Reviewer in General Chemistry 2
Reviewer in General Chemistry 2
Reviewer in General Chemistry 2
Chemistry is the science which deals with the study of matter - its composition, structure,
properties, changes and the energy accompanying the changes in matter.
Branches of Chemistry: Chemistry is generally divided into five branches:
1. Organic chemistry is the study of organic compounds (compounds of carbon).
Example of organic compounds:
Acetic acid or CH3COOH Benzene or C6H6
Methane or CH4 Ethyl alcohol or C2H5OH
Carbon tetrachloride or CCl4 etc.
2. Inorganic chemistry is the study of all elements and compounds other than organic
compounds.
Inorganic compounds includes all compounds not containing carbon and the
following carbon
compounds:
a. carbon monoxide, CO
b. carbon dioxide,CO2
c. carbonates (CO3-2) such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3), potassium
carbonate (K2CO3), etc.
d. bicarbonates (HCO3-1) such as sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3),
magnesium
bicarbonate, Mg(HCO3)2, etc.
e. cyanides ( CN-1 ) such as sodium cyanide (NaCN)
3. Physical chemistry is the study of the theoretical aspects of the structure and changes
of
matter such as how and why bonds are formed and energy changes take place.
4. Analytical chemistry is the study of what is present (qualitative analysis) and how
much is
present (quantitative analysis)
5. Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of biologically important elements and
compounds.
MATTER: ITS COMPOSITION AND ITS PROPERTIES
Matter is anything that occupy space and has mass. It comes in many forms. It can be as
simple as an element or as complex as a mixture. The two general classes of matter are pure
substances and mixtures. To each class belong more specific kinds of matter as shown in the
diagram below.
Classification of Matter:
Matter
(Composed of atoms: can exist as gas, liquid or solid)
Solutions
Metals Nonmetals
Colloids
Suspensions
Metalloids
Organic Inorganic
Salts Salts
Acids Bases Acids Bases
C carbon
Co cobalt
Cl chlorine
Cr chromium
Cu copper
Some of these symbols come from the Latin name. Elements whose symbol came from
their Latin name are as follows:
Name of Element Chemical Symbol Latin Name
Copper Cu cuprum
Sodium Na natrium
Mercury Hg hydrargyrum
Lead Pb plumbum
Silver Ag argentum
Tin Sn stannum
Gold Au aurum
Tungsten W wolfram
Iron Fe ferrum
Potassium K kalium
Antimony Sb stibium
The symbols and names for all the elements are listed in the periodic table.
An element may exist as individual atoms or as molecules made up of only one kind of
atom.
A molecule can be composed of a single atom, such as He (helium), Al (aluminum), and Fe
(iron) or two or more atoms (diatomic molecules) held together by a force called a covalent bond
(to be discussed later), as follows: O2 (oxygen), H2 (hydrogen), N2 (nitrogen), Cl2 (chlorine), Br2
(bromine), I2 (iodine) and F2 (fluorine).
Compounds are composed of two or more elements (and thus contain two or more kinds
of atoms), chemically combined, in definite and constant proportions. The chemical formula of
a compound gives the elements (or atoms) that it compose and the relative proportions of these
atoms.
Example: Name of Compound Number of Atoms Chemical
Formula
3
The Law of Definite Proportions or Constant Composition states that any pure
compound always contains the same elements in exactly the same proportions by mass (weight).
A compound may consist of either molecules or ions. The formula of the compound
always gives the relative number of atoms in a formula unit that represent either a molecule or a
group of ions.
Mixtures
Mixtures are combination of two or more substances in which each substance retains its
own chemical identity and hence its own properties. Composition of mixtures can vary. For
example, a cup of sweetened coffee can contain either little sugar or a lot. The substances
making up a mixture (such as sugar and water) are called components of the mixture. These
components can be separated from one another by physical means such as evaporation,
distillation, filtration, chromatography, etc. . For example, sugar can be separated from water in
the sugar solution by evaporation.
Heterogeneous mixtures. Mixtures( such as the mixture of the sand and gravel) do not have the
same composition, properties, and appearance throughout the mixture.
Suspensions – Heterogeneous mixtures where the particles are about 10 cm in diameter and
float in a medium, such as fine silt in a body of water, the mixtures. Milk looks homogeneous
with the naked eye but appears heterogeneous when rays of light are passed through it. This
phenomenon exhibited by milk is called Tyndall Effect. Heterogeneous mixtures that exhibit
Tyndall Effect are called colloids. Tyndall Effect is the scattering of light when it is focused on a
colloid
Homogeneous mixtures are uniform throughout are. Air is a homogeneous s mixture of
gaseous substances nitrogen, oxygen, and smaller amounts of other substances. The nitrogen in
air has all the properties that pure nitrogen does because both the pure substance and the mixture
contain the same nitrogen molecules. Salt, sugar, and many other substances dissolve in water to
form homogeneous mixtures.
Homogeneous mixtures are also called solutions. Air is a gaseous solution; gasoline is a liquid
solution; brass is a solid solution.
Summary of the differences between mixtures and compounds:
Compound Mixture
Definite and constant composition Variable composition.
Elements that make up the compound Elements or compounds that are
mixed retain
lose their identity, due to their identity since they are not
chemical change taking place. chemically combined.
Cannot be broken down into simpler Can be separated by simple, physical
substances by ordinary operations.
physical means.
Classification of elements according to characteristic properties:
1. metals - exhibit metallic luster
- good conductors of heat and electricity
- malleable (ability to be shaped/or hammered into thin sheets)
- ductile (ability to be drawn out to a thin wire)
- hard
- high density
- low volatility
- solids at room temperature except mercury which is liquid.
- most of them combine with nonmetals; they usually occur in nature
combined
with such nonmetals as oxygen or sulfur.
- can lose electrons to form positive ions
Examples: gold, copper, silver, sodium, etc.
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2. nonmetals - dull
- poor conductors of heat and electricity
- brittle
- soft (if they exist as solids at ordinary temperatures)
- often have low melting and boiling points; thus several exist as gases at
ordinary temperatures, such as hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen,
fluorine and
chlorine.
- they combine with metals and some of them combine with each other
such as
in compounds of nitrogen and oxygen, hydrogen and sulfur, or
carbon
and chlorine, etc.
- can accept electrons to form negative ions.
1. metalloids (or semimetals) – are intermediate between metals and nonmetals. They
have
characteristics of both metals and nonmetals.
Examples: silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, etc.
Distribution of Elements in the Earth’s Crust and their Percent by Weight:
- a right amount of carbon is mixed with iron to make it tough and very
hard
(iron combined with 0.2 to 2% carbon is called steel)
f. Ammonia - is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen.
- it is a raw material in making fertilizers.
- it is used as a refrigerant and is a component of commercial glass and
porcelain cleaners.
g. Nitric Acid - is a compound of hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen.
- it is used to react with coal tar to form nitrogen compounds that are used
in
making dyes.
- with sulfuric acid, it is added to cotton to make plastics for photographic
films.
h. Calcium carbonate - it is a compound which is widely distributed over the earth’s
surface as
marble, limestone, gypsum and other minerals
- it is used in making glass.
