Chapter 1-4
Chapter 1-4
Chapter 1-4
Chapter 1
Engine classification and engine components.
1.1 Heat Engines Classifications
Heat engine converts chemical energy in a fuel into mechanical energy,
usually made available on a rotating output shaft. Chemical energy of the fuel is
first converted to thermal energy by means of combustion or oxidation with air
inside the engine. This thermal energy raises the temperature and pressure of the
gases within the engine and the high-pressure gas then expands against the
mechanical mechanisms of the engine.
Wankel engine has a three lobe rotor which is driven eccentrically in a casing in
such a way that there are three separate volumes trapped between the rotor and the
casing. These volumes perform induction, compression, combustion, expansion
and exhaust process in sequence. This design has a good power/volume ratio. Seal
wear and heat transfer, were some of the initial development problems of the
Wankel engine. These problems have now been largely solved.
The steam turbine is suitable for very large powers, its efficiency is reasonable;
the fuel used in the boiler is cheap. The steam turbine needs a boiler, condenser
and a continuous supply of water.
The cycle of operation is completed in four strokes of the piston or two revolution
of the crank shaft. Each stroke consists of 180 of crank shaft rotation. The series of
operations are shown in figure (1.6).
3. Valve location
a. Valves in head (Overhead valve), also called I Head engine.
b. Valves in block (flat head), also called L Head engine. Some historic engines
with valves in block had the intake valve on one side of the cylinder and the
exhaust valve on the other side. These were called T Head engines.
c. One valve in head (usually intake) and one in block, also called F Head Engine;
this is much less common.
cylinders can be anywhere from 15 to 120 with 60-90. V engines usually have
even numbers of cylinders from 2 to 20 or more. V6s and V8s are common
automobile engines. Honda makes a true V5 motorcycle engine. See Fig.1.9 (b).
d. Radial engine: Engines with pistons positioned in a circular plane around a
circular crankshaft. The connecting rods of the piston are connected to a master
rod, which in turn, is connected to the crankshaft. A bank of cylinders on a radial
engine almost always has an odd number of cylinders ranging from 3 to 13 or
more. Operating on a four-stroke cycle every other cylinder fires and has a power
stroke as the crankshaft rotates, giving a smooth operation. Many medium and
large size propeller driven aircraft use radial engines. For large aircraft two or
more banks of cylinders are mounted together, one behind the other on a single
crankshaft, making one powerful smooth engine. See Fig.1.9 (c)
e. Opposed Cylinder Engine: Two banks of cylinders opposite to each other on a
single crankshaft (a V engine with 180 deg V). These are common on small aircraft
and some automobiles with an even number of cylinders from two to eight or
more. These engines are often called flat engines (e.g., flat four). See Fig.1.9 (d)
f. Opposed piston engine: Two pistons in each cylinder with the combustion
chamber in the center between the pistons. A single combustion process causes two
power strokes at the same time, with each piston being pushed away from the
center and delivering power to a separate crankshaft at each end of the cylinder.
Engine output is either on two rotating crankshafts or on one crankshaft
incorporating a complex mechanical linkage. These engines are generally of large
displacement, used for power plants, ships, or submarines. See Fig.1.9 (e)
gaseous; such as: Hydrogen, methane, L.P.G. etc., combined with one or more of
liquid fuels, such as alcohol, ethers, esters, gasoline, diesel etc...
10
11
Vcyl = Vc + Vst
8. Compression ratio: it is the ratio of the total volume of the cylinder to the
clearance volume, and is denoted by (r) or (CR)
Vp = 2 Lst (N) / 60
Where Lst is the stroke in (m) and N the number of crankshaft revolution per
minute (rpm).
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Fourth stroke: Exhaust stroke: By the time the piston reaches BDC, exhaust blow
down is complete, but the cylinder is still full of exhaust gases at approximately
atmospheric pressure. With the exhaust valve remaining open, the piston now
travels the gases out of the cylinder into the exhaust system at about atmospheric
pressure, leaving only that trapped in the clearance volume when the piston reaches
TDC. Near the end of exhaust stroke bad, the intake valve starts to open, so that it
is fully open by TDC when the new intake stroke starts in the next cycle. Near
TDC exhaust valve starts to close and finally is fully closed sometime a TDC. This
period when both intake valve and exhaust valve are open is called valve overlap.
