4-13 TC Instrument Engineer Handbook

4.
13 Thermocouples T1
T. J. CLAGGETT, R. W. WORRALL (1969, 1982) B. G. LIPTÁK (1995, 2003)

TC
Flow Sheet Symbol
Linearity: Thermocouples are nonlinear devices. They generate from 10 to 60 µV/°C tempera-
ture change.
Temperature Ranges: −346 to 4240°F (−210 to 2338°C) with nine types covering various ranges as listed
in Tables 4.1a, 4.1c, and 4.13l
Temperature Spans: See Table 4.13m. Minimum recommended span is 25°C (45°F) and is available only
in types E, J, K, and T. For types S and R, the minimum span is 360°F (200°C).
Inaccuracy: The total error is the sum of the thermocouple wire error (see Table 4.13m), the
extension wire error and the signal conditioning or transmitter error.
For standard thermocouple, the error ranges from ±2 to 5°F (1 to 2.8°C); for special
thermocouple, half as much.
The extension wire error varies with its length and can be equal or more than the
thermocouple error.
The transmitter error is usually 0.15% of span with standard and 0.05% with intel-
ligent transmitters, or the sum of the cold junction (CJ) and the minimum absolute
error (MAE), whichever is greater. With narrower spans the sum of the CJ+MAE
error is likely to be the determining one and can be calculated as the sum of CJ =
0.25°C (0.45°F) and MAE = 0.2°C (0.36°F) for types T, J, E, and K; 0.6°C (1.08°F)
for types R and S; and 0.8°C (1.44°F) for type B.
Costs: $1 to $15 for beads; $25 to $60 for detachable probe assemblies with handles, used
in the laboratory. A thermocouple provided with a stainless steel thermowell costs
about $200, while a thermocouple element, which is integral with a transmitter, can
range from $750 to $2000, depending on its design and features
Partial List of Suppliers: 4B Components Ltd. (www.go4b.com)

ABB Inc.-Instrumentation (www.abb.com/us/instrumentation)
Acces I/O Products (www.accesioproducts.com)
Accutech (www.savewithaccutech.com)
Action Instruments (www.actionio.com)
Altek Industries (www.altekcalibrators.com)
Ametek Aerospace (www.ametekaerospace.com)
Analab LLC (www.analab1.com)
APT Instruments (www.aptinstruments.com)
Ari Industries (www.ariindustries.com)
Athena Controls (www.aethnacontrols.com)
Automatic Timing & Controls (www.automatictiming.com)
Barber Colman (www.barber-colman.com)
Barnant Co. (www.barnant.com)
Burns Engineering (www.burnsengineering.com)
Chino Works America Inc. (www.chinoamerica.com)
Chromalox (www.mychromalox.com)
CMI Inc. (www.cmi-temp.com)
Conax Buffalo (www.conaxbuffalo.com)
Dickson (www.dicksonweb)
673
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
674 Temperature Measurement
Dresser Instrument (www.dresserinstruments.com)

Dwyer Instruments (www.dwyer-inst.com)
Ecom Instruments (www.ecom-ex.com)
Eurotherm Controls (www.eurotherm.com)
Exergen Corp. (www.exergen.com)
Extech Instruments (www.extech.com)
Flow Research (www.flowresearch.com)
Flow-Tech Inc. (www.flowtechonline.com)
Fluke Corp. (www.fluke.com)
FMC Blending & Transfer (www.fmcblending.com)
Foxboro-Invensys (www.foxboro.com)
Gaumer Process (www.gaumer.com)
Graybar Electric (www.graybar.com)
Hach Co. (www.hach.com)
Honeywell Industry Solutions (www.iac.honeywell.com)
Honeywell Sensing and Control (www.honeywell.com/sensing)
Ice Qube (www.iceqube.com)
Imaging & Sensing Technology (www.istimaging.com)
Instrumentation Group (www.instrumentationgroup.com)
Jensen (www.jensentools.com)
JMS Southeast (www.jms-se.com)
Jumo Process Control (www.jumousa.com)
Kobold Instruments (www.koboldusa.com)
Lake Shore Cryotronics (www.lakeshore.com)
Love Control (www.love-controls.com)
Marsh Bellofram (www.marshbellofram.com)
Martel Electronics (www.martelcorp.com)
Minco Products (www.minco.com)
Monarch Instrument (www.monarchinstrument.com)
Moore Industries (www.miinet.com)
MTI (www.mtisensors.com)
National Basic Sensor (www.nationalbasicsensor.com)
Newport Electronics (www.newportus.com)
Ogden Mfg. (www.ogdenmfg.com)
Omega (www.omega.com)
Omron Electronics (www.omron.com/oei)
Phonetics (www.sensaphone.com)
Pyromation (www.pyromation.com)
Pyrometer Instrument (www.pyrometer.com)
RDF Corp. (www.rdfcorp.com)
Ronan Engineering (www.ronan.com)
Rosemount Inc. Div. of Emerson (www.rosemount.com)
Sandelius Instrument (www.sandelius.com)
Scannivalve Corp. (www.scannivalve.com)
Testo Inc. (www.testo.com)
Thermo Electric (www.thermo-electric-direct.com)
Transmation (www.transmation.com)
Triplett Corp. (www.triplett.com)
TTI (www.ttiglobal.com)
United Electric Controls (www.ueonline.com)
Wahl Instruments (www.palmerinstruments.com/wahl)
Watlow (www.watlow.com)
Weed Instrument (www.weedinstrument.com)
Wika Instrument (www.wika.com)
Winters Instruments (www.winters.com)
Yokogawa Corp. of America (www.yca.com)
The most popular RTD based transmitter suppliers are: Rosemount-Emerson,
Pyromation, Honeywell, Moore Industries;
Vendor list: www.temperatures.com/tcvendors.html.

4.13 Thermocouples 675
Imparting heat to the junction of two dissimilar metals causes independent of both length and diameter of wires. Another
a small continuous electromotive force (EMF) to be gener- reason for requiring homogeneous wire is that thermal EMFs
ated. One of the simplest of all temperature sensors, the within a single strand passing from a warmer to a cooler area,
thermocouple (TC) depends upon the principle known as the or vice versa, will cancel each other.
Seebeck Effect. T.J. Seebeck discovered this phenomenon in Further, if both junctions of a homogeneous metal are
1821, and in the ensuing years the thermocouple has become held at the same temperature, the metal does not contribute
the most widely used electrical temperature sensor. The word to the net EMF of a circuit. Since some TCs are made of
is a combination of thermo for the heat requirement and expensive metals, this fact can be used to cut costs by sup-
couple denoting two junctions. plying copper extension wire for long runs.
A TC is an assembly of two wires of unlike metals joined It follows, then, that by holding temperatures constant at
at one end, designated as the hot end. At the other end, referred all junctions except one within a given circuit, we can mea-
to as the cold junction, the open circuit voltage or Seebeck sure temperature as a function of the hot junction temperature
voltage is measured. This voltage (EMF) depends on the tem- with respect to the cold junction temperature.
perature difference between the hot and the cold junctions and TCs drift, because of the junction of the two dissimilar
on the Seebeck coefficients of the two metal wires. metals that degrade. If used at low temperatures, this may only
be a few degrees per year and can be calibrated out of the system.
At higher temperatures, they degrade more quickly. Further, drift
THEORY OF OPERATION can also be caused by long extension wires; these wires are often
of lesser quality than the TC wires and can contribute twice the
An ordinary TC consists of two different kinds of wires, each error if subjected to harsh environmental conditions. Before the
of which must be made of a homogeneous metal or alloy. use of transmitters, some plants have replaced their extension
The wires are fastened together at one end to form a mea- wires on a regular basis to minimize this effect.
suring junction, normally referred to as the hot junction, since
a majority of the measurements are made above ambient Interpreting the Generated Voltage
temperatures. The free ends of the two wires are connected
The TC reads the difference between the temperatures of its
to the measuring instrument to form a closed path in which
measuring and reference junctions. (Actually, it is a general
current can flow. After the TC wires connect to the measuring
limitation of human beings that we cannot measure anything
instrument, the junction inside is designated as reference
in the absolute; all we can do is to compare a known quantity
junction, or the cold junction (see Figure 4.13a)
against an unknown.) If we know what the reference temper-
The EMF developed at wire junctions is a manifestation
ature is, we can identify the unknown process temperature
of the Peltier Effect and occurs at every junction of dissimilar
by measuring the voltage generated by the TC:
metals within the measuring system. This effect involves the
liberation or absorption of heat at the junction when a current
unknown temperature = (voltage/Seebeck coefficient)
flows across it. The resultant heating or cooling depends upon
+ reference temperature 4.13(1)
the direction of current flow. Applications of this principle
are becoming increasingly useful in electric heating and
The process temperatures can be obtained from the volt-
refrigeration.
age read by either going to a graph (Figure 4.13b) or, for
A second EMF develops along the temperature gradient
more accuracy, by going to TC tables that list the voltages
of a single homogeneous wire. This is the Thomson Effect.
corresponding to each temperature with each TC type (such
It is most important that each section of wire in a given circuit
tables are provided at the end of this section).
be homogeneous. This is because if there is no change in the
Unfortunately, the voltage-to-temperature relationship is
composition or physical properties along its length, the circuit
not a straight-line function, and the Seebeck coefficient is not
EMF depends only upon the metals employed and the tem-
a constant (Figure 4.13c). For some TCs over certain temper-
perature of their junction. Therefore, the circuit EMFs are ature ranges, such as type K over the range 0 to 1000°C (32
to 1832°F), the Seebeck coefficient is relatively constant (about
Measuring Connection Instrument 40 µV/°C), but in general it changes with temperature. This in
Junction Head the past has resulted in unique scales for each type of TC or
in the need to use tables and curves to convert millivolts into
temperature. These days the memory capability of the micro-
Thermocouple processors has resolved all these problems, and what used to
be tedious and time-consuming is now quick and easy. In short,
Extension Reference or Cold the nonlinear nature of the TCs is no longer a problem.
Wires Junction
The same cannot be said about the weakness of the TC
FIG. 4.13a signal. As shown in Figure 4.13c, a platinum thermocouple
Thermocouple terminology. will generate only about 10 µV/°C. On the other hand, even