- it serves as fusing agent in making steel.
- it is a source of carbon dioxide for dry ice and is a major component of
cement.
j. Sodium hydroxide - is a compound of sodium, hydrogen and oxygen.
- it is the major raw material fro soap making.
- it is used in production of rayon and cellulose film, in petroleum
refining,
And in the production of paper.
Classification of Compounds:
1. acids - produce hydrogen ion (H+) in solution.
- sour taste.
- turns litmus paper blue to red (litmus paper is an indicator whose color is
changed by acids and bases).
- neutralize bases. Example of acids: HCl, H2SO4, etc.
2. bases (or alkalies)
- bitter taste.
- soapy or slick feeling.
- turn litmus paper red to blue.
- neutralize acids
- contain hydroxide ion (OH-) Example of bases: NaOH, Mg(OH) 2,
etc.
3. salts - neutral substances Example of salts: NaCl, CaCl2, etc.
States of Matter
Matter exists in three states or forms as follows:
Phase Changes:
A phase change is a physical change where a substance changes from one form
to another.
Ex. A solid wax when heated melts and turns into fluid-like substance
Ex. Boiling water causes some water molecules to escape from the liquid.
Ex. Formation of water droplets outside the glass with cold water
E = mc2
3. Law of Multiple Proportions - it states that when two elements combine to from two
or more
different compounds, if the amount of one element is constant, the
masses of
the other element in the different compounds are in the ratios of small
whole
numbers.
1. Physical properties - are those properties that can be observed without changing the
composition of the substance. A physical property may be intensive (intrinsic) or
extensive (extrinsic).
a. Intensive physical properties (or intrinsic properties) are those that do not
depend
on the amount of the substance.
Examples: color, odor, density, specific heat, melting point, solubility,
etc.
b. Extensive physical properties (or extrinsic properties)are those that depend
on the
amount of the substance.
Examples: volume, mass, area, length, etc
2. Chemical properties are those that can only be observed when the substance
undergoes a
chemical change. All chemical properties do not depend on the amount of the
substance and therefore are intrinsic.
Examples: iron rusts, wood decays, formation of a compound between
two or
more elements
ATOMS, MOLECULES AND ISOTOPES
An atom is a very tiny particle – much too small to be weighed on even the most
sensitive balance. Therefore, a relative scale has been set up, comparing the masses of atoms. On
this scale the lightest atom, hydrogen which was also the first standard proposed has a relative
mass of about 1. masses of other atoms was compared to it. Oxygen which was later used as the
standard, has a relative mass of about 16. Finally it was agreed to use one isotope of carbon,
called carbon-12 as the standard. This carbon-12 is assigned a value of exactly 12 and
everything is compared to it. The relative units in this scale are called atomic mass units (amu).
Thus, the relative masses of some atoms are as follows:
The relative mass of an atom with a mass twice as great as carbon-12 atom is 24 amu,
and an atom with a mass one-half that of a carbon-12 atom is 6 amu.
Subatomic Particles
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Although according to Dalton’s atomic theory that atoms are indivisible, it is now known
that the atom is composed of three smaller subatomic particles namely: electrons, protons, and
neutrons.
protons
neutrons
electrons
Carbon 6 6
Sodium 11 11
Sulfur 16 16
10
4. An atom is electrically neutral. Therefore, there are the same number of electrons
outside the nucleus as there are protons in the nucleus. In forming compounds, atoms
sometimes gain or lose electrons to form charged particles called ions.
5. The shells or energy levels of electrons are dispersed at a relatively great distance
from the
nucleus. The nucleus has a diameter of about 10-5 angstrom (10-6 nm). Therefore these
electrons are dispersed at distances that extend up to 100,000 times the diameter of the
nucleus.
5. The number of protons in an atom plus the number of neutrons is called the mass
number,
which is essentially equal to the atomic mass in amu, since the mass of the electron is
negligible.
Atomic Number, atomic mass, mass number, number of protons, electrons and neutrons in the
atoms of carbon, sodium and sulfur:
Complete the table below without looking at the Periodic Table of Elements:
Isotopes
Atoms having different atomic masses or mass numbers, but the same atomic number are
called isotopes. Isotopes are atoms of the same element and hence have the same number of
protons, and the same number of electrons, but different number of neutrons. Isotopes of the
same element have the same chemical properties but slightly different physical properties.
The atomic weight for the element is found by multiplying the exact atomic
weight of each isotope by its percent abundance in nature and then taking the sum of the values
obtained.
Example:
Isotopes of Carbon Exact Atomic Mass % Abundance in Nature
C-12 12.00000 98.89
C-13 13.00335 1.110
Relative atomic mass or atomic weight of C = 12.00000 amu (0.9889) + 13.00335 amu (
0.0110)
= 11.87 amu + 0.143 amu
= 12.01 amu
Exercise Problem: Chlorine is found in nature as two isotopes: Cl-35 (34.969 amu) and
Cl-37 (36.966 amu). These are found in the ration of 75.53% Cl-35
and
24.47% Cl-37. Calculate the relative atomic mass of Cl.
A molecule is the smallest particle of a compound which has the property of that
compound.
The formula or molecular weight is the sum of the atomic weights of all atoms in a
formula unit. Since atomic weights are expressed in atomic mass unit or amu, the formula
weight, therefore is also expressed in atomic mass unit or amu. The term formula weight is the
more general term since it can be used for atoms, ions, and compounds that exist as molecules or
compounds that exist as formula units. The formula weights are sometimes expressed in grams
and called gram-atomic weight (for atoms) or gram-molecular weight (for molecules) or gram-
formula weight (for formula unit).
The Mole
A mole (mol) is a number of particles, just as a dozen is. The mole is sometimes referred
to as the “chemists dozen”. One mole of a substance has a mass in grams equal to its formula
mass.
Examples: 1 mole H atoms = 1.0 g
1 mole H2 molecules = 2.0 g
1 mole H2O molecules = 18.0 g
1 mole Carbon-12 = 12.0 g
The mass of 1 mole of a substance is sometimes referred to as molar mass. That is the
molar mass is the mass in grams of any substance that contains 6.02 x 1023 number of units.
These units can be atoms, molecules, formula units, individual ions, and so on. The molar mass
of a substance is equal to its formula mass but the unit is gram.
Solution: Formula mass of NaOH = 1 (23 amu) + 1 (16 amu) + 1 (1 amu) = 40 amu
Solution: Formula mass of Ca3(PO4)2 = 3 (40 amu) + 1 (2) (31 amu) + 4 (2) (16 amu) =
310 amu
Solution: No. of CO2 molecules = 10 mol CO2 x 6.02 x 1023 CO2 molecules
mol CO2
= 6.02 x 10 CO2 molecules
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In 1913, Neils Bohr proposed a model of the atom that would account for experimental
results. He proposed that the electrons in an atom could only be in certain orbits, or energy
levels, around the nucleus; that is, his theory was that the energy of the electrons is quantized and
can only be lost or gained in discrete amounts. This can be compared to a ladder on which you
can climb from one step to the next, but not part way in between.