Four stroke Compression Ignition engine cycle:
First stroke: Intake stroke: The same as the intake stroke in the SI engine with one
major difference: no fuel is added to the incoming air.
Second stroke: Compression stroke: The same as in an SI engine except that only
air is compressed and compression is to higher pressures and temperature. Late in
the compression strike fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber when
it mixes with very hot air. This causes the fuel to evaporate and self ignite, causing
combustion to start.
Combustion: Combustion is fully developed by TDC and continues at about
constant pressure until the fuel injection is complete and the piston has started
towards BDC.
Third stroke: Power stroke: The power stroke continues as combustion ends and
the piston travels towards BDC.
Exhaust Blow down; same as with an SI engine.
Fourth stroke: Exhaust strike: same as with an SI engine.
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Chapter (2)
Air- Standard Cycles
During every engine cycle, the medium changes sometimes it is a mixture of
fuel and air or products of combustion, the specific heats and other properties of
the medium change with temperature and composition.
The accurate study and analysis of I.C.E. processes is very complicated. To
simplify the theoretical study "Standard Air Cycles" are introduced, these cycles
are similar to the open cycles, but some simplifying assumptions are made:
1. Cylinder contains constant amount of air and it is treated as ideal gas.
2. The specific heats and other physical and chemical properties remain unchanged
during the cycle.
3. Instead of heat generation by combustion, heat is transformed from external heat
source.
4. The process of heat removal in the exhaust gases is represented by heat transfer
from the cycle to external heat sink.
5. There is neither friction nor turbulence; all processes are assumed to be
reversible.
6. No heat loss from the working fluid to the surroundings.
7. Cycles can be presented on any diagram of properties.
& PV = Constant
& PV = Constant
& V4 = V1
Air/Fuel Cycle
17
otto=
=1
18
otto=1
=1
Let:
P = gas pressure in the cylinder (Pa) or (bar)
V = volume in cylinder (m3)
v = specific volume of gas (m3/ Kg)
R= gas constant (Kj/Kg. K)
T = temperature of gas (K)
M= mass of gas in cylinder (Kg)
= density of gas (Kg/m3)
Cp= specific heat at constant pressure (Kj/Kg.K)
Cv= specific heat at constant volume (Kj/Kg.K)
= Cp / Cv
CR= r= compression ratio = V1/V2
rp = pressure ratio = P3/P2
For ideal gas:
Pv = RT
PV= mRT
P= R T
P4 = P3 (V3/V4)
P2 = P1 (V1/V2)
But,
So,
&
&
T4 = T3 (V3/V4) -1
T2 = T1 (V1/V2) -1
&
19
T2 = T1 (r -1)
otto = 1
So,
1/(r-1) -1
20
This cycle is the theoretical cycle for compression-ignition or diesel engine. For
this cycle:
21
& PV = Constant
& P2 = P3
& PV = Constant
Q3-4 = 0
& V4 = V1
Diesel =
=1
Cutoff ratio (rc): is defined as the change in volume that occurs during combustion
rc= V3/V2
& CR= r= compression ratio = V1/V2
rp = pressure ratio = P3/P2 = 1
more than 22, the increase in Diesel is small, on the other hand, maximum pressure
increases much and mass of the engine increases.
22
& PV = Constant
23
& V2 = V3
& P3 = P4
& PV = Constant
& V5 = V1
Diesel =
&
=1
Compression ratio = CR= r= V1/V2
Cutoff ratio (rc): rc= V4/V3
Pressure ratio = rp = P3/P2
Expansion ratio re= V5/V4
kpa
24
otto
<
otto
26
>
otto
<
27
otto
<
28
5. The blow-down process requires a finite real time and a finite cycle time,
and does not occur at constant volume as in air-standard analysis
6. In an actual engine, the intake valve is not closed until after bottom-dead
center at the end of the intake stroke. Because of the flow restriction of the
valve, air is still entering the cylinder at BDC, and volumetric efficiency
would be lower if the valve closed here.