the best industrial transmitters have a minimum span of 1

mV and a minimum absolute error of about 0.01 mV, which +80
Type ‘E’
is 10 µV. Therefore, it is difficult to obtain a measurement Iron Versus Constantan
+70 (Type ‘J’)
using industrial transmitter and platinum TCs, which would
have less than a 1°C error or have a span that is narrower +60
Chromel Versus Alumel
than 60°F (35°C). This is usually acceptable when measuring +50
(Type 'K')
higher temperatures but is not acceptable at low temperatures
Millivolts
l
isi
or when the temperature span is narrow. For this reason, TCs +40 usN
ers
il V Platinum/13% Rhodium
are not recommended and resistance temperature detectors +30 cro
s
Ni Rhodium Versus Platinum
(RTDs) are used for narrow span or small temperature dif- (Type ‘R’)
Platinum/10% Rhodium
+20
ference measurements. Copper Versus Constantan Rhodium Versus Platinum
(Type ‘T’) (Type ‘S’)
+10
Laws of Intermediate Temperatures and Metals 0
−10
The law of intermediate temperatures states that the sum of the
−200 0 +200 +400 +600 +800 +1000 +1200 +1400 +1600 +1800 °C
EMFs generated by two TCs—one with its junctions at 32°F −328 32 392 752 1112 1472 1832 2192 2552 2912 3272 °F
(0°C) and some reference temperature, the other with its junc-
tions at the same reference temperature and at the measured FIG. 4.13b
temperature—will be the same as that produced by a single TC, The millivoltage generated by thermocouples varies with wire mate-
having its junctions at 32°F (0°C) and the measured temperature. rials and is a nonlinear function of temperature.
This concept is illustrated in Figure 4.13d where the mea-
sured temperature is 700°F (371°C). By adding an EMF equal with the other two are at the same temperature. Any number
to that produced by thermocouple A in Figure 4.13d (with its of different metals can be introduced, providing all the junc-
junctions at 32ºF [0°C] and the reference temperature) to that tions are at the same temperature. Thus, in Figure 4.13e the
of thermocouple B, a total EMF equivalent to that generated circuits shown all generate the same EMF, even though the
by the hypothetical thermocouple C results. In most pyrom- second and third circuit diagrams show materials C, D, E,
eters, this is done by a temperature-sensitive resistor, which and F inserted between A and B.
measures the variations in reference junction temperature
caused by ambient conditions, and automatically provides Cold Junction Compensation
the necessary EMF by means of a voltage drop produced
across it. Thus, the instrument calibration becomes indepen- When a readout device is employed, it converts the EMF
dent of reference temperature variations. produced by the temperature difference between the hot and
The law of intermediate metals states that the introduc- cold junctions to record or otherwise display the temperature
tion of a third metal into the circuit will have no effect upon of the hot junction. To prevent errors due to secondary EMFs
the EMF generated so long as the junctions of the third metal produced by variations of temperature at the cold junction
100
80
Seebeck Coefficient µV/°C
E Seebeck
J Coefficient
T
60 at Room
Temperature
Type
Linear Region ( µV/°C)
40
K
J 50
K 40
20
R E 60
S R 11
S 10
0° 500° 1000° 1500° 2000° °C
T 38
32° 932° 1832° 2732° 3632° °F
Temperature
FIG. 4.13c
The Seebeck coefficient gives the amount of voltage generated (in microvolts) by a one degree change in temperature. The value of the
1
Seebeck coefficient varies not only with thermocouple type but also with temperature.

8 Iron
Hot Cold
End End @ 0°C (32°F)
Constantan
6
4 MV
J1
Fe
4 Cu
6.68 MV + J1
MV B V
−
C
Cu
2 2.68 MV Fe
J1 J2
Voltmeter
Ice Bath
A C
0
FIG. 4.13f
0 32 200 400 600 800 When an iron-constantan thermocouple measures the process (J1)
(−17.8) (0) (93) (204) (316) (427) and an identical iron-constantan thermocouple reference junction
°F (°C) (J2) is placed in an ice bath, the connection to the readout voltmeter
1
Reference Measured results in two added junctions, J3 and J4.
FIG. 4.13d
According to the law of intermediate temperatures, the EMF of change is to insert a short copper wire between both voltmeter
thermocouple A plus the EMF of thermocouple B is equal to the terminals and the TC leads and to place these new junctions
EMF of thermocouple C. on an isothermal block (Figure 4.13g). This change elimi-
nates the junctions J3 and J4 shown in Figure 4.13f because
in Figure 4.13g copper is joined to copper at these points. By
76 A 900 placing the new J3 and J4 junctions on an isothermal block,
as shown in Figure 4.13g, their effects cancel out as they are
B in opposition to each other and are at the same temperature.
The second change was to place the reference junction
A not in an ice bath (Figure 4.13f), but on the isothermal block.
C From the law of intermediate metals (Figure 4.13e) we know
All Three B that when junctions in series are at the same temperature,
Circuits their number makes no difference. Therefore, J4 and JREF in
Generate
A
Figure 4.13g can be replaced by JREF only.
Same EMF C Figure 4.13h shows the software compensation of the
D reference junction. Here the voltmeter reads the equivalent
E of thermocouple B in Figure 4.13d, while the thermometer
B
F RT reads the actual reference temperature of the isothermal
block. The thermometer used to measure TREF can be a ther-
FIG. 4.13e mistor (see Section 4.12), an RTD (see Section 4.10), or an
No harmful effect is caused by introducing any number of metals integrated circuit transistor. Once TREF is accurately measured
at a thermocouple junction if all connections are at the same tem-
(usually within 0.25°C or 0.45°F), the associated software
perature.
determines the corresponding millivoltage that a TC would
have generated if its hot junction were at TREF and its cold
and within the readout device, these EMFs must be com- junction were in an ice bath (thermocouple A in Figure
pensated for. One method is to hold the cold junction at a 4.13d). The sum of A and B then represents the measured
constant temperature, which can be done in laboratories with process temperature (referenced to ice) and can be looked up
an ice bath (Figure 4.13f ). An oven can also be used, in the type of tables that are provided at the end of this
although keeping an oven temperature constant presents section.
another set of problems. One might ask, why use a TC at all if another thermom-
Neither an ice bath nor an oven reference is practical in eter is needed to measure the reference temperature? The
an industrial environment. In the temperature transmitters answer to that question is simple: Do not use a thermocouple
used in the process industry, the ice bath reference must be if another thermometer can measure the temperature. Unfor-
replaced by a variable ambient reference junction. This is tunately, the sensors, which can accurately detect the ambient
achieved by making two changes to Figure 4.13f. The first temperature (TREF) are not suited for the measurement of high

Equivalent Circuit
Cu Fe Cu Fe
HI +
J1 V J1
J3 Cu J3 C
LO Cu −
Fe C
Voltmeter
J4 J2 J4
TREF
R1
Isothermal Block @TREF
FIG. 4.13g
By using an isothermal block and by inserting copper wires at the voltmeter terminal, an equivalent circuit is arrived at which does not
1
have an ice bath reference.
Block Temperature = TREF the multiplexer (which can introduce common and normal
Cu mode noise, discussed later), the relatively high costs of
+ J3
Fe + thermocouple lead wires, and the added error due to the
V V1 J1 variable contact resistances of the multiplexer. Even with
− J4 C − gold-plated contacts, there will be at least 1 µV drop through
Cu the contacts, which in case of platinum thermocouples cor-
Voltmeter R1 responds to an error of about 0.2°F (0.1°C).
FIG.4.13h Hardware Compensation

The industrial equivalent of the ice bath reference shown in
Figure 4.13f.
1 Prior to the advent of microprocessors and the associated
software compensation of TCs, hardware compensation was
used. Hardware compensation can be viewed as inserting a
Fe battery that cancels out offset voltage produced by the refer-
ence junction. These commercially available circuits provide
C an electronic ice point reference for one or many TCs. Their
+ HI main advantage relative to software compensation is speed
V RT
− LO because the computation time is eliminated. The main dis-
advantage of hardware compensation is that each gain resistor
Voltmeter Pt is suited to compensate only a particular type of TC, while
All Copper Wires software compensation accepts any TC. In practice, hardware
Pt− 10%Rh compensation is usually accomplished by using resistors
whose combined temperature resistance coefficient curves
Isothermal Block match those of the voltage-temperature curves produced by
(Zone Box)
the reference junctions, canceling any variations in the cold
FIG. 4.13i junction temperature.
When many thermocouples are multiplexed, a single reference ther-
1
mometer is sufficient to provide software compensation.
MEASURING THE EMF GENERATED
temperatures or wide spans. For these applications the natural
choice is the TC, and when it is used, it must be compensated. The Seebeck EMF can be measured with either a millivolt-
meter (Figure 4.13j) or a potentiometer (Figure 4.13k) circuit.
Multiplexing We should remember that the thermocouple measures only
the difference between its reference and hot junctions. How
The cost and complexity of software compensation is reduced closely it matches the accepted EMF curve has a bearing on
when many TCs are multiplexed into the same readout device accuracy. EMF tables are usually based upon 32°F (0°C)
(Figure 4.13i). In that case, a large number of TCs can be reference temperatures for convenience (see tables at the end
terminated on the same isothermal block and a single ther- of this section).
mometer can serve to provide software compensation for all. To relieve the control engineer of the problem of com-
The disadvantages of TC multiplexing include the necessity pensating for temperature instability at the reference junction,
of transporting the low-level signals over some distance to a copper or nickel resistor can be placed in a bridge so that

Calibrating Series Galvanometer THERMOCOUPLE TYPES

Rheostat Resistor
Based on possible combinations of metals, there could be
Shunt countless numbers of thermocouples, but there are relatively
Resistor few (see Tables 4.13l and 4.13m). Things that determine a
Thermocouple
metal’s usefulness in TC wire include:
FIG. 4.13j
Millivoltmeter circuit. 1. Melting points
2. Reaction to various atmospheres
3. Thermoelectric output in combination with other metals
B Slidewire 4. Electrical conductance, the reciprocal of resistance
(listed in Table 4.13n)
Cold Junction
5. Stability
Constant Voltage
Compensation 6. Repeatability
Amplifier Power Supply
7. Cost
A 8. Ease of handling and fabrication
ISA Types J, S, and T
Iron-constantan (type J) can be used in reducing atmo-

