Hidrogeno

Table of Contents
Executive Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………………..………….. 1

Legislative Language …………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….. 3
Foreword …………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………….. 5
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….. 6
A: National Decarbonization Goals ………………………………………………………………….……..………… 10
H2@Scale Enabler for Deep Decarbonization ……………………………………………..……………..………….. 12
Hydrogen Production and Use in the United States ……………………..…………………………..………….. 14
Opportunities for Clean Hydrogen to Support Net-Zero …..…………………………………..………….. 17
Challenges to Achieving the Benefits of Clean Hydrogen …..…………………………………..………….. 24
B: Strategies to Enable the Benefits of Clean Hydrogen ……..…………………………………………… 27
Strategy 1: Target Strategic, High-Impact Uses of Clean Hydrogen ………………………………..……… 29
Clean hydrogen in industrial applications ……………………………..…………………………………..……… 29
Clean hydrogen in transportation ……………………………..……………………….………………………………..……… 32
Power sector applications ……………………………..………………………………………….…..…………………………… 34
Carbon Intensity of Hydrogen Production ……………………………..…………………………………..……… 36
Strategy 2: Reduce the Cost of Clean Hydrogen ……………………………..…………………………………..……… 39
Hydrogen Production Through Water Splitting ……………………………..…………………………………..……… 40
Hydrogen Production from Fossil Fuels with Carbon Capture and Storage .……………………..……… 42
Hydrogen Production from Biomass and Waste Feedstocks ……………………….…………………..……… 45
Other System Costs ……………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………… 45
Strategy 3: Focus on Regional Networks ……………………………..……………………………………………..……… 48
Regional production potential ……………………………..………………………………………………………..……… 50
Regional storage potential ……………………………..…………………………………………………………………..……… 52
Regional end-use potential ……………………………..…………………………………………………………………..……… 54
Supporting Each Strategy ……………………………..…………………………………………………………………..……… 56
C: Guiding Principles and National Actions ………………………………………………………………..……… 58
Guiding Principles ……………………………..……………………………………..…………………………..…………..……… 58
Actions Supporting the U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap ..………………… 61
Actions and Milestones for the Near, Mid, and Long-term ……………………………..…….……………… 68
Phases of Clean Hydrogen Development ……………………………..…………………………………..………………… 73
Collaboration and Coordination ……………………………..……………………………………..………………………… 77
Conclusion ……………………………..……………………………………..………………………………………………….……… 80
Acknowledgments ……………………………..……………………………………………………………..……..………..……… 81
Glossary of Acronyms ……………………………..……………………………………..…………….……………..……… 82
References ……………………………..……………………………………..…………………………………..…..………………… 83
Appendix A ……………………………..……………………………………..………………………………………………….……… 95
1
Executive Summary
Given its potential to help address the climate crisis, This report sets forth the “U.S. National Clean
enhance energy security and resilience, and create Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap.” The report
economic value, interest in producing and using was informed by extensive industry and stakeholder
clean hydrogen is intensifying both in the United feedback including workshops and listening sessions,
States and abroad. Zero- and low-carbon hydrogen is written comments from more than 50 organizations,
a key part of a comprehensive portfolio of solutions and ongoing engagement. In addition, this roadmap
to achieve a sustainable and equitable clean energy sets forth an all of government approach to clean
future. The United States is stepping up to accelerate hydrogen, with contributions across multiple
progress through historic investments in clean agencies as well as key experts in the Executive Office
hydrogen production, midstream infrastructure, and of the President. This inclusive and collaborative
strategically targeted research, development, approach is critical to the success of this expansive
demonstration, and deployment (RDD&D) in this technology.
critical technology.
The report is meant to be a living strategy that
In November 2021, Congress passed, and President provides a snapshot of hydrogen production,
Joseph R. Biden, Jr. signed into law the Infrastructure transport, storage, and use in the United States
Investment and Jobs Act (Public Law 117-58), also today, as well as an assessment of the opportunity
known as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL). This for hydrogen to contribute to national
historic, once-in-a-generation legislation authorizes decarbonization goals across sectors over the next 30
and appropriates $62 billion for the U.S. Department years. The report will continue to be updated with
of Energy (DOE), including $9.5 billion for clean collaboration across government through
hydrogen. Furthermore, in August 2022, President interagency coordination.
Biden signed the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) into
Pathways for clean hydrogen to decarbonize
law (Public Law 117-169), which provides additional
applications are informed by demand scenarios for
policies and incentives for hydrogen including a
2030, 2040, and 2050 with strategic opportunities for
production tax credit that has further boosted a U.S.
10 million metric tonnes (MMT) of clean hydrogen
market for clean hydrogen.
annually by 2030, 20 MMT annually by 2040, and 50
MMT annually by 2050. These values are based not
only the opportunity for clean hydrogen production
in the U.S., but on demand for clean hydrogen use
across sectors, informed by achieving market
competitiveness in specific applications. Using clean
hydrogen can reduce U.S. emissions approximately
10 percent by 2050 relative to 2005,1 consistent with
the U.S. Long-Term Climate Strategy.2 Third party
analysis in DOE’s Pathways to Commercial Liftoff
report estimates that by 2030, the hydrogen
economy could also result in 100,000 net new direct
and indirect jobs due to the build-out of new capital
projects and clean hydrogen infrastructure. These
jobs include both direct jobs like engineering and
construction, and indirect jobs like manufacturing
and raw material supply chains.3
U.S. Department of Energy

1
Realizing these opportunities for clean hydrogen will (3) Focus on regional networks. Investing in and
require lower cost of production, the buildout of scaling Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs will enable
midstream infrastructure, and increased hydrogen large-scale clean hydrogen production close to
demand in specific sectors where there are fewer high priority hydrogen users, allowing the sharing
cost-competitive or technically feasible alternatives of a critical mass of infrastructure. Also, these
for decarbonization. As hydrogen technologies investments will drive scale in production,
improve and costs fall, we will update this report with distribution, and storage to facilitate market
analyses assessing the economically and liftoff. Properly implemented, these regional
environmentally optimal use of hydrogen in key networks will create place-based opportunities for
sectors, the evolving landscape of production equity, inclusion, and sustainability. Priorities will
announcements and offtake contracts, how project include reducing environmental impacts, creating
developers are prioritizing energy and environmental jobs – including good-paying union jobs –
justice, and other related developments. securing long-term offtake contracts and
jumpstarting domestic manufacturing and private
This roadmap is based on prioritizing three key
sector investment.
strategies to ensure that clean hydrogen is
developed and adopted as an effective
While Congress required the U.S. Department of
decarbonization tool for maximum benefit to the
Energy (DOE) to develop this national strategy and
United States:
roadmap, activities will include collaboration
across multiple federal agencies including the U.S.
(1) Target strategic, high-impact uses for clean
Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Defense,
hydrogen. This will ensure that clean hydrogen
Energy, Interior, Labor, State, Transportation, and
will be utilized in the highest value applications,
Treasury, the Environmental Protection Agency, the
where limited deep decarbonization alternatives
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the
exist. Specific markets include the industrial sector
National Science Foundation, and the Office of
(e.g., chemicals, steel and refining), heavy-duty
Science and Technology Policy, in close coordination
transportation, and long-duration energy storage
with the Executive Office of the President.
to enable a clean grid. Additional longer-term
opportunities include the potential for exporting
clean hydrogen or hydrogen carriers and enabling
Federal agencies will also collaborate with
energy security for our allies.
industry, academia, national laboratories, local and
Tribal communities, the energy and environmental
(2) Reduce the cost of clean hydrogen. The
and justice communities, labor unions, and numerous
Hydrogen Energy Earthshot (Hydrogen Shot)
stakeholder groups to accelerate progress and
launched in 2021 will catalyze both innovation
market liftoff. This roadmap establishes concrete
and scale, stimulating private sector investments,
targets, market-driven metrics, and tangible actions
spurring development across the hydrogen
to measure success across sectors. Prioritizing
supply chain, and dramatically reducing the cost
community engagement and use of community
of clean hydrogen. Efforts will also address critical
benefits plans will also be key to address potential
material and supply chain vulnerabilities and
environmental concerns and ensure equity and
design for efficiency, durability, and recyclability.
justice for overburdened, underserved, and
Together with investment in midstream
underrepresented individuals and communities. The
infrastructure (storage, distribution), these
goals set forth in this strategy aim to deliver the
initiatives can reduce not only the production
maximum benefits of clean hydrogen to the
cost, but also the delivered cost, of clean
American people and the global community.
hydrogen.
U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

2
(iii) environmental risks associated with
Legislative Language potential deployment of clean hydrogen
This report responds to the legislative language set technologies in those regions, and ways to
forth in Section 40314 of the Infrastructure mitigate those risks;
Investment and Jobs Act (Public Law 117-58), also (d) approaches, including sub-strategies, that
known as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law, reflect geographic diversity across the country, to
specifically that which amends Title VIII of the Energy advance clean hydrogen based on resources,
Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT-2005) by adding Section industry sectors, environmental benefits, and
814 - National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and economic impacts in regional economies;
Roadmap. Section 814 states:
(e) identifying opportunities to use, and barriers
(A) DEVELOPMENT.— to using, existing infrastructure, including all
(1) IN GENERAL.—In carrying out the programs components of the natural gas infrastructure
established under sections 805 and 813, the system, the carbon dioxide pipeline infrastructure
Secretary, in consultation with the heads of relevant system, end-use local distribution networks, end-
offices of the Department, shall develop a use power generators, LNG terminals, and other
technologically and economically feasible national users of natural gas, for clean hydrogen
strategy and roadmap to facilitate widescale deployment;
production, processing, delivery, storage, and use (f) identifying the needs for and barriers and
of clean hydrogen. pathways to developing clean hydrogen hubs
(2) INCLUSIONS.—The national clean hydrogen (including, where appropriate, clean hydrogen
strategy and roadmap developed under paragraph hubs coupled with carbon capture, utilization, and
(1) shall focus on— storage hubs) that—
(a) establishing a standard of hydrogen (i) are regionally dispersed across the United
production that achieves the standard developed States and can leverage natural gas to the
under section 822(a), including interim goals maximum extent practicable;
towards meeting that standard;
(ii) can demonstrate the efficient production,
(b) processing, delivery, and use of clean hydrogen;
(i) clean hydrogen production and use from (iii) include transportation corridors and modes
natural gas, coal, renewable energy sources, of transportation, including transportation of
nuclear energy, and biomass; and clean hydrogen by pipeline and rail and
(ii) identifying potential barriers, pathways, and through ports; and
opportunities, including Federal policy needs, to (iv) where appropriate, could serve as joint
transition to a clean hydrogen economy; clean hydrogen and carbon capture, utilization,
(c) identifying— and storage hubs;
(i) economic opportunities for the production, (g) prioritizing activities that improve the ability
processing, transport, storage, and use of clean of the Department to develop tools to model,
hydrogen that exist in the major shale natural analyze, and optimize single-input, multiple-
gas-producing regions of the United States; output integrated hybrid energy systems and
multiple-input, multiple-output integrated hybrid
(ii) economic opportunities for the production, energy systems that maximize efficiency in
processing, transport, storage, and use of clean providing hydrogen, high-value heat, electricity,
hydrogen that exist for merchant nuclear power and chemical synthesis services;
plants operating in deregulated markets; and

3
(h) identifying the appropriate points of (B) REPORTS TO CONGRESS.—
interaction between and among Federal agencies
(1) IN GENERAL.—Not later than 180 days after the
involved in the production, processing, delivery,
date of enactment of the Infrastructure Investment
storage, and use of clean hydrogen and clarifying
and Jobs Act, the Secretary shall submit to
the responsibilities of those Federal agencies, and
Congress the clean hydrogen strategy and
potential regulatory obstacles and
roadmap developed under subsection (a).
recommendations for modifications, in order to
support the deployment of clean hydrogen; and (2) UPDATES.—The Secretary shall submit to
Congress updates to the clean hydrogen strategy
(i) identifying geographic zones or regions in
and roadmap under paragraph (1) not less
which clean hydrogen technologies could
frequently than once every 3 years after the date on
efficiently and economically be introduced in
which the Secretary initially submits the report and
order to transition existing infrastructure to rely
roadmap.”
on clean hydrogen, in support of decarbonizing
all relevant sectors of the economy.

4
Foreword
More than half a century ago, the U.S. moonshot the industrial sector would drive growth through
initiative put the first human beings on the moon, 2030 and that availability of infrastructure would
using hydrogen as a fuel for rocket propulsion and serve as a key inflection point.3 Modeling within the
American-made fuel cells on-board the spacecraft. Liftoff report also indicated that electrolysis has
Since then, the Nation has continued to be a world strong potential for growth as a means of hydrogen
leader in hydrogen and fuel cells. Federal agencies production, and large-scale growth in electrolysis
including the National Aeronautics and Space would create demand for other clean energy
Administration ; the U.S. Departments of Commerce, resources. For example, if over 90 percent of
Defense, Energy, and Transportation; the hydrogen is produced via electrolyis, in 2030, this
Environmental Protection Agency; and others have all production could require up to 200 GW of new
had decades of activities related to hydrogen renewables or use of about 50-70 GW of nuclear
technologies. Investments from government power.8 The country can strengthen its energy
agencies, such as the U.S. Department of Energy leadership, create significant new investment and job
(DOE) have resulted in more than 1,200 hydrogen opportunities, and help the world decarbonize by
and fuel cell patents, 30 commercial technologies, advancing and harnessing hydrogen technologies in
and more than 65 technologies that could be a sustainable, competitive, and equitable manner. The
commercial within the next several years.4 RDD&D Nation is in a unique position to lead, given its
funded by government with private sector cost share research, development, and deployment prowess,
has slashed the cost of hydrogen and fuel cell along with abundant supplies,of energy resources
technologies and resulted in thousands of including renewables, nuclear, fossil, waste, and other
commercially available systems in the market such as carbon-based resources coupled with carbon capture
forklifts, stationary power units, and electrolyzer and sequestration.
systems. Building off the moonshot and in response
Historic investments through the Bipartisan
to President Biden’s request to the Secretary of
Infrastructure Law and Inflation Reduction Act and
Energy to accelerate progress towards meeting the
the creation of this national strategy and roadmap for
Nation’s climate goals, DOE launched Hydrogen
clean hydrogen are spurring momentum towards
Shot with a bold and ambitious goal of “1 1 1”—$1
achieving the benefits of clean hydrogen.
per 1 kilogram of clean hydrogen in 1 decade—to
Acceleration is key to meeting our climate goals.
unlock the potential for hydrogen across sectors.5
However, this must be done in a strategic and
Accelerating the pace and scale of innovation in
holistic way, taking into consideration the potential
tandem with rapid, private sector uptake of clean
role of hydrogen within a portfolio of solutions to
hydrogen technologies, is now critical to meet the
tackle the climate crisis. Deployments depend on an
goals set forth in this national strategy.
understanding of optimal geographic regions where
If clean hydrogen is scaled globally, the hydrogen hydrogen may be most advantageous from an overall
industry has projected the potential for $2.5 trillion in emissions, resilience, equity, and sustainability
annual revenues and 30 million jobs globally, along perspective.
with 20 percent global emissions reductions by
This roadmap is one of the early steps in the process
2050.6 The United States already produces more than of acceleration. It is only the beginning and will set
10 percent of the global hydrogen supply and plays the stage for further updates and refinements as
an important role in developing the global hydrogen required in the BIL enactment, no less frequently than
economy.7 The recent DOE Report, Pathways to every three years.
Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen, described
several future U.S. market scenarios, emphasizing that

5
Introduction
The 2020s is a decisive decade for the world to adoption. Sectors that are difficult to decarbonize
confront climate change and avoid the worst and with traditional approaches are expected to become
irreversible impacts of the crisis by keeping the goal priority markets for clean hydrogen, such as
of a 1.5-degree Celsius limit on global average chemicals manufacturing, steel production, heavy-
temperature rise within reach.9 The Biden-Harris duty transportation, and production of liquid fuels.
Administration has established ambitious goals to Hydrogen is also seen as an enabling technology—
reduce greenhouse gas pollution from 2005 levels by enabling renewables through long-duration energy
50 to 52 percent in 2030 under the Paris Agreement, storage and offering flexibility and multiple revenue
create a carbon pollution-free power sector by 2035, streams to clean power generation such as today’s
and reach net-zero emissions no later than 2050.10,11 nuclear fleet as well as advanced nuclear and other
innovative technologies.
The White House also launched the landmark, first-
of-its-kind Justice40 Initiative, which pledges that at
least 40 percent of overall benefits from Federal
The U.S. National Clean Hydrogen
investments in climate and clean energy be delivered Strategy and Roadmap aligns with
to disadvantaged communities.12 Many vital the Administration’s goals,
hydrogen programs moving forward, including DOE’s including:
Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs Program, and the (1) A 50% to 52% reduction in U.S. GHG emissions
Clean Hydrogen Manufacturing and Recycling
from 2005 levels by 2030
Research, Development and Demonstration Program,
are included in the Justice40 Initiative.13 In addition, (2) 100% carbon pollution-free electricity by 2035
President Biden signed Executive Order 14025 (3) Net zero GHG emissions no later than 2050
declaring it the policy of the Administration “to (4) 40% of the benefits of Federal climate
encourage worker organizing and collective investments are delivered to disadvantaged
bargaining.” This is in response to the steady decline communities.
in union density in the United States, the loss of
worker power and voice in workplaces and
To unlock the market potential for clean hydrogen,
communities across the country, and the resulting
DOE launched the Hydrogen Energy Earthshot
consequences for American workers and the
(Hydrogen Shot)5 in June 2021, to reduce the cost of
economy, including weakening and shrinking
clean hydrogen by 80 percent to $1 per 1 kilogram in
America’s middle class. Hydrogen is an opportunity
1 decade (“1 1 1”). The Hydrogen Shot is the first of
to support a skilled workforce and union jobs across
DOE’s Energy Earthshots, which aim to accelerate
a range of sectors, including new opportunities for
breakthroughs of more abundant, affordable, and
workers transitioning from fossil energy employment
reliable clean energy solutions within the decade
and for individuals denied access to high-quality
while creating good-paying union jobs and growing
employment.
the economy.
Hydrogen is one part of a comprehensive portfolio of
energy technologies that can support the Nation’s
transition to net-zero while leveraging regional
resources and creating equitable and sustainable
growth. The development and use of hydrogen
technologies will take into consideration multiple
supply chain pathways across sectors for the most
efficient, affordable, and sustainable market Building on this momentum, the Infrastructure
Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA), also known as the

6
Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL), was signed by VIII of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 including the
President Biden on November 15, 2021, making a Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs, which directs DOE
once-in-a-generation investment in the Nation’s to select projects that “demonstrably aid the
infrastructure and competitiveness to deliver a more achievement” of the standard, and the Clean
equitable clean energy future for the American Hydrogen Research and Development Program,
people.14 Major investments made by the BIL will which directs DOE to establish a series of
accelerate progress toward the Hydrogen Shot and technology cost goals oriented toward achieving
stimulate new markets for clean hydrogen. These the standard.
investments and initiatives include: • National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and
Roadmap20: This provision requires DOE to
• $1 billion for a Clean Hydrogen Electrolysis develop a technologically and economically
Program15: This program will improve the feasible national strategy and roadmap to facilitate
efficiency and cost-effectiveness of electrolysis widescale production, processing, delivery,
technologies by supporting the entire innovation storage, and use of clean hydrogen, within 180
chain—from research, development, and days of the enactment of the BIL and to be
demonstration to commercialization and updated every three years after that.
deployment to enable $2/kg clean hydrogen from
electrolysis by 2026. Falling electrolyzer capital In addition to the BIL provisions above, IRA, signed
expenditures (capex) will be an essential driver of into law in August 2022, provides a Hydrogen
early cost-downs for clean hydrogen production Production Tax Credit (PTC) that will further
via electrolysis. incentivize the production of clean hydrogen in the
• $500 million for Clean Hydrogen U.S.21 IRA also supports the development of demand
Manufacturing and Recycling RDD&D sectors for clean hydrogen through additional
Activities16: This effort will also support American programs, including:
manufacturing of clean hydrogen equipment,
including projects that improve efficiency and • Grants and loans for auto manufacturing facilities
cost-effectiveness and support domestic supply to manufacture clean vehicles, including fuel cell
chains for key components. electric vehicles (FCEVs);22
• $8 billion for Regional Clean Hydrogen
• Grants for industrial demonstration projects,
Hubs17: This provision enables the demonstration
including hydrogen technologies for the industrial
and development of networks of clean hydrogen
producers, potential consumers, and connective sector;23
infrastructure. These hubs will advance the
• Loans to help retool, repower, repurpose, or
production, processing, delivery, storage, and end-
use of clean hydrogen, enabling sustainable and replace energy infrastructure to avoid, reduce,
equitable regional benefits as well as market utilize, or sequester air pollutants or
uptake. Full applications for the Regional Clean anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases; 24
Hydrogen Hubs funding announcement were due
April 7th, 2023, and the selection notifications are • Competitive tax credits for facilities that
expected in Fall 2023.18 manufacture hydrogen and fuel cell technologies,
• Clean Hydrogen Production Standard19: This including fuel cell vehicles and fueling
provision calls for the development of a clean infrastructure;25
hydrogen production standard that is to be a
point of reference for specified programs under • A tax credit for producing sustainable aviation
the BIL. The Clean Hydrogen Production Standard fuels26 and a technology-neutral tax credit for
serves as a guide to actions DOE takes under Title

7
clean fuels,27 which can include hydrogen Section A outlines the overarching long-term national
feedstock in the production process; strategy for the United States to achieve its climate
goals. It provides a snapshot of hydrogen production
• Grants to reduce emissions at ports, which could and use in the United States today and the
fund deployments of fuel cells;28,29 opportunity clean hydrogen could potentially provide
• Grants for clean heavy-duty vehicles, including in contributing to national goals across sectors.
FCEVs;30 and Pathways for clean hydrogen to decarbonize
• Incentives for the deployment of carbon dioxide applications are informed by demand scenarios for
capture, utilization, and storage.31 2030, 2040, and 2050 – with strategic
opportunities for 10 million metric tonnes
(MMT) per year of clean hydrogen by 2030, 20
The U.S. National Clean Hydrogen MMT per year by 2040, and 50 MMT per year by
Strategy Vision: “Affordable clean 2050. These scenarios are based on achieving cost
hydrogen for a net-zero carbon competitiveness (produced and delivered) to enable
future and a sustainable, resilient, demand in specific sectors and can be bolstered by
and equitable economy.” compliance-driven and other demand-side initiatives.
High priority sectors are those with few
DOE prepared this U.S. National Clean Hydrogen decarbonization alternatives (e.g., decarbonization
Strategy and Roadmap by collaborating with other through direct electrification or the use of biofuels).
Federal agencies and other stakeholders to identify As technologies and markets develop, more detailed
key actions the Nation should take to enable analyses will be forthcoming in the required updates
successful market adoption of clean hydrogen to this document, including the optimal sectors for
technologies in support of a net-zero GHG emission hydrogen use, the evolving landscape of production
economy by 2050. announcements & offtake contracts, and an
exploration of how project developers are prioritizing
The roadmap builds on three decades of DOE
energy and environmental justice.
strategy, in collaboration with other agencies, that
has guided funding to National Laboratories, Section B describes the challenges to realizing the
industry, and academia toward research, benefits of hydrogen in the United States and three
development, demonstration, and deployment primary strategies to address them: (1) Focus on
(RDD&D) activities that have enabled the hard-to-decarbonize sectors for the use of clean
commercialization of hydrogen and fuel cell hydrogen, (2) Reduce the produced and delivered
technologies. The Department’s 2020 Hydrogen cost of clean hydrogen, and (3) Focus on regional
Program Plan32 described its strategy for coordinated networks, in the near-term by co-locating large-scale
RDD&D activities that enable the adoption of clean hydrogen production and end-use, including
hydrogen technologies across multiple applications through Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs to enable
and sectors. The U.S. national strategy and roadmap critical mass common carrier infrastructure, drive
are informed by DOE’s Hydrogen Program Plan, scale, and facilitate market liftoff, that centers and
activities across agencies, multiple analysis activities, leverages place-based opportunities for equity,
and the industry-led U.S. hydrogen roadmap inclusion, and sustainability. This section also
published in 202033 and further builds upon tools, describes pathways to clean hydrogen production,
models, and prior work by diverse stakeholders to distribution, and storage and their associated costs
evaluate the growth potential and impacts of new today and in the future. Maps in this section illustrate
hydrogen markets (e.g., DOE’s report, Pathways to resource, infrastructure, and demand potential in
Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen3). regions across the United States.
This report comprises three sections: Section C describes the set of actions that can
support and develop the industry in the near, mid,

8
and long-term, alongside guiding principles and improving air quality. These benefits can foster
metrics to measure progress. diversity, equity, and inclusion and worker
empowerment and collective bargaining when
This strategy will leverage U.S. strengths in RDD&D
projects are coupled with meaningful stakeholder
and manufacturing innovation and ingenuity to
engagement and ongoing support. Long-term
reduce emissions, increase U.S. energy independence,
strategies include a U.S. leadership role in enabling
and build a robust domestic market for clean
energy security and resilience with clean hydrogen.
hydrogen supported by domestic supply chains and
The National Hydrogen Strategy approaches
sustainable, quality jobs, including good-paying
hydrogen RDD&D holistically, leveraging place-based
union jobs. The strategy also targets initiatives to
approaches to maximize positive benefits to the
create new regional economic opportunities while
Nation and the world.
reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and

9
A: National Decarbonization Goals
The time is now for strategic, bold, and concrete its 2030 Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)
action to meet the ambitious goals set by the United toward global climate objectives—an ambitious 50 to
States to tackle the climate crisis. These goals include 52 percent reduction relative to 2005 emissions, as
100 percent carbon pollution-free electricity by 2035 visualized in Figure 1. Meeting this ambition is only
and net-zero GHG emissions by 2050.34 The U.S. achievable through an all-hands-on-deck call to
national climate strategy35 lays out a long-term action and a portfolio of technologies and strategies
approach and pathways for the United States to meet to accelerate scale.
Figure 1: U.S. economy-wide net greenhouse gas emissions. A net-zero system will require transformative
technologies to be deployed across sectors.35
Achieving net-zero emissions economy-wide by 2050 As shown in Figure 2, each of these sectors
requires transformational advances in energy contributes substantially to annual U.S. greenhouse
infrastructure and many other sectors of the gas emissions, and each sector’s decarbonization
economy. Clean hydrogen can serve as a key enabler strategy will be dependent on its numerous sub-
of our goal due to its versatility and potential to sectors, which have distinct operating requirements,
complement other clean technologies in three of the cost/performance targets, and decarbonization
most energy and emissions-intensive sectors in the drivers.
United States: industry, transportation, and electricity
generation.