Refinements of the Borh theory, in the 1920’s and 1930’s, led to the modern theory of
atomic structure, which is based on quantum mechanics (or wave mechanics). This is a
mechanical description of the laws of motion that apply to very small particles, like electrons,
which have properties of both particles and waves. This theory provide a mathematical
calculation of the energy of each electron in an atom. It shows that the electrons occupy various
energy levels around the nucleus. Each energy level consists of one or more sublevels, and each
sublevel consists of a set of one or more orbitals. An orbital represents a region in space with a
specific shape, where a pair of electrons is most likely to be found. It is also found from quantum
mechanics that there is a limit to the number of electrons that can occupy any given energy level.
The electrons in an atom exist in energy levels or shells, which increase in energy as
they increase in distance from the nucleus. The nearer the electron is to the nucleus, the less
energy the electron has; the farther away it is, the more energy it has. These energy levels are
designated by whole numbers or sometimes by capital letters as 1 or K, 2 or L, 3 or M, 4 or N, 5
or O, 6 or P, 7 or Q.
It is found that the maximum number of electrons in each energy level is equal to 2n2
where n is the number of the energy level. The maximum number of electrons that can be in an
energy level are as follows:
Energy Level (Letter Designation) Maximum Number of Electrons
two sublevels, called the 2s and 2p; and so forth. The sublevels on the different energy levels are
as follows:
Sublevels for each energy level:
1 1 1s
2 2 2s, 2p
3 3 3s, 3p, 3d
4 4 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f
5 5 5s, 5p, 5d, 5f, 5g
6 6 6s, 6p, 6d, 6f, 6g, 6h
7 7 7s, 7p, 7d, 7f, 7g, 7h, 7i
Each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons. This is the reason why the
maximum number of electrons that can be in sublevel s is 2, in sublevel p is 6, in sublevel d is
10, in sublevel f is 14, in sublevel g is 18, in sublevel h is 22 and in sublevel i is 26.
Summary of energy levels, sublevels, orbitals, and maximum number of electrons in the
different energy levels:
Maximum Maximum
Main Energy Sublevel Number of Number Number
Level Orbitals of electrons of Electrons in
in the Sublevel Main Energy
Level
1 s 1 2 2
2 s 1 2
p 3 6 8
s 1 2
3 p 3 6 18
d 5 10
s 1 2
4 p 3 6 32
d 5 10
f 7 14
s 1 2
p 3 6
5 d 5 10 50
f 7 14
g 9 18
s 1 2
p 3 6
6 d 5 10 72
15
f 7 14
g 9 18
h 11 22
s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
7 f 7 14 98
g 9 18
h 11 22
i 13 26
The two electrons in a given orbital are said to have opposite spins; that is, apparently
each electron is spinning about its own axis. When an orbital is filled with its maximum of two
electrons, we say that the electrons are paired. When an orbital has only one electron in it, we
say that the electron is unpaired.
Occupancy of Sublevels and Orbitals
Within each energy level, the s sublevel is of lower energy than the p sublevel, which is
of lower energy than the d sublevel, and so on. But the orbital within a given set are all of equal
energy.
↑
↑
Increasing ↑ 2p
↑ 2s
energy ↑
1s
The electrons occupy orbitals starting with the lowest energy level and filling each to
capacity before the next is started. That is, the 1s orbital fills with two electrons, then the 2s fills
with two electrons, then the 2p fills with six, the 3s with two and finally the 3p with six and so
on. This is usually written as 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, and so on. This notation is sometimes designated as
the nlx notation where n represents the energy level; l, the sublevel; and x the number of
electrons.
Using the nlx notation , the electron configuration for the element 18, argon, would be
1s , 2s , 2p6, 3s2, 3p6 .
2 2
↑ _______________ 2p
sublevel
↑ ____________________
↑ Second energy level _______________ 2s
sublevel
↑
↑
↑ _________________________________________ 1s
sublevel
↑ First energy level
This order of occupancy of sublevels is called the aufbau order, which means building
up in German. The periodic table is arranged following this order.
In any atom, electrons occupy the lowest energy sublevels that are available. When one
sublevel is filled to capacity, the next lowest one begins to fill. This gives the arrangement of the
electrons in an atom in the lowest energy condition, called the ground state.
Problem 1: Give the complete electron configuration (using the nlx notation) for each of the
following:
a. N e. K i. Xe
b. Ne f. Ga j. Ba
c. Mg g. Se
d. Cl h. Sb
Problem 2. Give the electron configuration in the outermost energy level (using the nlx
notation) of the
given elements in problem 1.
The Pauli Exclusion Principle relates the four quantum numbers to the maximum
possible number of electrons in each orbital, sublevel, and energy level. This principle states that
no two electrons in any given atom can have exactly the same set of four quantum numbers. This
is another way of stating the fact that within any given orbital there can be two electrons with
opposite spins.
1. The Principal Quantum Number (n) – It specifies the energy level. It is a positive integral
value from
one on. It is related to the size of electron cloud or the general distance from the nucleus
for the
particular group of electrons.
2. The Secondary Quantum Number (l) - It can be any integral value which depend on the value
of n. It
is from 0 to (n – 1)
n l sublevel
1 0 s
2 0 and 1 s and p
3 0, 1 and 2 s, p and d
4 0, 1, 2 and 3 s, p, d and f
5 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 s, p, d, f, and g
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6 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 s, p, d, f, g and h
7 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 s, p, d, f, g, h and i
3. The Magnetic Quantum Number (m1) - The orbital which depends on the value of l. It is any
integral
Number from +l to –l including zero.
If l = 4, m1 are +4, +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3 and -4 (in the g sublevel)
If l = 5, m1 are +5, +4, +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3, -4 and -5 (in the h sublevel)
If l = 6, m1 are +6, +5, +4, +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, and -6 (in the I
sublevel)
4. The Spin Quantum Number ((ms). This(m1) can +1/2 or -1/2 which are of opposite spins.
Hund’s Rule
For any set of orbitals of equal energy, such as the set of 2p orbitals, it is found that there
is one electron in each orbital before there is any pairing. This is known as the Hund’s Rule.
If we represent the sublevels (set of orbitals) as boxes, or sets of boxes, and the electrons
with arrows, the orbital diagram for any atom can be shown as follows:
_____
____ ↓
Li (3) ↓ ↑ _____
_____ 2s
1s
_____
_____ ↓ ↑
Be (4) ↓ ↑ _____
_____ 2s
1s
______________
_____ ↓
↓ ↑ ______________
B (5) _____ _____ 2p
↓ ↑ 2s
_____
18
1s
______________
_____ ↓ ↓
↓ ↑ ______________
C (6) _____ _____ 2p
↓ ↑ 2s
_____
1s
____________
_____ ↓ ↓ ↓
↓ ↑ ___________
N (7) _____ _____ 2p
↓ ↑ 2s
_____
1s
______________
_____ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↓
↓ ↑ ______________
O (8) _____ _____ 2p
↓ ↑ 2s
_____
1s
______________
_____ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ ↓
↓ ↑ ______________
F (9) _____ _____ 2p
↓ ↑ 2s
_____
1s
_____________
_____ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑
Ne (10) _____ ↓ ↑ ______________
↓ ↑ ___ 2p
_____ 2s
1s
The electronic structure of the elements varies in a regular way with increasing atomic
number and there is a direct relationship between the electronic structure of an atom and the
properties of that atom.