− + spheres. These thermocouples provide a very nearly linear
EMF output. They are the least expensive commercially
Thermocouple
Hot Junction available type.
The platinum-platinum 90%/rhodium 10% (type S) TC
FIG. 4.13k is most important. It is used to define the International Tem-
Potentiometer circuit. perature Scale between 1166.9°F (630.5°C), the point at
which antimony freezes, and 1945.4°F (1063°C), the gold
the TC EMF is opposed by an EMF corresponding to the point. This TC is not limited to the above range. It can be
required ambient temperature correction. Operating on the null- used from about 300 to 3215°F (150 to 1768°C) with excellent
balance principle, the resulting potentiometer (Figure 4.13k) results. Industrial thermocouples (“Special” in Table 4.13m)
tends to reduce any voltage difference between points A and of this material will match the standard calibration curve to
B to zero. better than ±0.25%.
Copper-constantan (type T) can be used in either oxidiz-
Transmitter Location and Noise ing or reducing atmospheres. TCs of this type exhibit a high
As discussed earlier, TCs produce a very small microvolt resistance to corrosion from moisture, provide a relatively
output per degree change in temperature. This output is very linear EMF output, and are good from the medium to the
very low temperature range.
sensitive to environmental influences, particularly if long
extension wires are used. It is recommended to minimize this ISA Types B, E, K, R, and N
length, which can be best achieved by mounting the trans-
mitter right inside the thermocouple head. Several other TCs are commonly used (see Tables 4.13l and
Electromagnetic interference from motors and electrical 4.13m), including platinum-platinum 13% rhodium (type R)
distribution and especially radio frequency interference (RFI) and platinum 30% rhodium-platinum 6% rhodium (type B),
from walkie-talkies can be the cause of large errors in mea- which are recommended for use in oxidizing atmospheres.
surement. Therefore, the transmitters or other TC readout They are relatively easily contaminated in other atmospheres.
instruments must have rigid RFI immunity specifications to Chromel-alumel (type K) can be used in oxidizing atmo-
minimize these effects. TC readouts are considered to be of spheres. It is the most linear TC in general use.
good quality if their common mode noise rejection is about Chromel-constantan (type E) TCs provide the highest
100 DB, their normal mode rejection is about 70 DB, and EMF per degree of temperature change. However, it also
their RFI immunity is 10 to 30 V/m. tends to drift more than the others. It can be used in oxidizing
atmospheres.
Intelligent Transmitters Tungsten-tungsten 26% rhenium TCs can be used to mea-
sure the highest temperatures. It cannot be used in oxidizing
State-of-the-art transmitters, digital buses, and networks have atmospheres, and it is also brittle and hard to handle. It is
been discussed in Sections 4.1 and 4.10. The reader is usually used in vacuum or in clean inert gas applications.
referred to those sections and also to the concluding para- A relatively new base-metal thermocouple is designated
graphs at the end of this section. type N (Nicrosil vs. Nisil). It provides stability as good as

680
Temperature Measurement
TABLE 4.13l
Thermocouple Comparison Table
Positive Negative Recommended Range
Wire Wire Limits Temp °F* Atomosphere
ISA Type Millivolts Environment Favorable Less Favorable
Designation Numbers = Percentages per °F Min. Max. Scale Linearity Recommended Points Points
B Pt70-RH30 Pt94-Rh6 .0003–.006 32 3380 Same as for type R Inert or slow — —
couple oxidizing
E Chromel Constantan .015–.042 −300 1800 Good Oxidizing Highest EMF/°F Larger drift than
other base metal
couples
J Iron Constantan .014–.035 32 1500 Good; nearly linear Reducing Most Becomes brittle
from 300–800 economical below 32°F
K Chromel Alumel .009–.024 −300 2300 Good; most linear Oxidizing Most linear More expensive
of all TCs than T or J
R Pt87-Rh13 Platinum .003–.008 32 3000 Good at high temps. Oxidizing Small size, fast More expensive
poor below response than type K
1000°F
S Pt90-Rh10 Platinum .003–.007 32 3200 Same as R Oxidizing Same as R More expensive
than type K
T Copper Constantan .008–.035 −300 750 Good but crowded Oxidizing or Good resis. to Limited temp.
at low end reducing corrosion from
moisture
Y Iron Constantan .022–.033 −200 1800 About same as type Reducing — Not industrial
J standard
— Tungsten W74-Re26 .001–.012 0 4200 Same as R Inert or High temp. Brittle, hard to
vacuum handle,
expensive
— W94-Re6 W74-Re26 .001–.010 0 4200 Same as R Inert or Same as above Slightly less
vacuum brittle than
above
— Copper Gold-Cobalt .0005–.025 −450 0 Reasonable above — Good output at Expensive lab.-
60 K very low temp. type TC
— Ir40-Rh60 Iridium .001–.004 0 3800 Same as R Inert — Brittle, expensive
° F − 32
*°C =
1.8

TABLE 4.13m
Thermocouple Errors and Spans
TC Wire Errors for Wires Recommended Span
Transmitter Error is Additional and in the
of Different Qualities* Limits*
Measured Temperature Case of “Smart” Units Is ±0.05% of Span or
TC Type Range in °F* Standard Special Value Given Below, Whichever Is Larger* Min. Max.
B 32–3380 NA NA ±1.89°F 63°F 2020°F
E 32–600 ±3°F — ±0.81°F 45°F 2100°F
600–1600 ±0.5% —
J 32–530 ±4°F ±2°F ±0.81°F 45°F 2500°F
530–1400 0.75% ±0.375%
K 32–530 ±4°F ±2°F ±0.81°F 45°F 2750°F
530–2300 ±0.75% ±0.375%
R 32–1000 ±5°F ±2.5°F ±1.53°F 360°F 2950°F
1000–2700 ±0.5% ±0.25%
S 32–1000 ±5°F ±2.5°F ±1.53°F 360°F 2900°F
1000–2700 ±0.5% ±0.25%
T −300 to −75 — ±1% ±0.81°F 45°F 1025°F
−150 to −75 ±2% ±1%
−75−200 ±1.5°F ±0.75°F
200–700 ±0.75% ±0.375%
N 32–530 ±4°F ±2°F NA NA NA
530–2300 ±0.75% ±0.4%
° F − 32
*°C =
1.8
TABLE 4.13n
Resistance of Various Thermocouple Wire Sizes in Ohms per Double Foot of Wire Length at 20°C (68°F)
Thermocouple Type
AWG Diameter
No. Inches K J T E R S G(W) C(W5) D(W3)
6 0.1620 0.23 0.014 0.012 0.027 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.009
8 0.1285 0.037 0.022 0.019 0.044 0.011 0.011 0.012 0.015 0.015
10 0.1019 0.058 0.034 0.029 0.069 0.018 0.018 0.020 0.023 0.022
12 0.0808 0.091 0.054 0.046 0.109 0.029 0.028 0.031 0.037 0.035
14 0.0641 0.146 0.087 0.074 0.175 0.047 0.045 0.049 0.058 0.055
16 0.0508 0.230 0.137 0.117 0.276 0.073 0.071 0.078 0.092 0.088
18 0.0403 0.374 0.222 0.190 0.448 0.119 0.116 0.126 0.148 0.138
20 0.0320 0.586 0.357 0.298 0.707 0.190 0.185 0.200 0.235 0.220
24 0.0201 1.490 0.878 0.753 1.780 0.478 0.464 0.560 0.594 0.560
26 0.0159 2.381 1.405 1.204 2.836 0.760 0.740 0.803 0.945 0.890
30 0.0100 5.984 3.551 3.043 7.169 1.910 1.850 2.030 2.380 2.260
32 0.0080 9.524 5.599 4.758 11.31 3.040 1.960 3.220 3.800 3.600
34 0.0063 15.17 8.946 7.660 18.09 4.820 4.660 5.100 6.040 5.700
36 0.0050 24.08 14.20 12.17 28.76 7.640 7.400 8.160 9.600 9.100
38 0.0040 38.20 23.35 19.99 45.41 11.95 11.60 12.90 15.30 15.30
40 0.0031 60.88 37.01 31.64 73.57 19.30 18.60 20.60 24.40 23.00

Exposed
Ungrounded No Seal Grounded
D D
Thermocouple Thermocouple
Wires Uncompacted Sheath Wires Compacted
Sheath Insulation
Insulation A
A Section
A-A
FIG. 4.13o
Thermocouple measuring junction designs. (Courtesy of ARI Industries Inc.)
the more expensive noble metal TCs up to about 2200°F In order to protect the TC wire, it is usually covered by
(1204°C), where type K starts to become unstable. The sta- a thermal insulation and a sheath for mechanical protection.
bility of type N TCs is due to increased percentages of chro- The purpose of this design is to expose only the measuring
mium, silicon, and magnesium. junction of the TC to the temperature of the process. This
can be achieved in three different ways (see Figure 4.13o).
The exposed thermocouple junction gives the best speed of
THERMOCOUPLE CONSTRUCTION AND PROTECTION response; the time constant can be less than a 1 s with small
(down to 0.01 mm diameter) TCs. Their main limitation is
There are some applications where a bare TC with an exposed that the process materials must not be corrosive to the TC wires.
junction may be used either by itself or inserted into a pro- In the ungrounded junction design, the TC wire is phys-
tective well. For most process applications, the TC is manu- ically insulated from the sheath by insulation material (usu-
factured with a protective outer sheath that uses an insulating ally magnesium oxide powder). These designs can be used
material to electrically separate the TC from the sheath and in corrosive processes, but their speed of response is slow.
provide mechanical and environmental protection. In some The grounded junction design is also protected from the
cases the TC junction is placed in direct contact with the tip corrosive process, but its thermal time constant is shorter (by
of the sheath to increase speed of response. a few seconds, depending on mass).
These sensors demand the use of an electrically isolated
measurement circuit. Even insulated TCs will eventually Extension Wires
suffer from a breakdown of the insulation, and the TC tip
The thermocouple extension wire is usually insulated with
will contact the sheath and associated well. It is virtually
Teflon, polyvinyl chloride, nylon, rubber, asbestos, or fiber-
assured that a ground loop will be present that will cause
glass. For higher temperatures refrasil or nextel are recom-
measurement errors. These errors are usually insidious in that
mended. Teflon is used when the TC extension wire must be
they usually vary over time and may go unnoticed. Recom- submerged under water or if resistance to solvent, corrosion,
mended practice is to always use an instrument with full flame, or humidity is critical. Individually insulated duplex
isolation to eliminate this concern. wires are usually provided with a protective outer jacket,
which can be wrapped, extruded, or stranded. The extension
Measuring Junction Designs wire to be used for types, E, J, K, and T TCs are designated
as EX, JX, KX, and TX extension wires and should extend
A TC is only as accurate as the wire from which it is made. all the way to the cold junction of the loop.
Therefore, it is common practice for best accuracy to make With connections correctly made, copper extension wire
all TCs from the same coil of wire. This assumes uniformity can be used over long distances. However, it is recommended
of the wire. Most manufacturers offer either standard or spe- that iron-constantan and copper-constantan always be used
cial calibrations, which imply more care in selection of wire, with lead wire of the same material. To guard against mis-
handling, and manufacturing. The careful selection of mate- takes in connection, industry practice is to color-code the
rials, proper construction, installation, and handling alone wires, with the negative lead always red. Smaller gauge wire
will not maintain highest accuracy; an adequate checking provides faster response, but heavier gauge wires last longer
program is also a must. and resist contamination or deterioration at high temperatures.