10
Figure 2: U.S. net greenhouse gas emissions projected to 2050 (horizontal bars),36 relative to national goals to
enable a clean grid and net zero emissions by 2050 (dashed lines). Transition to a net-zero economy will
require portfolio of strategies, including decarbonization of electricity, electrification and clean fuels; reduction
in waste; reduction of non-CO2 emissions, such as methane; and scale-up of CO2 removal, such as through land
carbon sinks.11
Hydrogen, as a versatile energy carrier and chemical environmental and energy justice and equity. The
feedstock, offers advantages that can also leverage all clean hydrogen strategy also supports the
our Nation’s energy resources—renewables, nuclear, Administration’s Justice40 Initiative, which pledges
and fossil fuels with carbon capture and storage that at least 40 percent of overall benefits from
(CCS)—and can couple high-capacity factor firm Federal investments in climate and clean energy be
power with variable generation to offer resilience and delivered to disadvantaged communities.12
energy storage. It can then be used as a fuel or
The strategies and pathways will be designed to
feedstock for applications that lack competitive and
benefit all Americans, not only in terms of emissions
efficient clean alternatives.
reduction but also in public health, economic growth,
Though there are many opportunities for hydrogen, jobs – including good-paying union jobs, and
an integral component of our strategy will be a improving quality of life.
holistic approach that includes addressing

11
H2@Scale Enabler for Deep Decarbonization
Figure 3: DOE’s H2@Scale initiative to enable decarbonization across sectors using clean hydrogen.37
As shown in Figure 3, which illustrates the rely on conventional natural gas to hydrogen
H2@Scale® vision launched in 2016 by DOE and its technologies (without CCS). EPA proposes that
National Laboratories, clean hydrogen can be hydrogen co-firing with natural gas is the best system
produced from diverse domestic resources and used of emissions reduction for certain subcategories of
across sectors.37 Production can be centralized or fossil fuel powered plants, and it would be among
decentralized, grid-connected or off-grid, offering compliance options for CO2 emission limits on fossil
scalability, versatility, and regionality. Clean hydrogen fuel-fired power plants under Section 111 of the
provides more options across sectors and can Clean Air Act.38 While these industries can rapidly
complement today’s conventional grid and natural generate scale and create near-term impact in terms
gas infrastructure. Rather than only “electrons to of emissions reductions, concerted efforts must be
electrons” pathways such as the electric grid to made to solicit and address community concerns
batteries, hydrogen can be stored and used where around NOx emissions, safety and leakage detection.
electrification may be challenging. Increased transparency must include acknowledging
these potential risks while juxtaposing them with the
Several technologies can produce clean hydrogen,
extensive safety training, monitoring and detection
including electrolyzers powered by the Nation’s
technologies that have been developed. This kind of
growing share of clean energy, methane reformation
community engagement will be a critical part of the
with carbon capture and storage, gasification, or
process for deploying new hydrogen technologies
thermal conversion of biomass and/or solid wastes
that can displace fossil fuels in other sectors. These
with carbon capture and storage, and many other
initial use-cases are also frequently co-located,
emerging technologies. Initial deployments using
meaning they can capitalize on low-cost hydrogen
clean hydrogen are expected to leverage regional
production without incurring midstream
energy resources and target industries that currently
distribution/storage costs. As regional infrastructure

12
scales and distribution/storage costs fall, more potential role of clean hydrogen in global energy
nascent and distributed clean hydrogen use cases will systems, though estimates vary significantly, as
offer attractive return on investment. shown in Figure 4. Countries that have identified
hydrogen as part of their decarbonization strategy
Policymakers worldwide recognize the need to
also see hydrogen’s role as enabling energy security
complement electrification strategies with fuels like
and resilience.
clean hydrogen. Numerous studies show the
Figure 4: The range of hydrogen’s role in final energy use according to global and regional estimates shows a
wide range of applications in each sector. 39
The actions laid out in this roadmap will bolster decrease by approximately 10 percent relative to
rigorous analytical models and frameworks and foster 2005 levels when all hydrogen is cleanly produced.
global collaboration to determine the best use of
As analyses continue to be refined and optimized,
hydrogen and maximize impact.
government agencies will continue to assess the
Based on several models and analyses for the United cleanest, most sustainable pathways for
States, Figure 5 lays out the opportunity for hydrogen production through end-use, with
hydrogen, increasing clean hydrogen production particular emphasis on place-based and regional
from nearly zero today to 10 MMT per year by benefits.
2030, 20 MMT per year by 2040, and 50 MMT
per year by 2050. Although clearly ambitious, these
goals are achievable and are based on demand
scenarios assuming cost competitiveness for
hydrogen use in specific sectors such as industrial
applications, heavy-duty transportation, and long-
duration energy storage. By achieving a 5-fold
increase in hydrogen production and utilization by
2050, total GHG emissions in the United States could Figure 5: The opportunity for clean hydrogen in the
United States.

13
Hydrogen Production and Use in the United States
Clean hydrogen can be produced through various to power 1.2 million households for a week. Outside
pathways, including water-splitting using renewable of petroleum and fertilizer production, hydrogen use
or nuclear power, from fossil fuels with carbon is now making its way into other end-use
capture and storage, and biomass or waste applications. These include more than 50,000 fuel cell
feedstocks. Other pathways in earlier stages of forklifts,4 nearly 50 open retail hydrogen fueling
development include thermochemical, biological, and stations, over 80 fuel cell buses, more than 15,000
photoelectrochemical processes. The emissions fuel cell vehicles, and over 500 megawatts (MW) of
intensity of each of these pathways depends on key fuel cells for stationary and backup power (e.g., for
variables, such as carbon capture, methane leak rates telecommunications), as detailed in Figure 7.
or fugitive emissions, and the use of clean electricity.
Industry produces about 10 MMT of hydrogen per
year in the United States,7 compared to roughly 94
MMT per year globally,40 mostly for the petroleum
refining, ammonia, and the chemical industry. Some
of that hydrogen is produced and used at the same
facility, so the total hydrogen consumption can be
modestly higher.7 Figure 6 shows the allocation of
hydrogen use across sectors in 2021. Today, U.S.
hydrogen production generates about 100 MMT of
greenhouse gas (tonnes of CO2-equivalent) per year
on a well-to-gate basis.41
Figure 6: Consumption of hydrogen in the United

States by end-use in 2021 42
To support these industries, the United States
currently has approximately 1,600 miles of dedicated
hydrogen pipeline43 and three geological caverns, Figure 7: Examples of hydrogen and fuel cell
including the world’s largest, which can store 350 technology deployments in the United States.
gigawatt-hours (GWh) of thermal energy44 or enough

14
Flagship projects in industry and energy storage are will replace fossil fuels in applications such as heavy-
also putting the United States on the global map in duty trucks and forklifts.48
terms of hydrogen deployment. The Intermountain
Several states and regions across the Nation are
Power Project being built in Utah will include 840
actively pursuing clean hydrogen projects, ranging
MW of power generation using blends of natural gas
from production through end-use. The pace of new
and hydrogen produced via electrolysis.45 In project announcements is accelerating. The values
Louisiana, the Clean Energy Complex will use shown in Figure 8 reflect a snapshot of projects
methane reforming with CCS at a 95 percent capture announced or operational by (a) December 2022 and
rate to supply clean hydrogen to regional markets (b) May 2023 based on publicly available information
and to export globally. This project will also be the and DOE-funded project data. Securing long-term,
world’s largest carbon capture for sequestration credit-worthy offtake contracts will help ensure the
operation, sequestering more than 5 MMT of CO2 per significant pipeline of production announcements
year.46 In Texas, Air Products and AES are teaming up reaches final investment decision. If all announced
to build a hydrogen production plant producing over projects proceed through to final investment,
200 metric tons of hydrogen per day by electrolysis construction, and commissioning by 2030, these
powered by 1.4 GW of renewable wind and solar projects would create clean hydrogen supply of 12
electricity. The hydrogen from this project will serve MMT/year, surpassing the DOE goal. However, many
growing demand for zero-carbon fuels.47 As another of the projects await a final investment decision.
example, in New York, Plug Power is building a clean Securing long-term, credit-worthy offtake contracts
hydrogen plant which will use a 120 MW electrolyzer will help ensure the significant pipeline of production
to produce approximately 45 metric tons of hydrogen announcements reaches final investment decision.
per day using hydropower. The hydrogen produced
(a) Currently publicly announced clean hydrogen production projects as of EOY 2022, with total production
potential of 12 MMT/year. (Repurposed from DOE’s report, Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen3)

15
(b) Planned and installed PEM electrolyzer capacity over 1 MW. Bubbles are for illustrative purposes only and
not drawn to scale. 49
Figure 8: Examples of announced clean hydrogen technology deployments in the United States.

16
Opportunities for Clean Hydrogen to Support Net-
Zero
As shown in Figure 9, today’s commercial availability Over time, the growth of clean hydrogen supply
of hydrogen technologies is limited. New applications across these sectors may also spur the deployment of
for clean hydrogen in the coming decade, however, large-scale distribution infrastructure that connects
could include several opportunities, including heavy- regions of low-cost supply with large-scale demand.
duty transportation, the production of liquid fuels for In all cases, forming regional networks will depend on
marine and aviation applications, steelmaking, and understanding optimal geographic regions where
glass manufacturing. It will be important to prioritize hydrogen may be most advantageous from an overall
hydrogen deployment where other high-efficiency emissions, resilience, resources, and sustainability
and low-cost options, such as electrification, are less perspective. If regional networks prioritize shared,
likely to occur. As additional energy technologies open-access infrastructure they can help to reduce
advance and the entire energy system decarbonizes, the delivered cost of hydrogen by lowering transport
new demands for hydrogen may emerge, including and storage costs. Government agencies will solicit
long-duration energy storage to enable a carbon input and feedback from communities impacted by
pollution-free electric grid or stationary heat and legacy fossil infrastructure and climate change.
power generation, including combined heat and Further elaboration of stakeholder engagement
power using fuel cells and other low- or zero- processes and actions for advancing energy and
emission technologies. environmental justice is in Section C.
Figure 9: Current and emerging demands for hydrogen.50

17
The BIL requires DOE to develop a program to provides a conservative view of market demand
demonstrate Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs, defined potential.
as a network of clean hydrogen producers, clean
Figure 10 depicts the price range at which hydrogen
hydrogen consumers, and connective infrastructure
would be competitive with incumbent fuels (such as
located “in close proximity” to each other.17 Co- diesel, natural gas, or coal) in various applications and
location of hydrogen supply and demand can reduce the approximate time frame at which large-scale
the need for new long-distance infrastructure, deployments of clean hydrogen are expected to
lowering the cost of early market growth until large- occur in each sector. The “willingness to pay” for each
scale, stable demand develops regionally and application reflects the total price at which hydrogen
nationally. Federal, state, and local stakeholders can must be available to the end-user, including the cost
support the deployment of clean hydrogen through of production, distribution, and additional
targeted regional outreach and the creation of conditioning onsite, such as compression, storage,
networking opportunities, such as DOE’s H2 and dispensing. Importantly, each sector has different
Matchmaker online portal launched in January onsite requirements. While some sectors, such as
2022.51 transportation, have a higher willingness to pay,
The BIL also requires Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs infrastructure requirements, such as compression and
to target, “to the maximum extent practicable,” dispensing at fueling stations and the potential need
specific end-use sectors —including, for example, for liquefaction, can contribute significantly to the
power generation, industry, and transportation. In total cost of hydrogen experienced by the end-user.
many applications within these sectors, the use of In the U.S., the niche market for fuel cell forklifts,
clean hydrogen can enable a 40-90 percent reduction catalyzed by the American Recovery and
in cradle-to-grave emissions by displacing incumbent Reinvestment Act (ARRA) in 2009, paved the way for
fossil fuels.52 The magnitude of reductions in each more than 50,000 fuel cell forklifts at commercial
sector varies widely, depending on the performance warehouses around the Nation and over 115 forklift
of the incumbent technology and other alternatives fueling stations.53 These applications can be
available for decarbonization. In addition, DOE’s competitive at higher hydrogen costs due to faster
report, Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Clean fueling times, higher operational throughput, and less
Hydrogen, indicates that hydrogen can play a critical space required versus battery forklifts. Fuel cell trucks
role in net-zero grid resilience with increasing and buses offer another opportunity for early market
renewable penetration.3 adoption; however, based on rigorous analysis54 and
industry feedback through prior workshops and
Scenario and Tipping Point Analyses critical reviews of lab and DOE publications, the total
For clean hydrogen to be competitive from a long- cost to the end-user, including infrastructure, needs
term sustainable market perspective, it must be to reach about $5/kg. Other markets—such as
available below a minimum threshold price point, biofuels, chemicals, and steel—require lower costs to
depending on the fuel and processes its use would be competitive in the long term. The current cost of
displace in each sector. In practice, particularly during clean hydrogen production and the Hydrogen Shot
the transition before cost parity is achieved, cost target for clean hydrogen production (not
hydrogen can also provide value such as grid including downstream infrastructure such as delivery,
services, arbitrage, or flexibility of fuels used in power storage, and dispensing) are depicted in this figure
generation. However, a cost-based perspective for context.

18
Figure 10: Willingness to pay, or threshold price, for clean hydrogen in several current and emerging sectors
(including production, delivery, and conditioning onsite, such as additional compression, storage, cooling,
and/or dispensing).55 Current costs of hydrogen production depicted to not include impacts of regulatory
incentives, such as those in IRA.
The amount of hydrogen demand at the respective uncertainty in other variables such as fuel cell cost,
threshold cost in each of these sectors will depend on efficiency, durability, on-board hydrogen storage, and
the extent to which other competing and incumbent infrastructure, as well as the cost of incumbent fuels
technologies and fuels evolve. The willingness to pay and technologies, analyses will continue to be
will also depend on policies to require or incentivize refined. However, these results indicate large
emissions reductions, including federal requirements potential volumes for clean hydrogen demand,
for new power plants and state mandates for assuming DOE targets for clean hydrogen costs are
emission limits. met.
Figure 11, below, depicts scenarios for the demand Tax credits and financing available through the IRA
expected in each sector if clean hydrogen is available have the potential to support deployment of FCEVs
(produced, delivered, and dispensed) at the threshold that can support demand creation. IRA appropriated
price shown. For instance, approximately $5/kg for
a $2 billion grant and $3 billion loan program for
hydrogen produced, delivered, compressed, and
auto manufacturing facilities to manufacture clean
dispensed would pave the way for early adopters in
the fuel cell truck market. 54 At approximately $4/kg, vehicles, including FCEVs.22 EPA will administer
scenario analyses have shown that 10-14 percent of additional IRA-created programs, including a $1
all medium and heavy-duty fuel cell trucks would billion grant program for clean heavy-duty vehicles,
demand about 5-8 MMT/year of hydrogen.56 The including fuel cell trucks,30 and $2.25 billion for
lighter shaded bars represent a more optimistic reducing emissions at ports, which can include
demand scenario for each market shown. Given the financing FCEV drayage equipment.28

19
Figure 11: Scenarios showing estimates of potential clean hydrogen demand in key sectors of transportation,
industry, and the grid, assuming hydrogen is available at the corresponding threshold cost.
enabling at least 20 MMT per year by 2040 and 50

MMT per year by 2050. The clean hydrogen
production tax credit, passed as part of the Inflation
Reduction Act, will bring down costs of production
and accelerate economies of scale, making the
threshold hydrogen price within reach for more
applications.
In addition to hydrogen and fuel cells for the trucking
sector, hydrogen will also be an essential feedstock to
biofuels, including sustainable aviation fuels (SAF)
and power-to-liquid fuels, that could decarbonize
offroad vehicles and applications where direct
electrification or fuel cells may not be competitive. If
the U.S. replaces all jet fuel consumption with SAF by
2050, approximately 2-6 MMT/year of hydrogen
Figure 12: Deployments of clean hydrogen to could be required to produce 35 billion gallons of
decarbonize industry, transportation, and the power SAF from biofuels.57 An additional 6 MMT/year would
grid can enable 10 MMT/year of demand by 2030,
be required to produce 4 billion gallons of power-to-
~20 MMT/year of demand by 2040, and ~50 MMT in
liquid fuels using 44 MMT of carbon dioxide
2050.
(approximately the amount of concentrated CO2
Other current, emerging, and future markets with currently available from ethanol plants in the United
higher ranges of uncertainty today, such as hydrogen States).58
exports, power-to-liquid fuels, specialty chemicals,
Two new tax credits were created by the IRA will
and petroleum refining could generate additional
support the creation of the SAF industry in the US
demand. Figure 12 depicts potential scenarios for
and support Biden Administration goals. The 40B tax
end-use of clean hydrogen in 2030, 2040, and 2050,

20
credit provides up to $1.75 per gallon for SAF that alternative processes, CCS, and other low carbon
have lower lifecycle emissions reductions compared fuels. High concentrations of hydrogen are needed to
to petroleum-based jet fuel.26 The credit is available achieve significant abatement of emissions since the
until 2025. After 2025, SAF producers can claim 45Z energy content of hydrogen is only about a third of
credits (though the same facility cannot also claim natural gas by volume. Some applications will use 100
45V credits for hydrogen production). The growth of percent hydrogen to fully decarbonize. Federal
the SAF industry can create demand for clean funding is being provided to support RD&D for
hydrogen, which can lower process emissions of SAF industrial burners that can use up to 100 percent
production.59 hydrogen and maintain low NOx emissions.63 Life
cycle analysis within the HyBlend initiative will
Hydrogen can also play a key role in decarbonizing
characterize the decarbonization potential of blends,
the industrial sector to enable a net-zero economy by
accounting for different approaches to producing
2050, including steelmaking, chemicals, and high-
hydrogen.
temperature industrial heat generation. Depending
on the evolution of competing options, the use of Achieving the Administration’s goals for a 100
hydrogen in iron refining could account for 10-20 percent clean electricity grid will create demand for
percent of steelmaking in 2050, enabling about 1-3 long-duration energy storage (LDES), where
MMT/year of clean hydrogen demand.60 An hydrogen can also play a key role. Estimates of the
additional 4-5 MMT/year of clean hydrogen could be magnitude of LDES required in a clean grid have high
consumed by ammonia plants to decarbonize all variability, depending on the degree of electrification,
domestic demand for conventional uses, such as buildout of transmission lines, and the rate at which
fertilizer production.58 Since hydrogen is an essential other offsetting technologies, such as direct air
feedstock for ammonia production, and using clean capture, are deployed. Based on a range of studies
sources would therefore be necessary for with varying assumptions around these constraints, it
decarbonization, the ammonia market is expected to is estimated that about 4-8 MMT/year of hydrogen
be one of the early opportunities for creating large- would be needed in 2050 to supply energy storage
scale demand for clean hydrogen. Ammonia is a and power generation for a 100 percent clean grid.64
commodity chemical used for fertilizers as well as Further, hydrogen can support carbon reductions in
other specialty chemicals. It can also be used as a other power sector applications; EPA proposes to
hydrogen carrier, potentially allowing diverse market include hydrogen co-firing with natural gas as a
adoption that leverages existing infrastructure. compliance option for CO2 emission limits on fossil
fuel-fired power plants under Section 111 of the
In the methanol sector, alternatives to clean
Clean Air Act.38
hydrogen include deploying CCS technologies with
conventional fossil feedstocks or using biomass It should be emphasized that these are all cost-driven
feedstock. If clean hydrogen were used for half of the demand scenarios to enable reaching net-zero by
U.S. methanol supply in 2050, 1-3 MMT/year would 2050, and there is scope for flexibility in the volumes
be required to satisfy demand.61 In addition to its of hydrogen described above for each sector. Initial
chemical properties, hydrogen can support large-scale deployments of clean hydrogen are
decarbonization by displacing natural gas in sectors expected to target industries with established supply
that require high-temperature heat, an application chains and economies of scale, such as ammonia
that is difficult to electrify. The use of pure hydrogen production and the petrochemical industry. These
or blends of clean hydrogen and natural gas for 20- deployments will be supplemented with smaller-scale
50 percent of industrial heating duty for high- deployments in new applications and growing sectors
temperature heat (>550°C) for chemicals and as the infrastructure develops. Based on the success
steelmaking would generate approximately 1-3 of early deployments and the momentum provided
MMT/year of demand.62The remainder of high-grade by the Hydrogen Shot, the United States has an
industrial heating can be decarbonized through opportunity to achieve aggressive growth in clean

21
hydrogen supply to 20 MMT/year by 2040 and 50
MMT/year by 2050, as shown in Figure 12. This
demand-based opportunity can be achieved even
while focusing hydrogen on decarbonizing key
sectors of the economy that cannot be easily
electrified and can help integrate renewables into a
clean grid.
While Figure 12 depicts scenarios of demand growth,
the demands that ultimately materialize may vary due
to a wide range of market forces, policies (such as the
production tax credit for clean hydrogen created by
the Inflation Reduction Act) and regulations, and
evolutions in technology performance and costs
feasible by 2050. A sensitivity analysis accounting for
these variables is depicted in Figure 13. In each
Figure 13: Ranges in potential hydrogen demand in
sector, the “core range” reflects the amount of
2050 in five key sectors: transportation, biofuels and
hydrogen demand estimated for 2040 and 2050 (as
power-to-liquid fuels, industry, blending, and energy
shown in Figure 12), while the “additional scenarios”
storage and grid balancing.
reflect demands under other technology or market
conditions. Factors relating to potential investment The range of hydrogen in natural gas blending
returns and capital availability to finance clean reflects its use to decarbonize industrial heat. The
hydrogen are available in DOE’s report, Pathways to lower bound of the sensitivity range assumes that 10
Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen. percent hydrogen by volume is used in industrial
In transportation, the additional scenarios depict sectors consuming heat at > 550°C, while the upper
varying assumptions regarding the cost of hydrogen bound assumes that 50 percent hydrogen by volume
fuel. For biofuels and power-to-liquid fuels, the is used in industrial sectors consuming heat at
ranges reflect approaches to optimize biofuel >300°C.65
production from different feedstocks and variability In the power sector, the factors affecting hydrogen
in demand for power-to-liquid fuels, assuming up to use are complex and interdependent. Hydrogen is
6 MMT H2 per year could be used for power-to-liquid one option for providing flexible, reliable, and
fuels as described above. For industrial applications, dispatchable power through combustion and co-
the low end of the range assumes that ammonia is firing as well as long-duration energy storage,
the only market sector that adopts clean hydrogen. including in the form of renewable natural gas,
The high end assumes ammonia, steelmaking, and ammonia, and other fuels. The emissions benefit of
methanol production adopt clean hydrogen to a these energy carriers varies, however, depending on
degree consistent with the ranges described above, how these carriers are produced, distributed, and
and that clean hydrogen is additionally used for utilized. Even if hydrogen itself is not the storage
petroleum refining at the same rate that steam medium for energy, renewable natural gas, and other
methane reforming (SMR) is used for this sector chemical storage media, such as ammonia or
today (~6 MMT/year, as shown in Figure 6. Additional synthetic fuels, would require clean hydrogen.
demand for ammonia, methanol, or other chemical Electrolyzers can also dynamically respond to
hydrogen carriers for potential export of hydrogen fluctuations in renewable power, thereby providing
are not included in these values. grid services in addition to energy storage. Large
buildouts of wind, solar, nuclear, and other zero-
emission power are needed to develop a clean grid.
Still, hydrogen and other technologies can provide

22
flexible integration of clean generation with a highly IRA Clean Hydrogen PTC
electrified, resilient, and equitable power system. The The clean hydrogen PTC, included in the IRA, offers a
range of potential demands for hydrogen energy range of credit values based on the carbon intensity
storage and electric generation on the grid draws of the production pathway, with up to $3/kg for
from several studies that modeled a clean grid with hydrogen with well-to-gate emissions less than 0.45
varying levels of electrification and demand side kg CO2e/kg H2, conditional on meeting the prevailing
flexibility.66 wage and apprenticeship requirements. Figure 14:
The range of clean hydrogen use will depend on Breakeven timing for hydrogen with the clean
various challenges to market adoption. These near- hydrogen production tax credit vs. conventional
term challenges include securing long-term offtake, alternative (Repurposed from DOE’s report, Pathways
lack of cost-effective midstream infrastructure, and to Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen3) shows
pressure to scale the hydrogen workforce. For example breakeven points for best-in-class projects.
electrolysis, the required spike in domestic The PTC can pull forward breakeven times for clean
electrolyzer production also presents a hurdle. For hydrogen versus traditional, fossil alternatives for
reformation with CCS, development of regional CO2 certain end uses, particularly industrial applications
networks and storage is a major challenge. By such as ammonia and steel.1 This analysis shows that
lowering these barriers, including an emphasis on states with additional incentives such as a low carbon
addressing energy and environmental justice, clean fuel standard (LCFS) can enable fuel cell trucks to be
hydrogen can be deployed safely and rapidly to lower competitive before 2025. These initial estimates will
emissions in hard-to-decarbonize sectors. continue to be refined as agencies receive industry
input as projects get underway.
Figure 14: Breakeven timing for hydrogen with the clean hydrogen production tax credit vs. conventional
alternative (Repurposed from DOE’s report, Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen3)
1
This analysis from the Liftoff report is for new build DRI.
Industry feedback suggests breakeven may be even earlier
in some cases.

23
Challenges to Achieving the Benefits of Clean
Hydrogen
Clean hydrogen technology costs have already been Cost to end user 22%
substantially reduced and many production pathways
are commercial. However, components and Need for sufficient
infrastructure
19%
integrated systems (e.g., PEM electrolyzers ~100 MW)
Public awareness/
are still in the early stages of scale-up and 17%
understanding
commercial deployment. To accelerate the domestic
Need for technology
clean hydrogen economy, some important challenges advancements
11%
remain. These remaining challenges include lack of Lack of incentives
ubiquitous hydrogen distribution infrastructure, lack for companies
8%
of manufacturing at scale, cost, durability, reliability, Competing
and availability challenges in the supply base across technologies
6%
the entire value chain.67 At present, producers also

Safety concerns 6%
struggle to find offtakers with sufficient hydrogen
demand sited within an affordable distance to Lack of suitable
end uses
5%
hydrogen production who are willing to sign long-
Lack of gov. support
term contracts. Stakeholders on the production, 5%
for R&D
demand, and financing sides highlight hesitancy to
commit resources due to lack of price transparency
Figure 15: Stakeholder identification of potential
and risks in clean hydrogen supply. Regulatory drivers
barriers preventing widespread public acceptance
at the state and federal level could help provide these
and market adoption of hydrogen in the United
long-term demand signals. Catalyzing long-term
States in September 2021. This stakeholder input was
offtake would ensure that clean hydrogen production
gathered prior to the passage of IRA which contains
projects break ground while tax credits are active,
substantial government incentives for clean hydrogen
allowing for production cost-downs in the 2020s and
production.
early 2030s. See DOE’s Pathways to Commercial
Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen report for further detail.3 The levelized cost of hydrogen must be reduced
Stakeholder input continuously identifies the cost of significantly. For example, based on analysis in 2020,
clean hydrogen as a key challenge for achieving the cost of clean hydrogen using proton exchange (or
economic scale. At DOE's Hydrogen Shot Summit in polymer electrolyte) membrane (PEM) electrolysis can
September 2021, attended by more than 3,000 be over $5/kg when using renewable electricity.69
stakeholders from 34 countries, multiple challenges Furthermore, the cost of electrolysis depends heavily
were identified to the question posed regarding on the cost of electricity used. Hydrogen from low-
“what is preventing widespread public acceptance volume PEM electrolysis requires an 80 percent
and market adoption of hydrogen in the United reduction in cost to achieve the Hydrogen Shot goals
States?”68 As shown in Figure 15, cost was the most and to be competitive.5 While advanced and high-
widely selected barrier, but the lack of infrastructure temperature electrolyzers are progressing, challenges
and the need for public awareness and acceptance to market adoption include the cost, durability, and
were also identified as major challenges. Incentives in scale of manufacturing capacity. Additionally, high-
the BIL and IRA are expected to drive meaningful temperature electrolysis requires integration and
progress down the cost curve within the decade. optimization with thermal sources such as nuclear
plants to increase the efficiencies for hydrogen
production and electricity generation.

24
In addition to hydrogen production costs, challenges mass compared to gasoline,73 the volumetric energy
in hydrogen transport—such as pipelines, tube density of gaseous hydrogen is very low, making it
trailers, liquefaction, siting, permitting, and materials difficult to store, particularly in compact containers or
compatibility—need to be addressed. For instance, tanks. The weight and volume of hydrogen storage
operational data from California show that the systems need to be reduced, as well as cost, with
delivered cost of hydrogen to fueling stations, targets varying depending on the application. While
including compressing and dispensing, for fueling safety has been demonstrated in thousands of
vehicles can be more than $13/kg70 − more than commercial systems and through rigorous testing,
three times higher than the cost required to be continual effort will enable safety and apply best
competitive.71,72 Additionally, permitting practices.
requirements can vary widely throughout the country While compressed hydrogen is typically stored at
and can introduce challenges; but permitting remains ambient temperatures, reducing the temperature to
important as the vehicle for important equities, e.g., cold or cryogenic temperatures can significantly
protection of communities with environmental justice increase the density of hydrogen. In liquid form,
concerns and public health. Streamlined permitting hydrogen is stored at extremely low cryogenic
processes nonetheless can facilitate large-scale temperatures in highly insulated double-walled tanks.
deployments throughout the country. Industry Such tanks are commercially available and used today
estimates that multiple methods of hydrogen for industrial-scale storage and transport. However,
distribution and storage can become affordable by the need for insulation as well as the boil-off and
2030 if state-of-the-art distribution and storage venting (releasing built-up pressure to enable safety),
technologies are commercialized at scale. As part of a present added cost and challenges to system
larger $8 billion Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs performance. Material, component, and system-level
program funded through the BIL, Hubs will help to RDD&D can further innovations that address these
address these challenges by creating networks of challenges. Additional analysis on using hydrogen
hydrogen producers, consumers, and shared local carriers, such as ammonia or liquid organic hydrogen
connective infrastructure. carriers (LOHCs), can refine understanding of the
All federally funded projects, such as the Regional cost, life cycle emissions, and toxicity of the carriers.
Clean Hydrogen Hubs, will also be subject to review Figure 16 shows the cost status at low volume and
in accordance with the National Environmental Policy the modeled cost of hydrogen technologies used in
Act (NEPA; 42 U.S.C. 4321, et seq.). NEPA requires the transportation sector, assuming high volume
federal agencies to integrate environmental values manufacturing compared to the ultimate cost targets
into their decision-making processes by considering shown in green. These targets have been developed
the potential environmental and societal impacts of through analyses characterizing the total cost of
their proposed actions. The Regional Clean Hydrogen ownership (TCO) of hydrogen-based systems, such as
Hubs represent the largest federally funded heavy-duty fuel cell trucks, relative to those using
deployments of clean hydrogen technologies in the incumbent fuels, such as diesel. Additional TCO
United States. As awarded hubs progress through analysis is currently underway to inform hydrogen
NEPA review, DOE will assimilate lessons learned that cost and performance targets for other applications
can expedite the review process for future across industry and transportation. Across
deployments. applications, costs need to fall significantly compared
Storing hydrogen efficiently and safely is also a to their current level to become competitive from a
considerable challenge. Although hydrogen has sustainable, market-driven perspective.
nearly three times the energy content per unit of

25
Figure 16: The status of production, delivery and dispensing, and onboard storage costs relative to the cost
projection for high-volumes and the ultimate cost target for market competitiveness.74
In addition to the technology and cost challenges refine the understanding of the strategic and
described above, from an overarching energy targeted role clean hydrogen can play in economy-
systems perspective, the optimal use of hydrogen still wide decarbonization. A detailed regional approach,
needs to be determined for the most suitable informed by the availability of resources and end-
applications where lower cost or more efficient uses, and bolstered by the funding available for
alternatives do not exist. A comprehensive Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs, will inform how best
assessment of the interplay between hydrogen the hydrogen ecosystem can evolve to enable
demands and electrification, evolutions of the energy maximum benefit. All these challenges will need to be
grid (including in supply of clean firm power, grid addressed in the most efficient, effective, and
reliability, and rates of effective CCS), biofuels, and comprehensive manner through the strategies
sectors that use hydrogen as a feedstock or fuel can outlined in Sections B and C.