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8- Friction losses: These losses are due to the friction between the piston and
cylinder walls, the various bearings, and the friction in the auxiliary
equipment, such as pumps, fans, etc
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Sheet 1
Air Standard Cycles
2. In a diesel cycle, the initial conditions are 27C and 1 bar. The compression
ratio is 20 and the cutoff ratio is 2, calculate:
a. The temperature, pressure and volume at the cycle key points.
b. The heat added, the heat rejected and the cycle thermal efficiency.
4. Consider an air standard diesel cycle in which the working fluid has the
following properties at the beginning of compression; temperature = 298 K,
pressure = 1 atm, and specific volume of 0.856 m3/Kg. if the compression
ratio = 15 and the heat added is 200 Kcal/Kg. Calculate:
a. The pressure and temperature and volume at the cycle key points.
b. The thermal efficiency.
c. The output power if the engine consumes 0.2 Kg/sec of air.
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5. In a dual cycle, the heat added at constant volume is equal to the heat added
at constant pressure. The compression ratio is 13.5. The maximum cycle
pressure is 50 Kg/cm2 and the initial conditions are 1 Kg/cm2 and 20C.
Calculate:
a. The heat added, the heat rejected and work done.
b. The thermal efficiency.
6. An Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 6 and starting conditions of 35C
and 1 bar. Heat is added until the pressure becomes 35 bar. Calculate:
a.
b.
c.
d.
7. A high speed diesel engine working on ideal dual cycle. Takes in air at 50
C and 1 Kg/cm2 and compresses it to 1/14 of its original volume. At the end
of compression the heat is added so that the maximum pressure attains twice
the value at the end of compression. The rest of heat addition takes place at
constant pressure so that the volume at the end of heat addition is twice the
clearance volume. Calculate:
a. The temperature, pressure and volume at the key points.
b. The cycle thermal efficiency, the cutoff ratio (rc) and the expansion ratio
(re).
8. A compression ignition engine working on dual cycle has a cylinder bore of
20 cm and stroke of 30 cm. It operates with a compression ratio of 8. At start
of compression, the cylinder is full of air at 1Kg/cm2 and 25C. The heat
added at constant volume is timed for maximum pressure of 60 Kg/cm2. The
heat addition at constant pressure continues for 4% of the stroke. Calculate:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Chapter 3
Combustion and Fuel
3.1 Definition of Combustion
Combustion is a rapid oxidation generating heat, or both light and heat,
slow oxidation accompanied by relatively little heat and no light (such as some
exothermic chemical reactions). In our study we will restrict the definition to
include only rapid oxidation portion, since most practical combustion devices
belong in this portion. This definition emphasizes the importance of chemical
reactions to combustion, as combustion transforms energy stored in chemical
bonds to heat that can be utilized in a variety of ways.
3.2 Combustion Modes and Flame Types
Combustion can occur in either a flame or non-flame mode. Flames are
categorized as being either premixed flames or non-premixed (diffusion) flames.
The difference between flame and non-flame modes of combustion can be
illustrated by the processes occurring in a knocking spark-ignition engine. In Fig.
3.1(a), we see a thin zone of intense chemical reaction propagating through the
unburned fuel-air mixture. This thin reaction zone is what we commonly refer to as
a flame. Behind the flame are the hot products of combustion. As the flame moves
across the combustion space, the temperature and pressure rise in the unburned
gas. Under certain conditions (Fig. 3.1(b)), rapid oxidation reactions occur at many
locations within the unburned gas leading to very rapid combustion throughout the
volume. This essentially volumetric heat release in an engine is called autoignition, and the very rapid pressure rise leads to characteristic sound of engine
knock.
Knock is undesirable, and a recent challenge to engine designers has been
how to minimize the occurrence of knock while operating with lead-free gasoline.
In compression-ignition or diesel engines, however, auto-ignition initiates the
combustion process by design.
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35
front is established at the interface where the air is diffusing into the unburnt fue
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Natural Fuels
Wood
Coal
Oil shale
Petroleum
Natural gas
Manufactured Fuels
Solid Fuels
Tanbark, Bagasse, Straw
Charcoal
Coke
Briquettes
Liquid Fuels
Oils from distillation of petroleum
Coal tar
Shale-oil
Alcohols, etc.