Sheath Materials Cover Gasket Terminal

Block
The sheath material can be 304 stainless steel if the process
temperature is under 1650°F (900°C) and the process is not
highly corrosive. In furnaces that operate at up to 2100°F
(1150°C), Inconel 600 sheathing is recommended if the atmo-
sphere is oxidizing and there is no sulfur in the atmosphere.
Terminal Element and Protecting
Platinum-rhodium alloy sheaths are used up to 3000°F
Head Insulators Tube
(1650°C) in oxidizing furnaces if no silica or halogens are
present. Molybdenum sheaths can be used up to 4000°F
(2205°C) to detect molten metal or glass temperatures, but
only in oxygen-free vacuum or inert-gas-filled processes. Tan-
talum sheaths can be used up to 4500°F (2482°C), but only in
reducing or noble gas atmospheres where no oxygen is present.
The sheath is usually strong enough to stand up to high
pressure (up to 50,000 PSIG, or 3,450 bars), but it is usually
not used without a thermowell because the user wants to be
able to take out the TC without opening up the process.
Figure 4.13p illustrates some high-speed TC assemblies with- FIG. 4.13q
out thermowells. Exploded view of thermocouple assembly and protecting tube (top);
complete assembly with protecting tube (bottom).
Thermowells
Protecting tubes or wells are supplied (Figure 4.13q) to protect

TCs from harmful atmospheres, corrosive fluids, or mechan-
ical damage; to support the TC; or to permit TC entry into a FIG. 4.13r
pressurized system. These tend to reduce the speed of Molten steel expendable thermocouple.
response of the TC, so small-mass, thin-wall, or needle-type
installations are supplied where feasible (Figure 4.13p).
Disposable-tip thermocouples are supplied in furnace appli-
Stuffing Box
cations (Figure 4.13r). They can also be peened or welded
Gate Valve
(Max. Temp. 300°F) Compression Fitting

Open Head
1 Metal-Sheathed,
8 In. NPT Thermocouple
Mineral-
Insulated
13
1 In.
Specified Protecting Tube Length Thermocouple
16
In. with Open Head
Quick Connect
Plug Compression Fitting FIG. 4.13s
2
1 Installation of thermocouple without thermowells.
8 In. NPT
into a tube or tank well. Their low cost makes it feasible to

1 In. place them in concrete beams while curing or to use them in
Specified Protecting Tube Length other single-time operations.
....with Quick - Connect Plug
When it is desirable to maximize the speed of response
1
of the measurement, but also necessary to periodically
In. NPT Compression Fitting
2
1
remove the sensor, the bare (sheathed) thermocouple can be
In. NPT
8 removed through a stuffing box and gate valve combination
(Figure 4.13s). Most TCs are installed in a protecting well.
1 In. In Figure 4.13t the R dimension is the immersion length,
Specified Protecting Tube Length while the U dimension is the insertion length of the well, R
with Screw Cover Head
should be at least 10 times the diameter of the protective tube
FIG. 4.13p (sheath) diameter of the thermocouple. The sheath diameter
High-speed small O.D. thermocouple assemblies with stainless steel of different TCs can range from 0.04 to 0.84 in. (1 to 21 mm),
protecting sheath. while the TCs can range from gauge #36 to #8. The well can

Weld
Thermocouple Head Metal-Sheathed, Mineral-
Thermocouple Insulated Thermocouple
Block 3/16" Dia. Type 304 Stainless
Peen Tight Steel-Sheath
2" 7/16"
Union Optional
Heater 3"
" IPS
7" Tube
Hex Head 8
7
1 " Detail of
" IPS 8 Stainless Steel Band
A Thermocouple
Block
Metal-Sheathed
Thermocouple Pad Mineral-Insulated
Weld Thermocouple
7
U+1 8 " Heater Stainless
Tube Steel Band
U
3" Thermocouple Welded to Pad

8 R Stainless Steel Pad
1"=25.4 mm Curved to Fit
Heater Tube
3" Detail of Thermocouple
8
3"
Pad Assembly
4 B 1" = 25.4 mm
FIG. 4.13t Solid Tip Welds to Surface of Tube or Vessel

2
Screwed thermowell installation.
be inserted perpendicularly into the pipeline if R is not much

more than the inside radius of the pipe. Otherwise, it should Junction 316
be inserted at a 90-degree bend in the line. Stainless
Steel
The most often used well materials are 304 and 316 Protective
stainless steel, which are usable up to 1200°F (649°C). At Cover
higher temperatures ceramic thermowells are used because
metallic ones start to “droop” (bend by gravity). High-purity
alumina can be used up to 2200°F (1200°C); the same limit
holds for mullite, but this material is not recommended for
use with platinum thermocouples as it contains impurities
which can contaminate platinum. The thermowell can have
screwed connections (Figure 4.13t) or, if frequent inspection Insulating
is required or if the well is glass-coated, it can be flanged. C Material
FIG. 4.13u
Surface Temperature Detectors Tube surface temperature measured by thermocouple block (A) by
2
welded on stainless steel pad, or by directly welding the thermo-
When the surface temperature of tubes is to be measured, the couple to the surface (B). A protective cover (C) gives the required
TC must be shielded from furnace radiation. The TC can be mechanical protection.
attached to the heater tube surface by being furnished with
stainless steel welding pads (Figure 4.13u, lower part) or by
the use of TC attachment blocks (Figure 4.13u, upper part).
The multiple holes in these blocks allow for spare TC ele-
ments for quick replacement.
Specialized Detectors
Needle Sensors The response time of the needle type sen- FIG. 4.13v
sors illustrated in Figure 4.13v is about 0.25 s. They are made Needle sensors detect the temperature of such penetrable solids as
of hypodermic stainless steel in many lengths and diameters. rubber and plastic melts, but can also be used in liquids. (Courtesy
They are available in blunt, center sharp, and hypodermic of Electronic Development Labs, Inc.)

sharp designs and can be made from hard or soft stainless Measuring
steel. The latter allows for shaping and bending the needle Instrument
to match the needs of the application.
Suction Pyrometers The suction pyrometer consists of a

sheathed TC (sheathed against chemical attack) located inside + − − +
a radiation shield at the tip of a suction pipe (Figure 4.8d).
The combustion gases are sucked through the shield and over T/C1 T/C2
the TC at high velocity by aspirating equipment. The effi-
ciency of this aspirating TC is a function of the quality of FIG. 4.13x
Temperature difference.
the radiation shield and of the suction flow rate. If, for exam-
ple, a suction pyrometer has a 100°C error without suction Recorder
and a 10°C error when the suction flow is on, it is said to
have an efficiency of 90%.
The suction pyrometer probe is usually made of stainless
T/C Controller
steel and is water-cooled. These probes are designed for high
gas velocities of 500 f/s (152 m/s). At such velocities, the
Junction
radiation shields usually produce better than 90% pyrometer Point
efficiencies. The furnace gases can be pulled out by fans or
by air or steam ejectors. The main limitations of this design FIG. 4.13y
include plugging of the probe when the combustion products Parallel operation from common thermocouple.
are dusty (as in pulverized coal burners) and being unable to
be used in applications where the temperatures exceed In case of burnout, a small current circulates through the ther-
2912°F (1600°C). mocouple. Today, this kind of configuration is less likely and
it is much more common to have transmitters installed
directly in the TC head.
INSTALLATION AND PROTECTION
Thermopiles Thermopiles are TCs connected in series with
Multiple Thermocouples electrically insulated junctions (Figure 4.1p). Thermopiles
generate large EMFs, reducing sensitivity requirements in the
The reason for inserting several TCs within the same thermo- readout instrument. To obtain the mean temperature at several
well can be to obtain a temperature profile over some distance. points being monitored by similar TCs in series, divide the
In this case, each TC junction is located at a different distance total EMF by the number of sensing junctions and relate this
from the tip. In order for such sensors to detect the temperature EMF value to a corresponding temperature reading in the
outside the well (and not the air temperature inside it), it is EMF-temperature table for the type of TC being used. As
essential that good physical contact be made between the TC
was discussed in Section 4.1, thermopiles can be used to
junction and the metallic surface of the inside of the well.
amplify the output signals in differential temperature mea-
surements and to serve as heat-flow detectors.
Average Temperatures and Temperature Differences TCs
The principal objections to the use of thermopiles are the
can be connected in parallel to provide the average temperature
need for electrical isolation of individual TCs and the error
in a system (Figure 4.13w). They can also be used to measure
that might go unnoticed when the output of one of the TCs
the difference between two temperatures (Figure 4.13x).
is reduced by a short circuit. One satisfactory application for
In the past, a single TC was often utilized by two separate
thermopiles is to use them as temperature differential detectors.
measuring instruments (Figure 4.13y) because at balance, a
potentiometer draws no current from the thermocouple circuit.
Thermocouple Burnout
Measuring When a TC detects the temperature in furnaces or superheat-
Instrument
ers (Figure 4.13z), the extension wire can pass through
flames. On high-temperature services, TCs are provided with
platinum, tantalum, or molybdenum sheath materials over the
insulation, which can be magnesium or beryllium oxide. Hot
+ − + − + − + − spots like a burning coal seam can eventually burn through
the sheath and the insulation of the extension wire. When the
T/C 1 T/C 2 T/C 3 T/C 4
wires melt, a short develops. This is called TC burnout. Under
FIG. 4.13w these conditions the TC no longer indicates the temperature of
Average temperature measurement. the initial hot junction; instead, it measures the temperature

Reducing Bushing Weld Weld

Expansion Clamp Pad
1" min. NPT
Loop
Boiler
Tube
Furnace
Wall
FIG. 4.13z
The expansion loop allows for thermal expansion in furnace applications.
+
T1
V1 T1
−
V2 − V1
R=
I
TS T1
+
Short
T1
V2 I
R −
−
FIG. 4.13bb
Offset-compensated ohms measurement allows detection of the ther-
mocouple loop resistance.
t1 Time
FIG. 4.13aa Protection Against Noise

Thermocouple burnout can be detected by measuring the resulting
1 The TC signal is very weak—a one degree change in tem-
drop in thermocouple loop resistance.
perature results in only a few millionths of a volt change in
output. Because of this, precautions must be taken against
errors due to stray currents resulting from the proximity of
at the hot spot. One cannot detect TC burnout by reading the electrical wiring (common mode noise) or from capacitive
millivolt signal. However, if one measures the TC resistance secondary grounds (normal mode interference). Common
(see Table 4.13n), that will signal a change as a result of burn- mode noise (Figure 4.13cc) appears on both TC signal wires
out (Figure 4.13aa). and therefore can be filtered out as 60 Hz (or 50 Hz) har-
Under normal conditions, a running record of the thermo- monic noise. The filter does reduce the interference dramat-
couple resistance will show gradual changes with temperature. ically, but it also causes the voltmeter to be sluggish when
When the thermal insulation is beginning to fail and a short is responding to a step change. It is also possible to eliminate
beginning to form, the TC resistance will rise first, and when the common mode interference by using twisted wire leads
the hot spot burns through and a short is formed, the TC because each time the wire is twisted, the flux-induced cur-
resistance will drop abruptly. The method used to measure the rent is inverted.
TC resistance is called offset-compensated ohms measurement. Another recommended form of protection against any type
As shown on the top of Figure 4.13bb, normally the of common mode noise is guarding and shielding. If the shield
millivolts (V1) are measured across the TC. Then, a current surrounding the lead wires is connected to the guard surround-
source is connected periodically and the millivolts (V2) are ing the voltmeter, the interfering current caused by AC inter-
measured again. The TC resistance is calculated by subtract- ference does not flow through the TC lead resistance but
ing the thermocouple millivolts from the total and dividing instead is shunted. Naturally, when TCs are scanned, the scan-
it with the current flow in the loop: R = (V2 − V1)/I. By ner guard must be switched to the shield of the TC being read
continuously recording this resistance, one can detect when to eliminate ground loops. Harmonics can also be removed by
an abrupt drop occurs, signaling TC burnout. integrating the incoming signal over the power line cycle in