In setting up the periodic table the aufbau order is followed, with the maximum number
of electrons going into each sublevel before the next one starts to fil l. Each time a new s
orbital or a new energy level, starts to fill, a new row across the table, called a period, is started.
After element 20 (calcium, Ca) a set of d orbitals (the 3d sublevel) fills, and the table is
split after element 20 in order to fit in this series of 10 elements. Also, after element 57
(lanthanum, La) there is another break in the table as the series of 4f orbitals (the 4f sublevel)
fills. Since this sublevel can hold a maximum of 14 electrons, this series contains 14 elements.
This gives the common long form of the periodic table. (Refer to your Periodic Table of
Elements)
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We can now use the periodic table to follow through the aufbau order and to determine
the electron configuration for any atom. The first two columns represent atoms in which
electrons are entering s orbitals. The last 6 columns represent atoms in which electrons are
entering the p orbitals. The 10 columns in the center in the table represent atoms in which
electrons are entering the d orbitlas. The s and p orbitals being filled going across any period
are in the outermost (last) energy level, the d orbitals are of one energy level lower and the f
orbitals are two energy levels lower than the highest energy level.
Example. For element 74 (tungsten, W), the electron configuration : 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2,
3p , 4s , 3d10, 4p6, 5s2, 4d10, 5p6, 6s2, 4f14, 5d4 or (Xe) , 6s2, 4f14, 5d4 indicates that the
6 2
outermost energy level occupied by the electrons in an atom of W is energy level 6 which tells
that W is in Period 6.
If the atomic number of the element is given, the electron configuration can be written
and its location in the periodic table can be determined. And if the location of the element in the
periodic table is known, its electron configuration can be written and its atomic number can be
determined. Also we can tell from the periodic table how many electrons are in the outermost
energy level and in what sublevels they are in. And using Hund’s Rule the number of electrons
that are unpaired can be determined also.
Note: The outermost energy level occupied by electrons in an atom of the element
correspond
to the Period where the element belong.
For elements in Family A, the total number of electrons in the outermost energy
level
correspond to the Group No. where the element belong.
Problem 4. Write the electron configuration of the elements whose location in the Periodic Table
are as
follows:
Problem 5. Given the atomic numbers of the following elements, determine their location in the
Periodic
Table. The answer will be based on the electron configuration of these elements. Just
look at
the Periodic table later to check if your answer is correct.
a. 7 e. 31 i. 83
b. 10 f. 34 j. 98
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c. 14 g. 38
d. 19 h. 53
Early in the nineteenth century, more and more elements were being discovered and their
properties determined. It was noticed that certain groups of elements had similar properties. This
led chemists of that time to try to classify into groups the elements that were similar.
1969: Lothar Meyer (1830-1895), a German chemist, devised a classification of the elements
into a table that accounted for the periodic variations in properties. His table included 56
elements.
The periodic tables of Meyer and Mendeleev were arranged in the order of increasing
atomic weights which is an error because this caused some elements to be misplaced in
the table. Cobalt and nickel for example. Nickel has a lower atomic weight than cobalt.
H.G. Moseley (1887-1915), after determining the charge of the nucleus concluded that
the elements should be arranged in order of increasing atomic number. This corrected the
earlier discrepancies of the periodic table.
This classification of the elements by atomic number is the basis of the periodic law,
which states that some of the physical and many of the chemical properties of the
elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.
Groups are the vertical columns in the periodic table of elements which are divided into
A and B subgroups.
The A subgroups are often called families due to the similarities of the elements
belonging to the same A subgroup. Some of these families are referred to by special
names as follows:
Types of Elements
Elements are classified into metal and nonmetals and also divided into four types:
representative elements, noble gases, transition elements, and inner transition elements.
Representative Elements - These are the elements in the A subgroups (IA through VIIA)
These elements, the outer energy level is incomplete and the
electrons occupy the s and p orbitals in going from one representative
element to the next.
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Na 3 IA 3s1
Noble Gases - They are the last group in the periodic table of elements. Each element
in these group has completely filled set of s and p orbitals. Thus, the
electron configuration for the outermost electrons is ns2 np6 or ns2 (n-
1)d10np6 or
ns2 (n-1)d10 (n-2)f14 np6. They have a total of 8 electrons in the outermost
energy
level.
Example: Kr in Period 4 has electron configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
Transition Elements - In these series of elements the set of d orbitals are being filled.
The outermost energy level will have the ns configuration except in VIB
and IB. There is (n-1)d1 through (n-1)d10 configuration along with this.
There are two incomplete energy levels, and thus there is more variation in
the properties of these elements than there is with the representative
elements. Note that the d orbitals are always one energy level lower than
the electrons in the s orbitals.
Inner Transition Elements -Includes the two series of elements fro 58 – 71 (Lanthanide Series)
and 90 – 103(Actinide Series) in which the set of f orbitals are being
filled.
These elements have three incomplete energy levels since one electron
enters a d orbital before the set of f orbitals begin filling.
Valence Electrons
The Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost energy level or valence shell of
the atom and are the ones that are used in forming compounds. For the representative elements
the number of valence electrons correspond to the group number. For representative elements,
it is often convenient to show the valence electrons in the atom by using what is called the kernel
notation, or an electron dot notation. In this notation the symbol of the element is used to
represent the nucleus and all inner electrons, and a dot is put in for each of the valence electrons.
. . . . .. .. ..
Example: Li. Be. .B. .C.
. . :N . . . :O. .. :F:
:Ne:
Differentiating Electron
The differentiating electron in an atom is the electron that makes that atom different
from the one before it in the periodic table. This can also be stated as the last electron added in
22
building up the periodic table following the aufbau order. The differentiating electron of Mg
makes it different from Na and of K makes it different from Ar.
Representative s or p
Transition d (with some exceptions)
Inner Transition f (with severalexceptions)
Periodic Variations
Metallic Properties
Within any period in the table, the elements become less metallic, or more
nonmetallic, going across the period from left to right.
Within a group or family, metallic properties increase in going down the group.
Period 2 B C N O F Ne
Period 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Period 4 K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Period 5 Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Period 6 Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Period 7 Fr Ra
Na – the most metallic element in Period 3 Pb – the most metallic element in Group
IVA
Atomic Size
Going across any period in the table, there is a small but rather general decrease in
size of the atomic radius. This is due to the fact that going across a period the valence
electrons are all in the same energy level, or the same general distance from the
nucleus, but in proceeding from one element to the next the nuclear charge (number
of protons) increase by one.
Going down any group in the table there is a rather large increase in atomic size
even though there is increase in nuclear charge. This large increase in atomic size is
due to increase in number of energy levels.