26
B: Strategies to Enable the Benefits of Clean Hydrogen
The foundation of this roadmap is based on decarbonization tool and for maximum benefits for
prioritizing three key strategies to ensure that clean the United States, summarized in Figure 17.
hydrogen is developed and adopted as an effective
Figure 17: The national strategies for clean hydrogen and the Department of Energy’s Hydrogen Program
mission and context.
First, the use of clean hydrogen will be focused efficient decarbonization technologies, such as
strategically to provide maximum benefits, electrification, clean hydrogen adoption will focus on
particularly in sectors that are hard-to-decarbonize. end-uses that lack alternatives and are in industries
Rather than competing with alternative low-cost and that can build momentum to enable scale, increase

27
benefits, and drive down cost. Second, the United create holistic ecosystems that provide local benefits.
States can dramatically lower the delivered cost For instance, by leveraging the Regional Clean
of clean hydrogen by developing sustainable and Hydrogen Hubs program as established in the BIL,
supply-resilient pathways, including electrolysis, DOE will focus on catalyzing regional infrastructure
thermal conversion with CCS, and advanced or hybrid networks, bolstering the uptake of long-term
production pathways. Harnessing the innovation and hydrogen offtakers, and unlocking private capital.
entrepreneurial spirit of Americans and world-class
To implement these strategies, Federal Government
National Laboratories, industry, and academic
agencies will coordinate an efficient “whole of
facilities, in addition to ramping up deployments, can
government” approach to accelerate progress toward
help drive down costs rapidly and achieve scale
a resilient, sustainable, and equitable hydrogen
within a decade. Regional factors and availability of
economy. Agencies will focus on foundational
resources such as waste, water, and other resources
enablers when executing these strategies, including
will also be strategically considered in the build-out
advancing diversity, equity, and inclusion;
of clean hydrogen production.
promoting energy and environmental justice;
Third, scale can be achieved strategically by focusing addressing safety and developing the necessary
on regional networks, ramping up hydrogen codes and standards; creating high-quality jobs
production and end-use in close proximity to and training standards; and stimulating private
drive down transport and infrastructure costs and investment to enable market liftoff.

28
Strategy 1: Target Strategic, High-Impact Uses of
Clean Hydrogen
While hydrogen’s versatility enables it to be used in energy into the grid. Co-firing with hydrogen at
numerous applications, government agencies will existing and new power plants can help cut emissions
focus on use of clean hydrogen for decarbonizing from the power sector.
segments such as in industry and heavy-duty
In transportation, hydrogen has a strong value
transportation that are difficult to electrify as well as
proposition in the trucking sector, particularly for
early markets where agencies such as the
fleets with heavy-duty vehicles, long-distance (>500
Departments of Defense and those procuring
mile) routes, or multi-shift operations that require
stationary power or commercial vehicle fleets can
rapid refueling. Hydrogen is also an essential
provide opportunities for early hydrogen offtake.
feedstock for producing liquid fuels that will be
Processes that use fossil fuels as a chemical feedstock
necessary for large-scale energy applications, such as
or in the generation of high-temperature heat or
aviation, rail, and marine fuels. In the near-term, clean
long-duration, dispatchable power will require clean
hydrogen can displace conventional hydrogen in
fuels, such as hydrogen, to decarbonize. For instance,
petroleum refining for conventional transportation. In
ammonia and methanol manufacturing account for
the mid- to long-term, hydrogen can be used to
the majority of global GHG emissions from chemicals,
produce biofuels from biomass (to increase the yield
and both sectors rely on natural gas as a feedstock.75 of fuel produced from a given feedstock and
These processes can be decarbonized by over 90 pathway, and to refine the fuel’s properties) and
percent if they use clean hydrogen.76,77 Steelmaking power-to-liquid fuels that can displace petroleum,
accounts for about 7 percent of global greenhouse particularly in offroad markets, discussed further
gas emissions,78 and relies on coke and natural gas to below.
reduce iron ore. Transitioning to clean hydrogen as a
The following sections summarize the role clean
reductant can reduce emissions by 40-70 percent.79
hydrogen can have in each of the applications
Over half of emissions from industry today are due to described above and provides examples of what
the direct combustion of fossil fuels to produce heat Federal Government agencies are funding to address
and power for industrial processes.80 While lower these sectors. Ongoing and future analyses will
grades of heat generation are typically feasible to characterize the role of hydrogen in other sectors and
electrify, about 30 percent of heat used in industry is continue to inform strategic priorities.
at temperatures above 300°C and would likely require
clean fuels to decarbonize.81 Furnaces that burn pure
Clean hydrogen in industrial
hydrogen or blends of hydrogen with natural gas are applications
key options in these applications. Globally, industry is the largest end-use sector in
terms of energy consumption, accounting for 38
As the power grid is decarbonized, long-duration
percent of total energy demand.82 Approximately 6
energy storage technologies will become essential to
percent of total energy demand is used to produce
enable growth in using clean electricity across
hydrogen, which is used primarily in producing
sectors. The use of hydrogen in fuel cells or low-NOx
ammonia and other chemicals.82 The International
turbines is a leading option to enable multi-day
storage and, dispatchable power generation to the Energy Agency (IEA) reports that global industrial
grid. In scenarios with high electrification rates, more demand for hydrogen was 51 MMT in 2020 out of 90
clean hydrogen and other clean fuels may be needed MMT used in all sectors.82
to provide reliable, firm, dispatchable power
generation when integrating variable renewable

29
Hydrogen in chemicals Hydrogen in steelmaking
Hydrogen is already used as an essential feedstock in Steel is one of society’s most important engineering
the production of ammonia and methanol. In and construction materials. Today, it is typically made
conventional ammonia and methanol plants in the using basic oxygen furnaces (BOFs) or electric arc
United States, natural gas reforming is used to furnaces (EAFs), depending on whether it is primary
produce syngas that is then converted into ammonia (from iron ore) or secondary (from recycled scrap).
(in combination with nitrogen from compressed air) Following the BOF pathway, iron ore is reduced with
or methanol immediately downstream. Production coke in a blast furnace and refined with oxygen. In
pathways for both chemicals can be decarbonized by the EAF pathway, electricity is used to refine a mixture
replacing the use of natural gas reforming with clean of recycled steel and iron. While the iron ore BOF
hydrogen production supply, such as the use of CCS process is more common globally,85 in the United
along with mitigation of fugitive methane emissions States, roughly 70 percent of steelmaking uses the
or the use of electrolysis. Near-term, these sectors EAF process in which steel is recycled.86
may be the first to transition to clean hydrogen,
Using clean hydrogen as a reductant in iron ore
swapping high carbon intensity hydrogen for lower
refining, instead of coke or natural gas, can reduce
carbon intensity production pathways. In some cases,
the life cycle emissions for making primary steel by
this shift will occur at existing industrial clusters with
collocated production/offtake, reducing reliance on 40-70 percent.87 Other approaches to decarbonizing
midstream infrastructure as it scales. this sector include near term methods such as
improvements to the efficiency of blast furnace as
Future use of clean hydrogen in these chemicals will well as longer term innovation such as direct
depend largely on the markets for each, and drivers electrolytic processes.81
to decarbonize. Today, 88 percent of ammonia
consumption in the United States is for fertilizer The future market for green iron ore-based steel
production; the remaining 12 percent is used to production will depend on economic growth that
produce plastics, explosives, synthetic fibers, resins, creates new demand for steel consumption, as well as
and other chemicals.83 Future applications for incentives for decarbonization and domestic
ammonia may also include its use as a fuel for production to displace imports. In recent years,
offroad vehicles or in power generation, although imports have accounted for about 25-30 percent of
these concepts are still in the early stages of U.S. steel consumption.88 The Biden-Harris
development. The primary use of methanol today is Administration is advancing carbon-based trade
as a building block for other chemicals, such as policies to reward American manufacturers of clean
formaldehyde, acetic acid, and plastics. Growth in the steel. Working with the European Union, the
methanol market depends on the overall growth of Administration is taking steps to align global trade
chemicals production, rates of plastics recycling, and with climate goals, which will keep out dirty products
the development of new end-uses of methanol, such and result in more jobs and lower prices for
as its use as a fuel or as a hydrogen carrier. Americans.89
Activities in this sector include several analyses DOE has two active projects to jumpstart the use of
funded by DOE to assess the cost and life cycle hydrogen for steel manufacturing that will help
emissions to produce hydrogen carriers, including optimize direct reduction using hydrogen and will
methanol, ammonia, and methylcyclohexane. DOE’s enable the development of a 1 ton per week
Advanced Research Projects Agency–Energy (ARPA-E) operation, with the potential for 5,000 tonnes per day
is also funding innovative, game-changing of steel production.90,91 Several workshops organized
approaches for ammonia production and a modular, by DOE’s Advanced Manufacturing Office and
scalable system for hydrogen to ammonia.84 Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office (HFTO)
have helped identify key challenges and
opportunities which will be addressed as part of the

30
national hydrogen strategy.92,93 Use of hydrogen at the cost of infrastructure conversion, streamlined
steel production facilities will require reliable, approaches to permitting and regulatory approval,
consistent supply since most operate throughout the and R&D to inform standards associated with end
year with little downtime. uses (e.g., low-NOx turbines).
Clean hydrogen and use of high The use of renewable natural gas is another approach
concentrations of hydrogen blends for to decarbonizing the heat and power sector and has
the advantage of being fully compatible with existing
industrial heat
infrastructure. One of the pioneering projects funded
Process heating is the largest driver of energy
by DOE in this area demonstrated the integration of
consumption within the U.S. manufacturing sector
an electrolyzer with a bioreactor to produce
and relies primarily on the combustion of fossil
renewable natural gas from hydrogen and carbon
fuels.81,94 Options to decarbonize this sector include
dioxide.96 This novel bioreactor design is now being
electrification, particularly at lower grades of heat
commercialized by industry through deployments in
(<300°C); CCS; use of low-carbon sources of heat,
California and the Northeast. Additional longer-term
such as solar thermal or nuclear power; and use of
concepts for renewable natural gas production
blends of hydrogen in natural gas or pure hydrogen,
include the catalysis of hydrogen and carbon dioxide
particularly for applications requiring high
to produce synthetic methane. Decarbonization via
temperatures. Sectors that currently consume heat at
this approach will also require management and
>300°C include refining, chemicals, cement,
mitigation of fugitive methane emissions throughout
steelmaking, and glass manufacturing.
the delivery infrastructure. Life cycle analyses of
Due to the low cost of fossil fuel combustion, the renewable natural gas relative to the use of hydrogen
heat and power sectors have a lower willingness to blends to decarbonize the heat and power sectors are
pay for hydrogen than chemical processes and are currently underway within DOE’s HyBlend initiative.
expected to adopt clean hydrogen at scale when it is
Future work, which will be done in collaboration
widely available at low cost or when strong policy
across agencies and states, will enable the
drivers for decarbonization emerge. The use of
development of injection standards for blending
hydrogen in this sector will require the advancement
hydrogen into natural gas pipelines used in high-
of low-NOx hydrogen combustion technologies, as
temperature heat applications—including the upper
well as an improved understanding of the impacts of
blend limits for hydrogen. Other work includes
hydrogen on infrastructure and turbine materials.
assessing opportunities to repurpose natural gas
DOE’s HyBlend initiative was launched in 2020 to infrastructure for hydrogen, identifying conditions
address knowledge gaps in the use of high under which deployment of new infrastructure would
concentrations of hydrogen blends for industrial heat, be necessary to enable the use of high
bringing together DOE National Labs and industry.95 concentrations of blends and advancing the use of
HyBlend currently includes several projects with clean hydrogen in combined heat and power
national laboratories and over 30 industry partners applications. Priorities for HyBlend include reducing
focused on materials compatibility, cost and the risk for all communities – especially vulnerable
emissions analysis of blending, underground storage and disadvantaged communities – and spearheading
of hydrogen blends, hydrogen appliances, and low- policies, such as “dig once” strategies, as the Nation
NOx hydrogen turbines. Ongoing and future R&D installs transmission, CCS, CO2 pipelines and other
under the HyBlend initiative will be coordinated with infrastructure. Additional work is also needed to
related efforts worldwide (e.g., through data sharing, establish or modify standards for both distribution
round robin testing, and information exchange). and end use of blends. These standards will inform
Projects funded under HyBlend in the future may aspects of design, safety, and emissions.
address additional barriers to using hydrogen blends
in high-temperature heat, including an assessment of

31
Clean hydrogen in transportation Million Mile Fuel Cell Truck Consortium (M2FCT) in
In 2019, the transportation sector accounted for 33 2020 to enable the fuel cell durability, cost, and
percent of greenhouse gas emissions in the United performance required for the long-haul heavy-duty
States and 51 percent of transportation emissions is truck market.102 Hydrogen and fuel cell truck projects
due to light-duty vehicles.97 While industry has are also included under DOE’s Super Truck program
focused primarily on battery electrification for light- to demonstrate medium- and heavy-duty hydrogen
duty vehicles, hydrogen and fuel cells offer significant fuel cell trucks under real-world operating conditions
opportunities for applications requiring long driving within the next five years.103 Other projects
ranges, fast fueling, and large or heavy payloads.98 In supporting this strategy include developing the
January 2023, DOE, Department of Transportation required infrastructure, fueling components,
(DOT), EPA, and Department of Housing and Urban hydrogen storage and dispensing technologies, and a
Development jointly released the U.S. National project that will demonstrate 15 parcel delivery trucks
Blueprint for Transportation Decarbonization, which operating in disadvantaged communities.104,105
identified a strategic role of clean hydrogen in freight Transit agencies with large bus fleets or coach buses
applications.99 Previous DOE analysis has identified with long driving ranges can also benefit by using
market segments of the trucking sector where hydrogen and fuel cells. The Federal Transit
hydrogen has a stronger value proposition, and Administration in partnership with DOE has been
ongoing work is ascertaining the role for hydrogen in evaluating fuel cell buses and continues to collect
offroad vehicles, such as mining equipment, ferries, real-world deployment data to guide future
and rail. This analysis will help inform future research advances.106 By focusing the strategy on fleets,
activities in this space. freight, and corridors where clusters of dedicated
infrastructure can be developed, the United States
Hydrogen for medium and heavy-duty will reduce the risk of stranded assets and ensure the
trucks and buses and replacement fuel utilization of the developing hydrogen fueling
production infrastructure.
Medium- and heavy-duty (MDHD) vehicles are used
The largest consumer of hydrogen today is the
across the country for numerous applications from
refinery industry. It is used for reduction of sulfur
product delivery to vehicle towing to waste
content as well as for cracking of crude into lighter
collection, and account for about 20 percent of
petroleum fractions. Decarbonizing hydrogen supply
emissions from the transportation sector.97 DOE and
for refineries provides a near term clean hydrogen
other Federal agencies are working with industry and
demand able to reduce transportation emissions
national laboratories through the 21st Century Truck
from the production of petroleum-based fuels used
Partnership (21CTP) to reduce emissions from trucks
in conventional vehicles. In the longer term, refinery
and buses through safe and cost-effective
technologies, workforce, and assets can provide
approaches.100 Members of 21CTP meet regularly to hydrogen demand to produce bio-derived fuels such
share information that can inform pre-competitive as biodiesel, methanol, and ethanol. Such fuels can
R&D activities. Batteries and fuel cells are both focus help the decarbonization of conventional fuel
areas of 21CTP and can each play complementary vehicles and reduce the extent of stranded assets.
roles in decarbonizing the trucking sector. Fuel cells
are particularly viable for applications such as heavy- Hydrogen for maritime applications and
duty trucks that require fast fill times comparable to ports
diesel today, or long driving ranges above 500 In addition to vehicles, opportunities for hydrogen
miles.101 and hydrogen carriers are also emerging in the
maritime industry, ranging from inland and harbor
DOT and DOE launched a Joint Office in 2021 which
vessels to recreational and pier-side applications.
includes activities relevant to infrastructure for
New emissions regulations by the International
hydrogen vehicles. In addition, DOE launched the
Maritime Organization (IMO) limit the sulfur content

32
in fuel oil used on ships (or “bunker fuel”) from 3.5 Hydrogen for aviation and sustainable
percent to 0.5 percent, starting in 2020.107 These aviation fuel production
limits are further reduced to 0.1 percent for ships Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, aviation accounted
operating in Emissions Control Areas, including for about 11 percent of United States transportation
certain coastal regions of the United States and the emissions; without increased action, its share will
European Union.108 Given increasingly stringent continue to grow as more people and goods are
requirements, hydrogen and hydrogen carriers, such transported by air.114 The deployment of SAFs, such
as ammonia and methanol, may offer an attractive as biofuels and power-to-liquid fuels that can be
alternative to bunker fuel. Furthermore, the use of used instead of conventional jet fuel, is essential to
hydrogen in various marine vessels and at ports for decarbonizing this sector.115 In 2021, DOE, DOT, and
drayage trucks, shore power (electricity for ships USDA launched a government-wide SAF Grand
while docked), and cargo equipment all offer the Challenge to reduce the cost, enhance the
potential to reduce carbon dioxide and other sustainability, and expand the production and use of
emissions and to develop infrastructure in targeted SAFs that achieve a 50 percent reduction in lifecycle
regions to scale up use.109 In 2019, DOE held an GHGs or greater, compared to conventional fuel.116
H2@Ports workshop in collaboration with the U.S. The Grand Challenge further set goals to supply 3
Department of Transportation Maritime billion gallons of SAFs per year by 2030 and 35 billion
Administration (U.S. DOT-MARAD) and the European gallons by 2050 to meet 100 percent of aviation fuel
Commission Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint demand by 2050.116 These national goals form the
Undertaking to identify opportunities and challenges basis for hydrogen demand in this sector.
to the use of hydrogen at ports.110
Many different biofuel and power-to-liquid fuel
The Maritime Administration (MARAD) in pathways are being explored to meet the SAF Grand
collaboration with DOE, has been developing and Challenge goal. The pathways that have been
demonstrating hydrogen and fuel cell technologies approved to date for use by aviation require
for maritime applications over the past decade, hydrogen as a feedstock117 and could additionally
including the world’s first pier-side hydrogen fuel cell co-produce sustainable fuels for use elsewhere in the
for auxiliary power in lieu of diesel generators.111 In transport sector. The Net Zero Tech team, a
collaboration with state agencies and industry, the collaboration between DOE and industry through the
United States is deploying the first hydrogen fuel cell U.S. Driving Research and Innovation for Vehicle
passenger ferry in the Western hemisphere.112 DOE efficiency and Energy sustainability (U.S. DRIVE)
launched a new project to demonstrate a MW-scale partnership, is conducting cost and emissions analysis
electrolyzer on a floating barge to fuel a passenger of future pathways, to identify fuels with the greatest
ferry, in addition to using a fuel cell to charge a potential.
battery electric vessel.113 Such first-of-a-kind
In addition, direct use of hydrogen is being
demonstrations are integral to Strategy One – “Target
demonstrated for aircraft in specific market segments
Strategic, High-Impact Uses of Hydrogen” – to de-risk
such as short-duration flights and uncrewed aerial
technologies for additional private sector investment
vehicles (UAVs). While hydrogen storage density is a
and market adoption. Other activities include
challenge, hydrogen fuel cells offer the benefit of
addressing safety and developing the relevant codes,
both zero carbon and zero criteria pollutant
standards, and ensuring global harmonization, in
emissions from the exhaust. DOD is demonstrating
conjunction with other organizations, including IMO,
direct hydrogen fuel cells for UAVs.118
MARAD, and international collaborators.
There are also several industry projects on hydrogen
fuel cells and engines for aircraft. For example,
ZeroAvia and Otto have announced a partnership to
develop a 19-seat aircraft that can travel 1,000

33
nautical miles, potentially targeting niche market streams by providing hydrogen as a feedstock or fuel
needs in private flights.119 Airbus announced three for other sectors.
design concepts for direct hydrogen use, including
Hydrogen for backup power and stationary
fuel cell and hydrogen combustion systems.120 The
power
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), U.S. Air
Backup power and stationary power from fuel cells
Force (USAF), and DOE convened industry
can replace diesel generators to provide resilience to
stakeholders at the H2@Airports workshop in
critical facilities that require 24/7 power, such as
November 2020, which identified key challenges and
hospitals and data centers. Systems that need steady,
potential opportunities to address them.121 reliable power in remote locations, such as microgrids
Hydrogen in rail and telecom towers, are also promising
The rail system in the United States spans over opportunities. Although backup power utilization is
140,000 route-miles, delivers critical goods, moves low, moving from diesel to clean hydrogen can still
passengers across the country, and supports over provide a meaningful step on the path to net zero.
167,000 jobs.122 Although rail accounts for only about Fuel cells operating on hydrogen have zero emissions
2 percent of transportation-sector emissions,123 this and are quieter and more reliable than diesel
mode is hard to decarbonize due to conventional generators and offer benefits for health and air
low-cost legacy systems and the low diesel costs. quality—particularly for disadvantaged communities
However, liquid fuels (including biofuels), as well as who are often in non-attainment zones.
batteries and hydrogen, can all play complementary Examples of Federal agency-funded projects with
roles in completely decarbonizing this sector. The state and private sector funds supporting this sector
cost competitiveness of each powertrain will vary by include the world’s first trigeneration system at a
region and by each system’s demand profile. wastewater treatment plant to co-produce power,
Several early demonstrations of hydrogen and fuel heat, and hydrogen through a high-temperature fuel
cells have already been commissioned in both cell;129 first of a kind demonstration of hydrogen fuel
passenger and freight rail around the world and will cells for data center applications; projects to lower
inform future RDD&D. Hydrogen-powered trains fuel cell cost and improve durability;130 reversible fuel
have been in service in Germany since 2018 and have cell RDD&D;131 and hundreds of fuel cell
completed trials in Austria, the Netherlands, Sweden, deployments for backup power applications.132
and France.124 In the U.S., California’s San Bernardino
Energy Storage and Electricity Generation
Transportation system is developing a hydrogen fuel
Energy storage on the grid can have several different
cell passenger train expected to be in service in early
roles, including time shifting, firm capacity
2024.125 generation, avoiding transmission line buildout, and
DOE in collaboration with the DOT’s Federal Railroad ancillary services.133 Today, grid energy storage is
Administration (FRA) held an H2@Rail workshop in dominated by pumped hydropower deployments
2019 to identify opportunities for hydrogen and fuel capable of discharging power for 12 hours or less.134
cells for rail applications.126 Ongoing analysis efforts Lithium-ion batteries are the fastest growing mode of
will inform performance and cost targets for specific energy storage, commonly for shorter durations of 4
locomotive market segments in this sector and hours or less.132
progress toward targets will be monitored and
validated by DOE and FRA.127, 128
Power sector applications

Hydrogen can offer versatility as a medium for long-
duration energy storage, electric power generation,
and grid services and can offer additional revenue

34
technologies that are not geographically constrained.
To support this sector, DOE has established unique
national laboratory test facilities to demonstrate and
test the performance of electrolyzers integrated with
various power and thermal sources.136 These facilities
allow industry to de-risk systems integration and
validate new technologies before deployment. DOE is
also funding RDD&D on low-NOx turbines and has
funded numerous analysis projects and tools to
quantify the economic benefits of hydrogen energy
storage under specific grid conditions in
collaboration with industry.137 RD&D efforts on NOx
Figure 18: Hydrogen energy storage systems involve mitigation and materials compatibility may also
the use of electrolyzers to produce hydrogen from inform retrofitting of existing natural gas turbines
excess power on the grid, bulk storage, followed by and natural gas pipeline compressor stations to
power generation using fuel cells or turbines. operate on blends. The United States currently has
gigawatts of combustion turbines in operation that
As the grid transforms to 100 percent clean power, may be capable of operating on blends with
longer-duration energy storage technologies that can modifications to key components, such as the fuel
discharge for multiple days at a time will be needed. supply system and burners. Additionally, DOE has
As shown in Figure 18, hydrogen energy storage funded five projects to date demonstrating the
systems at scale could involve the use of electrolyzers integration of electrolyzers with nuclear power plants
to produce hydrogen using excess power on the grid, to create another revenue stream for these clean firm
storage of the hydrogen in bulk (e.g., underground), generators that also support grid stability.138, 139
and then use hydrogen to generate power at times of Engagement through the Nuclear Regulatory
high demand.133 In the near- to mid-term, co-firing Commission is underway to address challenges
of hydrogen in natural gas turbines for power including siting and permitting.
generation could facilitate a transition to 100 percent
hydrogen-fired turbines that will be needed to fully In 2022, DOE’s Loan Programs Office (LPO) closed on
decarbonize the electricity system. Several industry an approximately $500 million loan guarantee to the
stakeholders, such as NextEra, Florida Power & Light, Advanced Clean Energy Storage Project, which would
and Intermountain Power have recently announced be a first-of-its-kind clean hydrogen production and
plans to co-fire hydrogen with natural gas in storage facility capable of providing long-term
hundreds of megawatts of turbines, including seasonal energy storage.140 The facility in Delta, Utah
dispatchable co-firing applications.135 Optimized co- will combine a 220 MW alkaline electrolyzer with salt
siting of renewables, nuclear plants, high- cavern storage for grid-scale energy conversion and
temperature heat sources, and the storage storage using hydrogen as the energy carrier.
infrastructure for hydrogen and carbon dioxide can Advanced Clean Energy Storage is expected to
help reduce environmental, economic, and benefit Utah by creating up to 400 construction and
community impact compared to completely 25 operations jobs and could help catalyze long-term
independent build-out of such systems. job opportunities and transition the state to a new,
clean energy economy for the future. Several
Large-scale deployments of hydrogen energy storage disadvantaged communities surround Delta, Utah,
will require reductions in the cost of electrolyzers and and could benefit from the project.
fuel cells, the development of low-NOx combustion
technologies for use in hydrogen turbines, and the
development of new low-cost bulk hydrogen storage

35
Hydrogen Applications Across Carbon Intensity of
Agencies
In addition to commercial markets such as industrial
Hydrogen Production
and chemical manufacturing, government agencies Hydrogen production pathways vary in carbon
can catalyze private sector uptake through early intensity, depending on their energy source,
demonstrations and bundled demand for subsequent efficiency, and design, as shown in Figure 18. In fossil
offtake. For example, hydrogen is uniquely capable of pathways, for instance, the amount of CCS, the
providing for both energy and water resiliency needs energy efficiency of the systems, and the amount of
to federal facilities during emergency situations. fugitive emissions, all determine the carbon footprint
Demonstrations at military bases and other critical of hydrogen production. In electrolysis, the carbon
loads for backup power and microgrids can use intensity of electricity, whether it is from dedicated
hydrogen fuel cells ranging from kW to MW and renewables, nuclear, or bulk grid electricity, is the
create hydrogen demand. By unlocking the primary variable that influences lifecycle emissions.
purchasing power of the U.S. Government, we can
As directed in the BIL, DOE is required, in consultation
catalyze market liftoff leveraging the more than
with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), to
150,000 medium and heavy duty vehicles141 and
develop an initial standard for the carbon intensity of
8,600 buildings142 across the government. clean hydrogen as a point of reference for select
programs under the BIL. The standard was released
DOD has historically been an early adopter in
as a draft to obtain input from industry and other
technology spaces including GPS technology enabled
stakeholders and finalized in 2023.19 The BIL requires
by DOD and now ubiquitous. DOE and DOD worked
DOE to set a clean hydrogen production standard
together over a decade ago to demonstrate first of its
that:
kind fuel cell material handlers in Defense Logistics
Agency warehouses, and today hydrogen fuel cell • Supports clean hydrogen production from
material handling has grown into a vibrant market, specified low carbon energy sources (e.g.,
with over 60,000 hydrogen forklifts in operation including but not limited to fossil fuels with CCS;
primarily in the private sector. Other nascent hydrogen-carrier fuels (including ethanol and
applications such as UAVs, UUVs, and off-grid methanol); renewable energy resources, including
dispatchable power can be demonstrated by DOD biomass; nuclear energy);
and other USG agencies to further mature the • Defines the term “clean hydrogen” to mean
technology. The learnings from these activities and hydrogen produced with a carbon intensity equal
improvements in performance and efficiency can to or less than 2 kilograms of carbon dioxide-
inform additional technology developments to help equivalent produced at the site of production per
de-risk future dual use commercial investment. Clean kilogram of hydrogen produced; and
dispatchable power, such as mobile fuel cell chargers, • Considers “technological and economic feasibility.”
is particularly important for fielding electric vehicles
The initial standard was set at 4 kilograms of carbon
in areas without grid access. Off-grid clean
dioxide-equivalent per kilogram of hydrogen (kg
dispatchable power could also to applied to grid
CO2e/kg H2) on a well-to-gate life cycle basis,
challenged areas in the near term and during disaster
consistent with the vast majority of responses from
relief.
stakeholders who commented on the draft Clean
Hydrogen Production Standard.143 DOE is also
required to update the standard within five years of
setting the initial standard.144
An important component of future clean hydrogen
demonstrations or deployments supporting the BIL

