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1 Atoms, molecules and stoichiometry

Unified atomic mass unit One twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom

Relative Atomic mass Ar It is the weighted average mass of an atom of an element compared with 1/12th of
the mass of an atom of carbon-12.

Relative formula mass Mr Average mass of a formula of a compound relative to 1/12th of the mass of carbon
12 atom.

Relative molecular mass Mr Average mass of a molecule of a compound or an element relative to 1/12th
of the mass of an atom of carbon-12. atom.

Empirical formula empirical formula represents the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of different
elements present in the formula of a compound.

Molecular formula Molecular formula represents the actual number of atoms of each element in one molecule
of a compound.

Relative isotopic mass Mass of an isotope of an element relative to 1/12th of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.

Molecular formula of a compound = n * empirical formula

Mole A mole is the amount of substance contained by 6.02 * 10^23 particles.

6.02 * 10^23 is called Avogadro’s constant

Note It is always important to always refer to what the particle is. For example one mole of oxygen atom is 16g
and one mole of oxygen molecules is 32 g.

Mass of one mole of a substance is called molar mass

Molar mass of hydrogen atom = 1g

Molar mass of water = 18g

Molar mass of CO2 = 44g

Volume of one mole of any gas at rtp = 24dm3

Volume of one mole of any gas at stp = 22.4 dm3

Titration Curves
ln order to sketch a titration curve, the following have to be estimated:
pH at the start. (pH of flask)
Vertical range.
pH at the equivalance point. (midpoint of vertical range). Eqivalance point is pH corresponding to end-polnt.
The volume of titrant required to reach end point. (calculation is required)
The pH after excess titrant is added. (approaches the pH of titrant)
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Reaction of Halogenoalkane with AgNO3

understand the general unreactivity of alkanes, including towards polar reagents in terms of the strength of the C–H
bonds and their relative lack of polarity.
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Why alkanes are generally unreactive

Alkanes are generally unreactive compounds. This can be explained by the very small difference in electronegativity
between carbon and hydrogen. The alkane molecules are non-polar, so they are not attacked by nucleophiles or
electrophiles. They have no partial positive charges on any of their carbon atoms to attract nucleophiles, neither do
they have areas of high electron density to attract electrophiles

Air Pollution
There are five main pollutants that are formed when fossil fuel are burnt:

• Carbon dioxide (this is not strictly a pollutant, since it occurs in nature, but its overproduction can
cause problem)
• Carbon monoxide
• Unburnt hydrocarbons
• Nitrogen oxides
• Sulfur dioxide.

When the petrol or diesel is mixed with air inside a car engine, there is a limited supply of oxygen. Under these
conditions, not all the carbon in the hydrocarbon fuel is fully oxidised to carbon dioxide. Some of the carbon is only
partially oxidised to form carbon monoxide gas. This is called incomplete combustion. Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas
that bonds with the haemoglobin in your blood. The haemoglobin molecules can then no longer bond to oxygen and
so cannot transport oxygen around your body. Victims of carbon monoxide poisoning will feel dizzy, then lose
consciousness. If not removed from the toxic gas, the victim will die. Carbon monoxide is odourless, so this adds to
the danger. This is why faulty gas heaters in which incomplete combustion occurs can kill unsuspecting people in
rooms with poor ventilation.

As well as carbon monoxide, road traffic also releases acidic nitrogen oxides. These contribute to the problem of acid
rain. Acid rain can kill trees and aquatic animals in lakes. Acid raid also corrodes metals, such as iron. As well as toxic
carbon monoxide and acidic nitrogen oxides, cars also release unburnt hydrocarbons, often referred to as volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) into the air. Some of these are carcinogens (they cause cancers). Cars can now be fitted
with a catalytic converter in their exhaust system.

PANs(peroxyacetyl nitrate) are secondary pollutants, which means they are not
directly emitted as exhaust from power plants or internal combustion engines,
but they are formed from other pollutants by chemical reactions in the
atmosphere.
Smog: a mixture of smoke, gases, and chemicals, especially in cities, that makes
the atmosphere difficult to breathe and harmful for health:
Difficulty of the disposal of polyalkene (plastics)

Disposal of poly(alkene) plastics Plastics are widely used in many aspects of everyday life. However, the large-scale
use of poly(alkene)s has created a problem when we come to dispose of them. During their useful life, one of the
poly(alkene)s’ useful properties is their lack of reactivity. As they are effectively huge alkane molecules, they are
resistant to chemical attack. So they can take hundreds of years to decompose when dumped in landfill sites, taking
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up valuable space. They are nonbiodegradable. Therefore throwing away poly(alkenes) creates rubbish that will
pollute the environment for centuries. Burning plastic waste One way to solve this problem would be to burn the
poly(alkene)s and use the energy released to generate electricity. If hydrocarbons burn in excess oxygen the
products are carbon dioxide and water. So this solution would not help combat global warming, but would help to
conserve our supplies of fossil fuels that currently generate most of our electricity. However, we have also seen that
toxic carbon monoxide is produced from incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons. Another problem is the difficulty
recycling plants have in separating other plastic waste from the poly(alkene) s when objects have just been thrown
away without being sorted according to their recycling code. Then if poly(chloroethene) is burnt, acidic hydrogen
chloride gas will be given off, as well as toxic compounds called dioxins. Acidic gases would have to be neutralised
before releasing the waste gas into the atmosphere and very high temperatures used in incinerators to break down
any toxins

Types of catalytic reactions

Catalysis is the process of increasing the rate of a chemical reaction by introducing a substance
called a catalyst. A catalyst is a substance that remains unchanged at the end of a chemical
reaction but increases the rate of the reaction. There are two types of catalysis: homogeneous
catalysis and heterogeneous catalysis. Homogeneous catalysis:

What is a phase?