Problem: Using the periodic table, arrange the following elements in order of
decreasing
size: Br, Sr, Sn, I, Cs, Ba
An ion is an atom that has gained or lost electrons. Since an electron has a negative
charge, when an atom loses one electron, it attains a charge of plus one (+1). Likewise, when
two electrons are lost from an atom, it becomes an ion with a plus two (+2) charge. Metal atom
loses electron/s so that there is a relatively large decrease in size due to the decrease in energy
level by one.
If an atom gains one electron, it becomes an ion with a charge of minus one (-1) and if it
gains two electrons it will have a charge of minus two (-2). Atoms of nonmetals gain electrons
so that there is a rather large increase in size due to the repulsion of the electrons from one
another.
Problem: In each of the following sets, encircle which will be the smallest:
Ionization Energy
Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom
or ion.
Third ionization energy is the amount of energy required to removed the second electron
from the ion formed. It is higher than the second ionization energy. Note that once the noble gas
configuration is attained, such as in the case of Na+1, Mg+2, and Be+2, the next ionization energy
is very high. This explains why once a noble gas configuration is attained, no more electron
can be removed from an atom by simple chemical reaction.
Example: Al+2 + 3rd I.E. → Al+3 + 1e-1
If we compare the first ionization energies for the atoms going across a period, there is
a rather general increase. This is due to the fact that the electron being removed are at the same
energy level but there is a greater nuclear charge holding that electron. There are only two places
where there is a decrease in going across a period; that is, in going from group IIA to IIIA and
from VA to VIA, the ionization energy decreases.
24
Going down the group in the table, the first ionization energy decreases from one atom
to the next. This is due to the fact that the valence electron being remove is at a higher energy
level or greater distance from the nucleus, so it is easier to remove.
Electron Affinity
Electron affinity is the amount of energy released when an atom gains an electron.
Going across a period from left to right for the nonmetals, such as from nitrogen to
oxygen to fluorine, the electron affinity increases. As with atomic size and ionization energy,
this is due to the fact that the valence electrons are in the same energy level but the nuclear
charge becomes greater so that more energy is released when an electron is added to the valence
shell.
In going down a group of nonmetals, such as the halogens (Group VIIA), the electron
affinity decreases. This is due to the fact that going down the group the valence electrons are
farther from the nucleus and, therefore, not as much energy is released when an electron is added
into the valence shell.
Electronegativity
The electronegativity of an atom is defined as the general tendency of that atom to attract
electrons toward itself in a compound. This is determined from the ionization energies and the
electron affinities. The most commonly used table for electronegativities is that arranged by
Linus Pauling, which is referred to the Pauling scale. This concept of electronegativity is very
useful in writing names and formulas for compounds and predicting the type of bonding in
compounds and polarity of bonds and molecules.
There is an increase in electronegativity going across a period from left to right and a
decrease in going down a group.
The valence of an atom describes the combining power of that atom in a compound.
Another related concept, which is even more useful, is the concept oxidation number or
oxidation state. This is a positive or negative value that not only describes the combining
capacity of an atom but also gives an indication of how the electrons are arranged in the
compound.
1. The oxidation number of an element in the free or uncombined state is always zero.
2. The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in the formula for a
compound is zero.
3. The oxidation number of an ion is the same as the charge on the ion.
4. The sum of the oxidation numbers of the atoms in a polyatomic ion must equal the
charge on the ion.
5. Some common oxidation numbers:
a. Group IA elements are always +1.
b. Group IIA elements are always +2.
c. Hydrogen is usually +1, except in hydrides (ionic compounds with IA and
IIA elements); then it is -1.
d. Oxygen is usually -2, except in peroxides such as H2O2 and Na2O2 ; then it is -
1 (in superoxides, such as KO2 , it is -1/2).
25
Binary compounds are compounds containing only two kinds of atoms or elements.
Ternary or higher compounds are compounds containing more than three kinds of atoms
or
elements.
Polyatomic ions are charge particles containing two or more kinds of atoms or elements.
Excersise: Using the general rules, determine and assign the oxidation state of the elements in
the following formulas:
Chemical Bonds
Ionic Bond
Ionic or electrovalent bond is formed when one or more electrons are transferred from
one atom to another. This forms a positive ion and a negative ion, which are held together by an
electrostatic attraction. Each positive ion is surrounded by negative ions and each negative ion is
surrounded by positive ions. For example, in an ionic compound sodium chloride, the formula
NaCl, does not indicate that one sodium ion combines with one chloride ion but only that the
ratio of sodium to chloride ions is one Na+1 to one Cl-1.
Elements may give or take in electrons and become stable by having 8 electrons in the
last energy level. This is called the Octet Rule. However, some exceptions are observed. For
example, Group IV metals like tin (Sn) and lead (Pb) can usually give away 2 electrons only
because of the high energy required to remove the next two.
In forming monatomic ions, the metals can lose one, two or possibly three electrons to
form cations with a charge of +1, +2 or +3; however a charge of either +3 or -3 is quite rare.
1. IA metals can lose one electron and form cations with a charge of +1.
2. IIA metals can lose two electrons and form cations with a charge of +2.
3. The aluminum can lose three electrons and form a cation with a charge of +3.
For the IA metals, IIA metals and aluminum, the ions formed always have a noble gas
configuration; that is, these metals lose all their valence electrons in forming cations.
In forming monatomic ions the nonmetals always gain enough electrons to attain a noble
gas configuration. These atoms will always gain one, two or possible three electrons in forming
monatomic ions such as:
1. Nonmetals in Group VIIA can gain one electron to have the configuration of the noble gas
next to them (eight electrons in the last energy level)
2. Nonmetals in Group VIA can gain two electrons to have the configuration of the noble
gas having eight electrons in the last energy level.
Example: S + 2e-1 → S-2
N + 3e-1 → N-3
Covalent Bond
In forming these covalent bonds, the new orbital formed is sometimes referred to as a
molecular orbital which is simply overlapping of atomic orbitals. Three things that should be
considered in formation of covalent bond:
1. The new orbital is formed by the overlap of atomic orbitals of different atoms.
2. Electrons occupy the new orbitals in pairs.
3. Only valence electrons are used to form the bond. Inner electrons are bound too
strongly to their own ato to be used in bond formation.
Polarity of Molecules
The polarity of molecules refers to whether the electron clouds that make up the various
bonds are equally distributed or not.
1. polar molecule or dipole – it is a molecule with one part more positive and the other
part more negative or the electrons are not shared equally by the atoms. This is true
when the difference in the electronegativity of the atoms is 0.6 to 1.5.
A difference in electronegativity above 1.5 is true only between a metal and a nonmetal
and the compound is said to be an ionic compound.
Problem 1. Place a (+) above the atom or atoms that are relatively positive and a (-)
above the
atom or atoms that are relatively negative in the following covalent bonded
molecules:
Problem 2. Arrange each of the following groups in the order of increasing polarity:
Problem 3. By using the Periodic Table of Elements predict the type of chemical
bonding that will occur between two atoms: If covalent also identify if polar or nonpolar.