36
will be stakeholder engagement and analyses to DOE is also currently funding R&D and analysis to
determine actual life cycle emissions along the entire address key uncertainties in estimates of the
value chain. Government-funded public tools are decarbonization potential of hydrogen. A range of
available, such as DOE’s Greenhouse Gases, estimates of the well-to-gate emissions of several
Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in hydrogen production technologies is provided in
Transportation (GREET) model,145 are used to Figure 18 below. DOE recently released several
characterize the decarbonization potential of solicitations to improve the performance of sensing
deployments consistently, including well-to-gate technologies that can measure hydrogen losses and
emissions of hydrogen production, as well as is collaborating with the National Oceanic and
emissions of hydrogen distribution and end-use. For Atmospheric Administration to characterize the
example, well-to-gate emissions of SMR with CCS can global hydrogen cycle (including interactions of
have a range of carbon intensities depending on the hydrogen with the climate and with soil). Upon
degree of fugitive emissions, capture rate, and carbon completion of R&D that ascertains loss rates and
intensity of the electricity grid. Well-to-gate climate impacts with higher fidelity, DOE will
emissions of electrolysis are near zero when the incorporate both into life cycle analyses and the
electricity supply is 100 percent carbon pollution-free GREET tool. DOE is additionally funding RD&D to
– as is the Administration’s goal by 2035 – but can be improve detection, quantification, and mitigation of
more than double those of SMR when using the fugitive methane emissions, which are known to vary
current average U.S. grid mix.146,147 considerably by region and can substantially impact
the life-cycle emissions of hydrogen production from
As global trade develops for hydrogen, consistent
the oil and natural gas supply chain. It is important to
international methods for lifecycle analysis will also
note that the landscape for methane emissions
be required. This was one of the highest priority
monitoring and mitigation is changing rapidly. For
actions voted on by over 20 countries under the
example, the EPA is in the process of developing
International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
enhanced data reporting requirements for petroleum
in the Economy (IPHE), a global government
and natural gas systems under its Greenhouse Gas
partnership launched in 2003 to accelerate progress
Reporting Program and is in the process of finalizing
in hydrogen and fuel cell technologies.148 The U.S. is requirements under New Source Performance
currently a Vice Chair of IPHE, after completing a Standards and Emission Guidelines for the oil and gas
term as Chair, and is also a lead member of the IPHE sector that will result in mitigation of methane
Hydrogen Production Analysis (H2PA),149 a task force emissions. With these changes, it is expected that the
under IPHE developing mutually agreed-upon quality of data to verify methane emissions will
methods of lifecycle analysis for hydrogen improve and methane emissions rates will change
production. Analysis guidance developed to date has over time. In addition, PHMSA has proposed
focused on specific hydrogen production pathways of requirements for hydrogen pipeline leak detection
interest across over 20 countries in the near term. and repair as part of its Leak Detection and Repair
Ongoing work is expanding this guidance to include Rule, which states that unless otherwise specified in
additional pathways and to account for the emissions the proposed amendments, the proposals in the
associated with hydrogen distribution. While notice of proposed rulemaking apply the same
guidance developed by IPHE is not binding, it can requirements to hydrogen gas pipelines (and other
inform accounting frameworks implemented by gas pipelines) as to natural gas pipelines. Such
member countries to ensure consistency. As such, the actions can stimulate the development and
U.S. will engage in global collaboration and deployment of advanced leak detection technologies,
coordination to accelerate progress and foster and bolster methane and hydrogen leak reporting
transparency and rigor in the analyses of emissions and repair.150
across the value chain of hydrogen, including
potential indirect impacts, from multiple pathways.

37
Figure 18: Well-to-gate carbon intensity of hydrogen from SMR with CCS and electrolysis pathways relative to
current U.S. production, and emissions intensities that can access the clean hydrogen production tax credit.
(Reproduced from Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen.3 Assumptions regarding modeled
technologies are described further in Liftoff report and include modeled assumptions; real-world lifecycle
emissions may vary beyond the ranges shown here.)

38
Strategy 2: Reduce the Cost of Clean Hydrogen
While there are various challenges across the entire continuously track and adjust its portfolio based on
hydrogen value chain from production through end- performance-driven metrics; and catalyze technology
use, Strategy 2 prioritizes reducing the cost of clean innovation and deployment at scale.
hydrogen. There are many ways to produce hydrogen
In response to President Biden’s April 2021 Climate
at various technology readiness levels and a wide
Summit request to DOE to accelerate progress
range of associated carbon emissions and other
towards tackling the climate crisis, DOE established
environmental impacts. Agencies will prioritize and
the Energy Earthshot initiative, creating bold,
accelerate its actions to focus on the most critical
ambitious goals to galvanize the domestic and global
barriers for cost reduction; foster partnerships across
industry.151
industry, academia, and national laboratories;
Hydrogen Shot is one of DOE’s flagship initiatives to Figure 19, the Hydrogen Shot can enable a wide
drive down the cost of clean hydrogen, in concert range of use cases and impacts and builds on the
with accelerating deployment and scale, such as current progress across the spectrum of production
through Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs, loan pathways.
guarantees, and other mechanisms. As shown in

39
Figure 19: The Hydrogen Shot targets build on progress for a variety of pathways, enabling a range of use
cases and impacts.
Continuing to advance RDD&D efforts, and reducing Hydrogen Production Through Water
costs and associated lifecycle emissions, remain
important for all hydrogen production pathways. A
Splitting
Electrolysis uses electricity and an electrolyte or
mix of hydrogen production from water electrolysis,
membrane to split water into hydrogen and oxygen.
hydrogen production from fossil fuels with carbon
Most electrolysis uses one of three technologies:
capture and storage, and hydrogen production from
alkaline, PEM, and solid oxide electrolyzer cells
biomass and waste feedstocks will likely be used in
(SOECs). The alkaline process is the most established,
the United States through at least 2050. Today,
having been used for over a century. PEM
thermal conversion pathways are the dominant
electrolyzers can operate effectively at a range of
approach to hydrogen supply worldwide, and
loads with sub-second response times, which makes
typically have a low cost but high emissions.
them particularly compatible with variable energy
Electrolyzers using clean energy and advanced
sources, such as sun and wind power. SOECs use a
pathways (i.e., technologies at lab scale, such as
ceramic electrolyte at high temperatures and are the
photoelectrochemical and thermochemical water
least commercialized of the three technologies. With
splitting) can achieve near zero emissions but are
higher electrical efficiency than PEM and alkaline
currently much higher in cost.
systems, SOECs are likely to be more cost-effective in
scenarios where high-temperature heat is available,
such as from nuclear power plants and concentrated
solar power.

40
The cost of clean electricity accounts for over half of not include impacts of incentives, such as the IRA 45V
the cost of hydrogen production from electrolysis.152, Credit. for Production of Clean Hydrogen.
153
RDD&D can all drive costs toward the Hydrogen
The 2020 baseline cost of $5/kg is the levelized cost
Shot target by lowering the cost of clean electricity
of hydrogen calculated using DOE’s H2A model using
(renewables, nuclear power), boosting the efficiency
a conservative $1,500/kW for PEM electrolyzer capital
of electrolysis, reducing electrolyzer and balance-of-
cost (at low volume manufacturing), a $50/MWh
plant capital costs and enabling dynamic integration
electricity price, and a capacity or utilization factor of
of electrolyzers with the grid and with renewable and
90 percent.154 In comparison, using today’s $29/MWh
nuclear generators to access low-cost variable power.
for solar and 35 percent capacity factor, based on the
The long-term extensions included in IRA of the
2020 National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
production tax credit and investment tax credit for
Annual Technology Baseline, results in a levelized
clean electricity technologies will also serve to drive
hydrogen cost of about $7.50/kg, as shown by the
down clean electricity costs.
green arrow. As shown, the levelized cost of
hydrogen production is highly sensitive to the cost of
Figure 20 shows one scenario for reducing the cost of electricity. Access to low-cost energy with a high-
clean hydrogen from electrolysis, which requires capacity factor (e.g., through integration with existing
dramatically lowering capital costs, lowering energy clean baseload assets such as hydroelectric and
costs, increasing efficiencies, and improving durability nuclear power plants) can facilitate much lower
and reliability to reduce maintenance costs. levelized costs. In addition, through the end of the
decade, declines in electrolyzer capex will account for
Figure 20 does not include the impacts of incentives a significant portion of cost reductions on the
enabled by IRA. levelized cost of clean hydrogen. It is important to
note that the cost estimates in
The example shown of what would be needed to
achieve $2/kg – required by the BIL by 2026 – is
based on $30/MWh energy costs and $300/kW
capital costs, and the $1/kg Hydrogen Shot goal
would require $20/MWh and $150/kW, respectively.
These cost targets do not include the clean hydrogen
production tax credit. In all these cases, a 90 percent
electrolyzer capacity factor is assumed, requiring the
use of clean firm electricity, such as nuclear or
geothermal energy, or for variable renewables to be
complemented by storage. This scenario illustrates
that capital costs would need to be reduced by 80
percent and the operating and maintenance costs
would need to be reduced by 90 percent. It should be
emphasized that these are just scenarios that could
achieve these cost targets. Still, other combinations
of cost, efficiency, electricity prices, utilization factors,
and durability, including the use of thermal sources
Figure 20: Achieving $1/kg using electrolyzers for high-temperature electrolyzers, could enable
requires lower electricity cost, significantly lower meeting the Hydrogen Shot goal. In 2020, DOE
capital costs, improvement in efficiency and launched a new consortium bringing together
durability, and higher utilization. Costs depicted to national labs, industry, and academia - H2NEW
(Hydrogen from Next-generation Electrolyzers of

41
Water) – on electrolyzer technologies to complement electrolyzers to enable access to variable clean
HydroGEN, a consortium that investigates all water energy at low cost. Innovative system designs may
splitting technologies, including direct also improve electrolyzer economics, such as by
photoelectrochemical and thermochemical monetizing co-generated oxygen or accessing waste
methods.155 H2NEW will accelerate progress in heat.
electrolyzer technologies and help reduce costs. As
shown in Figure 21, these cost reductions will require
high-volume manufacturing, innovations in
electrolyzer stacks and balance of plant (BOP)
components, and electrolyzer integration in next-
generation systems. Improving electrolyzer efficiency
can also help reduce the levelized cost of hydrogen
since the cost of electricity is a large fraction of
hydrogen cost. While analyses on various system
configurations are ongoing, the figure shows just one
example of the magnitude of cost reductions in each
category. These values will be updated as the
industry advances. Policies such as the 45V Credit for
Production of Clean Hydrogen within the Inflation
Reduction Act will also drive down capital costs over
the coming decade.
Figure 22: There are many drivers for electrolyzer
stack and balance-of-plant capital cost reductions.
Hydrogen Production from Fossil

Fuels with Carbon Capture and
Storage
The BIL requires DOE to account for and support
opportunities for hydrogen production from diverse
energy, including fossil fuels with CCS. Opportunities
include regions of the U.S. with abundant natural gas,
reservoirs for CO2 storage, or existing natural gas
supply infrastructure. As shown in Figure 23 below,
Figure 21: Reducing electrolyzer capital costs will the current network of natural gas infrastructure and
require reaching economies of scale and innovating SMR plants are both largely concentrated in the Gulf
the electrolyzer stack and balance-of-plant Coast region, given the availability of natural gas and
components. hydrogen demand for the petrochemical sector.
There is no single overarching cost driver for capital Hydrogen is currently an essential feedstock within
cost reduction. As shown in Figure 22, multiple refining, used primarily to crack heavy crude oil and
components encompassing electrolysis stacks and desulfurize product streams. Displacing hydrogen
used at current petroleum refineries with clean
balance-of-plant systems must be addressed.156
hydrogen can reduce the life cycle emissions of the
As demand rises for energy storage and clean power, refining process by ~12 percent, depending on the
stakeholders must continue exploring innovative hydrogen supply source.157
mechanisms of on-grid and off-grid integration of

42
Figure 23: Hydrogen production units and pipelines for hydrogen and natural gas in the United States.
Capturing and storing SMR’s carbon dioxide before it Autothermal reforming (ATR) with carbon capture is
is emitted into the atmosphere can reduce the life another approach to producing hydrogen from
cycle carbon intensity of hydrogen production by natural gas that is expected to cost less than
over 50 percent, depending on CCS rates and conventional SMR with CCS, especially at commercial
upstream emissions, including fugitive releases scales and in regions with low-cost electricity. This
during natural gas excavation, transmission, and approach entails integrating an air separation unit
use.158, 159 High carbon capture rates (e.g., over 95 with the reforming process to improve thermal
percent) and very low upstream methane emissions efficiency and enable higher capture rates and lower-
will be critical. Adding CCS to existing facilities with cost CCS. A third type of natural gas-based
SMR units presents one pathway to faster production, methane pyrolysis, uses high heat to split
decarbonization of chemical and refining uses of methane into hydrogen and solid carbon – this can
hydrogen at large scale. Many SMR units are be an attractive option since the solid carbon can
currently located near or are integrated with refining provide a value-added co-product for applications
facilities and take advantage of local low-cost and such as industrial rubber and tire manufacturing and
plentiful natural gas. The Gulf Coast, where many for specialty products such as inks, catalysts, plastics,
existing SMR units are located, also contains some and coatings.
existing CO2 pipeline infrastructure.

43
Recent DOE investments are supporting RDD&D and can also be utilized in industrial processes rather than
providing loans for scale-up and deployment of stored underground. Emerging utilization pathways
pyrolysis pathways.160, 161, 162 The cost of hydrogen include construction of building materials and
from methane pyrolysis pathways are highly production of chemicals. DOE is supporting RDD&D
dependent on the price of the carbon product sold, on conversion of CO2 to useful products.
thus high value and volume carbon markets for the
carbon products are pivotal for methane pyrolysis to
play a large role in the clean hydrogen space. In 2021,
DOE’s LPO announced a conditional commitment for
a loan guarantee to Monolith™ Inc. (formerly
Monolith Nebraska, LLC) for approximately $1 billion
to deploy methane pyrolysis technology at their
Oliver Creek facility in Hallam, Nebraska. Hydrogen
produced at this facility will be used to produce
ammonia fertilizer. Deployment of this facility is also
expected to create approximately 1,000 jobs during
construction and 75 high-paying, highly skilled, clean
energy jobs to support facility operations.163
The GHG intensity of hydrogen production from
methane feedstocks also depends on the extent of
methane leaks from the production and
transportation of the natural gas supply. Anticipated Figure 24: Cost reductions necessary to achieve $1/kg
regulations and advances in methane monitoring are production cost for methane feedstocks with CCS.
expected to reduce these emissions and provide Baseline assumes autothermal reforming with CCS.
greater measurement certainty. Methane leakage
rates, which can have both air quality and toxicity There are a growing number of carbon capture, use,
impacts, can vary by operator practice and basin.164 and storage projects in the United States. For
instance, in Louisiana, Air Products is building a
Today, hydrogen production from SMR systems
facility expected to come online in 2026 and produce
equipped with CCS is roughly 55 percent more
1,800 tonnes of reformation-based hydrogen daily.
expensive than that of SMR alone.158 Cost reductions
The site will take advantage of Louisiana’s geology to
in CO2 transport and storage, variable costs, and
sequester 5 MMT of CO2 each year, announced as the
capital costs could help meet the Hydrogen Shot
world’s largest.165,166 In Iowa, Green Plains, Inc., has
target, as shown in Figure 24. DOE funds RDD&D to
announced a carbon offtake agreement for three
lower costs and improve performance of SMR and
ethanol biorefineries, where captured carbon dioxide
ATR systems with CCS and pathways for future cost
will be transported via pipeline to underground
reductions include improved process integration of
geological structures in North Dakota for storage.
CO2/H2 separation, use of high pressure or high
This project is expected to begin operations in 2025
temperature separations through membranes, solid
and should sequester 10 MMT of CO2 each year.167
CO2 sorbents, advanced catalysts, and novel methods
of oxygen separation. However, using low-cost Policies such as the 45Q tax credit for CCS, which
natural gas remains the most important method of cannot be combined with 45V tax credits for
obtaining a lower cost of hydrogen through hydrogen production but that can incentivize fossil-
reforming with CCS pathways. In addition to lowering based production, can pave the way for clean
cost, the national strategy continuously emphasizes hydrogen production at scale.168
the importance of low GHG pathways, including In all cases when using fossil fuels, federal agencies
reduction of upstream emissions. Captured carbon will prioritize reducing emissions across the value

44
chain from production through end-use. In addition, including the supply chain for fuel cells and
it will be important to develop measurement and electrolyzers, in response to President Biden’s
monitoring solutions and to factor in hydrogen Executive Order 14017 on America’s Supply Chains.169
leakage risks into decisions to build out hydrogen The BIL electrolyzer and clean hydrogen
transport infrastructure, regardless of its primary manufacturing and recycling provisions ($1.5 billion
production pathway. Finally, federal agencies will over five years) will be used, along with annual
prioritize stakeholder engagement to address appropriations, to address this strategy.15,16 In
potential environmental concerns and cumulative addition, Treasury and IRS, in partnership with DOE,
burdens imposed on communities that may host announced additional guidance for approximately $4
fossil fuel-based hydrogen and CCS technologies. billion in a first round of the Qualifying Advanced
Energy Project Credit (48C) for projects that expand
Hydrogen Production from Biomass
U.S. supply chains for clean energy technologies and
and Waste Feedstocks critical materials for clean energy technology
Additional pathways to hydrogen production include production, and for projects that reduce greenhouse
biomass gasification with carbon capture and storage gas emissions at industrial facilities.170 Facilities that
and SMR or ATR using feedstocks such as biogas manufacture electrolyzers, fuel cell vehicles, and
from organic landfill matter, sewage, or agricultural other hydrogen technologies are eligible to apply.171
wastes in place of natural gas. These production
methods have the potential to be low-carbon or The cost of hydrogen delivery, storage, and
carbon-negative depending on the feedstock. dispensing to an end-user varies widely given the
Lifecycle emissions across the entire biomass supply mode of supply used. There are four main methods
chain, including direct and indirect land-use changes, of hydrogen delivery at scale today: gaseous tube
and agricultural inputs such as fertilizer should be trailers, liquid tankers, pipelines (for gaseous
considered when evaluating this pathway. hydrogen), and chemical hydrogen carriers. Tube
trailers and liquid tankers are commonly used in
When biomass pathways are coupled with CCS, their regions where hydrogen demand is developing and
net emissions have the potential to be negative. For not yet stable. Gaseous pipelines are commonly used
example, when the waste feedstock is diverted from when demand is predictable for decades and at a
landfills and instead used to make hydrogen, some of regional scale of thousands of tonnes per day.
the methane generated by processing the waste is Chemical carriers are of interest for long-distance
also diverted from the atmosphere and thermally hydrogen delivery and export markets and can be
converted to clean hydrogen (i.e., methane that broadly classified as one-way or two-way carriers.
would not otherwise have been flared, given regional One-way carriers are materials that do not release a
best practices and regulations). by-product for re-use or disposal after the hydrogen
Other System Costs is released (such as ammonia). Two-way carriers are
Cost reduction is not limited to hydrogen production those whose products are typically returned for
alone. For instance, the costs for various technologies processing for reuse or disposal after the hydrogen is
and components across the hydrogen value chain are released (such as methylcyclohexane/toluene). The
shown in Figure 25 and Figure 26. Agencies will use of chemical hydrogen carriers is in the early
continue to strengthen their activities to reduce the stages of commercialization and RD&D efforts are
cost of all key technologies across the value chain, needed to increase the hydrogen-carrying capacity of
including reducing supply chain vulnerabilities and these materials and improve the charge-and-
boosting domestic manufacturing. DOE has released discharge rates, reversibility, and overall round-trip
a set of clean energy supply chain assessments, efficiency

45
2030 Midstream costs if advances in distribution and storage technology are commercialized: Downstream: End use applications
Hydrogen distribution and storage assuming state-of-art technology at scale1
Clean Hydrogen Production
Commercialized, Industry Ammonia

$0.1/kg at 600 tpd,
best-in-class
300 km, 12” OD Gas replacement
gas compression
$0.1/kg Refining
$0.2-0.4/kg $0.1/kg at ~5000 Transport
at 80 bar for 7 days,
at 500 bar, 10 tpd tpd, 1000 km, 42”
600 tpd
(tank storage, truck OD
Steel
distribution) Salt cavern H2
storage pipeline
$0.1/kg
Chemicals
at 80-120 bar,
50 + tpd $0.8 / kg $0.7-1.5/kg
(pipeline, co-located at 500 bar for 7 days at 10 tpd, 250 km
electrolysis) NG blending
Compressed
Gas phase
gas tank
storage
trucking Industrial heat
$0.2/kg for 7 days, 50 $0.2-0.3/kg Power generation

$2.7/kg at 50 tpd
tpd scale at 50 tpd, 250 km
Liquid Liquid Aviation and

Liquefaction hydrogen hydrogen $1 -3.6/kg maritime fuels
storage trucking ≥700 kg/day, 700 bar
1. Data based on cost-downs shared from leading-edge companies who have

deployed at demonstration scale (or larger)
Next generation HDMD road transport
2. Greater than or equal to 70% utilization, assumes line fill at high pressure fuel dispensing
Sources: HDSAM, Argonne National Laboratory; Hydrogen Council at high utilization2
Figure 25: Industry-informed estimates of midstream costs by 2030 and potential end uses. Repurposed from
DOE’s report, Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen.
Figure 25 from DOE’s Commercial Pathways Liftoff increase throughput of these components. Once it is
report summarizes the key midstream infrastructure dispensed, hydrogen is typically stored onboard
pathways and industry cost estimates. As more real- vehicles in all-metal or composite-overwrapped
world operational data becomes available, agencies pressure vessels. R&D is needed to reduce the cost of
and the private sector can target the key priorities to current designs, such as through reductions in the
enable cost reduction and commercial viability. cost of carbon fiber overwrap, and to advance novel
approaches to onboard storage, such as in insulated
After delivery, hydrogen may need to be conditioned liquid tanks. For example, R&D is needed in next
onsite (e.g., pressurized, pre-cooled, or purified) generation fuel dispensing, which have higher costs,
before use. At hydrogen fueling stations for vehicles, driven by the capital expenses involved and
compression, storage, and dispensing are the three complexity of fueling vehicles at high rates and very
largest drivers of levelized cost. R&D efforts are high pressures (700 bar) while complying with safety
needed to reduce the cost, improve reliability, and protocols.

46
Figure 26: Examples of cost drivers for hydrogen production, distribution, and storage technologies.172

47
Strategy 3: Focus on Regional Networks
The third strategy will focus on achieving large-scale, hydrogen producers, consumers, and local connective
commercially viable deployment of clean hydrogen infrastructure to accelerate the use of hydrogen as a
by matching the scaleup of clean hydrogen supplies clean energy carrier that can deliver or store
with a concomitant and growing regional demand. tremendous amounts of energy. Shared – i.e., “open
Co-locating large-scale clean hydrogen production access” - scaled infrastructure is critical to reducing
with multiple end-uses can foster the development of the delivered cost of clean hydrogen and ensuring
low-cost hydrogen and the necessary supporting that use cases, particularly those that do not have
infrastructure to jumpstart the hydrogen economy in collocated production and offtake, can reach
important market segments. In addition, pursuing a commercial scale. Midstream infrastructure requires
regional strategy for hydrogen development will rapid scale-up, with investment requirements
allow companies across the supply chain to take growing from $2 billion to $3 billion annually from
advantage of the benefits that come when similar 2023 to 2030, increasing to $15 billion to $20 billion
firms locate near one another in industrial clusters. annually from 2030 to 2050, as more distributed end-
These can include the benefits that come from shared uses like road transportation adopt clean hydrogen
infrastructure including access to raw materials and and local hubs and regional networks can be linked
other downstream supply chains, transportation and into a national network.
transmission systems, and a strong and well-trained
The Hydrogen Shot Request for Information (RFI),
labor pool. In addition, industrial clusters benefit from
issued in 2021, received over 200 responses
the proximity of innovation to manufacturing, leading
describing diverse resources, end-uses, and impact
to knowledge sharing across firms. Industrial clusters
potential in various regions.173 Figure 27 is based on
can also help to create stronger social and civic
those RFI responses and synthesizes distinct regional
engagement, as workers have multiple job
examples and advantages in clean hydrogen
opportunities in the region so are more likely to form
production, storage, and end-use potential.
lasting ties with the community. Ultimately,
Respondents identified very specific end-use
developing hydrogen through a hub approach will
opportunities for clean hydrogen in some regions,
create stronger and more competitive regional
such as for port communities or offshore wind
economies, much as the creation of auto industry
generation. In other regions, stakeholders indicated a
(e.g., Detroit) has done in the past.
strong interest in leveraging abundant energy
From a technical standpoint, DOE’s regional clean resources like biomass or infrastructure such as
hydrogen networks will create near-term and long- energy storage or geological caverns. Stakeholders
term jobs, increase tax revenues for regional also provided examples where disadvantaged or
economies, and reduce emissions and multiple tribal communities could be engaged, and examples
agencies, including DOL, will work together to of potential job opportunities. Details and examples
determine opportunities for both near-term and were provided in presentations at the Hydrogen Shot
sustained jobs benefits. Regional Clean Hydrogen Summit and DOE webinars.174,175
Hubs supported by the BIL will create networks of

48
Figure 27: Examples of regions identified by responses to the Hydrogen Shot Request for Information (RFI).
The Hydrogen Shot RFI underlined the numerous Near-term, absence of long-term offtake contracts to
opportunities for strategic hydrogen use across the manage volume and price risk also presents a
U.S. In many cases, the current infrastructure that challenge to accelerating the clean hydrogen
respondents highlighted can support early regional economy. Shifting from bilateral contracts to a
deployment needs. The BIL’s Regional Clean commodity market could lower the cost of capital by
Hydrogen Hub provision provides a unique, reducing counterparty risk, but the transition from
unprecedented opportunity for the U.S. to jumpstart bilateral agreements would require significantly
a clean hydrogen economy while achieving tangible increased coordination between investors and project
regional and community-level benefits. Data developers across the value chain. Of the 12
gathered from the hubs will be used in future MMT/year of clean hydrogen production capacity
analyses to identify optimal approaches to market annnounced in the U.S. to date, only ~10 percent has
liftoff, such as using contracts for difference; achieved final investment decision (FID), largely due
matching production with offtakers; creating to this lack of long-term offtake.3 Securing long-term
targeted, large-scale demand with anchor tenants; offtake will be critical to ensure production projects
and using existing infrastructure where applicable, reach FID and can access low cost of capital (e.g.,
including CCS and other pipeline infrastructure. bond debt).
Figure 28 summarizes the critical elements of
Long-term offtake agreements in the form of power
successful Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs, the three
purchase agreements (PPAs) were critical for the
“pillars” that characterize the hubs (per the BIL) and
scale-up of wind and solar, but the hydrogen market,
outlines key desired outcomes.
like other commodity markets, has not historically

49
operated with these kinds of long-term, fixed price and industry analyses, DOE estimated the technical
contracts. Prospective clean hydrogen buyers are potential for producing hydrogen from diverse
additionally hesitant to commit to multi-year offtake domestic resources. The technical potential estimates
given projected clean hydrogen cost declines. Policies for these renewable resources are shown in Figure 29
or mechanisms that address this issue could play a and Figure 30.
role in the early scale-up of clean hydrogen projects.
Longer-term, the development of a mature

commodity market for clean hydrogen and its
derivatives can also allow easier access to financing
by providing transparent price information and
allowing developers to hedge price and counterparty
risk. The development of price transparency and
standard contract terms are necessary prerequisites
for a functioning commodity market for clean
hydrogen.
Figure 29: Production Potential of Hydrogen Across

the United States.176
Lowest-cost production methods for clean hydrogen
will depend upon regional resource availability, and
early market developments will need to be located
near end-users to reduce the costs of hydrogen
delivery. The combination of natural resources,
infrastructure assets, and hydrogen demand
opportunities varies from region to region and will
determine optimal region-specific approaches. Solar
and wind resource potentials dominate in the plains,
southwest, and mountain regions. Biomass resources
are prevalent in the midwestern, northeastern, and
southeastern United States. Major shale natural gas-
producing regions include the Marcellus, Permian,
and Haynesville formations. Geologic CO2 storage
potential is dominant in the industrial heartland and
the Gulf Coast, where natural gas resources are also
Figure 28: Critical elements of successful Regional
prevalent, as shown in Figure 32. With today’s nuclear
Clean Hydrogen Hubs and key outcomes.
fleet and next-generation, advanced nuclear
approaches (including small modular reactors), there
Regional production potential
are multiple regional opportunities for clean, firm
As part of the strategy, DOE will continue to refine
nuclear power. Future work will include an
and update regional analyses across the hydrogen
assessment of the economic opportunities associated
value chain, including the availability of water and
supplying hydrogen by leveraging each of these
other resources. Using data from national laboratory
regional resources.