If you look at a mixture and can see a boundary between two of the components, those
substances are in different phases. A mixture containing a solid and a liquid consists of
two phases. A mixture of various chemicals in a single solution consists of only one
phase, because you can't see any boundary between them.

You might wonder why phase differs from the term physical state (solid, liquid or gas). It
includes solids, liquids and gases, but is actually a bit more general. It can also apply to
two liquids (oil and water, for example) which don't dissolve in each other. You could
see the boundary between the two liquids.

Homogeneous catalysis refers to a type of catalysis where the catalyst and the reactants are in the
same phase. This means that the catalyst and the reactants are either all in the gas phase or all in
the liquid phase.

Heterogeneous catalysis:

Heterogeneous catalysis refers to a type of catalysis where the catalyst and the reactants are in
different phases. This means that the catalyst is usually a solid and the reactants are either in the
gas or liquid phase..
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examples of catalysis for specific industrial processes:

1. Haber Process: The Haber process is a heterogeneous catalytic process that is

used to produce ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen gases. The catalyst used
in this process is iron oxide with added promoters, such as potassium oxide or
aluminum oxide. The reaction takes place at high pressure and temperature, and
the catalyst increases the rate of the reaction, allowing for the efficient production
of ammonia.
Reactants are gases and catalyst is solid.
2. Contact Process: The contact process is a homogeneous catalytic process used to
produce sulfuric acid. The catalyst used in this process is vanadium pentoxide
(V2O5), which helps to oxidize sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide.
Reactants are gases and catalyst is solid.

3. Esterification:The catalyst used in this process is typically a strong acid, such as

sulfuric acid or hydrochloric acid, which helps to catalyze the reaction between a
carboxylic acid and an alcohol to form an ester.
Reactants and catalysts all are liquids
4. Catalytic Converter: Catalytic converters are used in the automotive industry to

reduce the emissions of harmful pollutants from vehicle exhaust. The catalyst used
in catalytic converters is typically a mixture of platinum, palladium, and rhodium,
which helps to convert harmful gases such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides,
and unburned hydrocarbons into less harmful substances such as carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, and water vapor.

Catalyst is solid and reactants are gases

Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts. Enzymes are proteins. They are specific in their action. Enzyme
specificity refers to the tendency for enzymes to catalyze a specific set of chemical reactions.

state the variation in the solubilities of the hydroxides and sulfates

solubilities of group II hydroxides increases down the group and solubilities of sulfates decreases down the group

• A covalent bond is formed by the overlap of two atomic orbitals each containing a single
unpaired electron. These shared electrons are now present in a molecular orbital. The covalent
bonding is electrostatic attraction between electrons in the molecular orbital and the two nuclei.

• Definition Hybridization is mixing of different orbitals to form same energy orbitals

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• Only central atom hybridizes.

• Orbitals of the same shell hybridize. (Only use valence shell electrons

• The number of hybrid orbitals formed = number of atomic orbitals used

One s + one p ⇒ two sp hybrid orbitals

One s + two p ⇒ three sp2 hybrid orbitals

One s + three p ⇒ four sp3 hybrid orbitals

One s + three p + one d ⇒ five sp3 d hybrid orbitals

One s + three p + two d ⇒ six sp3 d 2 hybrid orbitals

No of s No of p No of d No of hybrid Shape Angle of

orbital orbitals orbitals orbitals molecule

1 1 0 2 sp Linear 180

1 2 0 3 sp2 Trigonal planar 120, 117

Non-linear

1 3 0 4 sp3 Tetrahedral 109.5, 107,

104.5
Trigonal
pyramidal

Non-linear

1 3 1 5 sp3d Trigonal 90, 120 in

bipyramidal same
molecule

1 3 2 6 sp3d2 octahederal 90

• No of electrons that go into unhybridized p orbitals = π bonds

• Number of bonds formed by an atom is equal to number of unpaired electrons it has. Like
oxygen and nitrogen make two and three bonds because they have these many unpaired
electrons in their valence shell. But, in its ground state, carbon got only two unpaired electrons,
so it should make two bonds. But in reality carbon make four bonds. Two satisfy four bonds we
need four unpaired electrons. This process is called excitation. Excitation increases no of
unpaired electrons.

• Orbitals hybridize because doing so allows the resultant molecule to be lower in energy — and
therefore more stable — than if the orbitals did not hybridize.

• CH4
• The electronic configuration of a carbon atom is 1s22s22p2
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•
• If you provide a bit of energy you can promote (lift) one of the s electrons into a p orbital.It is excitation. The
excitation will result in four unpaired electrons. Now methane can form four bonds instead of two bonds.
The configuration is now 1s22s12p3

•
• The four orbitals (an s and three p’s) combine or HYBRIDISE to give four new orbitals. All four orbitals are
equivalent.