28
In many compounds there are eight electrons, or four pairs, around each atom, just as
there are in a noble gas(hydrogen, of course , only has two, like the noble gas helium). Therefore,
the formation of a complete octet, or a noble gas electron configuration, seem to be a very strong
driving force in the formation of molecules.
In representing a molecule, for purposes of describing the bonding, the first step is to
show how the electron pairs are arranged within the molecule. This is done by using what is
called a Lewis structure or electron dot formula. In drawing these the symbol for each element
is used to represent the nucleus and all the inner electrons. The valence electrons are then shown
as dots around the symbol. All the valence electrons in the molecule are arranged in such a way
that each atom has eight electrons around it, except hydrogen , which has only two.
The following are the general rules that are helpful in drawing the Lewis structure:
1. Arrange the atoms in the most probable arrangement, from the formula of the compound.
Example: For CO2, C is in the center with the two O atoms around it.
O C O
2. Count up and use the total number of valence electrons that are available- no more and no
less.
:O :: C ::O:
There are two types of covalent bonds: the sigma (σ) and pi (π) bonds. A sigma bond is
the first bond formed between atoms in a covalent compound. It is formed by the direct, or head-
on, overlap of orbitals and is thus the strongest bond and the one that determines the shape of
29
the molecule. The new orbital formed is an electron cloud surrounding the two nuclei. The
figure below shows representation of a sigme (σ) bond formed by the overlap of two s orbitals
and also one formed by the overlap of two p orbitals. When two electrons occupy this new
orbital, a sigma covalent bond has been formed.
A pi (π) bond is formed after the sigma (σ) bond; that is, it is the second (or third) bond
formed between two atoms. This is formed by the sideways overlap of p orbitals (or sometimes p
and d). This is a weaker bond than a sigma bond since there is a nodel plane (zero electron
probability density) along the internuclear axis, as shown below.
There is also a third type of bond, called a delta (∆) bond, which is formed by the overlap of d
orbitals.
The formation of the H2 molecule was used as an example of a sigma bond between two s
orbitals as shown below.
For the molecules, O2 and N2, the formation of the sigma and pi bond can be seen from their
Lewis structure. In the Lewis structure of O2, there are two bonds between the two oxygen
atoms:
.. ..
O::O
.. ..
Therefore there is one sigma bond and one pi bond. These can be thought of as being formed by
overlap of p orbitals on the oxygen atoms. The first bond formed would be the sigma bond,
formed by the direct overlap of two p orbitals, such as the px . Then the pi bond could be formed
by the sideways overlap of py orbitals.
The Lewis structure for shows that there must be a triple bond between the two atoms:
.. ..
N:::N
Therefore, there is one sigma and two pi bonds. These can be taught of as being formed from the
three p orbitals on the nitrogen atoms, with the lone pair in each case being in an s orbital. The
figure below shows the formation of the sigma bond by the direct overlap of the px orbitals and
the pi bonds by the overlap of the py and pz orbitals. Keep in mind that, as with atomic orbitals,
these clouds do not represent solid boundaries. Therefore, the overall electron cloud around the
molecule is cylindrical, just as the combination of all the three p orbitals in a set gives a spherical
electron cloud.
Formation of
sigma and pi
bonds in oxygen, Fig. 7-6 (Page 158)
O2, molecule and
Nitrogen, N2,
molecule
30
This type of bonding can be considered to be somewhat between ionic and covalent bonding;
that is, the valence electrons are not transferred from one atom to another and are not shared
between any two atoms in a molecular orbital but are free to move about among the various
electron clouds.
Therefore, in metals the forces of attraction that must be overcome to convert from the
solid to the liquid state, or from the liquid to the gas state, are quite strong. Of course, these
attractive forces vary from one metal to another but in general they are quite strong.
One method used to explain and predict the geometry of molecules is to consider the
repulsion of electron pairs around the central atom. Since electrons all have a negative charge,
the electron clouds will repel each other and they separate as far apart as possible. Keep in mind
the two things about this. First, a double or triple bond acts like a single group since it
represents pairs of electrons between two atoms. Also, the nonbonding or lone pairs around the
central atom must also be considered since they also consist of electron clouds.
Since the repulsion of the electrons in the valence shell is being considered, this is called the
valence shell electron pair repulsion theory or the VSEPR Theory.
In using the VSEPR Theory or model to describe molecular geometry. First draw a Lewis
structure. From this Lewis structure, count the number of pairs, or groups of pairs for multiple
bonds, that will determine the arrangement of the electron pairs. These are often called
stereoactive pairs. For example in the Lewis structure of water and ammonia each have four
stereoactive pairs, SO2 (O::S:O:) and NO2-1
31
:O:
..
:O:: N:O: each have three, and CO (O::C::O) has two.
Two factors must be kept in mind here: First, we are considering stereoactive pairs around the
cental atom; second, we count bonding and lone pairs, but we only count a double or triple bond
as one.
Another way of determining stereoactive pairs, which gives exactly the same results, is to count
the sigma bonding and nonbonding pairs around the central atom.
From the number of stereoactive pairs around the central atom, we can predict how these pairs
will arrange themselves, to get as far apart as possible. Then we consider which pairs actually
form bons and predict the bond angles in the molecule. If there are nonbonding pairs of electrons
present, the bond angles are less than they would be if all pairs were bonding. This is due to the
fact that a lone (nonbonding) pair is “spread out” more than a bonding pair, which is held
between the two nuclei. The arrangement of these lone pairs can only be inferred since there is
no way of measuring the angles between an atom a lone pair of electrons.
There are five types of arrangement that must be considered around the central atom as shown in
the Tables 1 and 2 below. Table 1 includes the cases where there are 8 electrons around the
central atom, and Table 2 shows those that have more than 8. Note in the examples in Table 1
that there are four pairs of electrons around the central atom,but in some cases one or two of
these pairs are “pi” bonding pairs, and hence, are not stereoactive. Also, in both tables it should
be noted that the first column gives the theoretical arrangement of electron apirs around the
central atom for a particular type. However, if there are lone (nonbonding) pairs, this does not
give the shape of the molecule. For example, with three stereoactive pairs around the central
atom, if all three are sigma bonding pairs, the angles in the molecule are 120o. However, if there
is one lone pair and two bonding pairs, the molecule just has a V shape, with the angles less that
120o. The illustrations which follows shows some molecules, using the information given in
Tables 1 and 2.
Fig 7-8 (page 160) Table 7-1 (page 161) Table 7-1 (page 162-163)
The attractive forces between particles are very important in considering the liquid and
solid states. There are five types of attractive force that we shall consider: ionic, dipole, van der
waals, metallic and covalent.
2. Dipole Attraction - this is the attractive force between atoms in covalent compounds,
where one of the molecule has a partial positive charge and another part has a partial
negative charge. The positive portion of one molecule will be attracted toward the
negative portion of another. The more polar the compound is, the greater these forces of
attraction will be. Therefore within this class of polar covalent compounds there is
considerable variation between the attractive forces. This causes variation in the
properties such as melting and boiling points.