HI If a guard lead wire is installed connected directly to the

+ Rs − TC, the current flowing in the LO lead through the resistance
LO RS is drastically reduced. Therefore, the worst form of inter-
ference is DC offset caused by a DC leakage current; what-
ever normal mode noise remains in the system, it cannot be
distinguished from the measurement and, in case of weak
signals, even a small amount of noise can represent a large
Normal Mode amount of interference.
CALIBRATION, DIAGNOSTICS, AND TRANSMISSION

HI
Calibration
LO
Since all TCs are subject to drift, calibration checks are done
regularly in laboratories and industrial plants. For calibrating
Common Mode TCs, depending upon the application, various procedures are
used. Primary standard thermocouples of platinum vs. plati-
FIG. 4.13cc num plus 10% rhodium can be calibrated by the National
Noise interference that enters only one of the lead wires (normal Bureau of Standards to fixed points on the International Prac-
mode) is more difficult to remove than noise that acts on both leads
tical Temperature Scale. However, these TCs must be handled
(common mode).
carefully to retain their accuracy. Most major manufacturers
can supply TCs, which are against primary standard thermo-
240 VRMS couples that are kept in their own metrology laboratories.
Secondary reference TCs for in-plant use are usually made
of base metal. Comparison of these against the Primary Stan-
dard TC is accomplished by placing them in close contact in
a checking furnace. Users normally check their ordinary TCs
against these secondary standards.
HI Diagnostics
RS
LO
120 VRMS TC diagnostics can be improved by the use of tip-branched
CStray
and leg-branched lead wires allowing redundant measure-
Noise Current ments, verification of system integrity, and other forms of
diagnostics. These tools can be useful in detecting the failure
HI of wire insulators, poor junction connections, wire degrada-
RS tion due to overheating, or decalibration due to diffusion of
LO
atmospheric particles into the metal. Added to the noise pro-
Guard tection and degradation problems are the intermediate wire
Noise junctions, which if not at the same temperature (Figure 4.13e),
Current also contribute errors.
FIG. 4.13dd
The addition of a guard lead wire reduces the normal mode noise.
1 Transmission
an integrating analog-to-digital (A/D) converter or voltmeter. Because of the problems associated with long extension
In short, common mode noise is relatively easy to remove. wires, including noise interference (guarding, shielding,
using twisted pairs, and integration), the best alternative is
Normal Mode Noise The same cannot be said about normal not to send low-level TC signals over long distances at all,
mode noise. An example of normal mode noise interference but to place the transmitter electronics directly on top of the
can occur in the measurement of the temperature in a molten thermowell (Figure 4.13ee).
metal bath, which is heated by electric current. In this case, In the past it was more economical to run the TC lead
the TC junction is in direct contact with a common mode wires to the data acquisition systems, and this is still the case in
noise source. In addition, the capacitive ground (C-stray) the laboratory and on various test stands. On the other hand, the
from the LO terminal of the TC to the chassis causes a current cost of integral transmitters in most industrial applications has
flow in the low lead and an associated normal mode noise become competitive with the cost of running the thermocouple
voltage across the resistance RS (Figure 4.13dd). lead wires to the control room. These integral transmitters are

Allow 102 mm (4 in.) In addition to improved performance, the intelligent

122 for Cover Removal
48
transmitters are capable of working with any one of eight
types of TCs or two types of RTD elements. This increases
their flexibility and reduces the need for spare parts. The
Input and Output intelligent transmitters are also provided with continuous self-
Screw Terminals diagnostics and with automatic three-point self-calibration,
3
274 + 4 Transmitter which is performed every 5 s and does not interrupt the analog
−
108 5 Package or digital output of the unit.
The intelligent transmitter can also be furnished with dual
1/2 NPT for Terminal
Connections. Two
thermal elements that can be used to measure temperature
Holes Opposite differentials, averages, and high/low sensors, or as redundant
117
46
Sides. Plug Unused backup elements. Another convenient feature of smart trans-
Connection Hole. mitters is their remote reconfiguration capability, which can
Nipple Coupler change their zero, span, or many other features without
(3/4 NPT) requiring rewiring.
Coupler with
178 Union
20 Plain Well ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS
51
20
R3/4 or 3/4 NPT
RL or L NPT The weakest link in virtually all measurements is the tem-
perature sensor. For most industrial applications the thermo-
"U"
1113
couple (TC) has been popular, because it is relatively inex-
Dia.
64
0.438 pensive, can be produced in a variety of sizes, can be of
23
ruggedized construction and covers a wide temperature
range. Thermocouples are also small, convenient, and versa-
FIG. 4.13ee tile (can be welded to a pipe), cover wide ranges, are reason-
Integral thermocouple transmitter mounted directly on top of the ably stable, reproducible, accurate, and fast. The EMF they
thermowell. (Courtesy of The Foxboro Co.) generate is independent of wire length and diameter. While
RTDs are more accurate and more stable and while ther-
also explosion-proof. Conventional transmitters are accurate mistors are more sensitive, thermocouples are the most eco-
to 0.15% of span, and intelligent units are accurate to 0.05% nomical and the best to detect the highest temperatures.
of span (Table 4.13m). It can be observed that while intelligent The main disadvantage of the TC is its weak output
transmitters give better performance than the standard ones, signal. This makes it sensitive to electrical noise and limits
they too are limited to a minimum absolute error plus cold its use to relatively wide spans (usually the minimum trans-
junction error, which equals about 1°F (0.6°C). mitter span is 1.0 mV). It is nonlinear, and the conversion of
the EMF generated into temperature is not as simple as in
Intelligent Transmitters During the last decade, micropro- direct reading devices. TCs always require amplifiers, and
cessor based temperature transmitters have continued to the calibration of the TC can change due to contamination or
evolve in sophistication and capability. They usually include composition changes due to internal oxidation, cold-working
an input circuit referred to as an A/D converter that converts or temperature gradients. Another limitation is that bare TCs
the sensor input signal from its analog form into a digital cannot be used in conductive fluids, and if their wires are not
representation. The microprocessor performs the ranging, lin- homogeneous, this can cause errors.
earization, error checking, and conversion. The resulting dig- In general, one should use the largest size TC wire pos-
ital value is then converted back, usually to a 4–20 mA DC sible, and avoid stress and vibration. Use of integral trans-
analog signal. For some special applications, 0–1 V DC or mitters is also recommended whenever possible (and other-
0–10 V DC or digital signals using either an open or propri- wise use twisted and shielded wires with the shield connected
etary protocol are also used. to the guard of the integrating A/D converter). In addition,
Today, universal transmitters that accept inputs from any one should avoid steep temperature gradients, and be careful
TC, RTD, or other resistance and mV source are commonly in selecting the sheath and thermowell materials.
available. They make transmitters interchangeable and
thereby reduce inventories. They check their own calibration
on every measurement cycle, minimize drift over a wide THERMOCOUPLE TABLES
ambient temperature range, incorporate self-diagnostics fea-
tures, and can be configured by the use of simple push buttons Tables 4.13ff, 4.13gg, 4.13hh, 4.13ii, 4.13jj, and 4.13kk provide
or personal computer software. Their reconfiguration process temperature vs. millivolts data for types J, K, R, S, T, and E
is quick and convenient. thermocouples. All thermocouple tables in this handbook are

689
TABLE 4.13ff
Type J—Iron-Constantan Thermocouple
(Degrees Fahrenheit vs. Millivolts. Temperatures are based on the International Temperature Scale of 1948. EMF is expressed in absolute millivolts. Reference Junction 32°F (0°C).)
°F* −300 −200 −100 −0 +0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
MILLIVOLTS
0 −7.52 −5.76 −3.49 −0.89 −0.89 1.94 4.91 7.94 11.03 14.12 17.18 20.26 23.32 26.40 29.52 32.72 36.01 39.43 42.96 46.53
5 −7.59 −5.86 −3.61 −1.02 −0.75 2.09 5.06 8.10 11.18 14.27 17.34 20.41 23.47 26.55 29.68 32.89 36.18 39.61 43.14 46.17
10 −7.66 −5.96 −3.73 −1.16 −0.61 2.23 5.21 8.25 11.34 14.42 17.49 20.56 23.63 26.70 29.84 33.05 36.35 39.78 43.32 46.89
15 −7.73 −6.06 −3.85 −1.29 −0.48 2.38 5.36 8.40 11.49 14.58 17.64 20.72 23.86 26.78 30.00 33.21 36.52 39.96 43.50 47.07
20 −7.79 −6.16 −3.97 −1.43 −0.34 2.52 5.51 8.56 11.65 14.73 17.80 20.87 23.93 27.02 30.16 33.37 36.69 40.13 43.68 47.24
25 −6.25 −4.09 −1.56 −0.20 2.67 5.66 8.71 11.80 14.88 17.95 21.02 24.09 27.17 30.32 33.54 36.86 40.31 43.85 47.42
30 −6.35 −4.21 −1.70 −0.06 2.82 5.81 8.87 11.96 15.04 18.11 21.18 24.24 27.33 30.48 33.70 37.02 40.48 44.03 47.60
35 −6.44 −4.33 −1.83 +0.08 2.97 5.96 9.02 12.11 15.19 18.26 21.33 24.39 27.48 30.64 33.86 37.20 40.66 44.21 47.78
40 −6.53 −4.44 −1.96 +0.22 3.11 6.11 9.17 12.26 15.34 18.41 21.48 24.55 27.64 30.80 34.03 37.36 40.83 44.39 47.95
45 −6.62 −4.56 −2.09 +0.36 3.26 6.27 9.33 12.42 15.50 18.57 21.64 24.70 27.80 30.96 34.19 37.54 41.01 44.57 48.13
50 −6.71 −4.68 −2.22 0.50 3.41 6.42 9.48 12.57 15.65 18.72 21.79 24.85 27.95 31.12 34.36 37.71 41.19 44.75 48.31
55 −6.80 −4.79 −2.35 0.65 3.56 6.57 9.64 12.73 15.80 18.87 21.94 25.01 28.11 31.28 34.52 37.88 41.36 44.93 48.48
60 −6.89 −4.90 −2.48 0.79 3.71 6.72 9.79 12.88 15.96 19.03 22.10 25.16 28.26 31.44 34.68 38.05 41.54 45.10 48.66
65 −6.97 −5.01 −2.61 0.93 3.86 6.87 9.95 13.04 16.11 19.18 22.25 25.32 28.42 31.60 34.60 38.22 41.72 45.28 48.83
70 −7.06 −5.12 −2.74 1.07 4.01 7.03 10.10 13.19 16.26 19.34 22.40 25.47 28.58 31.76 35.01 38.39 41.90 45.46 49.01
75 −7.14 −5.23 −2.86 1.22 4.16 7.18 10.25 13.34 16.42 19.49 22.55 25.62 28.74 31.92 35.18 38.57 42.07 45.64 49.18
80 −7.22 −5.34 −2.99 1.36 4.31 7.33 10.41 13.50 16.57 19.64 22.71 25.78 28.89 32.08 35.35 38.74 42.25 45.82 49.36
85 −7.30 −5.44 −3.12 1.51 4.46 7.48 10.56 13.65 16.72 19.80 22.86 25.93 29.05 32.24 35.51 38.91 42.43 46.00 49.53
90 −7.38 −5.55 −3.24 1.65 4.61 7.64 10.72 13.81 16.88 19.95 23.01 26.09 29.21 32.40 35.68 39.08 42.61 46.18 49.70
95 −7.45 −5.65 −3.36 1.80 4.76 7.79 10.87 13.96 17.03 20.10 23.17 26.24 29.37 32.56 35.84 39.26 42.78 46.35 49.88
100 −7.52 −5.76 −3.49 1.94 4.91 7.94 11.03 14.12 17.18 20.26 23.32 26.40 29.52 32.72 36.01 39.43 42.96 46.53 50.05
° F − 32
*° C =
1.8
Note: Instruments calibrated to this curve have scales identified as “type J” thermocouple.