•
• sp3 HYBRIDISATION

• The angle between these sp3 orbitals is 109.5

• H2O
• In water no excitation is required because O has already 2 unpaired electrons. There is also no
empty orbital to unpair 2s electrons. O therefore cannot form more than 2 bonds. Based on
this configuration, you would expect oxygen to form two covalent bonds — one with each
hydrogen atom — and that is what happens. However, you would expect the resulting molecule
to have an H-O-H bond angle of about 90 degrees (angle between p orbitals is 90 degrees), and
that is decidedly not the case.

• Because the oxygen atom does not form bonds with its two half-filled 2p orbitals. Instead, as the
oxygen atom is bonding with two hydrogen atoms, its orbitals hybridize into four equivalent sp3
orbitals (it is sp3 hybridization because one s and three p orbitals mix to form four new
orbitals). In doing so, the regions of electron density are able to spread apart, which lowers the
electrostatic repulsion between them and increases stability.
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NH3

In ammonia no excitation is required because N has already 3 unpaired electrons. There is also no
empty orbital to unpair 2s electrons. N therefore cannot form more than three bonds

C2H4

Only three orbitals (an s and two p’s) combine or HYBRIDISE to give three new orbitals. All three orbitals are
equivalent. The remaining 2p orbital is unchanged. This 2p orbital sideways overlap with the 2p orbital of other C
atom to form pi bond

In ALKENES, the three sp2 orbitals repel each other into a planar arrangement and the 2p orbital lies at right angles
to them
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Covalent bonds are formed by overlap of orbitals

An sp2 orbital from each carbon overlaps to form a single C-C bond. The resulting bond is called a SIGMA (δ) bond.

The orbitals involved in π bond don’t hybridize. The two 2p orbitals sideways overlap. This forms a second bond.

s orbitals in hydrogen overlap with the sp2 orbitals in carbon to form C-H bonds
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Be Cl2

BCl3
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Inorganic Chemistry

Periodicity
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Pattern of properties as we move from left to right across a period is called periodicity

Properties of period 3 elements:

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- Atomic radius

Atomic radius decreases across the period because :

The number of protons increases which pulls electrons closer to the nucleus.

No of shells remain same.

Shielding effect remains same.

Attraction increases.

- Covalent radius always gives smaller values due to overlap between orbitals- Argon does
not form any bonds or compounds. It exists as mono atomic (single atom)
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Ionic radius

Positively charged ions are smaller than the original atoms and the anions of the same
period.

From Na+ to Si4+ the ionic radius decreases

No of electrons is same.

Nuclear charge is increasing.

No of shells is same.

Ionic radius of anions (negatively charged ions) is larger than the parent atom and cations
of the same period.

From P3- to Cl- ionic radius decreases because:

No of electrons is same.

Nuclear charge is increasing.

No of shells is same.
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Melting points

Giant structures (found on the left) have high melting and boiling point.

Simple molecular structures have low melting and boiling point.

From Na to Al, melting point increases due to increase in strength of metallic bonding.

Strength of metallic bonding increases due to

Increase in nuclear charge

Increase in no of delocalized electrons,

Decrease in ionic radius.

Silicon has very high melting point because it has many strong covalent bonds. A lot of
energy is required to break these strong covalent bonds.

The elements to the right of silicon are all non-metallic elements. They have simple
molecular structure. Ar has atomic structure.
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They have low melting and boiling points. They have weak intermolecular forces (van der
Waal forces). The strength of intermolecular forces depends on number of electrons.

P4 has 60 electrons.

S8 has 128 electrons

Cl2 has 34 electrons.

Ar has 18 electrons

Electrical conductivity

Na, Mg and Al metals are good conductors of electricity due to presence of delocalized
electrons.

Electrical conductivity increases from Na to Al due to increase in number of delocalized

electrons.

Si is a semi-conductor which conducts electricity only under certain conditions.

P, S, Cl and Ar do not conduct electricity because they do not have free moving electrons.
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Ionization energy

First ionization energy is the energy required to convert a mole of gaseous atoms into a
mole of singly positively charged gaseous ions.

One electron is removed from each gaseous atom.

There is a general increase in ionization energy across a period.

Nuclear charge increases, this factor increases ionization energy.

Shielding effect remains same.

Atomic radius decreases across a period. This factor also increases ionization energy.
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Reason of drop in first ionization energy between group 5 and 6

This is due to pairing of electrons.

An electron in pair is easy to remove.

P has no paired electrons, because each p electron is in a different sub-shell.

S has two of its p-electrons paired, and one of these will be easier to remove than an
unpaired one.
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Reaction(s) of period 3 elements with Oxygen

Na

Sodium reacts vigorously when heated and placed in a gas jar of O2. it burns with a yellow
flame and a white solid is formed. Freshly cut Na tarnishes rapidly due to formation of
sodium oxide.

4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)

Mg

Magnesium burns with a bright white flame. Reaction is vigorous. White (powder/ash type)
solid is formed.

2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)

Al

Al2O3 forms easily at room temperature and is a useful protection for the metal
underneath. Aluminium is protected by a tough layer of its oxide Al2O3 so it does not react.
But powdered Al reacts with O2. it burns with a bright white flame. White solid is formed.

(note: all gpI, gp2, Al and Zn compounds are white)

4Al(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Al2O3(s)

Si

Silicon (macro molecule) reacts very slowly with oxygen to form a white solid.
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Si(s) + O2(g) → SiO2(s)

Phosphorous has two allotropes: white phosphorous P4 is very is very reactive and is stored
under water.