3. Van de Waals Forces - these are weak forces of attraction between the particles in a
Completely nonpolar substance, such as oxygen (O2), hydrogen(H2) , or helium gas. In
the gas state these forces are negligible; but as the gas is cooled down and compressed, it
eventually becomes a liquid. In this state there must be some force of attraction in order
to hold the particles together, the van der Waals forces or London dispersion forces.
Since the number of electrons in a substance increases with the formula weight, the van
der Waals forces also increase increase with increasing formula weight. The properties of
liquids and solids that depend on the force of attraction between particles (such as
melting and boiling point) vary with formula weight for all substances but that this
variation is most noticeable for nonpolar substances.
4. Metallic Bond - this is generally considered to consist of a group of positive ions and a
sea of
electrons, which are free to move about among the ions. This accounts for the general
properties of metals, such as their ability to conduct an electric current. For example, in a
piece of sodium metal the “ions” are held in a fixed position and the valence electrons
(one from each sodium atom) are free to move about among the various electron clouds
as in the figure below.
5. Hydrogen bond – an electrostatic attraction between the hydrogen atoms in one water
molecule
and the oxygen atoms in another water molecule. It is a much weaker bond than the
covalent bonds within the water molecule but it is sufficiently strong to have a
considerable effect on the properties of water.
6. Covalent Bond - this last type attractive force, the covalent bond, exist between atoms
in a
macromolecular substance, such as a diamond. A macromolecular substance is
considered to
be one large molecule. The attractive forces that must be overcome to melt or boil one of
these
substances are the covalent bonds between the atoms. These attractive forces are
extremely great and it takes a very high temperature to melt a substance of this type.
33
POLYATOMIC IONS
1. Only elements with positive oxidation numbers can unite with elements with negative
oxidation numbers.
2. The symbol of the element with a positive oxidation number is written before the
symbol of the element with a negative oxidation number.
3. The number of atoms of a given element in a formula is represented by a subscript. If
no subscript appears, one atom is represented.
1. Write the symbols of the elements and their corresponding oxidation numbers. The
oxidation numbers are not part of the formula but are only used to check that the
algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in the formula is zero.
2. If the positive and negative oxidation numbers are numerically equal, this means that
the atoms exist in the compound in a 1:1 ratio. The correct formula is correctly
written by removing the oxidation numbers since they are not part of the chemical
formula.
3. If the positive and the negative oxidation numbers are not numerically equal, alter the
number of atoms in such a way that the algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all
atoms in the formula becomes zero. This is done by putting a subscript to the symbol
of the element.
4. The cations or anion (be they single or polyatomic) should always exist together to
form a ratio in a molecule in such a way that the total positive charge is equal to the
total negative charge. When more than one polyatomic ions are in a formula unit, a
parenthesis and a subscript are used.
Note that compounds whose names end with “ide” maybe binary compounds,
hydroxides or cyanides. Ammonium compounds and compounds whose names end with “ate” or
“ite” are ternary or higher compounds.
3. calcium fluoride Ca+2F-1 (+2 and -1 are not numerically equal) CaF2
4. ferric oxide Fe +3O-2 (+3 and -2 are not numerically equal) Fe2O3
Write the formula of the ions and the formula of the following compounds:
The names and formulas of inorganic compounds are written in such a way that every
compound can be named from its formula, and each formula has a name peculiar to that formula.
The more positive portion (less electronegative or that which has lower electronegativity) is
written and named first. The more positive portion can be a metal, a positive polyatomic ion, a
hydrogen ion, or simply the less electronegative portion of the compound. The more negative
portion is written and named last. This can be an anion or simply the more electronegative ion.
All binary compounds take an –ide ending on the last element named.
a. Hydrogen and another nonmetal. If two nonmetals combine to form only one
compound, the compound is simply named by writing the name of the second element with an –
ide ending. Compound of this type contain hydrogen with another nonmetal.
b. Two nonmetals other than hydrogen. If more than one binary compound can be
formed by two nonmetals, Greek prefixes are used with each element. The prefix mono is not
used with the first element.
mono- 1 hexa- 6
di- 2 hepta- 7
tri- 3 octa- 8
tetra- 4 nona- or ennea- 9
penta- 5 deca- 10
Some binary compounds of two nonmetals have common names, such as water
for H2O and ammonia for NH3 (ammonia is an exception to the general rule that the most
positive part is written first).
The metal is always written first, in both the name and the formula. The nonmetal takes the –ide
ending as with other binary compounds. There are two types of metals: metals with fixed (only
one) oxidation number and those with variable (more than one) oxidation number.
The metals with fixed oxidation numbers are the IA metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs and Fr)
and IIA metals (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Ra), plus Al, Zn and Ag. All other metals have variable
oxidation numbers. The names of compounds in which the metal has a fixed oxidation number
are simply written followed by the –ide ending nonmetal. The Greek prefixes are not used in
these compounds.
Except for IA metals, IIA metals, aluminum, zinc and silver, all metals have variable
oxidation numbers. There are two methods of naming compounds containing metals having
variable oxidation numbers. The classical system and the stock system.
In the classical system, an –ic ending is used on the name of the metal for the highest
oxidation state and an –ous ending is used for the lowest. Also the Latin name is used for iron
(ferric and ferrous), copper (cupric and cuprous), tin (stannic and stannous) and lead (plumbic
and plumbous). But this naming don’t tell us the actual oxidation state. It only indicates the
highest and lowest oxidation state. And for metals having more than two possible oxidation
states, it cannot be used.
The newer Stock system or Roman numeral system, is more accurate. In this system, the
actual oxidation number of the metal is indicated by a Roman numeral in parentheses
immediately following the name of the metal.
Before the compound containing metals with variable oxidation number is named, the
actual oxidation state of the metal must be determined.
Examples:
The third method that can be used for this type of compounds is to use the Greek
prefixes. This is not recommended but sometimes used. For example, PbO 2 could be named as
lead dioxide.
There are few other compounds that take an –ide ending, like binary compounds. These
include the following:
a. Ammonium (NH4+) compounds – in these the NH4+ ion acts like a simple metal ion.
b. Cyanides (CN - ) – here the CN- ion acts like a simple nonmetal anion.
4. Binary Acids
Substances that produce H+ ion in solution are acids. A binary compound composed of
hydrogen with a more electronegative element (the nonmetal) can act as a binary acid, when in
water solution. For example when the gas hydrogen chloride (HCl) is placed in water solution, it
becomes hydrochloric acid.
Binary acids are named with the prefix hydro- is added and the –ide ending is replaced
by –ic acid.
Examples:
5. Hydroxides
These are inorganic compounds that contain the –OH group. They are commonly called
bases, alkalies, or just hydroxides. To write the correct formula of these compounds it must be
remembered that the –Oh group has a -1 charge.
Acids that contain more than two elements always contain oxygen along with the
hydrogen, and thus often referred to oxyacids.
Since the hydrogen ion (H+) has a +1 charge, the charge on the oxyanion is equal to the
number of hydrogen ions that can be produced by a molecule of the acid.
38
An –ous acid always forms an –ite oxyanion or salt; an –ic acid always forms an –ate ion
or salt.