Gaseous Fuels
Coal gas
Producer gas
Water gas
Hydrogen
Acetylene
Blast furnace gas
Oil gas
viscosity
flash point
pour point
water and sediment content
carbon residue
ash
distillation qualities or distillation temperature ranges
specific gravity
sulfur content
heating value
carbon-hydrogen content
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all products of the combustion are cooled down to the temperature before the
combustion
the water vapor formed during combustion is condensed
Subtracting the latent heat of vaporization of the water vapor formed by the
combustion from the gross or higher heating value.
Here the fuel and the oxidizer are reactants, i.e., the substances present
before the reaction takes place. This relation indicates that the reactants produce
combustion products and energy. Either the chemical energy released is transferred
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their respective molecular weights. Thus the molecular weight for air, Mair, is given
by the sum of the products of the molecular weights of oxygen and nitrogen and
their respective mole fractions in air. Expressed in words:
Mair = 0.79 Mnitrogen + 0.21 Moxygen = 0.79(28) + 0.21(32) = 28.84 Kg/Kmole
The mass fractions of oxygen and nitrogen in air are then:
mf oxygen = (0.21)(32)/28.84 = 0.233, or 23.3%
and mf nitrogen = (0.79)(28)/28.84 = 0.767, or 76.7%
2.4.2 Combustion Chemistry of a Simple Fuel
Methane, CH4, is a common fuel that is a major constituent of most natural
gases.
Consider the complete combustion of methane in pure oxygen. The chemical
reaction equation for the complete combustion of methane in oxygen may be
written as:
CH4 + 2O2
CO2 + 2H2O
(3.1)
Because atoms are neither created nor destroyed, Equation (3.1) states that
methane (consisting of one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen) reacts with
four atoms of oxygen to yield carbon dioxide and water products with the same
number of atoms of each element as in the reactants. This is the basic principle
involved in balancing all chemical reaction equations.
Carbon dioxide is the product formed by complete combustion of carbon through
the reaction C + O2
CO2. Carbon dioxide has only one carbon atom per
molecule.
Since in Equation (3.1) there is only one carbon atom on the left side of the
equation, there can be only one carbon atom and therefore one CO2 molecule on
the right. Similarly, water is the product of the complete combustion of hydrogen.
It has two atoms of hydrogen per molecule. Because there are four hydrogen atoms
in the reactants of Equation (3.1), there must be four in the products, implying that
two molecules of water formed. These observations require four atoms of oxygen
on the right, which implies the presence of two molecules (four atoms) of oxygen
on the left.
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(3.2)
It is seen that the reaction equation for combustion in air may be obtained
from the combustion equation for the reaction in oxygen by adding the appropriate
number of moles of nitrogen to both sides of the equation.
Note that both Equations (3.1) and (3.2) describe reactions of one mole of
methane fuel. Because the same amount of fuel is present in both cases, both
reactions release the same amount of energy. We can therefore compare
combustion reactions in air and in oxygen. It will be seen that the presence of
nitrogen acts to dilute the reaction, both chemically and thermally.
The diluting energetic effect of nitrogen when combustion is in air may be
reasoned as follows: The same amount of energy is released in both reactions,
because the same amount of fuel is completely consumed. However, the nonreacting nitrogen molecules in the air have heat capacity. This added heat capacity
of the additional nitrogen molecules absorbs much of the energy released, resulting
in a lower internal energy per unit mass of products and hence a lower temperature
of the products. Thus the energy released by the reaction is shared by a greater
mass of combustion products when the combustion is in air.
Often, products of combustion are released to the atmosphere through a
chimney, stack, or flue. These are therefore sometimes referred to as flue gases.
The flue gas composition may be stated in terms of wet flue gas (wfg) or dry flue
gas (dfg), because under some circumstances the water vapor in the gas condenses
and then escapes as a liquid rather than remaining as a gaseous component of the
flue gas. When liquid water is present in combustion products, the combustion
product gaseous mass fractions may be taken with respect to the mass of flue gas
products, with the product water present or omitted.