50
240,000 (kg/km²/year) 100,000 <10,000 740,000 (kg/km²/year) 370,000 <3,000
a) Hydrogen production potential from onshore b) Hydrogen production potential from offshore
wind resources, by county land area wind resources, by area
55,000 (kg/km²/year) 10,000 <1,000 230,000 (kg/km²/year) 100,000 <1,000
c) Hydrogen production potential from solid d) Hydrogen production potential from existing
biomass resources, by county land area hydropower assets, by county land area
1,600,000 (kg/km²/year) 500,000 <10,000 1,300,000 (kg/km²/year) 750,000 <250,000
e) Hydrogen production potential from f) Hydrogen production potential from utility-

concentrated solar power, by county land area scale PV, by county land area
Figure 30: Production potential for clean hydrogen from onshore wind, offshore wind, biomass resources,
existing hydropower, concentrated solar power, and utility-scale photovoltaic solar power. Alaska and Hawaii
will be added in future roadmaps. (Source: NREL176)

51
Electrolyzers would likely need to be in regions with Tanks and liquid dewars are already commercially
high wind and solar potential, or alongside high used in industry and at hydrogen fueling stations to
capacity factor clean power, such as hydroelectric and store hydrogen at scales of hundreds of kilograms to
nuclear power plants. In regions with high renewables many metric tonnes. Limited deployments of larger-
penetration, electrolysis can help manage variable scale vessels have primarily stored hydrogen in liquid
loads on the grid, utilizing excess capacity during form for aerospace applications that require the use
peak production to produce hydrogen rather than of liquid hydrogen onboard. The world’s largest liquid
letting power be curtailed. For instance, electrolyzers hydrogen storage vessel today is at Kennedy Space
integrated with offshore wind in regions with Center in Florida, storing 1.25 million gallons or over
transmission constraints could create another 330 tonnes of liquid hydrogen.179 Even larger scales
revenue stream for the renewable generation. Federal of hydrogen storage currently employ underground
agencies will assess various options in collaboration caverns and are used to buffer seasonal differences
with states and local communities. between hydrogen supply and demand for the
Regional availability of water resources is also an petrochemical sector. The U.S. has three large-scale
important factor in the siting and sustainability of geological hydrogen storage caverns including the
hydrogen production facilities. While the water world’s largest in Beaumont, TX, storing over 7,000
supply required for hydrogen production is likely to tonnes underground.44
represent a small fraction of annual freshwater Underground hydrogen storage caverns have
consumption nationwide,177 water availability can primarily been excavated in salt deposits near the
vary widely by region. Future analysis may identify point of hydrogen use, with limited demonstrations
preferable locations for deployments of hydrogen in hard rock. Additional geologies used for natural
production facilities based on regions of abundant gas storage and could potentially be used for
water supply and may also identify strategies to hydrogen in the future include depleted oil and gas
deploy supporting infrastructure in water-stressed reservoirs and aquifers. Figure 31, below, shows the
regions, such as water distribution pipelines, approximate availability of these geological
reclaimed purification systems, and desalination formations throughout the United States. In many
plants. cases, these regions overlap with the dominant
production potential regions shown in Figure 29. DOE
Regional storage potential funds research on subsurface hydrogen storage
As real-world hydrogen projects ramp up, federal
through the Subsurface Hydrogen Assessment,
agencies will continue to assess optimal approaches
Storage, and Technology Acceleration (SHASTA)
and siting opportunities for hydrogen storage at
program.180 The program aims to expand the
scale. Hydrogen storage can decouple power
technical storage viability of hydrogen beyond salt
generation from energy use and achieve lower costs
and hard rock formations to expand the geographic
than other technologies at scales of multiple days or
diversity of low-cost hydrogen storage opportunities.
weeks.178 Hydrogen can be stored in gaseous or DOE will continue its analyses and RDD&D on
liquid vessels, in underground formations, or in storage location opportunities and on technologies
materials, such as hydrogen carriers, depending on including advanced hydrogen carriers, such as
how it will be used. Each approach has both ammonia and liquid organic hydrogen carriers, as
advantages and disadvantages; several DOE and these can carry hydrogen at high energy densities.
industry projects and analyses are underway to
reduce cost and potential emissions and improve
efficiency and storage capacity.

52
Figure 31: Underground storage opportunities in the United States. (Source: SHASTA181)
Many of these geologies and reservoirs can also be projects are currently identifying approaches to
used for permanent CO2 storage in support of clean optimally leverage these resources and deploy future
hydrogen production. Figure 32 depicts the locations CO2 and hydrogen infrastructure for cross-sector
of potential CCS along with existing hydrogen and decarbonization.
ammonia production plants. Ongoing analysis
Figure 32: Potential locations for CCS based on geologic formations and existing hydrogen and ammonia
plants in the United States. Alaska and Hawaii will be added in future roadmaps. (Source: Teletzke, G.F.182)

53
Regional end-use potential industry segments will depend on the viability of
As shown in Figure 33, some regions in the country integrating clean hydrogen on a sector-by-sector and
have industrial clusters where several industries are region-by-region basis. Yet, there is strong potential
potential candidates to adopt hydrogen as a to leverage networks that can enable hydrogen
feedstock or energy source. Decarbonizing these infrastructure or large-scale CCS and develop best
practices that can be used in other sectors.
Figure 33: Industrial clusters in the United States create potential regions for decarbonization hubs. (Source:
Psarras et al.183)
Strategic deployment of clean hydrogen will need to Regional clean hydrogen hubs will demonstrate the
ensure clusters are not just a collection of disparate efficacy of coordinating regional decarbonization
projects. Projects should be sized, scoped, and efforts and support the business case of these
planned in coordination with each other to match projects to stimulate private capital investment.
scale, cost, and duration. Coordinated projects will The hubs will also create avenues to engage
help avoid stranded assets by providing a critical stakeholders at every stage of the process to earn
mass of offtakers, leveraging CCS and other public support, develop community benefit
infrastructure, and ensuring public investments pay agreements, and ensure projects advance
dividends to meet our net-zero goal. environmental, health, and equity goals.

54
Industries that already consume hydrogen at scale, Figure 35 show examples of current and future
such as ammonia production, are likely to be early hydrogen production potential and the existing
adopters of clean hydrogen, given their existing ammonia production sites.
supply chains and economies of scale. Figure 34 and
Figure 34: Existing hydrogen and ammonia production plants and potential wind energy resources in the
United States.
Figure 35: Existing hydrogen and ammonia production plants and nuclear energy plants in the United States.

55
Supporting Each Strategy
To support all three key strategies, federal agencies 2023.185 The requirements apply to several tax credits
will leverage the entire continuum of activities across relevant to clean hydrogen technologies, including
basic science184 through applied research, the Clean Hydrogen Production Tax Credit, the
development, demonstration, and large-scale Alternative Fuel Refueling Property Credit, and the
deployments. As shown in Figure 36, the continuum Credit for Carbon Oxide Sequestration, among
of activities will be supported by foundational and others.185 The Department of Labor is responsible for
crosscutting efforts to promote diversity, equity, determining the prevailing wage and can assist
inclusion, and accessibility; engage communities, taxpayers and contractors to ensure that they
ranging from environmental justice groups to Tribes, understand their responsibilities to secure
tribal organizations and labor unions; develop the compliance.185
workforce; advance policy; support the technology
and energy transition; and enable market adoption at The U.S. Government’s RDD&D activities are
scale. informed by market-based technical targets that
enable hydrogen use to be competitive with
incumbent fuels across sectors. The BIL requires DOE
to develop targets for the program to address near-
term (up to 2 years), mid-term (up to 7 years), and
long-term (up to 15 years) challenges to the
advancement of clean hydrogen systems and
technologies. 186 Key targets are shown in Table 1.
Activities across government, industry, and academia
must work in concert to advance technologies and
provide market signals toward these targets. And, to
ensure that the clean hydrogen market is self-
sustaining (e.g., offers market-rate returns) when
certain incentive programs (e.g., 45V, 45Q) expire.
Many existing consortia and initiatives are already
working to achieve these goals through
collaborations between national laboratories,
Figure 36: Foundational and crosscutting efforts will
industry, and academia. Key examples include DOE’s
support the entire lifecycle of activities at DOE, from
H2NEW consortium on electrolyzer technologies, the
basic research through large-scale deployment.
M2FCT consortium to advance fuel cells for heavy-
Workforce development and good job creation will duty trucks, the Hydrogen Materials Compatibility
be supported by IRA. The U.S. Treasury Department Consortium (H-Mat), and other R&D projects and
and Internal Revenue Service published guidance on first-of-a-kind demonstrations funded through
the IRA’s prevailing wage and apprenticeship previous solicitations.
requirements, which went into effect January 29,

56
Table 1: Key Program Targets 2022-2036.
2022-2023 2024-2028 2029-2036

• 3 or more pathways identified • 10 or more demos with renewables • 10 MMT per year by 2030or more
with potential to meet (including offshore wind), nuclear, and of clean H2 produced in the U.S.
Hydrogen Shot waste/fossil with CCS from diverse sources
• 10,000 hours of high- • $2/kg clean H2 from electrolysis at scale • $1/kg clean H2 production from
temperature electrolyzer testing by 2026* diverse resources at scale*
Production
• 3 or more pathways assessed for • 51 kWh/kg efficiency; 80,000-hr life; and • 46 kWh/kg efficiency; 80,000-hr
life cycle emissions $250/kW for low temperature life; $100/kW uninstalled cost for
• 1.25 MW of electrolyzers electrolyzers low temperature electrolyzers
integrated with nuclear for H2 • 44 kWh/kg efficiency; 60,000-hr life; and • 80,000-hr life $200/kW cost for
production $300/kW for high temperature high temperature electrolyzers
• 2 or more conditional loan electrolyzers while maintaining or improving
program agreements • 20 MW of nuclear heat extraction, efficiency
distribution, and control for electrolysis
• 10 kg/min average H2 fueling • 7 kWh/kg efficiency for H2 liquefaction • $4/kg H2 cost at scale (including
Infrastructure & Supply Chains
rate for heavy-duty applications • 50% cost reduction of carbon fiber for production, delivery, and
• 40% reduction in footprint of H2 storage vessels (vs. 2020) dispensing at fueling stations)
liquid H2 fueling stations vs. • 50% of membrane/ionomer material • 70% of membrane/ionomer
current (2016) code. recovery and >95% of platinum material recovery and 99% of
• 50% increase in seal and metal group metals (PGMs) recovery from PGMs from MEA pathways
durability in H2 service vs. 2018 fuel cell membrane electrode identified through recycling and
baseline assemblies (MEA) pathways identified upcycling
• 400 kg/hr. high-pressure through recycling and upcycling • 3 or more pathways validated for
compressors and cryopumps • 3 GW or more electrolyzer emissions reductions, while
• 5% or better accuracy for H2 manufacturing capacity in the United meeting environmental and
flow meters at up to 20 kg/min States energy justice priorities
flow
• $170/kW heavy-duty truck fuel • $140/kW heavy-duty truck fuel cell cost • $80/kW heavy-duty truck fuel cell
cell cost vs. $200/kW baseline • 50% reduction of fuel cell PGMs vs. cost while also meeting durability
• 18,000-hr fuel cell durability for 2020 baseline and performance
buses. • 1 ton/week reduction of iron with H2 • $900/kW and 40,000-hr durability
End-Use and Enablers
• 1.5 MW or more of H2 fuel cells and pathway to 5,000 tonnes/day fuel-flexible stationary fuel cells
for data center resilience • 9 ppm NOx emissions for 100% H2 • 4 or more end-use demos (e.g.,
• 1 MW scale electrolyzer and turbines, 2 ppm with selective catalytic steel, ammonia, storage) at scale
fueling marine applications reduction • 10 MMT per year or more of clean
• 15 fuel cell delivery trucks • 3 H2 fuel cell Super Truck projects H2 used in strategic markets at
operating in disadvantaged completed scale aligned with the National
community, creating potential • 2 or more pilot projects with tribes Hydrogen Strategy goal
for market growth that reduces • 4 template community benefit
emissions and creates jobs agreements
• 1 or more integrated H2 for • 4 or more Regional Clean Hydrogen
ammonia production Hubs using diverse resources and for
demonstration multiple strategic end-uses
* Modeled cost at scale to meet Hydrogen Shot goal

57
C: Guiding Principles and National Actions
Guiding Principles
Federal Agencies will adhere to guiding principles in eight categories
Figure 37: Eight guiding principles for the development of clean hydrogen production, transport, delivery,
storage, and use.
• Enable deep decarbonization a competitive domestic industry, and sustained

private investment, building upon American
through strategic, high-impact ingenuity, talent, and initiative. Demonstration and
uses: deployment programs (e.g., Regional Clean
The U.S. Government will enable the national net- Hydrogen Hubs) will help de-risk first-of-a-kind
zero and clean grid goals through targeted projects and scaled, shared infrastructure—helping
deployments of clean hydrogen in sectors where to unlock lower delivered cost of hydrogen as well
its use has the most impact, including industrial as access to commercial debt.
processes, heavy-duty transport, high-temperature
heat, and long duration energy storage. These • Foster Diversity, Equity, Inclusion &
strategic deployments will be informed through Accessibility:
analyses and stakeholder input to address key The U.S. Government will promote diversity,
priorities including environmental, energy justice, equity, inclusion, and accessibility to effectively
and economic benefits. advance the U.S. research, innovation, and
commercialization enterprise. Federal agencies’
• Catalyze innovation and actions will support stewardship and promotion of
investment: diverse and inclusive workplaces that value and
The U.S. Government will foster partnerships with celebrate a diversity of people, ideas, cultures, and
industry, academia, national laboratories, and educational backgrounds that are foundational to
other stakeholders to invest in innovation across delivering on the clean hydrogen strategy.
the entire RDD&D value chain for clean hydrogen
technologies. DOE’s actions will stimulate growth,

58
• Advance Energy and Environmental the free and fair chance to join a union. Federal
agencies’ actions will also provide opportunities
Justice: for workers and communities transitioning away
As a covered program under the Justice 40
from carbon-intensive sectors, leveraging existing
initiative, the U.S. Government will prioritize
and developing new skills across industries by
energy and environmental justice. Federal
utilizing and expanding registered apprenticeship
agencies’ actions will seek to create new
programs, developing sectoral strategies for
programs, tools and initiatives that will increase
workforce development, and supporting job
transparency, community engagement, economic
growth at each step in the hydrogen value chain—
opportunities, and access to clean hydrogen
from equipment manufacturing and trucking to
technologies that can help improve the health and
pipeline construction and CCS. DOE’s report,
well-being of communities, including Tribal
Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen,
Nations and other communities who have been
estimated approximately 100,000 new direct and
historically underserved in alignment with the
indirect jobs could be created related to the build-
Justice40 Initiative. Siting and benefits of clean
out of new projects and clean hydrogen
hydrogen deployments should be developed
infrastructure.3 Direct jobs relate to employment in
through meaningful and sustained engagement
roles such as engineering and construction, and
with each community that desires to take part in
indirect jobs relate to manufacturing and the raw
the clean hydrogen economy and government-
material supply chain.
wide tools such as the Climate and Economic
Justice Screening Tool (CEJST)187 should be • Spur domestic manufacturing and
consulted prior to engagement to help developers robust supply chains:
identify burdens, disparities, and opportunities in
The U.S. Government will promote U.S.
overburdened and underserved communities.
manufacturing, ensure robust, secure, and
Additional government-sponsored community
resilient supply chains, and increase exports.
engagements and listening sessions are planned
Federal agencies’ actions will utilize multiple tools,
to help surface frontline and fenceline community
from grants to financing to facilitating
concerns, specifically around hydrogen
partnerships. Recent DOE analyses have
technologies including CCS technologies. Efforts
characterized the makeup of hydrogen
are already underway to understand and address
technologies, as well as vulnerabilities in the
community concerns, ranging from NOx emissions
supply chain for electrolyzers and fuel cells.188
to environmental health risks associated with
DOE is now supplementing this work with
unconventional natural gas production, per- and
substantial RD&D investments to reduce the cost
polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) use in hydrogen
of electrolyzer and fuel cell manufacturing and
fuel cells and electrolyzes, and hydrogen leakage
enable scale-up, expand the supply chain for
detection. Future guidance will be issued to help
electrolyzer and fuel cell components, and
identify and quantify benefits that will flow to
advance recycling technologies, in support of
disadvantaged communities. Safe practices in the
EPACT- 2005 Sections 815 and 816 (as enacted by
production, storage, distribution, and use of
BIL Section 40314).189
hydrogen will continue to be an integral part of
development. • Enable affordability and versatility:
• Grow Quality Jobs: The U.S. Government will target affordability and
create flexibility in the energy system by
The U.S. Government will focus on preserving and
leveraging and coupling diverse sources, including
growing quality jobs. These jobs are defined as
renewables and high baseload clean assets such as
good-paying, family-sustaining jobs with pathways
nuclear power, utilizing fossil and CCS
for advancement, worker voice in workplace health
infrastructure where appropriate, and enabling
and safety plan design and implementation, and

59
resilience and energy security. By using clean pursuant to Executive Order (E.O.) 13985, Advancing
hydrogen as a fuel or feedstock or as an energy Racial Equity and Support for Underserved
carrier and storage medium, federal agencies can Communities;190 E.O. 14020, Establishment of the
provide multiple revenue streams across sectors White House Gender Policy Council;191 and E.O.
and avoid stranded assets. 14008, Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and
Abroad.192
• Approach holistically:
The U.S. Government will approach clean Community engagement and collaboration, including
hydrogen development and deployment work undertaken through community benefit
holistically and will cultivate sustainable best agreements, will take time and must be part of a
practices through targeted development to long-term effort. Programmatic changes are in
support—not compete with—other development that extend response times, lower
decarbonization technologies such as barriers for participation, and increase opportunities
electrification. Federal agencies will foster rigorous for community engagement. By recognizing and
and transparent analyses on social, environmental, addressing the challenges early on and across the
economic, and energy impacts to help guide hydrogen value chain, we will collectively accelerate
sustainable development of the nascent global progress towards our goals. With the right strategy
clean hydrogen industry. and implementation plan, clean hydrogen
technologies can reduce not only GHG emissions, but
Federal agencies will use these guiding principles as
emissions of nitrogen oxides and particulates from
the U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and
heavy-duty road transportation and stationary power,
Roadmap is developed and continuously refined.
improve human and environmental health, and
Principles of equity and justice are a high priority,
provide resilience and energy security—all while
consistent with the Biden Administration’s
creating new regional economic opportunities and
commitments to ensure that overburdened,
positioning the United States as a global leader in a
underserved, and underrepresented individuals and
nascent industry.
communities have access to Federal resources

60
Actions Supporting the U.S. National Clean Hydrogen
Strategy and Roadmap
Federal agencies, in partnership with state, local, and hydrogen strategy. While past analyses of the
Tribal governments, and stakeholders will take action benefits of hydrogen have largely focused on GHG
to develop and deploy clean hydrogen technologies. emissions, ongoing and planned activities are also
Planned actions are outlined across the near-term aiming to quantify other benefits, such as mitigation
through 2025, mid-term to 2029, and longer term to of criteria pollution, job creation, and domestic
2035. The plans outlined in this report will be used to leadership in innovation. Future versions of this
fulfill the reporting requirement in the BIL and are Roadmap will describe these impacts in great
expected to be continually refined and updated. They depth.193
are based on lessons learned and best practices from
This is only the beginning of the national effort to
the development of both hydrogen and other
innovate and build the full value chain for clean
advanced technologies, considering local and
hydrogen from production through delivery and
regional opportunities with a focus on environmental
storage infrastructure, market adoption and
and energy justice, and forging partnerships across
economic development—continued effort and
government, industry, investors, and academic and
investment will be required. The U.S. Government is
research institutions to speed progress.
taking a holistic view of catalyzing investments and
Several of these actions are already in progress and actions to accelerate the commercialization of
will be supported by existing and recently announced hydrogen and related technologies across the Nation.
public funding opportunities, such as initiatives under
The National Strategy and Roadmap aligns with the
DOE’s LPO and Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs under
key hydrogen provisions in the BIL, as shown in
BIL. Subject to annual congressional appropriations
Figure 38, and will advance the broader national
and private sector investment, federal agencies and
effort to innovate and build the full value chain for
other stakeholders will undertake additional actions
clean hydrogen.
across the RDD&D pipeline. DOE will track key
indicators and metrics to track progress of the U.S.

61
Figure 38: Timeline for key hydrogen provisions in the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law.
Federal agencies will work with states, Tribal examples of specific regulatory activities by the
governments, communities, and other stakeholders various agencies. Agencies will work together to
to identify regulatory gaps and develop strategies to regularly update this assessment and to identify
address them. and prioritize actions to ensure the U.S. can
accelerate the buildout of hydrogen production,
Figure 39, based on input across agencies, shows
delivery, storage, and end-use, while also addressing
various segments of the hydrogen value chain from
potential environmental concerns and ensuring
production through end-use and lists the agencies
equity and justice for overburdened, underserved,
that may have jurisdiction in key areas. Based on a
and underrepresented individuals and communities.
DOE-funded report by Sandia National
Laboratories,194 Table 2 and Table 3 (below) show

62
Figure 39: The regulatory landscape involves a suite of Federal and local regulators who may oversee each
segment of the hydrogen value chain. (Source: Sandia National Lab)

63
Table 2: Examples of regulatory activities by U.S. agencies relevant to hydrogen production, storage, and
delivery.
Agency Regulation Summary

EPA 40 CFR Part 98 Requires greenhouse gas reporting by applicable facilities, including
related to hydrogen production and other applicable source
Production
categories.
DOE IIJA Sec 40315 (Sec Directs DOE to develop a clean hydrogen production standard.
822 of EPACT-2005)
FAA 14 CFR Part 420 Dictates the separation distance requirements for storage of liquid
hydrogen and any incompatible energetic liquids.
FERC* 18 CFR Part 157 Issuance of certificates of public convenience and necessity to
prospective companies providing energy services or constructing and
operating interstate natural gas pipelines and storage facilities.
EPA 40 CFR 144, 146 Authorization to inject hydrogen for the purposes of subsurface
storage.
Storage
OSHA 29 CFR Part 1910 Dictates the safety of the structural components and operations of
gaseous and liquid hydrogen storage and delivery.
BSEE 43 USC Chapter 29 Manages compliance programs governing oil, gas, and mineral
operations on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS).
Transportation by Pipeline
FERC* 18 CFR Part 153, 157, Applications for authorization to construct, operate, or modify facilities
and 284 used for the export or import of natural gas.
Issuance of certificates of public convenience and necessity to
prospective companies providing energy services or constructing and
operating interstate natural gas pipelines and storage facilities.
Regulation of natural gas transportation in interstate commerce.
PHMSA 49 CFR Part 192, 195 Prescribes minimum safety requirements for pipeline facilities,
pipelines, and the transportation of gas or hazardous liquids within the
limits of the outer continental shelf.
USCG 33 CFR Part 154 Regulations for facilities transferring hazardous materials back and
forth from a vessel to a facility.
PHMSA 49 USC 5117 and 49 Lists and classifies hazardous materials for transportation and
Transportation by
CFR Part 172, 173, prescribes the requirements for papers, markings, labeling, and vehicle
174, 179, 180 placarding.
Provides requirements for preparing hazardous materials for shipment
as well inspection, testing, and other requirements for transportation
of hazardous materials in or on rail cars, including construction &
usage instructions for DOT-113A60W tank cars.
Gives the authority to authorize a variance that is still at the same
safety level, special permit is required to use an alternative fuel that
Rail
does not have a safety standard.

64
FHWA 23 CFR Part 658, 924 Regulates size and weight of trucks and highway safety which includes
bridges, tunnels, and other associated elements.
FMCSA 49 CFR Part 356, 389, Motor carrier routing requirements, general motor carrier safety
397 regulations, and transportation of hazardous materials.
Transportation by Road
FTC 16 CFR Part 306 Describes the certification and posting of automotive fuel ratings in
commerce.
PHMSA 49 CFR Part 172, 173, Lists and classifies hazardous materials for transportation, and
177, 178, 180 prescribes requirements for papers, markings, labeling, and vehicle
placarding.
Provides requirements for preparing hazardous materials for shipment,
and inspection, testing, and other requirements for transportation of
hazardous materials via public highways (including transportation
containers).
PHMSA 49 CFR Part 172, 173, Lists and classifies hazardous materials for transportation and
176, 178, 180 prescribes the requirements for papers, markings, labeling, and vehicle
Transportation by Waterways
placarding.
Provides requirements for preparing hazardous materials for shipment,
as well inspection, testing, and other requirements for containers.
Requirements for transportation by vessel.
USCG 33 CFR Part 154, 156 Regulations for transferring hazardous materials back and forth from a
and 46 CFR Part 38, vessel to a facility.
150, 151, 153, 154 Transfer of oil or hazardous material on the navigable waters or
contiguous zone of the U.S.
Requirements for transportation of liquified or compressed flammable
gases, including incompatibility of hazardous materials and rules for
containers.
Regulations for ships and vessels carrying bulk cargo, including bulk
liquified gases as cargo, residue, or vapor.
* Application of some of these authorities to hydrogen may require additional legislative or regulatory action
(e.g., FERC)

65
Table 3: Examples of regulatory activities by U.S. agencies relevant to end-use of hydrogen.
End-Use
System Agency Regulation Summary

14 CFR Part 23, 25, Requirements for electrical generating systems including auxiliary and
FAA
27, 29 Subpart E backup power for airplanes and rotorcraft.
Alternative Power Supply
Regulates additional equipment on commercial vehicles to ensure it

FMCSA 49 CFR Part 390
Auxiliary Power and
does not reduce the overall safety of the vehicle.
Regulations for electrical systems, generators, protection from

FRA 49 CFR Part 229 hazardous gases from exhaust and batteries, and crashworthiness for
locomotives.
USCG 46 CFR Part 111 Regulations for power supply systems on ships.
Requires greenhouse gas reporting by applicable facilities, including

EPA 40 CFR Part 98 related to general stationary combustion and other applicable source
Industrial Use
Chemical and
categories.
Dictates the safety of the structural components and operations of

OSHA 29 CFR Part 1910
gaseous and liquid hydrogen in terms of storage as well as delivery.
10 CFR Part 503, Relates to new baseload powerplants including the use of alternative
DOE
504 fuels as a primary energy source.
Electricity Production
Addresses GHG emissions from fossil fuel-fired electric generating

EPA 40 CFR Part 60
units (EGUs).
Regulations regarding small power production and cogeneration

FERC* 18 CFR Part 292
facilities.
Regulations for self-propelled vessels that contain bulk liquified gases

Import/Exp
as cargo, cargo residue, or vapor.

Terminals
33 CFR Part 154,

USCG
156 Transfer of oil or hazardous materials on the navigable waters or
ort
contiguous zone of the U.S.
23 CFR Part 658, Regulates the size and weight of trucks and highway safety which
FHWA
Use in Consumer and
Commercial Vehicles
924 includes bridges, tunnels, and other associated elements.
Provides Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards for motor vehicles

NHTSA 49 CFR 571
and motor vehicle equipment.

66
14 CFR Part 23, Provides requirements and airworthiness standards for airplanes and
Aviation FAA
Use in
25,26, 27, 29, 33 rotorcraft.
Requirements for National Public Transportation Safety Plan for public

FTA 49 USC Chapter 53
transportation that receives Federal funding.
Use in Maritime
Regulation of vessel construction for both passenger and cargo

46 CFR Parts 24–
USCG applications as well as general fuel requirements based on the flash
196
point of the fuel.
49 CFR Part 229, Locomotive safety design and crashworthiness requirements, including
FRA
238 safety requirements for passenger locomotives.
Provides guidance for rail fixed guideway systems and the oversight of
safety, including hazard management and safety and security plans
49 CFR Part 659,
Use in Rail
FTA and review.