Red P is less reactive and is polymeric form.

White P4 is very reactive. Red P is less reactive.

White P4 reacts vigorously with O2. It burns with a white flame and cloud of white
phosphorous (IV) oxide are formed.

P4(s) + 5O2(g) → P4O10(s)

Yellow solid Sulfur burns gently with a blue flame in air or in a gas jar of O2. Yellow solid
melts turn red and then disappears. Pungent smelling, choking gas is released (SO2).

S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)

Sulfur cannot form sulfur trioxide by direct reaction with O2 (even when O2 is in excess). The
reaction takes place in the presence of a catalyst V2O5 at 450C. Pressure is kept at 2 to 3
atm.

Contact process

2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)

Element Na Mg Al P4 S
Flame color Yellow white white white blue

Oxides of period 3 elements

Properties of oxides of period three elements

Properties Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O10/ SO2 SO3

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P4O6
structure Giant Giant Giant Giant Simple Simple Simple
ionic ionic ionic covalent molecular molecular molecular
Acid base Basic Basic Ampho Acidic Acidic Acidic Acidic
nature teric
Melting High High High High Low Low Low
point
Oxidation +1 +2 +3 +4 +5/+3 +4 +6
state
Color of White White White White White Colorless Colorless
oxide gas gas
Color of yellow White White yellow blue
flame
vigorous vigorous vigorous

Reaction(s) of oxides of with water

Na2O

Sodium oxide reacts with water to form a strong alkaline solution.

Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)

MgO

Magnesium oxide reacts with water to form a weak alkaline solution.

MgO(s) + H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq)

Al2O3 (amphoteric) and SiO2 (macro molecule) do not react with water.

P4O10

Phosphorous (V) oxide reacts vigorously with water to form an acidic solution.

P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l) → 4H3PO4(aq)

SO2/SO3

Sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide reacts with water to form an acidic solution.
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Sulfurous acid or sulfuric (IV) acid

SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)

Sulfuric acid or sulfuric (VI) acid

SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)

Propertie Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O10 SO2 SO3
s
product NaOH Mg(OH)2 H3PO4 H2SO3 H2SO4
pH 14 11 2 2 2
vigorous vigorous vigorous

Acid-base reaction(s) of period 3 Oxides

Na2O/ MgO

Sodium oxide and magnesium oxide are basic oxides that react with acids to form salt and
water.

Na2O(s) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)

MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)Al

Al2O3

Aluminium oxide is an amphoteric oxide that reacts with both acids and alkali to form salts.

Al2O3(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) → Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2O(l)

Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) → 2NaAl(OH)4(aq)

SiO2

Silicon dioxide is an acidic oxide that dissolves and reacts with hot concentrated alkali.

SiO2(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SiO3(aq) + H2O(l)

P4O10

Phosphorous (V) oxide is an acidic oxide that reacts vigorously with sodium hydroxide to
form salt and water.

P4O10(s) + 12NaOH(aq) → 4Na3PO4(aq) + 6H2O(l)

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SO2/SO3

Sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide are acidic oxides that react with alkali to form salts and
water.

Sulfur dioxide forms sulfites

SO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)

Sulfur trioxide forms sulfates

SO3(g) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Reaction of Na and Mg with water

Sodium reacts with cold water.

It melts into a silvery ball.

The silvery ball moves across the surface of water, giving off colorless and odorless
hydrogen gas. The gas produced burns with a pop sound.

The silvery ball gets smaller and smaller until it disappears (not dissolves), leaving a strongly
alkaline solution (pH = 14).

The reaction is exothermic.

Mg reacts very slowly with cold water.

When a piece of Mg is placed into water it sinks and at first nothing appears to happen.

It takes several days to produce a test tube of hydrogen gas.

The solution formed is very weakly alkaline (pH=11), because is slightly soluble in water.

Mg reacts with steam to form MgO and hydrogen gas.

Reaction(s) of period 3 elements with chlorine

All elements except argon react with chlorine. Metals form ionic halides. Non-metals form
molecular halides.
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Common observation: metal/greenish yellow gas disappears.

Na

Metal disappears

Greenish yellow gas disappears

When Na is heated and then plunged into a gas jar of chlorine, Na burns with a yellow
flame in the gas. A vigorous reaction takes place forming a white powder.

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)

Mg

Metal disappears

Greenish yellow gas disappears

Magnesium burns with a white flame. Vigorous reaction takes place

White solid.is formed

Mg(s) + Cl2(g) → MgCl2(s)

Al

Metal disappears

Greenish yellow gas disappears

Al burns with a white flame. Vigorous reaction takes place

White solid.is formed

2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2AlCl3(s)

→ Al2Cl6(s)

Si

Si (s) disappears

Greenish yellow gas disappears

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Silicon reacts slowly with chlorine forming a colorless, volatile liquid.

Si(s) + 2Cl2(g) → SiCl4(l)

P4 (s) disappears

Greenish yellow gas disappears

White phosphorous reacts slowly with chlorine to form a colorless, volatile liquid.