TABLE 4.13gg
Type K—Chromel-Alumel Thermocouple
(Degrees Fahrenheit vs. Millivolts. Temperatures are based on the International Temperature Scale of 1948. EMF is expressed in absolute millivolts. Reference Junction 32°F (0°C).)
°F* 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300
MILLIVOLTS
0 −0.68 1.52 3.82 6.09 8.31 10.57 12.86 15.18 17.53 19.89 22.26 24.63 26.98 29.32 31.65 33.93 36.19 38.43 40.62 42.78 44.91 47.00 49.05 51.05
5 −0.58 1.63 3.94 6.20 8.42 10.68 12.97 15.30 17.64 20.01 22.37 24.74 27.10 29.44 31.76 34.05 36.31 38.54 40.73 42.89 45.01 47.10 49.15 51.15
10 −0.47 1.74 4.05 6.31 8.54 10.79 13.09 15.41 17.76 20.13 22.49 24.86 27.22 29.56 31.88 34.16 36.42 38.65 40.84 42.99 45.12 47.21 49.25 51.25
15 −0.37 1.86 4.17 6.42 8.65 10.91 13.20 15.53 17.88 20.24 22.61 24.98 27.34 29.67 31.99 34.28 36.53 38.76 40.95 43.10 45.22 47.31 49.35 51.35
20 −0.26 1.97 4.28 6.53 8.76 11.02 13.32 15.65 18.00 20.36 22.73 25.10 27.45 29.79 32.11 34.39 36.64 38.87 41.05 43.21 45.33 47.41 49.45 51.45
25 −0.15 2.09 4.40 6.65 8.87 11.13 13.44 15.76 18.11 20.48 22.85 25.22 27.57 29.91 32.22 34.50 36.76 38.98 41.16 43.31 45.43 47.52 49.55 51.54
30 −0.04 2.20 4.51 6.76 8.98 11.25 13.55 15.88 18.23 20.60 22.97 25.34 27.69 30.02 32.34 34.62 36.87 39.09 41.27 43.42 45.54 47.62 49.65 51.64
35 +0.07 2.32 4.63 6.87 9.09 11.36 13.67 16.00 18.35 20.72 23.08 25.46 27.80 30.14 32.45 34.73 36.98 39.20 41.38 43.53 45.64 47.72 49.76 51.74
40 +0.18 2.43 4.74 6.98 9.21 11.48 13.78 16.12 18.47 20.84 23.20 25.57 27.92 30.25 32.57 34.84 37.09 39.31 41.49 43.63 45.75 47.82 49.86 51.84
45 +0.29 2.55 4.86 7.09 9.32 11.59 13.90 16.23 18.58 20.95 23.32 25.69 28.04 30.37 32.68 34.96 37.20 39.42 41.60 43.74 45.85 47.93 49.96 51.94
50 0.40 2.66 4.97 7.20 9.43 11.71 14.02 16.35 18.70 21.07 23.44 25.81 28.15 30.49 32.80 35.07 37.31 39.53 41.70 43.85 45.96 48.03 50.06 52.03
55 0.51 2.78 5.08 7.31 9.54 11.82 14.13 16.47 18.82 21.19 23.56 25.93 28.27 30.60 32.91 35.18 37.43 39.64 41.81 43.95 46.06 48.13 50.16 52.13
60 0.62 2.89 5.20 7.42 9.66 11.94 14.25 16.59 18.94 21.31 23.68 26.05 28.39 30.72 33.02 35.29 37.54 39.75 41.92 44.06 46.17 48.23 50.26 52.23
65 0.73 3.01 5.31 7.53 9.77 12.05 14.36 16.70 19.06 21.43 23.80 26.16 28.50 30.83 33.14 35.41 37.65 39.86 42.03 44.17 46.27 48.34 50.36 52.33
70 0.84 3.12 5.42 7.64 9.88 12.17 14.48 16.82 19.18 21.54 23.91 26.28 28.62 30.95 33.25 35.52 37.76 39.96 42.14 44.27 46.38 48.44 50.46 52.42
75 0.95 3.24 5.53 7.75 10.00 12.28 14.60 16.94 19.29 21.66 24.03 26.40 28.74 31.07 33.37 35.63 37.87 40.07 42.24 44.38 46.48 48.54 50.56 52.52
80 1.06 3.36 5.65 7.87 10.11 12.40 14.71 17.06 19.41 21.78 24.15 26.52 28.86 31.18 33.48 35.75 37.98 40.18 42.35 44.49 46.58 48.64 50.65 52.62
85 1.18 3.47 5.76 7.98 10.22 12.51 14.83 17.17 19.53 21.90 24.27 26.63 28.97 31.30 33.59 35.86 38.09 40.29 42.46 44.59 46.69 48.74 50.75 52.72
90 1.29 3.59 5.87 8.09 10.34 12.63 14.95 17.29 19.65 22.02 24.39 26.75 29.09 31.42 33.71 35.97 38.20 40.40 42.57 44.70 46.79 48.85 50.85 52.81
4.13 Thermocouples
95 1.40 3.70 5.98 8.20 10.45 12.74 15.06 17.41 19.77 22.14 24.51 26.87 29.21 31.53 33.82 36.08 38.32 40.51 42.67 44.80 46.90 48.95 50.95 52.91
100 1.52 3.82 6.09 8.31 10.57 12.86 15.18 17.53 19.89 22.26 24.63 26.98 29.32 31.65 33.93 36.19 38.43 40.62 42.78 44.91 47.00 49.05 51.05 53.01
° F − 32
*°C =
1.8
690
TABLE 4.13hh
Type R—Platinum vs. Platinum Plus 13% Rhodium Thermocouple
Degrees Fahrenheit vs. Millivolts. Temperatures are based on the International Temperature Scale of 1948. EMF is expressed in absolute millivolts.
Reference Junction 32°F (0°C).
°F* 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
MILLIVOLTS
0 −0.089 0.220 0.596 1.030 1.504 2.012 2.547 3.103 3.677 4.264 4.868 5.488 6.125 6.773 7.436 8.116
5 −0.076 0.237 0.616 1.052 1.529 2.038 2.575 3.132 3.706 4.294 4.899 5.519 6.156 6.805 7.470 8.150
10 −0.062 0.255 0.637 1.075 1.553 2.065 2.602 3.160 3.735 4.324 4.930 5.551 6.188 6.838 7.503 8.184
15 −0.049 0.272 0.657 1.098 1.578 2.091 2.630 3.188 3.764 4.354 4.960 5.582 6.220 6.871 7.537 8.218
20 −0.035 0.291 0.678 1.121 1.603 2.117 2.657 3.217 3.794 4.384 4.991 5.614 6.252 6.904 7.571 8.253
25 −0.021 0.308 0.700 1.144 1.628 2.144 2.685 3.245 3.823 4.413 5.022 5.645 6.285 6.937 7.605 8.287
30 −0.006 0.327 0.721 1.167 1.653 2.170 2.712 3.273 3.852 4.443 5.053 5.677 6.317 6.970 7.639 8.322
35 +0.009 0.345 0.742 1.191 1.678 2.197 2.740 3.302 3.882 4.473 5.084 5.709 6.349 7.003 7.672 8.356
40 +0.024 0.363 0.763 1.214 1.703 2.223 2.768 3.330 3.911 4.503 5.115 5.741 6.381 7.037 7.706 8.391
45 +0.039 0.381 0.785 1.238 1.729 2.250 2.796 3.359 3.941 4.533 5.146 5.773 6.414 7.069 7.740 8.426
50 0.055 0.400 0.807 1.261 1.754 2.277 2.823 3.387 3.970 4.563 5.176 5.805 6.446 7.103 7.774 8.460
55 0.071 0.419 0.828 1.285 1.779 2.303 2.851 3.416 3.999 4.593 5.208 5.837 6.479 7.136 7.808 8.495
60 0.086 0.438 0.850 1.309 1.805 2.330 2.879 3.445 4.029 4.624 5.238 5.869 6.511 7.169 7.842 8.530
65 0.103 0.457 0.872 1.333 1.831 2.357 2.907 3.473 4.058 4.654 5.270 5.901 6.544 7.202 7.877 8.565
70 0.119 0.476 0.894 1.357 1.856 2.384 2.935 3.502 4.087 4.685 5.301 5.933 6.577 7.235 7.911 8.599
75 0.135 0.496 0.917 1.381 1.882 2.412 2.963 3.531 4.116 4.715 5.332 5.964 6.609 7.269 7.945 8.634
80 0.152 0.516 0.939 1.406 1.908 2.438 2.991 3.560 4.146 4.746 5.363 5.996 6.642 7.302 7.979 8.669
85 0.169 0.536 0.962 1.430 1.934 2.466 3.019 3.589 4.175 4.776 5.394 6.028 6.674 7.336 8.013 8.704
90 0.186 0.556 0.984 1.455 1.960 2.493 3.047 3.618 4.205 4.807 5.426 6.060 6.707 7.369 8.047 8.739
95 0.203 0.576 1.007 1.480 1.986 2.520 3.075 3.647 4.235 4.837 5.457 6.092 6.740 7.403 8.081 8.774
100 0.220 0.596 1.030 1.504 2.012 2.547 3.103 3.677 4.264 4.868 5.488 6.125 6.773 7.436 8.116 8.809
°F* 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500 2600 2700 2800 2900 3000
MILLIVOLTS
0 8.809 9.516 10.237 10.973 11.726 12.488 13.255 14.027 14.798 15.568 16.340 17.110 17.875 18.636 19.394
5 8.844 9.552 10.274 11.011 11.765 12.526 13.293 14.065 14.837 15.607 16.378 17.148 17.913 18.674 19.432
10 8.879 9.587 10.310 11.048 11.802 12.564 13.332 14.104 14.875 15.645 16.417 17.186 17.951 18.712 19.470
15 8.914 9.623 10.347 11.085 11.840 12.602 13.371 14.142 14.914 15.684 16.455 17.225 17.989 18.750 19.508
20 8.949 9.659 10.383 11.122 11.878 12.641 13.409 14.181 14.952 15.722 16.494 17.263 18.027 18.788 19.545
25 8.984 9.694 10.420 11.160 11.916 12.679 13.448 14.219 14.991 15.761 16.532 17.301 18.065 18.826 19.583
30 9.019 9.730 10.456 11.197 11.954 12.718 13.486 14.258 15.029 15.800 16.571 17.340 18.103 18.864 19.583
35 9.054 9.766 10.493 11.235 11.992 12.756 13.525 14.296 15.068 15.838 16.610 17.378 18.141 18.902 19.659
40 9.090 9.802 10.529 11.273 12.029 12.795 13.564 14.335 15.107 15.877 16.648 17.416 18.179 18.940 19.697
45 9.125 9.838 10.566 11.310 12.068 12.833 13.602 14.374 15.145 15.915 16.687 17.455 18.218 18.978 19.735
50 9.161 9.874 10.603 11.348 12.105 12.871 13.641 14.412 15.184 15.954 16.725 17.493 18.255 19.016 19.773
55 9.196 9.910 10.639 11.385 12.144 12.909 13.679 14.451 15.222 15.992 16.764 17.532 18.294 19.054 19.811
60 9.232 9.946 10.676 11.424 12.182 12.948 13.718 14.490 15.261 16.031 16.802 17.569 18.332 19.092 19.848
65 9.267 9.982 10.712 11.461 12.220 12.986 13.756 14.528 15.299 16.070 16.842 17.608 18.370 19.129 19.886
70 9.303 10.019 10.749 11.499 12.258 13.025 13.795 14.567 15.338 16.108 16.880 17.646 18.408 19.168 19.924
75 9.338 10.056 10.786 11.537 12.296 13.063 13.833 14.606 15.377 16.147 16.918 17.685 18.446 19.205 19.962
80 9.374 10.092 10.823 11.575 12.335 13.102 13.872 14.644 15.415 16.185 16.957 17.723 18.484 19.243 19.999
85 9.409 10.129 10.861 11.613 12.373 13.140 13.911 14.683 15.454 16.224 16.995 17.761 18.522 19.281 20.037
90 9.445 10.164 10.898 11.651 12.411 13.178 13.949 14.721 15.492 16.263 17.033 17.799 18.560 19.318 20.075
95 9.481 10.201 10.936 11.689 12.450 13.216 13.988 14.760 15.531 16.301 17.072 17.837 18.598 19.356 20.112
100 9.516 10.237 10.973 11.726 12.488 13.255 14.027 14.798 15.568 16.340 17.110 17.875 18.636 19.394 20.150
° F − 32
*°C =
1.8