674
Mandates state safety oversight of fixed guideway public
transportation systems.
* Application of some of these authorities to hydrogen may require additional legislative or regulatory action
(e.g., FERC)

67
Actions and Milestones for the Near-, Mid-, and Long-
term
Figure 40: The national action plan for clean hydrogen.

68
Actions to support clean, affordable, and sustainable hydrogen production
2022-2025 2026-2029 2030-2035

• Assess pathways from lifecycle, • Deploy clean hydrogen from • Produce at least 10 MMT/year
sustainability, cost, regional, and equity renewables, nuclear, fossil + CCS of clean hydrogen by 2030.
perspectives to prioritize strategies, at scale. • Enable clean hydrogen
determine gaps, and inform interim goals. • Enable clean hydrogen production at $1/kg3 from
• Establish Clean Hydrogen Production production from electrolysis at diverse resources.
Standard. $2/kg.2 • Demonstrate electrolysis
• Demonstrate clean hydrogen production • Enable multi-gigawatt-scale stacks that minimize the use
technologies from multiple pathways, domestic electrolyzer of critical materials and
including pyrolysis, waste, renewables, and manufacturing capacity. achieve targeted performance
nuclear. • Demonstrate catalysts and and durability.
• Reduce the cost of electrolyzers at scale components that minimize use • Demonstrate novel,
through RDD&D on manufacturing, stacks, of critical materials while commercially viable
and BOP components. achieving competitive approaches to hydrogen
• Reduce the cost of thermal conversion performance and durability. production leveraging diverse
technologies through RDD&D on modular • Optimize integration between feedstocks, such as
designs and process intensification. electrolyzers and clean energy wastewater or high-
Clean Hydrogen Production
• Develop low-cost, durable membranes and supplies to reduce cost and temperature heat, at scale.
separation materials. improve efficiency and • Ensure resilient and
• Identify opportunities for standardization resilience. sustainable domestic supply
of components, reduce dependence on • Advance the most promising chains are available for all
critical materials, and foster a robust supply concepts for hydrogen production pathways
chain. production currently at lab scale, employed and enable
• Design and conduct accelerated stress such as thermochemical, independence from imports.
testing techniques to assess and improve photoelectrochemical or • Continue to collect data from
durability. biological approaches. real-world deployments to
• Publish case studies on pathways, • Collect data from real-world inform RDD&D, identify
emissions, and cost and update GREET demonstrations to inform remaining gaps and refine
capabilities for user-friendliness, RDD&D and continue improving strategies.
transparency, and additional pathways in performance and durability. • Apply best practices, lessons
support of 45V. • Refine and update pathways learned, and rigorous
• Develop rigorous data collection and assessments to ensure the most analyses, including through
monitoring framework for future sustainable, equitable, resilient, global collaboration and
deployments. and affordable approaches are sustainability frameworks to
• Identify needed worker competencies and targeted. ensure the most sustainable,
develop consensus-based, industry- • Use rigorous analyses, lessons equitable, resilient, and
accepted training credentials where learned, best practices, and affordable approaches are
possible. broad stakeholder feedback to advanced to maximize
• Promote higher-education and identify pathways for scale up benefits.
apprenticeship programs, especially in with highest benefits. Review • Sustain university, community
disadvantaged communities, for training and refine work competencies college, and union training
the clean hydrogen workforce, including on and industry-accepted training programs to support a robust
safety, codes, and standards. standards to match industry workforce.
• Promote career awareness efforts to attract need.
people to join the hydrogen workforce
2 Modeled cost at scale, meets BIL provision (Sec. 816 of EPACT-2005) $2/kg by 2026.
3 Modeled cost at scale to meet Hydrogen Shot goal.

69
Actions to support safe, efficient, and reliable clean hydrogen delivery and
storage infrastructure
2022-2025 2026-2029 2030-2035

• Develop and update rigorous • Validate and refine analyses, • Design networks of hydrogen
analytical models and tools to models, and tools to prioritize infrastructure optimized for
assess delivery and storage delivery and storage pathways for regional supply and demand, in
pathways, determine gaps, and various applications. collaboration with local
prioritize strategies. • Demonstrate efficient and reliable communities and stakeholders to
• Develop technologies to tightly hydrogen pipeline compressor maximize benefits and ensure
monitor and mitigate hydrogen operation. energy, environmental, and equity
leaks and boil-off. • Quantify loss rates from gaseous goals are addressed.
• Assess compatibility of pipeline and liquid hydrogen infrastructure • Demonstrate advanced liquefaction
and component materials with to inform mitigation requirements with double the efficiency of
hydrogen and hydrogen blends in large-scale deployments. current concepts.
with natural gas. • Develop designs for commercial- • Develop long term storage
• Advance novel approaches for low scale novel, high efficiency systems plan/strategic hydrogen reserve to
Delivery and Storage Infrastructure
cost, high efficiency hydrogen for hydrogen liquefaction. ensure resilience of supply.
liquefaction and boil-off mitigation. • Advance promising concepts for • Deploy Regional Clean Hydrogen
• Conduct discovery and hydrogen carriers and design Hubs with advanced low-cost clean
development of hydrogen carrier reliable, low-cost regenerator hydrogen storage and
materials for use in bulk storage systems. infrastructure.
and distribution. • Initiate regional bulk hydrogen • Collect data, including emissions
• Identify geologic formations that storage demonstrations, including data, from demonstrations of bulk
can be used for bulk hydrogen underground approaches, and hydrogen distribution (e.g.,
storage, and associated ensure local and regional benefits. through pipelines or carriers) in
development and operating • Demonstrate novel, efficient, and real-world environments to inform
requirements. low-cost approaches to bulk RDD&D that reduces cost and
• Develop and optimize designs for hydrogen delivery. improves reliability.
hydrogen infrastructure in key • Deploy scalable hydrogen fueling • Continue collecting data to inform
applications, such as industry and stations to support early fleet scale up of optimal delivery and
energy storage. markets, such as heavy-duty trucks storage pathways and RDD&D.
• Develop technologies for high and buses. • Ensure any safety or other best
throughput dispensing of • Ensure monitoring systems and practices related to hydrogen
hydrogen for heavy-duty vehicles. data collection are in place for infrastructure are shared across
• Develop and harmonize fueling potential hydrogen and other diverse stakeholders to enable
protocols for heavy-duty and off- emissions/releases. continuous improvement.
road vehicles for which hydrogen is • Design sustainable and equitable • Leverage global collaborations on
the optimal solution. regional clean hydrogen networks hydrogen infrastructure to inform
• Accelerate RDD&D to reduce the in key locations to maximize long term investment plans and
cost of high pressure and liquid benefits, ensuring energy and hydrogen exports opportunities.
hydrogen storage tanks, including environmental justice and equity.
carbon fiber composite vessels.
• Establish data monitoring and
collection framework to assess
upstream and on-site emissions.

70
Actions to support clean hydrogen use and broader market adoption
2022-2025 2026-2029 2030-2035

• Lay regulatory groundwork for large- • Enable international • Develop market structures and
scale clean hydrogen deployments harmonization of codes and regulatory guidance to enable
across production, processing, standards related to hydrogen clean hydrogen exports.
delivery, storage, and end-use. technologies. • Utilize lessons learned from
• Work across industries (e.g., nuclear, • Address regulatory challenges large-scale deployments to
renewables, fossil, CCS, energy to increase electrolyzer access identify priority sectors for
storage) to identify regulatory, and to renewable and nuclear future growth with a focus on
policy gaps, and key strategies to energy. holistic approaches that
address them (e.g., “Dig Once” • Share safety best practices and support the most efficient,
approaches to co-locate lessons learned from early affordable, and climate-aligned
transmission, CO2, hydrogen, and deployments through publicly goals that maximize public
other conduits) to minimize impacts. accessible platforms. health safety and the
• Develop streamlined guidance on • Deploy at least two Regional environment.
hydrogen pipeline and large-scale Clean Hydrogen Hubs, • Demonstrate and quantify the
project permitting with stakeholder demonstrating hydrogen use in benefits of hydrogen in
engagement and addressing hard-to-decarbonize sectors enabling the resilience of future
environmental, energy, and equity (e.g., industry and heavy-duty clean energy systems and
End-Use and Market Adoption
priorities. transport). addressing disaster mitigation

• Develop market structures and • Develop national guidance for (e.g., microgrids, cyber security,
offtake agreements to accelerate hydrogen blending limits. remote communities).
progress. • Supply clean hydrogen to • Demonstrate ultra-low-NOx
• Initiate transition to clean hydrogen produce at least 3 billion turbine operation and low-PGM
for hard-to-decarbonize industrial gallons of sustainable aviation fuel cell operation on 100%
applications and identify specific fuels from biomass and wastes hydrogen for power generation
locations for potential scale up (e.g., by 2030. by 2030.
ammonia, refineries, steel). • Increase the efficiency and cost- • Launch at least one Regional
• Advance efficient end-use effectiveness of recovery and Clean Hydrogen Hub
technologies (fuel cells/other power recycling of raw materials from demonstrating hydrogen use in
conversion with low/zero emissions) electrolyzers, fuel cells, and energy storage for a clean grid
and down select for scale up. other components across the and quantify opportunities for
• Complete robust modeling and hydrogen value chain to ensure hydrogen to support achieving
improve data collection to quantify independence from foreign a carbon pollution free grid by
climate impacts of hydrogen imports. 2035 including regional factors.
leakage. • Collect and analyze safety, risk, • Continue collecting and
• Develop best practices and guidance and reliability data to develop analyzing safety, risk and
to assess life cycle emissions of real- early insights that can influence reliability data and developing
world deployments of clean future deployments. insights that enable continuous
hydrogen and inform “guarantees of improvement.
origin” and certification schemes.
• Establish safety, risk and reliability
data monitoring and collection
frameworks.
• Catalyze long-term, credit-worthy
offtake including from more nascent
sectors that are on the cusp of
adopting clean hydrogen.

71
Actions to enable a safe, affordable, and sustainable clean hydrogen economy
and ensure energy justice
2022-2025 2026-2029 2030-2035

• Develop and implement frameworks for • Refine and continuously • Quantify benefits from
broad and inclusive community improve community deployments and identify
engagement, including from engagement and inclusion additional policy or program
environmental and energy justice, and apply lessons learned. priorities to accelerate
disadvantaged communities, Tribes, Tribal • Foster public-private progress in targeted, no-
organizations labor unions, industry, partnerships to enable regrets areas.
academia, national laboratories, and inclusion and accelerate • Deploy manufacturing
Federal, state, and local governments to progress. facilities for clean hydrogen
ensure broad participation and hold • Develop and implement technologies in
listening sessions to gather stakeholder community benefit disadvantaged communities
feedback. agreements with for local and regional
• Incorporate Community Benefit Plans into disadvantaged communities benefits.
funding opportunities requiring applicants in Hub regions. • Evaluate the techno-socio-
to describe and commit to community • Launch deployments of economic impact of
and labor engagement, investing in hydrogen technologies that Regional Clean Hydrogen
creating good jobs, furthering diversity, reduce criteria pollution in Hubs.
equity, inclusion and accessibility and nonattainment areas and • Develop and refine market
meeting Justice 40 goals. provide resilience, jobs, and structures to distribute costs
• Identify metrics for diversity, equity, other key benefits for local and benefits of new
inclusion, accessibility, and other key and disadvantaged technologies equitably.
priorities, for teams and organizations, communities. • Ensure adaptation, cyber,
Enablers and Environmental and Energy Justice
and geographical/community locations • Conduct impact assessments resilience, and other

for Federally funded demonstrations. of hydrogen technologies on mitigation approaches are
• Launch tools and platforms (e.g., regional water supply and included in strategic plans
H2Matchmaker) to facilitate partnerships, other regional resources. for scale up.
inclusion, and market success. • Identify and apply lessons • Update and refine
• Develop retraining programs for workers learned for environmental sustainability frameworks
(e.g., from fossil industries), enabling both and risk assessments, and best practices to inform
near- and long-term good paying jobs. including through global and future deployments of
• Develop recruitment and career programs regional collaborations. hydrogen.
for students from underrepresented • Work with unions to develop • Leverage global
communities and foster diversity, equity, and expand registered collaborations and initiatives
inclusion, and accessibility. apprenticeship programs for to maximize success across
• Develop and implement sustainability hydrogen technologies. the RDD&D pipeline and
frameworks and NEPA best practices. • Establish education and ensuring an equitable clean
• Develop education resources to support engagement pathways for energy transition.
hub community outreach and first responders and code
engagement strategies. officials.
• Improve data collection on regional • Utilize H2Tools and other
priorities (e.g., criteria pollution) and platforms to share best
identify applications to inform clean practices and lessons learned.
hydrogen deployments.

72
Phases of Clean Hydrogen Development
Figure 41: Clean hydrogen will be developed in waves, based on the relative attractiveness in each end-use
application. Arrows depict the timeframe when hydrogen is expected to be competitive with incumbent
technologies at scale throughout the U.S.
The market penetration of hydrogen technologies will and where there is access to hydrogen and
depend on numerous factors including technical compatible end uses. This includes existing refining
maturity, cost, infrastructure availability, and ammonia production plants. Industrial clusters
manufacturing and supply chain capacities, the cost that co-locate large scale production with end-use for
of other low-carbon solutions, the policy and such applications can help drive down costs and
regulatory landscape, regional and state initiatives, create the infrastructure that could be leveraged for
industry momentum and commitments, and other markets in subsequent phases.
unlocking private capital and investment.
• Forklifts and other material handling
Based on two key factors—estimated break-even and
equipment in warehouses, ports, and other
the relative attractiveness of hydrogen as a
industrial sites have high utilization, predictable
decarbonization solution—as well as stakeholder
refueling locations and a need for fast refueling.
input, the federal government envisions three
The U.S. Government has already catalyzed this
application adoption phases or “waves” for clean
niche application in the United States, enabling
hydrogen use in the United States. Figure 41 depicts
thousands of systems in the market and a nascent
how potential markets will evolve in the U.S. and
infrastructure.
ramp up in the early, mid, and long term. The relative
• Refineries represent the largest hydrogen market
placement of end-use applications in each phase is
today and have no alternative for cracking heavy
based on a range of quantitative and qualitative
crude oil and for desulfurization. Switching to the
factors and will be updated over time as the industry
use of clean hydrogen will create demand in the
and policy landscape evolves.
near term and immediately reduce emissions.
First Wave • Transit buses could be an attractive use case,
particularly in regions that require long-distance
Applications of clean hydrogen in the first wave will
operation and high uptimes and for transit
be jumpstarted by existing markets that have few
agencies with large bus fleets where individual
alternatives to clean hydrogen for decarbonization

73
battery electric vehicle charging may be with internal combustion engines as hydrogen and
challenging. fuel cell costs decline.
• Long-haul heavy-duty trucks have high • Certain industrial chemical production, such
utilization, high energy requirements, and need to as in the plastics industry, requires high-
refuel quickly. Together with medium-duty temperature heat that is difficult to achieve with
vehicles, they produce about 20 percent of electricity, or rely on hydrogen feedstock from
transportation-sector greenhouse gas emissions in fossil sources today. These sectors could be
the United States.195 decarbonized using clean hydrogen for heat
• Heavy machinery in mining, construction and generation, and as a feedstock.
agriculture could benefit from fuel cell • Steel production can decarbonize with clean
propulsion, since they have high power hydrogen when applied to iron ore-based steel
requirements, need to be refueled quickly, and production that requires carbon-free reductants
may need to operate far from power grids. These and high temperatures, where electrolytic
applications require large volumes of hydrogen production would not yet be viable.
and will create demand. • Energy storage & power generation can
• Ammonia production uses carbon-intensive transition to gas turbines fueled with mixtures of
hydrogen as a feedstock today can be replaced hydrogen and natural gas for near-term emission
with clean hydrogen without retrofitting plants. As reductions in fossil assets. Pure hydrogen can also
the second largest captive market requiring be used as technologies become available that
hydrogen following refining, ammonia can also produce low nitrogen oxides. Fuel cells can also be
offer stable demand for clean hydrogen. used as a power conversion technology. Clean
hydrogen can play a key role in seasonal storage
By supporting demonstrations and infrastructure for to decarbonize the grid and reduce fossil-based
many of the above markets, federal agencies can generation.
enable high volumes of hydrogen in limited regions • Aviation can transition to sustainable fuels that
and provide tangible benefits to disadvantaged are produced using clean hydrogen and biomass
communities or workers that would otherwise be and waste feedstocks, contributing to the Biden-
exposed to diesel exhaust and other pollutants. Harris Administration goal of 3 billion gallons of
sustainable aviation fuel.114 The production of
Second Wave clean hydrogen at scale will also lay the
Applications in the second wave include use cases groundwork to produce power-to-liquids in the
where clean hydrogen offers a growing economic longer term. Industry feedback suggest certain
value proposition, supported by commitments by market segments could additionally use hydrogen
industry and policy momentum. This phase includes a directly, though cryogenic storage may be
broader range of transportation use cases and widens required due to energy density requirements.
to include greater use of industrial fuel and
feedstock. A few examples of additional applications Third Wave
beyond those in the first wave include:
Applications in the third wave will become
competitive as clean hydrogen production scales
• Medium-duty trucks powered by hydrogen fuel
significantly and as costs decline and infrastructure
cells should become increasingly available at scale
as heavy-duty transport leads the way in becomes available. For example:
expanding hydrogen distribution and refueling
• Backup power & stationary power from fuel
infrastructure.
cells can replace diesel generators in providing
• Regional ferries powered by fuel cells, which
resilience to critical 24/7 facilities such as hospitals
could transport people or goods over short
and data centers, also offering advantages to
distances, are likely to become cost-competitive

74
disadvantaged communities and improving air such as those listed in Figure 42, to evaluate the role
quality. Backup power is distinct from energy of hydrogen in industry, transportation, and the
storage as its role is to provide resilience for a energy sector. Data from real-world deployments in
singular customer or microgrid, whereas energy the coming years will be used to continually refine
storage supports the macro grid. these tools to ensure they reflect status of technology
• Methanol produced with clean hydrogen can also cost and performance.
be used directly as a fuel or fuel supplement, for
Analysis tools that DOE has funded to date cut across
container ships, rail, or other maritime
many different aspects of hydrogen markets.
applications, and as an energy carrier.
Foundational tools evaluate the cost and
• Container ships carry about 90 percent of global
performance of individual technologies, such as
trade by volume, producing about 3 percent of hydrogen production or infrastructure equipment.
global carbon emissions and a larger share of Technology assessments can then be used in supply
sulfur dioxide emissions.196 Potential alternatives chain analyses and to characterize the total cost and
during the third wave include clean ammonia, emissions of an application in a region. Supply chain
clean methanol, and liquified clean hydrogen. analyses then inform market adoption analysis—for
• Cement can use clean hydrogen to decrease example, estimating the value proposition of
direct CO2 emissions where electrification is not an hydrogen energy storage and sales of fuel cell trucks.
option due to high heat requirements. All analyses are used to inform RDD&D activities and
• Blending with existing natural gas networks real-world data from technical demonstrations are
can support targeted decarbonization of high- fed back into foundational models to improve
temperature heating systems, primarily in the assessments in the future.
industrial sector where high temperatures are
needed for certain sectors, such as chemicals. Ongoing government-funded and government-led
While this application can start even during the analyses are identifying optimal pathways to achieve
first wave, costs must decline considerably to be net-zero emissions economy-wide by 2050, using
economically viable. cross-sector tools such as the Global Change Analysis
Model (GCAM) and the National Energy Modeling
The phases of clean hydrogen deployment are highly System (NEMS). DOE is currently funding updates to
dependent on the development of technology, these tools to represent diverse hydrogen
research, and supportive policy structures. However, production, distribution, and utilization methods that
concentrating efforts on sectors that are more are expected to be deployable at scale in the near-
commercially viable, lack decarbonization term. Cross-office analyses completed using these
alternatives, and enjoy industry momentum will models may inform strategy in future versions of this
increase the impact of public investments. roadmap.
In collaboration with international partnerships, such
Systems Analysis Will Continue to as Mission Innovation, DOE is also funding the
Inform the U.S. National Clean development of metrics and criteria that can be used
Hydrogen Strategy and Actions to ascertain the impacts of hydrogen deployments on
sustainability, such as on water consumption, labor
Robust and transparent analysis and modeling efforts
opportunities, air quality improvements and more.
completed through collaborations between national
DOE’s solicitation for Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs
laboratories, industry, and academia will continue to
also evaluates applicants based on environmental
inform priorities, milestones, and actions to advance
justice criteria, such as community benefits. These
clean hydrogen deployment in priority sectors. Over
criteria and impacts will be further described in future
the past several decades, the federal government,
versions of the roadmap.
including DOE, has funded the development of tools,

75
Figure 42: A suite of tools and models support systems analysis work from fundamental model validation and
techno-economic work, to planning, optimization, and integrated analysis.
ADOPT: Automotive Deployment Options Projection Tool; Autonomie: (a vehicle system simulation tool);
BEAM: Behavior, Energy, Autonomy, and Mobility; FASTSim: Future Automotive Systems Technology Simulator;
GCAM: Global Change Assessment Model; GREET: Greenhouse gases, regulated emissions, and energy use in
Technologies Model; H2A: The Hydrogen Analysis Project; H2FAST: Hydrogen Financial Analysis Scenario Tool;
HDRSAM: Heavy-Duty Refueling Station Analysis Model; HDSAM: Hydrogen Delivery Scenario Analysis Model;
HRSAM: Hydrogen Refueling Station Analysis Model; LAVE-Trans: Light-Duty Alternative Vehicle Energy
Transitions; PLEXOS: (an integrated energy model); POLARIS: (a predictive transportation system model);
ReEDS: Regional Energy Deployment System; REMI: Regional Economic Models, Inc.; RODeO: Revenue
Operation and Device Optimization Model; SERA: Scenario Evaluation and Regionalization Analysis; StoreFAST:
Storage Financial Analysis Scenario Tool; VISION: (a transportation energy use prediction model)

76
Collaboration and Coordination
Efficient and effective collaboration and government representatives discussed a potential
coordination are vital to implement the U.S. national framework for global hydrogen coordination at the
clean hydrogen strategy. Agencies have already been launch of the Hydrogen Breakthrough Agenda in
coordinating with each other, and with industry, Glasgow at COP26 in November 2021. Such a
states, and numerous stakeholders to execute on coordination framework would help unify various
hydrogen related activities.197 Agencies will also ramp organizations and initiatives199 to avoid duplication,
up engagement across the entire spectrum of leverage resources, and accelerate the successful
stakeholders from industry and academia to labor scale up of clean hydrogen technologies. The U.S.
unions, disadvantaged communities, and Tribal Government will work with the UK and other
communities. Several opportunities exist across countries to strengthen coordination and will
agencies, building on activities underway over more continue to play a key role in several multi-lateral and
than a decade198 to accelerate progress aligned with bi-lateral hydrogen partnerships. Table 4 shows
the National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap. examples of preliminary feedback from over 30
Examples include the following, though many others countries engaged in clean hydrogen initiatives,
can play a role as the clean hydrogen economy developed through the Hydrogen Breakthrough
develops. Agenda. As specific activities and mutually agreed
upon priorities are defined, the U.S. Government will
The U.S. will also continue to work across countries to
continue to play a leadership role to foster
enable an affordable, clean, and sustainable global
collaboration, share information, and accelerate
hydrogen economy and to achieve the U.S.
action towards tangible outcomes and successes.
Government’s collective climate goals. Multiple
Table 4: Emerging priorities for strengthened global collaboration.
Regulation,
Demand Creation Finance & Research & Standards &
& Management Investment Innovation Certification
Demand signals along Access to appropriate Research & Innovation Regulatory frameworks
with matching supply to finance is critical. underpins progress across including internationally
avoid stranded assets are Investments are hydrogen systems — accepted and
an important driver of starting to be made but helping reduce costs, implemented standards
investment in clean scale is still small improve performance, & certification
hydrogen infrastructure relative to needs. address supply chains, schemes across the
and will build investor Developed countries face and broaden applicability. hydrogen value chain are
confidence. challenges but Significant activity essential enablers of
particularly acute for exists driving action in production, trade, and
Some activity exists but
developing world. multiple countries. Scope use.
coordination should be
strengthened at Some activity exists but exists to accelerate Significant work is
sufficient scale, not widely coordinated, innovation to reduce underway by a wide range
visibility, and breadth. visible or with sufficient cost and increase of actors on key elements.
scale and breadth. scale— particularly for Activities are not yet
Scope to explore how
pilot and demo projects closely coordinated,
public and private sector
and gaps are unclear.

77
actors can strengthen Scope exists to increase and to include more Ensuring rapid and wide
demand signals to ensure public and private sector countries. adoption remains
offtakers and supply investment, particularly challenging.
Scope exists to build on
chains to reduce risk. enabling investment and
existing initiatives to Scope exists to connect
coordination with
increase diversity and existing work across
developing countries.
scalability of demo entities, identify and
projects, involve more address gaps and elevate
countries and share and broaden political
learnings more widely to support.
guide RDD&D.
The U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and include enabling industrial ports as hubs for
Roadmap also supports recommendations outlined in hydrogen at scale; using existing gas infrastructure
the IEA Future of Hydrogen report released at the to spur new clean hydrogen supplies; supporting
2019 G20 Summit:200 transportation fleets, freight, and corridor; and
enabling hydrogen shipping to jumpstart
1. “Establish a role for hydrogen in long-term energy international hydrogen trade.
strategies … Key sectors include refining,
chemicals, iron and steel, freight and long- U.S. Government activities as outlined in this
distance transport, buildings, and power document are also aligned with the Global Action
generation and storage.” Agenda as developed through the Hydrogen Energy
2. “Stimulate commercial demand for clean Ministerial in September 2019. Key pillars include:201
hydrogen.” This includes scaling up both hydrogen
from fossil fuels with CCS and hydrogen (using 1. “Collaboration on technologies and coordination
renewables) as well as water electrolysis using on the harmonization of regulation, codes and
nuclear resources. standards;”
3. “Address investment risks of first movers.” New 2. “Promotion of information sharing international
applications for hydrogen, as well as clean joint research and development emphasizing
hydrogen supply and infrastructure projects can hydrogen safety and infrastructure supply chains;”
be supported through tools such as loan 3. “Study and evaluation of hydrogen’s potential
guarantees to reduce risk. across sectors including its potential for reducing
4. “Support R&D to bring down costs. Alongside cost both carbon dioxide emissions and other
reductions from economies of scale, R&D is crucial pollutants; and”
to lower costs and improve performance.” 4. “Communication, Education and Outreach”
5. “Eliminate unnecessary regulatory barriers and
harmonize standards. Project developers face DOE has already played a strong leadership role in
challenges where regulations and permit convening and supporting its counterparts in
requirements are unclear.” Addressing safety, multiple nations. DOE has long been recognized as
codes and standards is necessary for a harmonized instrumental in accelerating progress through
global supply chain. tangible outcomes as a co-lead for the hydrogen
6. “Engage internationally and track progress.” initiatives under the auspices of both the Clean
Enhanced international co-operation is essential Energy Ministerial and Mission Innovation, as former
and supported by a number or partnerships. chair and current vice chair of the IPHE, and as a
7. “Focus on four key opportunities to further strong contributor to the IEA’s hydrogen and fuel cell
increase momentum over the next decade.” These programs.

78
Concrete actions include launching DOE’s H2 Twin In summary, through the cohesive and coordinated
Cities initiative202 to foster partnerships between efforts by the federal government, along with states,
cities across continents deploying hydrogen industry, National Laboratories, academia, and
technologies, with emphasis on equity and justice, through extensive stakeholder input and
co-leading initiatives to facilitate international trade collaboration, implementation of this plan will
and develop a common methodology for assessing contribute to achieving the vision set forth for
the carbon footprint of hydrogen, harmonizing codes hydrogen in the United States: Affordable clean
and standards, and launching an early career network hydrogen for a net-zero carbon future and a
that is run entirely by students and early career sustainable, resilient, and equitable economy.
professionals from more than 34 countries. The U.S.
Government will continue to advance these and
additional concrete actions as global momentum
builds for clean hydrogen.

79
Conclusion
Clean hydrogen, as shown in the Biden-Harris Federal agencies, through a whole of government
Administration’s Long-Term Strategy of the United approach, are committed to working with partners in
States, is an important element of the Nation’s path industry, academia, national laboratories, local and
to decarbonization. Though much remains uncertain, Tribal communities, and more to advance this
the potential for hydrogen is clear. Focused transition and will leverage a broad array of tools
investment and action in the near, mid, and long- including policies, financial assistance, loans,
term will lay the foundation for broader clean apprenticeship programs, and stakeholder
hydrogen adoption, drive down cost, and increase engagement, to accelerate progress. Further details
scale in a sustainable and holistic manner. Clean and appendices will continue to be developed to
hydrogen across the entire RDD&D spectrum, ensure the most up to date information is available203
catalyzed by the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law and the and DOE will update this document at least every
Inflation Reduction Act, will both enable three years, as required.
decarbonization of hard-to-abate sectors and create
Through effective collaboration and with the right
and preserve good-paying jobs, provide
strategies and implementation plans, the United
environmental and energy justice benefits, and create
States can and must succeed in the development of a
energy independence and export opportunities for
sustainable, resilient, and equitable clean hydrogen
the United States.
economy.
Government actions can support and catalyze
investment across the value chain for clean hydrogen.