P4(s) + 6Cl2(g) → 4PCl3(l)

In excess of Cl2 white solid PCl5 is formed

SiCl4 and PCl3 are colorless liquids. Other chlorides are white solids

Chlorides of period 3 elements

Properties NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3 SiCl4 PCl3 PCl5

structure Giant Giant Simple Simple Simple Simple

ionic ionic molecular molecular molecular molecular
Melting High High Low Low Low Low
point
Oxidation +1 +2 +3 +4 +3 +5
state
Color of White White White Colorless Colorless White
chloride solid solid solid liquid liquid solid
Color of yellow White White
flame
vigorous vigorous vigorous
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Reaction of Just Hydrolysis Hydrolysis Hydrolysis Hydrolysis Hydrolysis

chloride dissolves Vigorous Vigorous Vigorous
with water
pH of aq 7 6.5 3 2 2 2
solution

Effect of water on chlorides of period 3 elements

NaCl

Sodium chloride simply dissolves in water and the solution is neutral.

NaCl(s) + (aq) → NaCl(aq)

MgCl2

Magnesium chloride dissolves in water to give a slightly acidic solution.

MgCl2(s) + (aq) → MgCl2(aq)

AlCl3

When Al2Cl6 is added in water, positive and negative ions are formed. Hydrolysis reaction
takes place. The reaction is exothermic. Al3+ has very high polarizing power so it polarizes
water molecule. Water molecule loses its H+ and acidic solution results. (OH) will be ligand
so will not make the solution alkaline.

[Al(H2O)6]+3(aq) ↔ [Al(H2O)5(OH)]+2(aq) + H+(aq)

SiCl4

Silicon chloride is hydrolyzed in water forming white steamy fumes of HCl. Reaction is
vigorous and the solution becomes acidic.

SiCl4(l) + 2H2O(l) → SiO2(s) + 4HCl(aq)

PCl5

Phosphorous (V) chloride is hydrolyzed in water forming white fumes of HCl. Reaction is
vigorous and the solution becomes acidic.

PCl5(s) + 4H2O(l) → H3PO4(aq) + 5HCl(aq)

Hydrolysis of PCl3 results in the formation of H3PO3.

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Structure of period 3 chlorides

- NaCl and MgCl2 have giant ionic structure.

- Al2Cl6, SiCl4, PCl3 and PCl5 have simple molecular structure.

pH of period 3 aq chlorides

- NaCl = 7

- MgCl2 = 6.5

- Al2Cl6 = 3

- SiCl4/PCl3/PCl5 = 2

Only two chlorides are liquids and no oxide is liquid

Al and Si oxides have high mps and chlorides have low mps

Density of Li, Na and K are less than water.

Group II

Electronic configuration Ionization energy decreases

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Be [He] 2S2 Reactivity increases.

Mg [Ne] 3S2 Reducing power increases.

Ca [Ar] 4S2 m.p and b.p decreases due

Sr [Kr] 5S2 to decrease in strength of metallic bonding.

Ba [Xe]6S2 Thermal stability of nitrates and

carbonates increases

Ra [Rn] 7S2

- In all group two compounds, the oxidation state of group two metals is +2

- Group two metals have low melting and boiling point as compared to other metals but is
higher than group I metal in the same period.

-They have low densities as compared to other metals but is higher than group I metals in
the same period.

Solubility of hydoxides increases down the group. Mg(OH)2 is slightly soluble in water.
Ba(OH)2 is soluble in water.

Solubility of sulfates decreases down the group. MgSO4 is soluble in water. Others are
insoluble in water.

Chemical properties

Reaction(s) of gp II metals with water or steam

- Reactions are exothermic.

- H2(g) is produced.

- If these metals react with water, then they definitely react with steam.

When metals react with water hydroxides are formed

When metals react with steam oxides are formed

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Metal(s) +2 H2O(l) → M(OH)2(-aq--) + H2(g)

Metal(s) + H2O(g) → MO(-s) + H2(g)

Mg

Reaction with water is very slow. Weak alkaline solution is formed.

Mg reacts vigorously with steam. Mg glows white solid forms.

Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s)+ H2(g)

Ca

Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g) reaction becomes more and more vigorous.

Sr solution becomes more

Sr(s) + 2H2O(l) → Sr(OH)2 (aq)+ H2(g) alkaline due to increase

in solubility of metal

Ba hydroxides.

Ba(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ba(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Observation with Ca

White cloudy suspension of sparingly soluble Ca(OH)2 forms. Metal disappears.

Temperature of beaker rises. A colorless gas is produced.

Observation with Sr and Ba

Metal disappears. Temperature of beaker rises. A colorless gas is produced.

Reaction(s) of gp II metals with oxygen

- Group II metals react vigorously with oxygen to form their respective (white) oxides.
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Mg

2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s) reaction becomes

Ca more vigorous.

2Ca(s) + O2(g) → 2CaO(s)

Sr

2Sr(s) + O2(g) → 2SrO(s)

Ba

2Ba(s) + O2(g) → 2BaO(s)

Mg burns with a white flame. Ca and Sr burn with red flame. Ba burns with green flame.

- These group II metal oxides react with water to form their respective hydroxides.

Mg

MgO(s) + H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq) reaction becomes

Ca more vigorous. Solution becomes

CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) more alkaline due to increase in

solubility

Sr

SrO(s) + H2O(l) → Sr(OH)2(aq)

Ba

BaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ba(OH)2(aq)

CaO = quick lime/lime

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Ca(OH)2(s) = slaked lime

Ca(OH)2(aq) = lime water

CaCO3(s) = limestone

Thermal stability of group II carbonates and nitrates

- Compounds which are thermally stable require large amount of heat for decomposition.
Thermal stability of group II carbonates and nitrates increases down the group.