692
TABLE 4.13ii
Type S—Platinum vs. Platinum Plus 10% Rhodium Thermocouple
(Degrees Fahrenheit vs. Millivolts. Temperatures are based on the International Temperature Scale of 1948. EMF is expressed in absolute millivolts. Reference
Junction 32°F (0°C).)
°F* 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
MILLIVOLTS
0 −0.092 0.221 0.595 1.017 1.474 1.956 2.458 2.977 3.506 4.046 4.596 5.156 5.726 6.307 6.897 7.498
5 −0.078 0.238 0.615 1.039 1.498 1.981 2.484 3.003 3.533 4.073 4.623 5.184 5.755 6.336 6.927 7.529
10 −0.064 0.256 0.635 1.061 1.521 2.005 2.510 3.029 3.560 4.100 4.651 5.212 5.784 6.635 6.957 7.559
15 −0.050 0.274 0.655 1.083 1.545 2.030 2.535 3.056 3.587 4.128 4.679 5.241 5.813 6.394 6.987 7.589
20 −0.035 0.291 0.676 1.106 1.569 2.055 2.561 3.082 3.614 4.155 4.707 5.269 5.842 6.424 7.017 7.620
25 −0.021 0.309 0.696 1.128 1.593 2.080 2.587 3.108 3.640 4.182 4.735 5.298 5.871 6.453 7.046 7.650
30 −0.006 0.327 0.717 1.151 1.616 2.105 2.613 3.135 3.667 4.210 4.763 5.326 5.899 6.483 7.076 7.681
35 +0.009 0.346 0.738 1.173 1.640 2.130 2.638 3.161 3.694 4.237 4.790 5.354 5.928 6.512 7.106 7.711
40 +0.024 0.364 0.758 1.196 1.664 2.155 2.664 3.188 3.721 4.264 4.818 5.383 5.957 6.542 7.136 7.742
45 +0.040 0.383 0.779 1.219 1.688 2.180 2.690 3.214 3.748 4.292 4.846 5.411 5.986 6.571 7.166 7.772
50 0.056 0.401 0.800 1.242 1.712 2.205 2.716 3.240 3.775 4.319 4.874 5.440 6.015 6.601 7.196 7.803
55 0.071 0.420 0.822 1.264 1.736 2.230 2.742 3.267 3.802 4.347 4.902 5.469 6.044 6.630 7.226 7.834
60 0.087 0.439 0.843 1.287 1.761 2.255 2.768 3.293 3.829 4.374 4.930 5.497 6.073 6.660 7.257 7.864
65 0.104 0.458 0.864 1.311 1.785 2.281 2.794 3.320 3.856 4.402 4.959 5.526 6.102 6.689 7.287 7.895
70 0.120 0.477 0.886 1.334 1.809 2.306 2.820 3.347 3.883 4.430 4.987 5.555 6.131 6.719 7.317 7.925
75 0.136 0.496 0.907 1.357 1.833 2.331 2.846 3.373 3.910 4.457 5.015 5.583 6.161 6.749 7.347 7.956
80 0.153 0.516 0.929 1.380 1.858 2.357 2.872 3.400 3.937 4.485 5.043 5.612 6.190 6.778 7.377 7.987
85 0.170 0.535 0.951 1.404 1.882 2.382 2.898 3.426 3.964 4.512 5.071 5.640 6.219 6.808 7.407 8.018
90 0.187 0.555 0.973 1.427 1.907 2.407 2.924 3.453 3.991 4.540 5.099 5.669 6.248 6.838 7.438 8.048
95 0.204 0.575 0.994 1.450 1.931 2.433 2.951 3.480 4.019 4.568 5.128 5.698 6.277 6.867 7.468 8.079
100 0.221 0.595 1.017 1.474 1.956 2.458 2.977 3.506 4.046 4.596 5.156 5.726 6.307 6.897 7.498 8.110

693
0 8.110 8.732 9.365 10.009 10.662 11.323 11.989 12.657 13.325 13.991 14.656 15.319 15.979 16.637 17.292 17.943 18.590
5 8.141 8.764 9.397 10.041 10.695 11.356 12.022 12.690 13.358 14.024 14.689 15.352 16.012 16.670 17.324 17.975 18.622
10 8.172 8.795 9.429 10.074 10.728 11.389 12.055 12.724 13.391 14.058 14.722 15.385 16.045 16.702 17.357 18.008 18.655
15 8.203 8.827 9.461 10.106 10.761 11.423 12.089 12.757 13.425 14.091 14.755 15.418 16.078 16.735 17.389 18.040 18.687
20 8.234 8.858 9.493 10.139 10.794 11.456 12.122 12.790 13.458 14.124 14.789 15.451 16.111 16.768 17.422 18.073
25 8.265 8.890 9.525 10.171 10.827 11.489 12.155 12.824 13.491 14.157 14.822 15.484 16.144 16.801 17.455 18.105
30 8.296 8.921 9.557 10.204 10.860 11.522 12.189 12.857 13.525 14.191 14.855 15.517 16.177 16.834 17.487 18.137
35 8.327 8.953 9.589 10.237 10.893 11.556 12.222 12.891 13.558 14.224 14.888 15.550 16.210 16.866 17.520 18.170
40 8.358 8.984 9.621 10.269 10.926 11.589 12.256 12.924 13.591 14.257 14.921 15.583 16.243 16.899 17.552 18.202
45 8.389 9.016 9.654 10.302 10.959 11.622 12.289 12.957 13.625 14.290 14.954 15.616 16.275 16.932 17.585 18.235
50 8.420 9.048 9.686 10.334 10.992 11.655 12.322 12.991 13.658 14.324 14.988 15.649 16.308 16.965 17.618 18.267
55 8.451 9.079 9.718 10.367 11.025 11.689 12.356 13.024 13.691 14.357 15.021 15.682 16.341 16.997 17.650 18.299
60 8.482 9.111 9.750 10.400 11.058 11.722 12.389 13.058 13.725 14.390 15.054 15.715 16.374 17.030 17.683 18.332
65 8.513 9.143 9.782 10.433 11.091 11.755 12.423 13.091 13.758 14.423 15.087 15.748 16.407 17.063 17.715 18.364
70 8.545 9.174 9.815 10.465 11.124 11.789 12.456 13.124 13.791 14.457 15.120 15.781 16.440 17.095 17.748 18.396
75 8.576 9.206 9.847 10.498 11.157 11.822 12.490 13.158 13.825 14.490 15.153 15.814 16.473 17.128 17.780 18.429
80 8.607 9.238 9.879 10.531 11.190 11.855 12.523 13.191 13.858 14.523 15.186 15.847 16.506 17.161 17.813 18.461
85 8.638 9.270 9.912 10.564 11.224 11.888 12.556 13.224 13.891 14.556 15.219 15.880 16.538 17.194 17.845 18.493
90 8.670 9.302 9.944 10.597 11.257 11.922 12.590 13.258 13.924 14.589 15.253 15.913 16.571 17.226 17.878 18.526
95 8.701 9.333 9.976 10.629 11.290 11.955 12.623 13.291 13.958 14.623 15.286 15.946 16.604 17.259 17.910 18.558
100 8.732 9.365 10.009 10.662 11.323 11.989 12.657 13.325 13.991 14.656 15.319 15.979 16.637 17.292 17.943 18.590
° F − 32
*° C =
1.8