80
Acknowledgments
DOE was required to develop this document per the and the Offices of Energy Efficiency and Renewable
BIL (Pub. L. No. 117-28, sec. 40314, §814 (codified as Energy (across the pillars of Renewables, Sustainable
42 U.S.C. 16161b (2021)) but would like to Transportation, and Energy Efficiency), Fossil Energy
acknowledge multiple Federal agencies for their input and Carbon Management, Nuclear Energy, Science,
and guidance, particularly the Hydrogen Interagency Technology Transitions, Policy, Clean Energy
Working Group which was established by the Energy Demonstrations, Indian Energy Policy and Programs,
Policy Act of 2005 and includes more than 10 Federal Economic Impact and Diversity, Energy Jobs,
agencies. DOE appreciates early engagement by the Electricity, Congressional and Intergovernmental
Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association (FCHEA) Affairs, International Affairs, Loan Programs Office,
and its members and FCHEA’s hosting of listening and Advanced Research Projects Agency – Energy.
sessions that included the following organizations: Multiple sessions were convened through DOE’s
California Fuel Cell Partnership; California Hydrogen Science and Energy Technology Team to coordinate
Business Council; Clean Hydrogen Future Coalition; across the spectrum of RDD&D. Authors of DOE’s
Colorado Hydrogen Network; Connecticut Hydrogen Report, Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Clean
and Fuel Cell Coalition; Green Hydrogen Coalition; Hydrogen, particularly Hannah Murdoch and Jason
Hawaii Technology Development Corp; Hydrogen Munster provided valuable input and assessments.
Forward; Massachusetts Hydrogen Coalition; National
Technical and program managers at fifteen DOE
Fuel Cell Research Center, University of California
National Labs engaged in hydrogen RDD&D
(Irvine); New Jersey Fuel Cell Coalition; Ohio Fuel Cell
provided input for concrete actions and milestones.
Coalition; Renewable Hydrogen Alliance; Southeast
DOE is particularly grateful to McKinsey who was also
Hydrogen Energy Alliance; and US Hydrogen Alliance.
engaged in developing the U.S. industry hydrogen
DOE is also grateful for various listening sessions and
roadmap in 2019; for H2@Scale analyses led by Mark
presentation sessions including with Tribal
Ruth, Mark Chung, and Michael Penev at the National
communities, labor unions, NASEO, and
Renewable Energy Laboratory and Amgad Elgowainy
environmental and energy justice stakeholders. DOE
at Argonne National Laboratory; and for emissions
particularly recognizes the valuable input from the
analysis led by Amgad Elgowainy at Argonne
environmental community through listening sessions
National Laboratory. The multi-agency regulatory gap
with the Natural Resources Defense Council, Rocky
analysis funded by HFTO was conducted by Sandia
Mountain Institute, Environmental Defense Fund,
National Laboratories. DOE is also grateful for
Sierra Club, Earthjustice, and Union of Concerned
stakeholder feedback through Requests for
Scientists.
Information issued on February 15, 2022, on the BIL
In addition to the thanking the above stakeholders, Regional Clean Hydrogen Hub, electrolyzer, and clean
the primary authors of this report—Sunita Satyapal, hydrogen manufacturing provisions.
Neha Rustagi, Tomas Green, Marc Melaina, Michael
The draft document was released in September 2022
Penev, and Mariya Koleva—would like to
for public comment and revised for publication in
acknowledge multiple DOE offices including: the
June 2023. As required by the BIL, the document will
Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office (HFTO)
be updated at least every three years.

81
LDES Long-Duration Energy Storage
Glossary of Acronyms LOHC Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers
ARRA American Recovery and Reinvestment LPO Loan Programs Office
Act MARAD Maritime Administration (of the U.S.
ATR Autothermal Reforming Department of Transportation)
BIL Bipartisan Infrastructure Law MMT Million Metric Tonnes
BOF Basic Oxygen Furnaces MW Megawatt
BOP Balance of Plant M2FCT Million Mile Fuel Cell Truck
BSEE Bureau of Safety and Environmental Consortium
Enforcement NHTSA National Highway Transportation
CCS Carbon Capture and Storage Safety Administration
DOE U.S. Department of Energy NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory
EAF Electric Arc Furnaces OCS Outer Continental Shelf
EO Executive Order OSHA Occupational Safety and Health

Administration
EPACT-2005 Energy Policy Act of 2005
PEM Proton Exchange Membrane or
FAA Federal Aviation Administration Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (a type
FERC Federal Energy Regulatory of electrolyzer or fuel cell)
Commission PGM Platinum Group Metal
FHWA Federal Highway Administration PHMSA Pipeline and Hazardous Materials
FMCSA Federal Motor Carrier Safety Safety Administration
Administration R&D Research and Development
FTC Federal Trade Commission RD&D Research, Development, and
GHG Greenhouse Gas Demonstration
GREET Greenhouse Gases, Regulated RDD&D Research, Development,
Emissions, and Energy Use in Demonstration, And Deployment
Technologies (model) RFI Request for Information
H2NEW Hydrogen from Next-generation SAF Sustainable Aviation Fuel
Electrolyzers of Water (consortium)
SHASTA Subsurface Hydrogen Assessment,
HFTO Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Storage, and Technology Acceleration
Office
SMR Steam Methane Reforming
IEA International Energy Agency
SOEC Solid Oxide Electrolyzer Cells
IIJA Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act
TCO Total Cost of Ownership
IMO International Maritime Organization
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
IPHE International Partnership for Hydrogen
and Fuel Cells in the Economy USCG United States Coast Guard
IRA Inflation Reduction Act 21CTP 21st Century Truck Partnership

82
References
1 Emission savings based on ranges of hydrogen production carbon intensities, accounting for hydrogen fossil and clean electrolysis
pathways, as well as hydrogen demands across transportation, industry, and grid energy storage. Estimates of emissions savings per unit
of hydrogen consumed across pathways were approximately 10 kgCO2e/kg-H2. Estimates were developed using Argonne National
Laboratory’s Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Technologies Model.
Source: Argonne National Laboratory, "GREET Model,” Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL https://greet.es.anl.gov/.
2 Emission savings based on ranges of hydrogen production carbon intensities, accounting for hydrogen fossil and clean electrolysis
pathways, as well as hydrogen demands across transportation, industry, and grid energy storage. Estimates of emissions savings per unit
of hydrogen consumed across pathways were approximately 10 kgCO2e/kg-H2. Estimates were developed using Argonne National
Laboratory’s Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Technologies Model.
Source: Argonne National Laboratory, "GREET Model,” Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL. https://greet.es.anl.gov/.
3 U.S. Department of Energy, “Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen,” March 2023. https://liftoff.energy.gov/wp-
content/uploads/2023/05/20230320-Liftoff-Clean-H2-vPUB-0329-update.pdf
4 S. Satyapal. “2022 AMR Plenary Session,” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, June 2022.
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review22/plenary4_satyapal_2022_o.pdf.
5 U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen Program, “Hydrogen Shot,” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, 2021.
https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-shot.
6 The Study Task Force of the Hydrogen Council. “Hydrogen Scaling Up,” The Hydrogen Council, November 2017.
https://hydrogencouncil.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Hydrogen-scaling-up-Hydrogen-Council.pdf
7 E. Connelly, A. Elgowainy, and M. Ruth, U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen Program, “Current Hydrogen Market Size: Domestic and
Global,” U.S. Department of Energy, October 2019. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/19002-hydrogen-market-domestic-
global.pdf.
8 Estimates based on “Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen,” https://liftoff.energy.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/20230320-
Liftoff-Clean-H2-vPUB-0329-update.pdf and https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/20003-h2-production-potential-nuclear-power.pdf
9 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, “Special Report: Global Warming Of 1.5 ºC: Summary for Policy Makers,” The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, October 2018. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3-
24. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157940.001
10 The White House Office of Domestic Climate Policy, “National Climate Task Force,” The White House, Washington, DC, January 2021.
https://www.whitehouse.gov/climate/.
11 The U.S. Department of State and the U.S. Executive Office of the President, “The Long-Term Strategy of the United States: Pathways to
Net-Zero Greenhouse Gas Emissions by 2050,” The White House, Washington, DC, November 2021. https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-
content/uploads/2021/10/US-Long-Term-Strategy.pdf.
12 S. Young, B. Mallory, and G. McCarthy, “The Path to Achieving Justice40,” The White House, Washington, DC, July 2021.
https://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/briefing-room/2021/07/20/the-path-to-achieving-justice40/.
13 Office of Economic Impact and Diversity, “DOE Justice40 Covered Programs,” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC.
https://www.energy.gov/diversity/doe-justice40-covered-programs.
14 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, Pub. L. No. 117-28
15 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, Pub. L. No. 117-28, sec. 40314, §816 (codified as 42 U.S.C. 16161c (2021)).
16 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, Pub. L. No. 117-28, sec. 40314, §815 (codified as 42 U.S.C. 16161c (2021)).
17 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, Pub. L. No. 117-28, sec. 40314, §813 (codified as 42 U.S.C. 16161a (2021)).
18 U.S. Department of Energy, “Funding Notice: Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs,” Office of Clean Energy Demonstrations,
https://www.energy.gov/oced/funding-notice-regional-clean-hydrogen-hubs.

83
19 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, Pub. L. No. 117-28, sec. 40315, §82 (codified as 42 U.S.C. 16166 (2021)). Draft guidance for the
Clean Hydrogen Production Standard was released for public comment in September of 2022, and is available here:
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/clean-hydrogen-production-standard.pdf
20 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, Pub. L. No. 117-28, sec. 40314, §814 (codified as 42 U.S.C. 16161b (2021)).
21 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, sec. 13204, §45V (codified as 26 U.S.C. 45V (2022)).
22 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, sec. 50142 and sec. 50143.
23 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, sec. 50161.
24 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, sec. 50144 (codified as 42 U.S.C. 16517).
25 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, sec. 13501.
26 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, sec. 13203, §40B (codified as 26 U.S.C. 40B (2022)).
27 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, sec. 13704, §45Z (codified as 26 U.S.C. 45Z (2022)).
28 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, sec. 60102, §133.

29 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Development of Guidance for Zero-Emission Clean Heavy-Duty Vehicles, Port Equipment, and
Fueling Infrastructure Deployment under the Inflation Reduction Act Funding Programs,” Federal Register Vol. 88, no. 88, (May 8, 2023):
page 29666-70. https://www.regulations.gov/document/EPA-HQ-OAR-2023-0216-0001
30 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, sec. 60101, §132.

31 Inflation Reduction Act, Pub. L. No. 117-169, title I, sec. 13104, §45Q (codified as 26 U.S.C. 45Q (2022)).
32 U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen Program, “Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan," U.S. Department of Energy, Washington,
DC, November 2020. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/hydrogen-program-plan-2020.pdf.
33 Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association, “Road Map to a US Hydrogen Economy,” Fuel Cell and Hydrogen energy Association,
Washington, DC, 2020. https://www.fchea.org/us-hydrogen-study.
34 Executive Office of the President, “Exec. Order No. 14008, Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad,” Federal Register, Washington,
DC, February 2021. https://www.Federalregister.gov/documents/2021/02/01/2021-02177/tackling-the-climate-crisis-at-home-and-
abroad
35 The U.S. Department of State and the U.S. Executive Office of the President, “The Long-Term Strategy of the United States: Pathways to
Net-Zero Greenhouse Gas Emissions by 2050,” The White House, Washington, DC, November 2021. https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-
content/uploads/2021/10/US-Long-Term-Strategy.pdf.
36 U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2021 Annual Energy Outlook, February 2021. https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/archive/aeo21/.
37 U.S. Department of Energy, “H2@Scale,” Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office, https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/h2scale
38 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Greenhouse Gas Standards and Guidelines for Fossil Fuel-Fired Power Plants,” Washington, D.C.
May 2023. https://www.epa.gov/stationary-sources-air-pollution/greenhouse-gas-standards-and-guidelines-fossil-fuel-fired-power.
39 1) Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking, “Hydrogen Roadmap Europe: A Sustainable Pathway for The European Energy Transition,”
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking, Brussels, Belgium, January 2019. https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
/publication/0817d60d-332f-11e9-8d04-01aa75ed71a1/language-en
2) The Energy Transitions Commission, “Making the Hydrogen Economy Possible: Accelerating Clean Hydrogen in an Electrified Economy,”
The Energy Transitions Commission, April 2021; 3) The Hydrogen Council and McKinsey & Company, “Hydrogen Insights: A perspective
on hydrogen investment, market development and cost competitiveness,” The Hydrogen Council, January 2021.
https://hydrogencouncil.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Hydrogen-Insights-2021-Report.pdf; 4) International Energy Agency, “Net
Zero by 2050,” International Energy Agency, Paris, France, May 2021. https://www.iea.org/reports/net-zero-by-2050; 5) Bloomberg New
Energy Finance, “New Energy Outlook 2021,” Bloomberg New Energy Finance, July 2021. https://www.bnef.com/insights/26815; 6)
International Renewable Energy Agency, “World Energy Transitions Outlook: 1.5°C Pathway,” International Renewable Energy Agency,

84
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, June 2021. https://irena.org/publications/2021/Jun/World-Energy-Transitions-Outlook.https://energy-
transitions.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/ETC-Global-Hydrogen-Report.pdf; 3) The Hydrogen Council and McKinsey & Company,
“Hydrogen Insights: A perspective on hydrogen investment, market development and cost competitiveness,” The Hydrogen Council,
January 2021. https://hydrogencouncil.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Hydrogen-Insights-2021-Report.pdf; 4) International Energy
Agency, “Net Zero by 2050,” International Energy Agency, Paris, France, May 2021. https://www.iea.org/reports/net-zero-by-2050; 5)
Bloomberg New Energy Finance, “New Energy Outlook 2021,” Bloomberg New Energy Finance, July 2021.
https://www.bnef.com/insights/26815; 6) International Renewable Energy Agency, “World Energy Transitions Outlook: 1.5°C Pathway,”
International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, June 2021. https://irena.org/publications/2021/Jun/World-
Energy-Transitions-Outlook.
Not all sectors are shown on the figure given limitations in reported results. If sectoral energy demand was not reported, the proportion
of energy demand for hydrogen is not shown, despite hydrogen being consumed in that sector.
40 International Energy Agency, “Global Hydrogen Review 2022,” International Energy Agency, Paris, France, 2022.
https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/c5bc75b1-9e4d-460d-9056-6e8e626a11c4/GlobalHydrogenReview2022.pdf
41 Estimate assumes that SMR produces ~10 kg-CO2e/kg-H2 on average (Source: Argonne National Laboratory’s Greenhouse gases,
Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Technologies model, https://greet.es.anl.gov/, and National Energy Technology Laboratory
“Comparison of Commercial, State-of-the-art, Fossil-based Hydrogen Production Technologies.
https://www.netl.doe.gov/projects/files/ComparisonofCommercialStateofArtFossilBasedHydrogenProductionTechnologies_041222.pdf).
This estimate was developed with an assumption of fugitive methane emissions of ~1%, GWP of methane of 29.8, and that the U.S.
produces about 10 million metric tonnes of hydrogen per year (Source: https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/19002-hydrogen-
market-domestic-global.pdf). It is important to note that the GWPs of GHGs are published periodically by the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC), and depend on several parameters, such as how climate cycle responses are accounted for and the length of
the analysis period. A GWP of 29.8 for methane reflects a 100-year analysis period, inclusion of climate cycle responses, is specific to
fossil methane, and alignment with AR6. AR6 is the most recent AR available at the time this Roadmap was published. The Fifth
Assessment Report GWPs is currently utilized in national reporting to the UNFCCC and are being incorporated into the U.S. EPA’s
Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program.
42 R. Gubler, B. Suresh, H. He, and Y. Yamaguchi, “Hydrogen,” Chemical Economics Handbook, IHS Markit, May 2021.
https://ihsmarkit.com/products/hydrogen-chemical-economics-handbook.html.
43 U.S. DRIVE, “Hydrogen Delivery Technical Team Roadmap,” July 2017, https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/articles/us-drive-hydrogen-
delivery-technical-team-roadmap
44 M. Graff, “Statement of Mr. Michael J. Graff Chairman & CEO, American Air Liquide Holdings Inc. Executive Vice President & Executive
Committee Member Air Liquide Group Before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources,” U. S. Senate, Washington, DC, February
10, 2022. https://www.energy.senate.gov/services/files/C00CE119-046B-4E3C-8C7C-B534B4A1674B.
45 U.S. Department of Energy, “DOE Announces First Loan Guarantee for a Clean Energy Project in Nearly a Decade,” U.S. Department of
Energy, Washington, DC, June 2022. https://www.energy.gov/articles/doe-announces-first-loan-guarantee-clean-energy-project-nearly-
decade.
46 Air Products “Landmark U.S. $4.5 Billion Louisiana Clean Energy Complex,” Air Products, Allentown, PA.
https://www.airproducts.com/campaigns/la-blue-hydrogen-project.
47 Air Products “Air Products and AES Announce Plans to Invest Approximately $4 Billion to Build First Mega-scale Green Hydrogen
Production Facility in Texas,” Air Products, Allentown, PA. https://www.airproducts.com/company/news-center/2022/12/1208-air-
products-and-aes-to-invest-to-build-first-mega-scale-green-hydrogen-facility-in-texas
48 Genesee County Economic Development Center “Plug Power is Building the Green Hydrogen Ecosystem at STAMP!,” Genessee County
Economic Development Center, Batavia, NY. https://www.gcedc.com/wnystamp/projectgateway
49 V. Arjona, “Electrolyzer Installations in the United States” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, June 2023.
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/23003-electrolyzer-installations-united-states.pdf
50 Additional chemicals not listed in the Figure, ordered by consumption rate for hydrogen in the US, include: oxo chemicals, hydrogenated
vegetable oil, aniline, caprolactam, cyclohexane, hydrogen peroxide, adipic acid, toluene diisocyanate, hydrochloric acid, and 1,4
butanediol.
51 U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office, “H2 Matchmaker,” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC.

85
https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/h2-matchmaker.
52 N. Rustagi, “Systems Analysis Overview,” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, June 2022.
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review22/plenary9_rustagi_2022_o.pdf.
53 U.S. Department of Energy’s Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office funded approximately $40 million through ARRA for fuel cell
forklifts and backup power units. First-of-a-kind demonstrations were conducted through collaboration with DOE and DOD’s Defense
Logistics Agency more than a decade ago.
Source: P. Devlin and G. Morland, “DOE Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program Record #18002: Industry Deployed Fuel Cell Powered Lift
Trucks,” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, May 2018.
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/18002_industry_deployed_fc_powered_lift_trucks.pdf. Reporting from forklift companies
provides information about the number of fueling stations deployed for hydrogen forklifts, such as:
54 J. Marcinkoski, “Hydrogen Class 8 Long Haul Truck Targets,” U.S. Department of Energy, October 31, 2019.
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/19006_hydrogen_class8_long_haul_truck_targets.pdf.
55 Hydrogen Shot, electrolysis, and SMR with CCS costs shown are for reference and exclusively depict the cost of production, not including
any downstream costs, such as compression, storage, and dispensing. Willingness to pay values based on numerous sources, including:
1) Forklift costs and industrial heat costs based on Hydrogen Council “Path to hydrogen competitiveness”, January 2020.
https://hydrogencouncil.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Path-to-Hydrogen-Competitiveness_Full-Study-1.pdf 2) Transportation
costs from Ledna, C., et. al. “Decarbonizing Medium- & Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles: Zero-Emission Vehicles Cost Analysis”. 2022.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy22osti/82081.pdf 2) 3) Biofuels, ammonia, chemicals, steel,
seasonal storage, and industrial heat costs based largely on Elgowainy, et. al., “Assessment of Potential Future Demands for Hydrogen in
the United States”. 2020 Argonne National Laboratory, https://greet.es.anl.gov/publication-us_future_h2 4) Chemicals costs additionally
based on Zang, et. al., “Technoeconomic and Life Cycle Analysis of Synthetic Methanol Production from Hydrogen and Industrial
Byproduct CO2”. Environmental Science & Technology 2021 55 (8), 5248-5257 , https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.0c08237 5)
Steel costs additionally based on preliminary analysis from Argonne National Laboratory,
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review21/sa174_elgowainy_2021_o.pdf 6) Power-to-liquid, or synthetic fuel, costs additionally
based on Zang, et. al. “Performance and cost analysis of liquid fuel production from hydrogen and CO 2 based on the Fischer-Tropsch
process”. Journal of CO2 Utilization 2021 46, 101459, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2212982021000263 6)
Industrial heat costs based on Hydrogen Council “Path to hydrogen competitiveness”, January 2020. Path-to-Hydrogen-
Competitiveness_Full-Study-1.pdf (hydrogencouncil.com).
56 The National Renewable Energy Laboratory, “TEMPO: Transportation Energy & Mobility Pathway Options,” The National Renewable
Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO. https://www.nrel.gov/transportation/tempo-model.html.
57 In 2021, the U.S. Department of Energy, U.S. Department of Transportation, and U.S. Department of Agriculture adopted a goal of
supplying sufficient SAF to meet 100% of aviation fuel demand in 2050, estimated at 35 billion gallons. (Source: The White House, “FACT
SHEET: Biden Administration Advances the Future of Sustainable Fuels in American Aviation,” 9 September 2021.
https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/09/09/fact-sheet-biden-administration-advances-the-future-of-
sustainable-fuels-in-american-aviation/) While a variety of different biofuel and power-to-liquid fuel pathways could meet this supply,
the estimate of 4 MMT/year of hydrogen is based on preliminary modeling from NREL of 11 different biofuel production pathways with
varying endogenous and exogenous hydrogen supply requirements.
58 A. Elgowainy, M. Mintz, U. Lee, T. Stephens, P. Sun, K. Reddi, Y. Zhou, G. Zang, M. Ruth, P. Jadun, E. Connelly, and R. Boardman,
“Assessment of Potential Future Demands for Hydrogen in the United States,” Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, October 2020.
https://greet.es.anl.gov/publication-us_future_h2.
59 S. de Jong, K. Antonissen, R. Hoefnagels, et al., "Life-cycle analysis of greenhouse gas emissions from renewable jet fuel
production," Biotechnology for Biofuels, March 14, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13068-017-0739-7
60 The lower end of this estimate assumes production of 120 MMT steel per year in 2050, consistent with the U.S. Department of Energy’s
Industrial Decarbonization Roadmap. (https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2022-
09/Industrial%20Decarbonization%20Roadmap.pdf). The higher end assumes production of 130 MMT steel per year to enable exports
of 8% of U.S. steel production, consistent with current practice. Source: International Trade Administration, “Global Steel Trade Monitor
– Steel Exports Report: United States,” International Trade Administration, Washington, DC, May 2020.
https://legacy.trade.gov/steel/countries/pdfs/exports-us.pdf.
61 Range of estimates of U.S. methanol demand are based on: 1) Low end: International Energy Agency estimate for North America (Source:

86
International Energy Agency and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, “The Future of Petrochemicals Towards
more sustainable plastics and fertilisers,” International Energy Agency, France, October 2018.
https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/bee4ef3a-8876-4566-98cf-7a130c013805/The_Future_of_Petrochemicals.pdf), and 2) High end:
Global estimates developed by the International Renewable Energy Agency (Source: International Renewable Energy Agency and
Methanol Institute, “Innovation Outlook: Renewable Methanol,” International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi, United Arab
Emirates, 2021. https://www.irena.org/-
/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Jan/IRENA_Innovation_Renewable_Methanol_2021.pdf), and an assumption that the U.S.
share of global demand remains at ~6% (Source: IHS Markit, “Methanol: Chemical Economics Handbook,” IHS Markit, March 2021.
https://ihsmarkit.com/products/methanol-chemical-economics-handbook.html).
62 Estimates of high-temperature heat demand in 2050 are based on DOE Industrial Decarbonization Roadmap. (Source: U.S. Department of
Energy, “Industrial Decarbonization Roadmap,” September 2022. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2022-09/Industrial
Decarbonization Roadmap.pdf).
63 U.S. Department of Energy, "IEDO FY23 Multi-topic Funding Opportunity Announcement,” Industrial Efficiency and Decarbonization
Office, https://www.energy.gov/eere/iedo/iedo-fy23-multi-topic-funding-opportunity-announcement
64 1) Low end: P. Denholm, P. Brown, W. Cole, T. Mai, B. Sergi, M. Brown, P. Jadun, J. Ho, J. Mayernik, C. McMillan, R. Sreenath, Examining
Supply-Side Options to Achieve 100% Clean Electricity by 2035 (2022). NREL/TP-6A40-81644. 2) High end: U.S. Department of Energy
Solar 2021 Futures Study Source: U.S. Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Office, “Solar Futures Study,” U.S. Department of
Energy, Washington, DC, September 2021. https://www.energy.gov/eere/solar/solar-futures-study
65 C. A. McMillan, M. Ruth, “Using facility-level emissions data to estimate the technical potential of alternative thermal sources to meet
industrial heat demand,” Applied Energy, Volume 239, Pages 1077-1090, February 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.01.077.
66 Studies used to develop estimates of energy storage included: 1) Lowest bound, from Princeton Net-Zero America (Source: Net Zero
America “Potential Pathways, Infrastructure, and Impacts,” Princeton University, December 2020.
https://netzeroamerica.princeton.edu/?explorer=year&state=national&table=2020&limit=200),
2) Lower end of core range is from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (Denholm, Paul, Patrick Brown, Wesley Cole, et al.,
“Examining Supply-Side Options to Achieve 100% Clean Electricity by 2035,” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2022.
https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/100-percent-clean-electricity-by-2035-study.html)
3) Higher end of core range and upper bound based on DOE Solar Futures Study (U.S. Department of Energy Solar 2021 Futures Study
Source: U.S. Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Office, “Solar Futures Study,” U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC,
September 2021. https://www.energy.gov/eere/solar/solar-futures-study.)
67 S. Satyapal, “Testimony of Dr. Sunita Satyapal Director for a Hearing on Hydrogen,” U.S. Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee,
February 2022. https://www.energy.senate.gov/services/files/FE1C53B0-3925-46E3-B1D3-B8E2C0DD92B6.
68 S. Satyapal, “High-level Recap and Menti Questions Results,” U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen Shot Summit, Sept 1, 2021.
https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2021-09/h2-shot-summit-closing-plenary-recap.pdf.
69 S. Satyapal, J. Litynski, L. Horton, “Overview,” U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen Shot Summit, Sept 1, 2021.
https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2021-09/h2-shot-summit-plenary-doe-overview.pdf.
70 California Fuel Cell Partnership, “Cost to refill,” https://cafcp.org/content/cost-refill.
71 S. Satyapal, “2021 AMR Plenary Session,” U.S. Department of Energy, June 2021. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2021-06/hfto-
amr-plenary-satyapal-2021.pdf
72 M. Ruth and F. Josech, “Hydrogen Threshold Cost Calculation,” DOE Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office, March 24, 2011.
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/11007_h2_threshold_costs.pdf
73 The energy content of hydrogen is 33 kWh/kg, while the energy content of gasoline is 12 kWh/kg, based on the lower heating value.
74 Current hydrogen production cost based on: U.S. Department of Energy, “Cost of Electrolytic Hydrogen Production with Existing
Technology,” September 22, 2020. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/20004-cost-electrolytic-hydrogen-production.pdf.
Projected cost at economies of scale assumes $460/kW electrolyzer, based on: D. Peterson, J. Vickers, and D. DeSantis, “Hydrogen
Production Cost from PEM Electrolysis – 2019,” U.S. Department of Energy, 3 February 2020.