- Down the group, size increases so polarizing power decreases. Therefore, stability
increases.

- Example:

Bond breaking of magnesium carbonate is easiest because magnesium ion has small size,
hence greater polarizing power. It polarizes the carbonate ion and thus magnesium
carbonate decomposes to magnesium oxide (same for nitrates).

Group II metal Carbontes

MgCO3(s) → MgO(s) + CO2(g)

CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

SrCO3(s) → SrO(s) + CO2(g) thermal stability

BaCO3(s) → BaO(s) + CO2(g) increases down

Group II metal Nitrates the group.

Mg(NO3)2(s) → MgO(s) + 2NO2(g) + 1/2O2(g)

Ca(NO3)2(s) → CaO(s) + 2NO2(g) + 1/2O2(g)

Sr(NO3)2(s) → SrO(s) + 2NO2(g) + 1/2O2(g)

Ba(NO3)2(s) → BaO(s) + 2NO2(g) + 1/2O2(g)

Mg and Ca nitrates and carbonates can even be decomposed by the heat of a Bunsen burner.
Other oxides and carbonates require higher temperature.
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Uses of group II compounds

MgO(s)

Magnesium oxide has a very high melting point. Has low thermal conductivity. It will
absorb some acidic impurities in some metallurgical processes. It is therefore used as a
refractory material for lining of the furnace.

CaCO3(s)

Calcium carbonate is used in the manufacture of steel and glass. It is also used to control
the acidity of the soil. It is used to remove acidic flue gases.

CaO(s)

Lime mortar is a mixture of lime, sand and water. It is used for brick laying in construction.
It is also for controlling the acidity of the soil. It is used to remove acidic flue gases.

CaO and Ca(OH)2 react with CO2 to form CaCO3

Group 17
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Electronic configuration

F [He] 2s2 2p5

Cl [Ne] 3s2 3p5

Br [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p5

I [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p5

Physical properties

- Melting and boiling point increases due to increases in strength of van der Waal’s forces
(number of electrons increases from Fluorine to Astatine).

- States at r.t.p:

Depth of color increases down the group

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- Cl2(g) is a greenish yellow gas.

- Br2(l) is an orange brown liquid (bromine vapors are brown).

- I2(s) is a shiny black solid (iodine vapors are purple).

Chemical properties

Oxidizing ability of Halogens

- All halogens are good oxidizing agents. Halogens and their aqueous solution act as
oxidizing agents. - Their reactivity decreases down the group therefore their oxidizing
ability decreases.

Cl2(g) oxidizing ability decreases

Br2(l) down the group.

I2(s)

Reducing ability of the Halide ions

Cl- reducing ability increases

Br- down the group.

I-

Reaction(s) of Halogens with Hydrogen

- Halogens reacts with Hydrogen to form their respective hydrogen halides.

Cl2
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Reaction is explosive in the presence of sunlight/UV rays. Reaction takes place at a

moderate rate in the diffused (controlled) sunlight.

Cl2(g) + H2(g) → 2HCl(g)

Br2

Reaction is very slow in the presence of a catalyst. It takes place on heating.

Br2(g) + H2(g) → 2HBr(g)

I2

Iodine combines very slowly with Hydrogen on heating in the presence of a catalyst. The
reaction is reversible.

I2(g) + H2(g) ↔ 2HI(g)

Hydrogen Halides

When HCl, HBr and HI dissolve in water, acidic solutions are formed.

H-Cl bond length is increasing due to which bond

H-Br energy is decreasing. Hence thermal

H-I stability decreases down the group.

HI can be decomposed by a hot glass rod. HCl and HBr require higher temperature

Identification of Hydrogen Halides

Reaction type: ionic precipitation.

Acidify the unknown Halide solution with HNO3(aq)(to remove any carbonate present). Then
add AgNO3(aq).

- white precipitates of AgCl(s) are formed if Cl- ions are present.

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Cl-(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → AgCl(s) + NO3-(aq)

- cream precipitate of AgBr(s) are formed if Br- ions are present.

Br-(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → AgBr(s) + NO3-(aq)

- yellow precipitate of AgI(s) are formed if I- ions are present.

I-(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → AgI(s) + NO3-(aq)

Identification by color is not completely reliable therefore NH3(aq) is added to the resulting
precipitates.

- white AgCl(s) precipitates dissolve in dilute NH3(aq) solution forming a colorless solution.

AgCl(s) + 2NH3(aq) → [Ag(NH3)2]+1(aq) + Cl-(aq)

- cream AgBr(s) precipitates dissolve in concentrated NH3(aq) solution forming a colorless

solution.

- they partially dissolve in dilute NH3(aq).

AgBr(s) + 2NH3(aq) → [Ag(NH3)2]+1(aq) + Br-(aq)

- yellow AgI(s) precipitates do not dissolve in NH3(aq).

NH3 acts as a ligand . Ligand is an atom, ion or molecule which is datively bonded to central
metal atom or ion in a complex ion.

Concentrated H2SO4 can also be used to identify Halide ions (no need for aqueous
nature).

Lowery-Bronsted Acid base reaction.