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and MWfuel
43
From this definition, we see that for fuel-rich mixture, >1, and for fuel-lean
mixture, < 1. For a stoichiometric mixture, equals unity. In many combustion
applications, the equivalence ratio is the single most important factor in
determining a systems performance. Other parameters frequently used to define
relative stoichiometry are percent stoichiometric air (excess air) (), which
related to the equivalence ratio as:
= % syoichiometric air =
% excess air =
Example 3.1
* 100%
Solution:
Given
= 0.286,
Known
fuel is C1.16H4.32
MWfuel = 1.16(12.01) + 4.32(1.008)
= 18.286 Kg/Kmole
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Comment
Note that even at full power, a large quantity of excess air is supplied the engine
(low-emission gas turbine).
Example 3.2
Solution:
Given
% O2 = 3
Known
b=a-2
a = 2.368
= 20.23
=
45
Solution:
The combustion of unknown hydrocarbon composition fuel with air (assume 1
Kmole of fuel) can be written as:
CxHy + a (O2 +3.76N2)
By balancing N2
a= 82/3.76 = 21.81
By balancing O2
By balancing C
x = 9 + 1 = 10
By balancing H
y= 2c = 17.24
(a)The fuel-air ratio (by mass) = (A/F) = 21.81(32 + 3.76x28) / (10x12 +17.24x1)
= 21.9
Kgair/Kgfuel
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Fig. 3.3 Variation of NO, CO and UHC emissions with equivalence ratio.
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Sheet 2
Combustion and Fuel
1. For an equivalence ratio of 0.6, determine the associated air-fuel ratios
(mass) for methane, propane (C3H8) and decane (C10H22).
2. A spark ignition engine uses a liquid fuel whose composition by weight is
84% C and 16% H2 and the engine is running at an air-fuel ratio of 14.
Determine the analysis of the exhaust gases by weight.
3. A natural gas-fired industrial boiler operates with excess air such that the O2
concentration in the flue gases is 2 percent (volume), measured after
removal of the moisture in the combustion products. Determine the
equivalence ratio for the system assuming the properties of natural gas are
the same as methane.
4. Assuming complete combustion, write out a stoichiometric balance equation
for 1 mole of an arbitrary alcohol CxHyOz , Determine the number of moles
of air required to burn 1 mole of fuel.
5. Determine the air-fuel ratio and make a complete exhaust analysis for a
gaseous fuel having a volumetric analysis of 6.7% CO2, 1.3% O2, 22.5%
CO, 2.2% H2, 0.4% CH4 and 66.9% N2. If the percentage of O2 in the dry
exhaust is 8%.
6. In a spark ignition engine, the dry exhaust analysis is 9.8% CO2, 0.2% O2,
7.6% CO and 82.4% N2. Determine the air-fuel ratio if:
a. The fuel composition by weight is 86.4%C and 13.6% H2.
b. The fuel is Octane C8H18.
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Chapter 4
Combustion in SI Engines
Combustion in spark ignition engines normally begins at the spark pluck
where the molecules in and around the spark discharge are activated to a level
where reaction is self- sustaining. Combustion is SI engines may be one or more of
the following types of combustion:
1- Normal combustion.
2- Abnormal combustion.
3- Uncontrolled combustion.
4.1 Normal combustion:
Once ignition has started the flame front expands across the chamber. Two
stages may be distinguished during the normal combustion. The first stage, (AB)
corresponds to the time for the formation of the self propagation nucleus of the
flame. This is mainly a chemical process and depends on the nature of mixture
composition, temperature and turbulence.
The second stage (BC) corresponds to the propagation of the flame
throughout the combustion chamber. The second stage begins at the point where
first measurable rise of pressure can be seen on the indicator diagram. The rate of
pressure rise is proportional to the rate of heat release because during this stage the
combustion volume is nearly constant. The spark occurs at the point A, there is a
"delay period" between the occurrence of the spark and the noticeable pressure
rise from that of motoring compression. This is a time delay which is independent
of engine speed so that as the engine speed is increased the point A must occur
earlier in the cycle to obtain the best position of the peak pressure.