87
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/19009_h2_production_cost_pem_electrolysis_2019.pdf.
Delivery and dispensing costs based on: N. Rustagi, A. Elgowainy, and J. Vickers, “Current Status of Hydrogen Delivery and Dispensing Costs
and Pathways to Future Cost Reductions,” U.S. Department of Energy, 17 December 2018.
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/18003_current_status_hydrogen_delivery_dispensing_costs.pdf and Hydrogen Delivery Scenario
Analysis Model (https://hdsam.es.anl.gov/index.php?content=hdsam)
Fuel cell costs based on analysis from Strategic Analysis, Inc., 2021
(https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review21/fc163_james_2021_o.pdf).
75 International Energy Agency, “Chemicals,” https://www.iea.org/reports/chemicals.
76 Guiyan Zang*, Pingping Sun, Amgad Elgowainy, and Michael Wang, “Technoeconomic and Life Cycle Analysis of Synthetic Methanol
Production from Hydrogen and Industrial Byproduct CO2,” Environmental Science & Technology, 2021, 55 (8), 5248-5257.
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.est.0c08237.
77 X. Liu, A. Elgowainy and M. Wang, “Life cycle energy use and greenhouse gas emissions of ammonia production from renewable
resources and industrial by-products,” Green Chem., 2020, 22, 5751-5761.
https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2020/gc/d0gc02301a.
78 International Energy Agency, “Iron and Steel Technology Roadmap,” October 2020. https://www.iea.org/reports/iron-and-steel-
technology-roadmap.
79 A. Elgowainy, “Technoeconomic and Life Cycle Analysis of Synthetic Fuels and Steelmaking,” Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL,
June 2021. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review21/sa174_elgowainy_2021_o.pdf.
80 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2020,” 2022, EPA 430-R-22-003.
https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2022-04/us-ghg-inventory-2022-main-text.pdf.
81 U.S. Department of Energy, “Industrial Decarbonization Roadmap,” September 2022. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2022-
09/Industrial Decarbonization Roadmap.pdf.
82 International Energy Agency, “Global Hydrogen Review 2021,” International Energy Agency, Paris, France, 2021.
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83 U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2017, National Minerals Information Center, Reston, VA, 2017.
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84 U.S. Department of Energy, “REFUEL,” Advanced Research Projects Agency–Energy. https://arpa-
e.energy.gov/technologies/programs/refuel.
85 International Energy Agency, “Global crude steel production by process route and scenario, 2019-2050,” 8 October 2020.
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86 American Iron and Steel Institute, “Steel Production,” https://www.steel.org/steel-technology/steel-production/.
87 A. Elgowainy, “Technoeconomic and Life Cycle Analysis of Synthetic Fuels and Steelmaking,” Argonne National Laboratory. Argonne, IL,
June 2021, https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review21/sa174_elgowainy_2021_o.pdf.
88 U.S. Department of Commerce International Trade Administration, “Steel Imports Report: United States,” May 2020.
https://legacy.trade.gov/steel/countries/pdfs/imports-us.pdf.
89 The White House, “FACT SHEET: The United States and European Union to Negotiate World’s First Carbon-Based Sectoral Arrangement
on Steel and Aluminum Trade,” October 31, 2021. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/10/31/fact-
sheet-the-united-states-and-european-union-to-negotiate-worlds-first-carbon-based-sectoral-arrangement-on-steel-and-aluminum-
trade/.
90 J. Brouwer and L. Mastropasqua, “Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOEC) Integrated with Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) Plants for Producing
Green Steel,” University of California, Irvine, 2021. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review21/ta052_brouwer_2021_p.pdf.
91 R.J. O’Malley, “Grid-Interactive Steelmaking with Hydrogen (GISH),” Missouri University of Science & Technology, February 2021.
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review21/ta053_omalley_2021_p.pdf.
92 U.S. Department of Energy, “AMO Steel Industry Roundtable,” 20 February 2020. https://www.energy.gov/eere/amo/downloads/amo-

88
steel-industry-roundtable.
93 U.S. Department of Energy, “TRANSSFORM Workshop Presentations,” 25 October 2021.
https://www.energy.gov/eere/amo/articles/transsform-workshop-presentations.
94 U.S. Department of Energy, “Chapter 6: Innovating Clean Energy Technologies in Advanced Manufacturing,” Quadrennial Technology
Review, 2015. https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2016/06/f32/QTR2015-6I-Process-Heating.pdf.
95 U.S. DOE, “HyBlend: Opportunities for Hydrogen Blending in Natural Gas Pipelines,” https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hyblend-
opportunities-hydrogen-blending-natural-gas-pipelines.
96 NREL, “NREL Marks Partner Forum with Dedication of Bioreactor,” August 22, 2019. https://www.nrel.gov/news/program/2019/nrel-
marks-partner-forum-with-dedication-of-bioreactor.html.
97 C. Ledna et al., “Decarbonizing Medium- & Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles: Zero-Emission Vehicles Cost Analysis,” National Renewable
Energy Laboratory, March 2022. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy22osti/82081.pdf
98 Hunter, et. al. “Spatial and Temporal Analysis of the Total Cost of Ownership for Class 8 Tractors and Class 4 Parcel Delivery Trucks”.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 202.” https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy21osti/71796.pdf
99 U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), the United States Department of Transportation (DOT), the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), and the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), The U.S. National Blueprint for
Transportation Decarbonization, January 20223. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2023-01/the-us-national-blueprint-for-
transportation-decarbonization.pdf
100 U.S. Department of Energy, “21st Century Truck Partnership,” https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/21st-century-truck-partnership.
101 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles,” https://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/hydrogen-fuel-cell-vehicles.
102 M2FCT was launched by DOE’s Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office in 2020 and brings together national labs, industry, and
academia to achieve specific targets for commercial viability of long-haul trucks. https://millionmilefuelcelltruck.org/.
103 U.S. Department of Energy, “DOE Announces Nearly $200 Million to Reduce Emissions from Cars and Trucks,” 1 November 2021.
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104 J. Hanlin and E. Brewer, “Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Delivery Van Project,” Center for Transportation and the Environment, 21 May 2021.
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review21/ta016_hanlin_2021_o.pdf.
105 J. Adams, “Technology Acceleration Overview,” U.S. Department of Energy, 7 June 2021.
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106 National Renewable Energy Laboratory, “Fuel Cell Electric Bus Evaluations,” https://www.nrel.gov/hydrogen/fuel-cell-bus-evaluation.html.
107 The Maritime Executive, “IMO Answers Questions on the 2020 SOx Regulation,” 2018. https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/imo-
answers-questions-on-the-2020-sox-regulation.
108 O. Merk, “Shipping Emissions in Ports,” International Transport Forum, p. 15, 2014. https://www.itf-
oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/dp201420.pdf.
109 International Energy Agency. “The Future of Hydrogen. Seizing Today’s Opportunities,” June 2019. https://www.iea.org/reports/the-
future-of-hydrogen.
Note: The report recommends that governments and industry “make industrial ports the nerve centers for scaling up the use of clean
hydrogen.”
110 U.S. Department of Energy, “H2@Ports Workshop,” Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office.
https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/h2ports-workshop
111 U.S. Department of Transportation, “Fuel Cells,” Maritime Environmental and Technical Assistance (META) Program.
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112 L. Goodbody, “Medium/Heavy Duty & Marine Applications for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in California,” November 4, 2019.
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/htac_nov19_04_goodbody.pdf.
113 N. Pal, “SF Waterfront Maritime Hydrogen Demonstration Project,” U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Annual Merit Review.

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https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review22/ta045_pal_2022_o.pdf.
114 The White House, “FACT SHEET: Biden Administration Advances the Future of Sustainable Fuels in American Aviation,” 9 September
2021. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/09/09/fact-sheet-biden-administration-advances-the-
future-of-sustainable-fuels-in-american-aviation/.
115 Federal Aviation Administration, “Aviation Climate Action Plan,” November 2021. https://www.faa.gov/sustainability/aviation-climate-
action-plan.
116 U.S. Department of Energy, “Sustainable Aviation Fuel Grand Challenge,” https://www.energy.gov/eere/bioenergy/sustainable-aviation-
fuel-grand-challenge.
117 ASTM International, “Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized Hydrocarbons,” July 15, 2021.
https://www.astm.org/d7566-21.html.
118 K. Swider-Lyons, “Hydrogen Fuel Cells for Small Unmanned Air Vehicles,” U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, May 26, 2016.
https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2016/05/f32/fcto_webinarslides_h2_fc_small_unmanned_air_vehicles_052616.pdf.
119 ZeroAvia, “ZeroAvia & Otto Aviation Partner to Deliver First New Airframe Design with Hydrogen-Electric Engine Option,” 15 June 2022.
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120 C. Ryan and S. Philip, “Airbus turboprop design gaining favor as first hydrogen plane,” Bloomberg, February 11, 2021.
https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-02-11/airbus-turboprop-design-gaining-favor-as-first-hydrogen-plane.
121 Argonne National Laboratory, “H2@Airports Workshop Report,” November 2020. https://www.anl.gov/aet/reference/h2airports-
workshop-report.
122 Federal Railroad Administration, “Freight Rail Overview,” U.S. Department of Transportation. https://railroads.dot.gov/rail-network-
development/freight-rail-overview.
123 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Fast Facts on Transportation Greenhouse Gas Emissions,”
https://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/fast-facts-transportation-greenhouse-gas-emissions.
124 Alstom, “Alstom's Coradia iLint hydrogen train runs for the first time in France,” Sept. 6, 2022. https://www.alstom.com/press-releases-
news/2021/9/alstoms-coradia-ilint-hydrogen-train-runs-first-time-france.
125 San Bernadino County Transportation Authority, “Green-Tech for the US: Stadler Signs First Ever Contract for Hydrogen-Powered Train,”
November 14, 2019. https://www.gosbcta.com/green-tech-for-the-us-stadler-signs-first-ever-contract-for-hydrogen-powered-train/.
126 U.S. Department of Energy, “H2@Rail Workshop,” August 2019. https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/h2rail-workshop.
127 R.K. Ahluwalia, J-K Peng, F. Cetinbas, D. D. Papadias, X. Wang, J. Kopasz, and T. Krause, “Rail, Aviation, and Maritime Metrics,” Argonne
National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, June 2021. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review21/ta034_ahluwalia_2021_o.pdf.
128 T. Krause, D. Papadias, R. Ahluwalia, J-K Peng, and G. Moreland, “Total Cost of Ownership and Hydrogen Demand for Fuel Cell-Powered
Railroad Locomotives,” Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting, 29 January 2021.
https://annualmeeting.mytrb.org/OnlineProgramArchive/Details/15394.
129 U.S. Department of Energy, “Tri-Generation Success Story,” December, 2016,
https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2016/12/f34/fcto_fountain_valley_success_story.pdf
130
U.S. Department of Energy, “Durability Working Group,” https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/durability-working-group.
131 U.S. Department of Energy, “Reversible Fuel Cells Workshop,” https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/reversible-fuel-cells-workshop.
132 U.S. Department of Energy, “Early Markets: Fuel Cells for Backup Power,” October 2014.
https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/10/f19/ftco_early_mkts_fc_backup_power_fact_sheet.pdf.
133 P. Denholm, W. Cole, A.W. Frazier, K. Podkaminer, and N. Blair, “The Four Phases of Storage Deployment: A Framework for the Expanding
Role of Storage in the U.S. Power System,” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, 2021.
https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy21osti/77480.pdf.
134 A.W. Frazier, W. Cole, P. Denholm, S. Machen, N. Gates, and N. Blair, “Storage Futures Study: Economic Potential of Diurnal Storage in the
U.S. Power Sector,” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, NREL/TP-6A20-77449.

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135 https://fuelcellsworks.com/news/nextera-sets-goal-of-16gw-of-green-hydrogen-power-stations-in-florida/
136 National Renewable Energy Laboratory, “ARIES: Advanced Research on Integrated Energy Systems,” https://www.nrel.gov/aries/.
137 U.S. Department of Energy, “Advanced Turbine Systems,” https://www.energy.gov/fecm/science-innovation/clean-coal-
research/hydrogen-turbines.
138 J. Adams, “Technology Acceleration Overview,” U.S. Department of Energy, Hydrogen Annual Merit Review, 6 June 2022.
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review22/plenary8_adams_2022_o.pdf
139 S. Satyapal, R. Schrecengost, J. Marcinkoski, J. Vetrano, and T. Shrader, “DOE Hydrogen Program Panel Discussion,” U.S. Department of
Energy, Hydrogen Annual Merit Review, 6 June 2022.
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review22/plenary5_program_panel_2022_o.pdf
140 U.S. Department of Energy, “DOE Announces First Loan Guarantee for a Clean Energy Project in Nearly a Decade,” Loan Programs Office,
28 June 2022. https://www.energy.gov/articles/doe-announces-first-loan-guarantee-clean-energy-project-nearly-decade
141 U.S. General Services Administration, “Federal Fleet Report (FFR) Open Data Set Library,” https://www.gsa.gov/policy-
regulations/policy/vehicle-management-policy/federal-fleet-report-ffr-open-data-set-library.
142 U.S. General Services Administration, “GSA Properties,” https://www.gsa.gov/real-estate/gsa-properties.
143 U.S. Department of Energy, “Clean Hydrogen Production Standard Draft Guidance,” https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/clean-hydrogen-
production-standard.html
144 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, Pub. L. No. 117-28, sec. 40315, §822 (codified as 42 U.S.C. 16166(b)(2) (2021).
145 U.S. Department of Energy, “The H2IQ Hour: Learn to use the GREET Model for Emissions Life Cycle Analysis,” Oct. 28, 2021.
https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2021-11/h2iq-hour-10282021.pdf.
146 Argonne National Laboratory, GREET model, https://greet.es.anl.gov/. Updates will be provided regularly as pathways and assumptions
are refined.
147 National Energy Technology Laboratory, “Comparison of Commercial, State-of-the-Art, Fossil-Based Hydrogen Production
Technologies,” DOE/NETL-2022/3241, 12 April 2022.
https://www.netl.doe.gov/projects/files/ComparisonofCommercialStateofArtFossilBasedHydrogenProductionTechnologies_041222.pdf.
148 International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy, www.iphe.net.
149 International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy, “Methodology for Determining the Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Associated with the Production of Hydrogen,” October 2021.
https://www.iphe.net/_files/ugd/45185a_ef588ba32fc54e0eb57b0b7444cfa5f9.pdf.
150 U.S. Department of Transportation Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, Notice of Proposed Rulemaking “Pipeline
Safety: Gas Pipeline Leak Detection and Repair,” https://www.federalregister.gov/d/2023-09918
151 U.S. Department of Energy, “Energy Earthshots Initiative,” https://www.energy.gov/policy/energy-earthshots-initiative.

152 A. Mayyas, M. Ruth, B. Pivovar, G. Bender, and K. Wipke, “Manufacturing Cost Analysis for Proton Exchange Membrane Water
Electrolyzers,” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, NREL/TP-6A20-72740, August 2019.
153 D. Peterson, J. Vickers, and D. DeSantis, “Hydrogen Production Cost from PEM Electrolysis – 2019,” U.S. Department of Energy, 3 February
2020. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/19009_h2_production_cost_pem_electrolysis_2019.pdf
154 U.S. Department of Energy, “Cost of Electrolytic Hydrogen Production with Existing Technology,” 22 September 2020.
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/20004-cost-electrolytic-hydrogen-production.pdf.
155 U.S. Department of Energy, “Hydrogen from Next-generation Electrolyzers of Water (H2NEW),” https://h2new.energy.gov/.
156 B. Pivovar, “Current Status of (Low Temperature) Electrolyzer Technology and Needs for Successful Widespread Commercialization and
Meeting Hydrogen Shot Targets,” U.S. Department of Energy, Hydrogen Shot Summit, September 2021.

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https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2021-09/h2-shot-summit-panel1-lte-status.pdf
157 Sun, Pinging, et. al. “The Analysis of U.S. Refinery Sector Decarbonization Potential and Cost”. Argonne National Laboratory, January
2023. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.2c07440
158 National Energy Technology Laboratory, “Comparison of Commercial, State-of-the-Art, Fossil-Based Hydrogen Production
Technologies,” National Energy Technology Laboratory, Pittsburgh, PA, DOE/NETL-2022/3241, 2022. https://www.netl.doe.gov/energy-
analysis/details?id=ed4825aa-8f04-4df7-abef-60e564f636c9.
159 Argonne GREET Publication : Updated Natural Gas Pathways in GREET 2022 (anl.gov)
160 U.S. Department of Energy, “2022 Methane Pyrolysis Cohort Annual Meeting,” Advanced Research Projects Agency–Energy, 12 January
2022. https://arpa-e.energy.gov/2022-methane-pyrolysis-cohort-annual-meeting.
161 U.S. Department of Energy, “U.S. Department of Energy Announces $28 Million to Develop Clean Hydrogen,” Office of Fossil Energy and
Carbon Management, 7 February 2022. https://www.energy.gov/fecm/articles/us-department-energy-announces-28-million-develop-
clean-hydrogen.
162 U.S. Department of Energy, “Open for Business: LPO Issues New Conditional Commitment for Loan Guarantee,” Loan Programs Office, 23
December 2021. https://www.energy.gov/lpo/articles/open-business-lpo-issues-new-conditional-commitment-loan-guarantee.
163 https://www.energy.gov/lpo/articles/revisiting-prior-conditional-commitments-monolithtm-inc
164 https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/US-Methane-Emissions-Reduction-Action-Plan-1.pdf
165 Air Products, “Landmark U.S. $4.5 Billion Louisiana Clean Energy Complex,” Air Products. https://www.airproducts.com/campaigns/la-
blue-hydrogen-project.
166 Ascension Parish, where the project, has Census Tracts defined as a DAC by the Climate and Economic Justice Screening Tool;
https://screeningtool.geoplatform.gov/en/#10.78/30.1098/-91.0479.
167 Green Plains, “Green Plains Announces Carbon Sequestration Partnership with Summit Carbon Solutions,” 18 February 2021.
https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2021/02/18/2178062/0/en/Green-Plains-Announces-Carbon-Sequestration-Partnership-
with-Summit-Carbon-Solutions.html
168 Congressional Research Service, “The Tax Credit for Carbon Sequestration (Section 45Q),” 8 June 2021.
https://sgp.fas.org/crs/misc/IF11455.pdf.
169 Department of Energy, Securing America’s Clean Energy Supply Chain, 2022. https://www.energy.gov/policy/securing-americas-clean-
energy-supply-chain.
170 U.S. Department of the Treasury, “Additional Guidance for the Qualifying Advanced Energy Project Credit Allocation Program under
Section 48C(e),” Internal Revenue Service, https://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-drop/n-23-44.pdf
171 https://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-drop/n-23-18.pdf
172 Hydrogen production costs based on high-temperature electrolysis and assuming $0.03/kWh electricity: D. Peterson, J. Vickers, and D.
DeSantis, “Hydrogen Production Cost from High Temperature Electrolysis – 2020,” U.S. Department of Energy, 14 February 2020.
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/20006-production-cost-high-temperature-electrolysis.pdf.
Hydrogen fueling station costs developed using Hydrogen Delivery Scenario Analysis Model: Argonne National Laboratory, “Hydrogen
Delivery Scenario Analysis Model (HDSAM),” https://hdsam.es.anl.gov/index.php?content=hdsam.
Hydrogen storage costs based on: M. Kolyva and N. Rustagi, “Hydrogen Delivery and Dispensing Cost,” U.S. Department of Energy, 2
October 2020.
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/20007-hydrogen-delivery-dispensing-cost.pdf.
173 U.S. Department of Energy, “DOE Update on Hydrogen Shot, RFI Results, and Summary of Hydrogen Provisions in the Bipartisan
Infrastructure Law | Department of Energy,” December 9, 2021. https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/articles/doe-update-hydrogen-
shot-rfi-results-and-summary-hydrogen-provisions
174 U.S. Department of Energy, “Hydrogen Shot Summit,” https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-shot-summit.
175 U.S. Department of Energy, “2021 Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office Webinar Archives,”
https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/2021-hydrogen-and-fuel-cell-technologies-office-webinar-archives#12082021.

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176 E. Connelly, M. Penev, A. Milbrandt, B. Roberts, N. Gilroy, and M. Melaina, “Resource Assessment for Hydrogen Production,” National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, NREL/TP-5400-77198. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy20osti/77198.pdf.
177 To produce 10MMT of hydrogen via renewable or nuclear electrolysis alone, the total water requirement would be approximately 29-650
billion gallons (depending on the type of power generation used), representing 0.03%-0.6% of annual U.S. freshwater withdrawals. E.
Connelly, M. Penev, A. Milbrandt, B. Roberts, N. Gilroy, and M. Melaina, “Resource Assessment for Hydrogen Production,” National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, NREL/TP-5400-77198. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy20osti/77198.pdf.
178 C. Hunter, M. Penev, E. Reznicek, J. Eichman, N. Rustagi, and S. Baldwin, “Techno-economic analysis of long-duration energy storage and
flexible power generation technologies to support high-variable renewable energy grids,” Joule 5, 2077–2101, August 18, 2021.
https://www.cell.com/joule/pdf/S2542-4351(21)00306-8.pdf.
179 J.E. Fesmire and A. Swanger, “Overview of the New LH2 Sphere at NASA Kennedy Space Center,” August 18, 2021.
https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2021-10/new-lh2-sphere.pdf.
180 National Energy Technology Laboratory, “Subsurface Hydrogen Assessment, Storage, and Technology Acceleration," 2022.
https://edx.netl.doe.gov/shasta/
181 National Energy Technology Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory,
Subsurface Hydrogen and Natural Gas Storage: State of Knowledge and Research Recommendations Report, DOE/NETL-2022/3236,
NETL Technical Report Series, U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory: Morgantown, WV, 2022; p. 6.
https://www.netl.doe.gov/projects/files/SubsurfaceHydrogenandNaturalGasStorageStateofKnowledgeandResearchRecommendationsRe
port_041122.pdf. Images of Alaska and Hawaii to be hosted at Images – SHASTA (doe.gov)
182 G.F. Teletzke et al., “Evaluation of Practicable Subsurface CO2 Storage Capacity and Potential CO2 Transportation Networks,” Onshore
North America, 14th Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies Conference, Melbourne, October 2018.
https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3366176.
183 H. Pilorge, adapted from: P. Psarras et al., “Carbon Capture and Utilization in the Industrial Sector,” Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, 19,
11440–11449. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b01723.
184 For example, see DOE’s Office of Science report: U.S. Department of Energy, “Basic Energy Sciences Roundtable Foundational Science for
Carbon-Neutral Hydrogen Technologies,” 2021. https://science.osti.gov/-
/media/bes/pdf/reports/2021/Hydrogen_Roundtable_Brochure.pdf?la=en&hash=08CACFB80F803504B7D6C629FEB1426BBD6CBF69.
185 U.S. Department of Labor, “Prevailing Wage and the Inflation Reduction Act,” Wage and Hour Division.
https://www.dol.gov/agencies/whd/IRA
186 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, Pub. L. No. 117-28, sec. 40313, §805(j) (codified as 42 U.S.C. 16154(j) (2021).
187 Council on Environmental Quality, “Climate and Economic Justice Screening Tool,” November 22, 2022.
https://screeningtool.geoplatform.gov/
188 U.S. Department of Energy, “Water Electrolyzers and Fuel Cells Supply Chain: U.S. Department of Energy Response to Executive Order
14017, ‘America’s Supply Chains,’” February 24, 2022. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2022-
02/Fuel%20Cells%20%26%20Electrolyzers%20Supply%20Chain%20Report%20-%20Final.pdf
189 https://eere-exchange.energy.gov/Default.aspx#FoaIda9a89bda-618a-4f13-83f4-9b9b418c04dc
190 The White House, Executive Order on Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Accessibility in the Federal Workforce, June 25, 22021.
https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/06/25/executive-order-on-diversity-equity-inclusion-and-
accessibility-in-the-Federal-workforce/.
191 The White House, Executive Order on Establishment of the White House Gender Policy Council, March 8, 2021.
https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/03/08/executive-order-on-establishment-of-the-white-house-
gender-policy-council/.
192
The White House, Executive Order on Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad, January 27, 2021.
https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/01/27/executive-order-on-tackling-the-climate-crisis-at-home-
and-abroad/.
193 Other recent roadmaps published by DOE, such as the Commercial Pathways Liftoff Reports have evaluated the potential for job creation

93
in the hydrogen industry under various future scenarios, as well as the total financial investment needed for these scenarios to
materialize. These estimates will be refined as data is gathered from ongoing and future deployments, such as those in support of the
BIL and IRA.
194 A.R. Baird et al., “Federal Oversight of Hydrogen Systems,“ Sandia National Laboratory, SAND2021-2955, March 2021.
https://energy.sandia.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/H2-Regulatory-Map-Report_SAND2021-2955.pdf
195 C. Ledna, M. Muratori, A. Yip, P. Jadun, and C. Hoehne, “Decarbonizing Medium- & Heavy-Duty On-Road Vehicles: Zero-Emission
Vehicles Cost Analysis,” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, March 2022. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy22osti/82081.pdf.
196 Umair Irfan, “How to save the planet from the largest vehicles on Earth,” Vox, April 21, 2022.
https://www.vox.com/recode/22973218/container-shipping-industry-climate-change-emissions-maersk.
197 U.S. Department of Energy, “Internal and External Coordination and Collaboration,” Department of Energy Hydrogen Program Plan, Nov
2020, pp. 36-43. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/hydrogen-program-plan-2020.pdf.
198 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Interagency Action Plan, 2011,
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/hydrogen_fuelcell_interagency_action_plan.pdf
199 Examples of global partnerships involving hydrogen include but are not limited to: IEA (International Energy Agency) launched in the
1974; IPHE (International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy) launched by the U.S. in 2003 (with Netherlands as
current Chair, U.S. and Japan as Vice-Chairs); IRENA, launched in 2009; HEM (Hydrogen Energy Ministerial) launched by Japan in 2018;
the Hydrogen Council, launched by industry in 2017; CEM (Clean Energy Ministerial) Hydrogen Initiative launched by Canada in 2019
(with the European Commission, Japan, Netherlands, and U.S. as co-leads), MI (Mission Innovation) Clean Hydrogen Mission launched
by the UK in 2021 (with Australia, Chile, EC, Saudi Arabia, and U.S. as co-leads).
200 International Energy Agency, “The Future of Hydrogen. Seizing Today’s Opportunities,” June 2019. https://www.iea.org/reports/the-
future-of-hydrogen.
201 Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI). ”Fifth Hydrogen Energy Ministerial Held,” October 7, 2022.
https://www.meti.go.jp/english/press/2022/1007_001.html
202 Clean Energy Ministerial. “ H2 Initiative Launches H2 Twin Cities Program | Clean Energy Ministerial.”
https://www.cleanenergyministerial.org/h2-initiative-launches-h2-twin-cities-program/
203 Further technical details and appendices may be made available at www.hydrogen.energy.gov to provide transparency and the most up-
to-date information to stakeholders and the public.

94
Appendix A: Supplementary Information and Analysis
DOE recently published the Pathways to Commercial Liftoff: Clean Hydrogen (Pathways report), which was
formed using extensive stakeholder feedback and new analysis to characterize the market potential for
hydrogen in the near- and long-term. The Pathways report provides market and investment perspective in the
following phases:
Near-term expansion: Inspects risks and uncertainties of early market introduction, considering matching
supply and demand geographically with limited connective infrastructure, hydrogen offtake uncertainties,
manufacturing supply chains, permitting and workforce challenges.
Industrial scaling: Considers barriers remaining after IRA subsidy period and impact of emerging clean
electricity economics on the prevailing hydrogen production pathways. During this phase, financing scale and
credit risk will be subject to the remaining market barriers after an IRA sunset.
Long-term growth: This phase will be fueled by cost reductions achieved through IRA period. Emerging
financing structures and market history will streamline capital procurement and risk management.
The report envisions a 2030 landscape for low-cost clean hydrogen becoming integral component for
industrial, transportation and gas replacement uses. Readers are encouraged to explore the report for a
rigorous description of market opportunities and barriers for hydrogen. Examples of key results described in
the report include revenue potential (Figure A), required investments (Figure B), demand scenarios (Figure C),
and potential supply chain vulnerabilities (Figure D).
Figure A: The hydrogen economy could reach $80 – 150B market size by 2050 with industrial and medium and
heavy-duty transportation accounting for the majority of the market share. See figure above for articulation of
market size potentials.

95
Figure B. Investments to achieve a successful role of hydrogen and enabling net zero by 2050 are quantified
through the IRA period between $105 and 235B as shown in the figure above. Largest investments are
forecasted in hydrogen production, followed by mid-stream infrastructure. Significant investments need to be
made in end-use applications to allow safe and efficient utilization of hydrogen in new and existing
applications. While clean hydrogen hub investments via the bipartisan infrastructure law provide an initial
boost in investments, a subsequent gap of 85-215 remain. Such investment could be catalyzed by cost
reductions and de-risking from IRA and BIL activities.

96
Figure C: Hydrogen uptake scenarios considered in the Pathways Report with market attribution.
Figure D: Supply chain vulnerabilities assessment for production (upstream), transmission & distribution
(midstream), and select end uses (downstream).

97

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Table of Contents

Executive Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………………..………….. 1

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

Figure 6: Consumption of hydrogen in the United

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

Figure 9: Current and emerging demands for hydrogen.50

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. Department of Energy

enabling at least 20 MMT per year by 2040 and 50

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

the entire value chain.67 At present, producers also

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

Power sector applications

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

Hydrogen Production from Fossil

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap

Commercialized, ​Industry ​Ammonia

​$0.2/kg for 7 days, 50 ​$0.2-0.3/kg ​Power generation

Liquid Liquid ​Aviation and

1. Data based on cost-downs shared from leading-edge companies who have

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. Department of Energy

Commercialized, Industry Ammonia

$0.2/kg for 7 days, 50 $0.2-0.3/kg Power generation

Liquid Liquid Aviation and