 20% increase in the soil’s available water content can be achieved. No-
tillers report more drought resiliency in their soils.
2.8. Moisture Surplus and Deficit
2.8.1. Moisture Surplus

Surplus water occurs when Precipitation exceeds Potential Evapo-transpiration and the soil is at
its field capacity (saturated). That is, we have more water than we actually need to use given the
environmental conditions at a place. The surplus water cannot be added to the soil because the
soil is at its field capacity so it runs off the surface. Surplus runoff often ends up in nearby
streams causing stream discharge to increase. Knowledge of surplus runoff can help forecast
potential flooding of nearby streams.
2.8.2. Moisture Deficit
A soil moisture deficit occurs when the demand for water exceeds that which is actually
available. In other words, deficits occur when potential evapo-transpiration exceeds actual
evapo-transpiration (PE>AE). Recalling that PE is water demand and AE is actual water use
(which depends on how much water is really available), if we demand more than we have

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available we will experience a deficit. But, deficits only occur when the soil is completely
dried out. That is, soil moisture storage (ST) must be zero.

The deficit season occurs when potential evapo-transpiration exceeds precipitation and soil
storage has reached zero. This is a time when there is essentially no water for plants. Farmers
then tap ground water reserves or water in nearby streams and lakes to irrigate their crops. Thus,
the intensity (amount) and duration (length of season) of deficit can be used to predict the need
for irrigation water. Whether a place experiences all four seasons depends on the climate and soil
properties. Wet climate and those places with soils having high field capacities are less likely to
experience a deficit period. Likewise the duration and intensity of any season will be determined
by the climate and soil properties. Give equal amounts of precipitation, coarse textured soils will
generate runoff faster than fine textured soils and may experience more intense surplus. We
calculate moisture deficit by the following formula. Generally, moisture deficit is the difference
of evapo- transpiration and effective precipitation.

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