Although the point C marks the completion of the flame travel, it does not
follow that at this point the whole of the heat of the fuel has been liberated, some
further chemical adjustments due to re-association, etc., and what is generally
referred to as after burning, will to a greater or less degree continue throughout
the expansion stroke.
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Electrode gap: If the gap is too small, quenching of the flame nucleus may occur
and the range of fuel / air ratio for the development of a flame nucleus is reduced.
51
52
2- Compression Ratio:
Fig. 9-5 shows the increased speed of combustion with increase of compression
ratio. These diagrams are for Ricardo variable compression ratio engine at CR=4,
5, 6with the same mixture strength and the same ignition timing.
3-Intake pressure and temperature: increase in intake pressure and temperature
increases the flame speed.
4-Engine load: with increase in engine load the cycle pressure increases hence the
flame speed increase.
5-Turbulence: Turbulence plays a very vital role in combustion phenomenon. The
flame speed is very low in non-turbulent miniatures. A turbulent motion of the
mixture intensifies the process of heat transfer and mixing of the burned and
unburned portion in the flame front. These two factors cause the velocity of
turbulent flame to increase.
4.2 Abnormal Combustion:
Normal combustion rarely occurs in a real engine without some trace of auto
ignition appearing. After ignition, the flame front travels across the combustion
chamber. The gas a heat of the flame front called the "end gas ". The end gas
receives heat due to compression by expanding gases and by radiation from the
advancing flame front, therefore, its temperature and density increases. If the
temperature exceeds the self ignition temperature and the un-burnt gas remains at
or above this temperature for a period of time equal to/or greater the delay period,
spontaneous ignition (or auto ignition) will occurs at various locations. Shortly
after words an audible sound called knock appears. If the end gas does not reach
its self-ignition temperature, the combustion will be normal.
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A- Temperature factors:
The temperature of the unburned mixture is increased by the following factors:
1. Raising the compression ratio.
2. Supercharging.
3. Raising the inlet temperature.
4. Raising the coolant temp.
5. Increasing load.
6. Advancing the spark.
7. Raising the temperature of the cylinder and combustion chamber walls.
B- Density factors:
Increasing density by any of the following methods, will increase the possibility of
Knock:
1. Increasing load.
2. Increasing compression ratio.
3. Supercharging.
4. Advancing the spark.
C- Time factors:
Increasing the time of exposure of the unburned mixture to auto-ignitions by any of
the following factors will increase tendency to knock:
1. Increasing the distance of the flame travel.
2. Decreasing the turbulence of mixture.
3. Decreasing the speed of the engine.
D- Composition:
The probability of Knock in S.I. engines is decreased by:
1. Increasing the octane rating of the fuel.
2. Either rich or lean mixtures.
3. Stratifying the mixture.
4. Increasing the humidity of the entering air.
4.3 Knock rating of S.I. Fuels:
The Knock rating of a gasoline is found by comparing the Knock of the fuel
under test with that of a blend of primary reference fuels (PRF). These fuels are n
56
heptanes (C7H16), which have a very low auto ignition reaction time and treated as
fuel with octane number (ON) of O and 2,2,4- trimethyl pentane (iso- octane),
which has inactive auto ignition reaction and is treated as ON equal to 100. The
fuel is rated by the percent of iso - octane in the n- heptane and iso- octane
mixture.
There are several methods of Knock rating to suit the various matching
conditions for different engines and operating variables, and in each of these
methods, a standard engine built to exacting specifications must be run under
prescribed operating conditions.
The standard engine used for either the research or motor method is the CFR (Co operative Fuel research) engine. Motor and research methods: the engine must first
be calibrated under specified conditions, such as those indicated below:
devices for emission control was introduced. The expanding use of unleaded fuels
has increased interest in other methods of increasing the ON of gasoline, one of
these methods is; the oxygenates (alcohols and ethers) as fuel additives to increase
Octane rating.
4.5 Uncontrolled Combustion:
Under certain conditions the fuel- air mixture is ignited by hot spot in the cylinder.
The hot spot might be the spark plug insulator or electrode, or combustion deposits
etc. When ignition occurs before the spark the phenomenon is called preignition. When the phenomenon occurs after ignition is switched off it is called
running- on. Combustion deposit ignition is called rumbling.
58