NaX(s) + H2SO4(l) → NaHSO4(s) + HX(g) X=Cl,Br,I

Concentrated H2SO4 is a strong oxidizing agent. It can oxidize HBr and HI but not HCl.
39

- Observation with NaCl:

White steamy fumes of HCl(g) are formed.

NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) → NaHSO4(s) + HCl(g)

- Observation with NaBr:

Brown gas / reddish brown vapors of Br2(g) are formed.

NaBr(s) + H2SO4(l) → NaHSO4(s) + HBr(g)

2HBr(g) + H2SO4(l) → Br2(g) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

- Observation with NaI:

Purple fumes of I2(g) are formed.

NaI(s) + H2SO4(l) → NaHSO4(s) + HI(g)

2HI(g) + H2SO4(l) → I2(g) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

6HI(g) + H2SO4(l) → 3I2(g) + S(s) + 4H2O(l)

8HI(g) + H2SO4(l) → 4I2(g) + H2S + 4H2O(l)

HI is stronger reducing agent than HCl

Reaction of chlorine with alkali

- Reaction with cold, dilute NaOH(aq).

Sodium chlorate (I) is formed.

Cl2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + NaClO(aq) + H2O(l)

- Reaction with hot, concentrated NaOH(aq).

Sodium chlorate (V) is formed.

3Cl2(g) + 6NaOH(aq) → 5NaCl(aq) + NaClO3(aq) + 3H2O(l)

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These both reactions are Disproportionate reactions. (the simultaneous oxidation and
reduction of the same species in a chemical reaction).

Use of chlorine in water purification

When chlorine is used to purify drinking water, disproportionation occurs to form HCl and HClO

Cl2 + H2O → HCl + HClO

The bacteria in water are killed by reactive oxygen atoms which are produced by a slow decomposition of
HClO.

HClO = Chloric (I) acid

Nitrogen and Sulfur

The triple bond between N2 is very strong. Its bond energy is 944KJ/mol.

Due to this strong bonding, most of the reactions of nitrogen are endothermic. For example
the formation of NO and NO2 is endothermic.
41

Displacement of NH3 from NH4+ salts.

When alkali or bases are heated with ammonium salts, NH3(g), salt and water are formed.

Lowery-Bronsted Acid base reaction.

(NH4)2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → 2NH3(g) + Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)`

Nitrogen and Sulfur compounds as a source of pollutants.

Source of SO2(g):

- combustion of fossil fuel containing sulfur as an impurity.

- volcanic eruptions.

- burning of metal sulfide ores during extraction of metals.

Source of NO(g) and NO2(g):

- when fuel burns in internal combustion engine, N2(g) and O2(g) react to form NO(g).

N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g)

- NO(g) reacts with air to form NO2(g).

2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g)

NO2(g) combines with water and air to form HNO3(aq) which causes acid rain.

2NO2(g) + H2O(l) + 1/2O2(g) → 2HNO3(aq)

NO(g) / NO2(g) as catalyst

- NO(g) and NO2(g) act as a catalyst and convert SO2(g) into SO3(g).

- SO3(g) reacts with water to form H2SO4(aq) which causes acid rain.

NO(g) as catalyst:
42

NO(g) + 1/2O2(g) → NO2(g)

NO2(g) + SO2(g) → NO(g) + SO3(g)

SO2(g) + 1/2O2(g) → SO3(g)

NO2(g) as catalyst:

NO2(g) + SO2(g) → NO(g) + SO3(g)

NO(g) + 1/2O2(g) → NO2(g)

SO2(g) + 1/2O2(g) → SO3(g)

Catalytic converter

- alloy of Platinum, Rhodium and Palladium is used as a catalyst.

- Unburnt hydrocarbon and CO(g) oxidize and NO(g)/NO2(g) reduce.

zNO(g) + CxHy → xCO2(g) + y/2H2O(l) + z/2N2(g)

Uses of ammonia and ammonium compounds

43

Ammonia reacts with acids to form ammonium salts. These salts are used as fertilizers.

Ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate and ammonium phosphate are used as fertilizers.

Nitric acid and ammonium nitrate are used to make explosives.

Nitric acid is used in the manufacture of detergents, paints, pigments, dyes and nylon .

Eutrophication
Eutrophication is a water pollution problem in lakes and rivers caused by nitrates and
phosphates.

Sources of nitrates are

Fertilizers leached from farmland due to high solubility of nitrates.

Sewage

Soruces of phosphates are

Fertilizers leached from farmland

Sewage

Detergents

The unintentional enrichment of lakes and rivers with phosphates and nitrates encourages
the rapid growth of algae. It is called algal bloom. Proliferation of algae on water surface
blocks off sunlight for submerged green plants. Eutrophication causes lack of oxygen due
to following reasons:

Underwater plants stop producing oxygen because their process of photosynthesis stops
due to no-availability of sunlight.

When these plants die, their decomposition by bacteria consumes oxygen.

When algae die, their decomposition by bacteria also consume oxygen.

Eventually when there is little or no oxygen left, fish die due to lack of oxygen and water
becomes murky and smelly
44

INFRA-RED SPECTROSCOPY

a) Introduction

All molecules contain covalent bonds and these bonds are constantly rotating,
bending and stretching with characteristic frequencies. When these bonds are
subjected to infra-red radiation with the same frequency, they will bend or stretch
more and the radiation of that frequency will be absorbed. Each bond absorbs one or
two distinct frequencies only, so when infra-red radiation containing a full range of
frequencies is passed through a sample of an organic compound, some frequencies
are absorbed and others pass through unaffected. The resultant radiation can be
detected and converted into a spectrum known as an intra-red spectrum.