TABLE 4.13jj
Type T—Copper-Constantan Thermocouple
Degrees Fahrenheit vs. Millivolts. Temperatures are based on the International Temperature Scale of 1948. EMF is expressed in
absolute millivolts. Reference Junction 32°F (0°C).
°F* −300 −200 −100 −0 +0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
MILLIVOLTS
0 −5.284 −4.111 −2.559 −0.670 −0.670 1.517 3.967 6.647 9.525 12.575 15.773 19.100
5 −5.332 −4.179 −2.645 −0.771 −0.567 1.633 4.096 6.786 9.674 12.732 15.937 19.269
10 −5.379 −4.246 −2.730 −0.872 −0.463 1.751 4.225 6.926 9.823 12.888 16.101 19.439
15 −4.312 −2.814 −0.973 −0.359 1.869 4.355 7.066 9.973 13.046 16.264 19.608
20 −4.377 −2.897 −1.072 −0.254 1.987 4.486 7.208 10.123 13.203 16.429 19.779
25 −4.441 −2.980 −1.171 −0.149 2.107 4.617 7.349 10.273 13.362 16.593 19.949
30 −4.504 −3.062 −1.270 −0.042 2.226 4.749 7.491 10.423 13.520 16.758 20.120
35 −4.566 −3.143 −1.367 +0.064 2.346 4.880 7.633 10.574 13.678 16.924 20.291
40 −4.627 −3.223 −1.463 +0.171 2.467 5.014 7.776 10.726 13.838 17.089 20.463
45 −4.688 −3.301 −1.559 +0.280 2.589 5.147 7.920 10.878 13.997 17.255 20.634
50 −4.747 −3.380 −1.654 0.389 2.711 5.280 8.064 11.030 14.157 17.421 20.805
55 −4.805 −3.457 −1.748 0.499 2.835 5.415 8.207 11.183 14.317 17.588
60 −4.863 −3.533 −1.842 0.609 2.958 5.550 8.352 11.336 14.477 17.754
65 −4.919 −3.609 −1.934 0.720 3.082 5.685 8.497 11.490 14.637 17.921
70 −4.974 −3.684 −2.026 0.832 3.207 5.821 8.642 11.643 14.799 18.089
75 −5.029 −3.757 −2.117 0.944 3.332 5.957 8.788 11.797 14.961 18.257
80 −5.081 −3.829 −2.207 1.057 3.458 6.094 8.935 11.953 15.122 18.425
85 −5.134 −3.901 −2.296 1.171 3.584 6.232 9.082 12.108 15.284 18.593
90 −5.185 −3.972 −2.385 1.286 3.712 6.370 9.229 12.263 15.447 18.761
95 −5.235 −4.042 −2.472 1.401 3.839 6.508 9.376 12.418 15.610 18.930
100 −5.284 −4.111 −2.559 1.517 3.967 6.647 9.525 12.575 15.773 19.100
° F − 32
*°C =
1.8
based upon a reference junction temperature of 32°F (0°C); convert this value to its equivalent temperature. The actual
therefore, direct conversion from the tables can be made only TC reference junction temperature, as determined by an accu-
when an ice bath is used at the reference junction. rate mercury-in-glass thermometer, is 68°F (20°C). Interpo-
If it is not possible to maintain the reference junction tem- lating* from the type T Table, 68°F = 0.787 mV, based upon
perature at 32°F (0°C), a correction factor must be applied to
the millivolt values shown in the TC tables. Note that the mil-
livoltage produced by a given thermocouple is decreased when * To interpolate between two printed values, add to the smaller value a
proportionate part of the difference between the two printed values:
the temperature difference between the measuring junction and
Example 1a (positive temperature)
the reference junction is decreased. Correcting for reference
junction temperatures other than 32°F (0°C) is described below. 3
248°F = 245° + (250° − 245°).
5
Converting Millivoltage to Temperature In terms of millivoltage from the type T table,
To apply the reference junction correction factor to a given 3

248°F = 5.147 + (5.280 − 5.147)
potentiometer millivoltage reading, proceed as follows: 5
= 5.147 + 0.0798 = 5.227 mV
1. From the appropriate TC table, obtain the millivoltage Example 1b (negative temperature)
(based upon a 32°F R/J) corresponding to the actual
3
temperature of the thermocouple reference junction. −248°F = −245° + (−250° − (−245 °))
5
2. Add the value obtained in step 1 to the millivoltage
In terms of millivoltage from the type T table,
read on the potentiometer.
3. The corrected millivoltage may then be converted into 3
−248°F = −4.688 + (−4.747 − (4.668))
terms of temperature directly from the same table. 5
3
= −4.688 + (−4.747 + 4.688)
Example 1 A potentiometer indicates a 13.019 mV when 5
connected to a type T thermocouple, and it is desired to = −4.688 − 0.0354 = −4.723 mV

a 32°F reference junction. Adding this value to the potenti- 2. From the same table, obtain the millivoltage based
ometer reading, 13.019 + 0.787 = 13.806 mV, which is the upon a 32°F reference junction for the temperature to
corrected millivoltage based upon a 32°F reference junction. be checked.
Interpolating from type T table, 13.806 mV = 539°F (282°C). 3. Subtract the value obtained in step 1 from the value
obtained in step 2.
Example 2 A type T thermocouple under steady operating
conditions causes a potentiometer reading of −3.357 mv. The Example 1 It is desired to check the calibration of an
actual TC reference junction temperature is 70°F (21°C). instrument at 300°F (149°C). The instrument has a scale
From the type T table, 70°F = 0.832 mV based upon a graduated in degrees Fahrenheit for a type T thermocou-
reference junction of 32ºF. Adding these two millivoltages ple. The actual temperature at the input terminals of the
algebraically, −3.357 + 0.832 = −2.525 mV. Interpolating,* instrument to be checked, as determined by an accurate
−2.525 mV = −98°F (–72°C). mercury-in-glass thermometer, is 70°F (21°C). From the
type T table, 70°F = 0.832 mV and 300°F = 6.647 mV
Converting Temperature to Millivoltage
based upon a reference junction temperature of 32°F. Sub-
To determine the proper millivolt input required to check the stracting these values, the corrected millivoltage input
calibration of an instrument, proceed as follows: required on the basis of a 70°F reference junction is 6.647 −
0.832 = 5.815 mV.
1. From the appropriate table, obtain the millivoltage
based upon a 32°F reference junction corresponding Example 2 It is desired to determine the correct millivolt-
to the actual temperature at the input terminals of the age input required to check the calibration of an instrument
instrument to be checked. at −200°F (−129°C). The instrument scale is graduated in
TABLE 4.13kk
Type E—Chromel-Constantan Thermocouple
°F* −300 −200 −100 −0 +0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
MILLIVOLTS
0 −8.30 −6.40 −3.94 −1.02 −1.02 2.27 5.87 9.71 13.75 17.95 22.25 26.65
10 −8.45 −6.62 −4.21 −1.33 −0.71 2.62 6.25 10.11 14.17 18.38 22.69 27.09
20 −8.60 −6.83 −4.47 −1.64 −0.39 2.97 6.62 10.51 14.59 18.81 23.13 27.53
30 −7.04 −4.73 −1.94 −0.07 3.32 7.00 10.91 15.00 19.23 23.57 27.97
40 −7.24 −4.98 −2.24 0.26 3.68 7.38 11.31 15.42 19.66 24.00 28.42
50 −7.44 −5.23 −2.54 0.59 4.04 7.76 11.71 15.84 20.09 24.44 28.86
60 −7.62 −5.48 −2.83 0.92 4.40 8.15 12.11 16.26 20.52 24.88 29.31
70 −7.80 −5.72 −3.11 1.26 4.77 8.54 12.52 16.68 20.95 25.32 29.75
80 −7.97 −5.95 −3.39 1.59 5.13 8.93 12.93 17.10 21.39 25.76 30.19
90 −8.14 −6.18 −3.67 1.93 5.50 9.32 13.34 17.52 21.82 26.20 30.64
100 −8.30 −6.40 −3.94 2.27 5.87 9.71 13.75 17.95 22.25 26.65 31.09
°F* 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800
MILLIVOLTS
0 31.09 35.57 40.06 44.56 49.04 53.50 57.92 62.30 66.63 70.90 75.12
10 31.54 36.02 40.51 40.01 49.49 53.94 58.36 62.74 67.05 71.32 75.53
20 31.98 36.47 40.96 45.46 49.93 54.38 58.80 63.17 67.48 71.75 75.95
30 32.43 36.92 41.41 45.91 50.37 54.83 59.24 63.60 67.91 72.17 76.37
40 32.87 37.37 41.86 46.36 50.82 55.27 59.68 64.04 68.34 72.60
50 33.32 37.82 42.31 46.81 51.27 55.71 60.11 64.47 68.76 73.02
60 33.77 38.26 42.76 47.26 51.72 56.15 60.55 64.90 69.19 73.44
70 34.22 38.71 43.21 47.71 52.16 56.59 60.99 65.34 69.62 73.86
80 34.67 39.16 43.66 48.15 52.61 57.03 61.43 65.77 70.05 74.28
90 35.12 39.61 44.11 48.60 53.05 57.48 61.86 66.20 70.47 74.70
100 35.57 40.06 44.56 49.04 53.50 57.92 62.30 66.63 70.90 75.12
° F − 32
*°C =
1.8

degrees Fahrenheit for a type T thermocouple. The actual Desmarais, R. and Breuer, J., “How to Select and Use the Right Temperature
temperature at the input terminals of the instrument is 68°F Sensor,” Sensors, January 2001.
Fraden, J., Handbook of Modern Sensors, 2nd ed., Heidelberg: Springer-
(20°C). From the type T table, 68°F = 0.787 and −200°F =
Verlag, 1997.
−4.111 mV based upon a 32°F reference junction. Subtract- Hage, J., “Smart Temperature Transmitter Accents Accuracy,” Control, Sep-
ing these values, the corrected millivolt input on the basis of tember 1999.
a 68°F reference junction is −4.111 − 0.787 = –4.898 mV. Hashemian, H.M. and Petersen, K.M., “In-Situ Tests Gauge Thermocouple
Performance,” InTech, January 1993.
Hashemian, H.M. and Petersen, K.M., “Smart Thermocouple and RTD Sys-
tems for Industrial Applications,” Instrumentation, Systems, and Auto-
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4.

T. J. CLAGGETT, R. W. WORRALL (1969, 1982) B. G. LIPTÁK (1995, 2003)

Flow Sheet Symbol

Partial List of Suppliers: 4B Components Ltd. (www.go4b.com)

Dresser Instrument (www.dresserinstruments.com)

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

the best industrial transmitters have a minimum span of 1

higher temperatures but is not acceptable at low temperatures

Laws of Intermediate Temperatures and Metals 0

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

FIG.4.13h Hardware Compensation

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

Calibrating Series Galvanometer THERMOCOUPLE TYPES

ISA Types J, S, and T

Iron-constantan (type J) can be used in reducing atmo-

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

Ungrounded No Seal Grounded

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

Sheath Materials Cover Gasket Terminal

Protecting tubes or wells are supplied (Figure 4.13q) to protect

(Max. Temp. 300°F) Compression Fitting

into a tube or tank well. Their low cost makes it feasible to

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

3" Thermocouple Welded to Pad

FIG. 4.13t Solid Tip Welds to Surface of Tube or Vessel

be inserted perpendicularly into the pipeline if R is not much

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

Suction Pyrometers The suction pyrometer consists of a

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

Reducing Bushing Weld Weld

FIG. 4.13aa Protection Against Noise

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

HI If a guard lead wire is installed connected directly to the

CALIBRATION, DIAGNOSTICS, AND TRANSMISSION

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

Allow 102 mm (4 in.) In addition to improved performance, the intelligent

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

To apply the reference junction correction factor to a given 3

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

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