INFRA RED SPECTROSCOPY

45

Different covalent bonds have different strengths due to the masses of different atoms at either end of
the bond.

As a result, the bonds vibrate at different frequencies

The frequency of vibration can be found by detecting when the molecules absorb electro-magnetic
radiation.

Various types of vibration are possible.

ALCOHOL

ALDEHYDE
46

CARBOXYLIC ACID
47
48
49
50
51

a) explain the use of chlorine in water purification

Chlorine is added to water to kill bacteria. Chlorine reacts with water to some extent to
give a mixture of hydrochloric acid and chloric(I) acid.

You will also sometimes find HClO written as HOCl.

The chloric(I) acid is a powerful oxidising agent, and kills bacteria by oxidation.

describe the chemistry of alkenes as exemplified, where relevant, by the following reactions of ethene and propene (including
the Markovnikov addition of asymmetric electrophiles to alkenes using propene as an example):
When a compound HX is added to an unsymmetrical alkene, the hydrogen
becomes attached to the carbon with the most hydrogens attached to it already.
In major product the carocation is more stable due to positive inductive effect of allkyle group. Tertiary carbocation is more
stable than primary carbocation.

Crude oil as a source of both aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons. The compounds which contain benzene ring are called
aromatic compounds.

Reaction of Halogenoalkane with AgNO3

understand the general unreactivity of alkanes, including towards polar reagents in terms of the strength of the C–H
bonds and their relative lack of polarity.
52

Why alkanes are generally unreactive

Alkanes are generally unreactive compounds. This can be explained by the very small difference in electronegativity
between carbon and hydrogen. The alkane molecules are non-polar, so they are not attacked by nucleophiles or
electrophiles. They have no partial positive charges on any of their carbon atoms to attract nucleophiles, neither do
they have areas of high electron density to attract electrophiles

Air Pollution
There are five main pollutants that are formed when fossil fuel are burnt:

• Carbon dioxide (this is not strictly a pollutant, since it occurs in nature, but its overproduction can
cause problem)
• Carbon monoxide
• Unburnt hydrocarbons
• Nitrogen oxides
• Sulfur dioxide.

When the petrol or diesel is mixed with air inside a car engine, there is a limited supply of oxygen. Under these
conditions, not all the carbon in the hydrocarbon fuel is fully oxidised to carbon dioxide. Some of the carbon is only
partially oxidised to form carbon monoxide gas. This is called incomplete combustion. Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas
that bonds with the haemoglobin in your blood. The haemoglobin molecules can then no longer bond to oxygen and
so cannot transport oxygen around your body. Victims of carbon monoxide poisoning will feel dizzy, then lose
consciousness. If not removed from the toxic gas, the victim will die. Carbon monoxide is odourless, so this adds to
the danger. This is why faulty gas heaters in which incomplete combustion occurs can kill unsuspecting people in
rooms with poor ventilation.

As well as carbon monoxide, road traffic also releases acidic nitrogen oxides. These contribute to the problem of acid
rain. Acid rain can kill trees and aquatic animals in lakes. Acid raid also corrodes metals, such as iron. As well as toxic
carbon monoxide and acidic nitrogen oxides, cars also release unburnt hydrocarbons, often referred to as volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) into the air. Some of these are carcinogens (they cause cancers). Cars can now be fitted
with a catalytic converter in their exhaust system.

PANs(peroxyacetyl nitrate) are secondary pollutants, which means they are not
directly emitted as exhaust from power plants or internal combustion engines,
but they are formed from other pollutants by chemical reactions in the
atmosphere.
Smog: a mixture of smoke, gases, and chemicals, especially in cities, that makes
the atmosphere difficult to breathe and harmful for health:
Difficulty of the disposal of polyalkene (plastics)

Disposal of poly(alkene) plastics Plastics are widely used in many aspects of everyday life. However, the large-scale
use of poly(alkene)s has created a problem when we come to dispose of them. During their useful life, one of the
poly(alkene)s’ useful properties is their lack of reactivity. As they are effectively huge alkane molecules, they are
resistant to chemical attack. So they can take hundreds of years to decompose when dumped in landfill sites, taking
53

up valuable space. They are nonbiodegradable. Therefore throwing away poly(alkenes) creates rubbish that will
pollute the environment for centuries. Burning plastic waste One way to solve this problem would be to burn the
poly(alkene)s and use the energy released to generate electricity. If hydrocarbons burn in excess oxygen the
products are carbon dioxide and water. So this solution would not help combat global warming, but would help to
conserve our supplies of fossil fuels that currently generate most of our electricity. However, we have also seen that
toxic carbon monoxide is produced from incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons. Another problem is the difficulty
recycling plants have in separating other plastic waste from the poly(alkene) s when objects have just been thrown
away without being sorted according to their recycling code. Then if poly(chloroethene) is burnt, acidic hydrogen
chloride gas will be given off, as well as toxic compounds called dioxins. Acidic gases would have to be neutralised
before releasing the waste gas into the atmosphere and very high temperatures used in incinerators to break down
any toxins