Examples:
. .
Ternary Acid Oxyanion
.
. Formula Name Formula
Name .
. H2SO3 sulfurous acid SO3-2 sulfite
.
. H2SO4 sulfuric acid SO4-2 sulfate
.
. HNO2 nitrous acid NO2-1
nitrite .
. HNO3 nitric acid NO3-1
nitrate .
. H2CO3 CO3-2
carbonate.
. H3PO3 PO3-3
.
. H3PO4 PO4-3
.
. HClO hypochlorous acid ClO-1
hypochlorite .
. HClO2 chlorous acid ClO2-1
chlorite .
. HClO3 chloric acid ClO 3-1
chlorate .
. HClO4 perchloric acid ClO 4-1
perchlorate.
. HMnO MnO-1 .
. HMnO2 MnO2-1 .
. HMnO3 MnO3-1 .
. HMnO4 MnO4-1 .
A salt is formed when one or more of the hydrogen ions of an acid is replaced by a cation
(metal or a positive polyatomic ion)
Examples:
. .
. Acid Salt ,
. Formula Name Formula
Name .
. H2SO3 sulfurous acid K2SO3 potassium sulfite
.
. CuSO3 copper(II) sulfite
.
. HCl hydrochloric acid MgCl2
magnesium chloride
. H3PO4
.
. H2CO3 .
HNO2 .
or when one or more of the hydroxide ions of a base or alkali is replaced by an anion(nonmetal
or negative polyatomic ion).
Examples: . .
. Base or Alkali Salt .
. Formula Name Formula Name
.
39
7. Acid Salts - these are salts of polyproticacids (acids with more than one replaceable H+ ion,
like for example H3PO4, H2SO3 , etc) in which one or more hydrogen atoms remain in the salt. In
naming them, hydrogen is added to the name of the oxyanion. Sometimes a prefix bi- or acid is
used in the place of hydrogen. If there are
Examples:
Polyprotic Acid Acid Salt
Formula Name Formula Name
H2SO4 Sulfuric acid NaHSO4 sodium hydrogen
sulfate
or sodium bisulfate
or sodium acid sulfate
. H3PO4. phosphoric acid K 2HPO4 potassium hydrogen
phosphate
KH2PO4 potassium dihydrogen
phosphate
8. Mixed Salts - these are salts that contain two cations, the one with the lower charge is
usually written and named first.
Examples: KCaPO4 - potassium calcium phosphate
NaCaPO4 - sodium calcium phosphate
Na2Ca(SO4)2 - disodium calcium sulfate
Chemical Equations
The Law of Conservation of Mass (Matter) states that, in a chemical reaction, mass
(matter) is neither created nor destroyed.
A chemical equation shows what elements or compounds are reacting (reactants) and
what new elements or compounds are being formed (products). In order to obey the law of
conservation of mass, there must be exactly the same number of each atom on each side of a
correct chemical equation. If there is exactly the same number of each atom on each side of the
equation, the chemical equation is balanced. An equation is not correct until it is balanced.
reactants - are substances that are originally present before the chemical reaction or
chemical
40
a. (g) for gas, or in some cases if the gas is a product, an arrow pointing upward
after
the formula is used, such as CO(g) or CO↑.
b. (l) for liquid, such as H2O(l) .
c. (s) for solid, or if the solid is a product, sometimes an arrow pointing down
after the
formula for that product, or the product can be underlined, such as FeS(s),
FeS↓
or FeS.
d. (aq) for a substance in aqueous (water) solution, such as NaCl(aq) .
Balancing chemical equations are done by simply putting in whatever numbers are
needed to obtain the same number of atoms on each side of the equation. The first and most
important rule to remember is that the formulas are never changed in balancing an equation.
1. Write the correct formula for the reactants and the products, with the reactants on the
left and the products on the right separated by → . Each reactant and each product is separated
from each other by a + sign. Once the correct formula is written, it must not be changed during
the subsequent balancing operation.
2. Start with the more complex parts- that is, the compounds that have several elements
in them. In some cases, it is just a matter of balancing all atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen
first.
3. Balance hydrogen and oxygen by putting in water, if necessary, after all other
elements have been balanced.
4. Leave any elements in the free state until last since changing the coefficients on these
only changes that one kind of atom. For example, when a 2 is placed before H2O, it doubles the
number of H atoms and O atoms, but when a 2 is placed before Al, it only changes the number of
Al atoms.
5. For reactions involving polyatomic ions, balance the ion as a group. For example, with
SO4-2, balance as sulfate ion, not as S atoms and O atoms.
6. Generally, if reactions appear in an equation, we multiply everything by the smallest
number that will eliminate the fraction. It is not essential to remove the fractions, however, it is
just more simple in most cases. Also, make sure at the end that all coefficients are in the lowest
possible ratio; if they are not, simplify to make them so.
Examples:
41
Combination reaction - two or more substances (either elements or compounds) react to form
one
product.
For metals with fixed oxidation number, the product can always be
predicted.
But for metals with variable oxidation numbers, the final product depends on
the
reaction conditions, and generally more information is needed to predict the
product.
Decomposition Reaction - one compound decomposes or breaks down to form two or more
new
substances. The products formed can be either elements or compounds.
3. A few metal oxide decompose when heated to form the free metal and oxygen
gas.
∆
Example: 2HgO(s) → 2Hg(l) + O2(g)
4. Most carbonates, when heated, decompose to form oxides and CO2(g)
∆
Example: CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
5. Most hydrogen carbonates (bicarbonates), when heated, decompose to form
an
oxide plus water and CO2(g). Example: Ca(HCO3)2(s)→CaO(s)+ H2O(g)
+ CO2(g)
6. Water can be broken down into hydrogen gas and oxygen gas by a direct
electric
current, according to the following equation:
direct
2H2O(g) → 2H2(g) + O2(g)
Current
Replacement (displacement) reactions - a metal replaces another metal ion from a solution.
In order
for the reaction to take place, the free metal must be more active than the metal that is in
solution. The arrangement of metals from the most active to the least active is called the
electromotive
series or the activity series. The activity series is written at the margin of this page.
Li
K
Examples: 1. Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Ba
2. FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s) → no reaction (Cu is less active than Fe)
Ca
3. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → H2(g) + ZnCl2(aq) (Zn is above H)
Na
4. A very active metal, such as sodium, will displace hydrogen gas
Mg
43
from water. But only one of the hydrogen atoms is displaced, due
Al
to the slight amount of hydrogen ion formed from the H-OH
Zn
molecule) Fe
Cd
There are also replacement reactions involving nonmetals. For example for the halogens,
Ni
the series would be fluorine-chlorine-bromine-iodine; that is, free chlorine will displace
Sn
bromine from the compound, and bromine will displace iodine from a compound. The
Pb
activity of nonmetals is related to their ability to gain electrons and form negative ions,
(H)
whereas the activity of metals is related to their tendency to lose electrons to form
positive Cu
ions. In writing replacement reactions involving the halogens (group VIIA elements),
keep Hg
in mind that in the free state all the halogens exist as diatomic molecules. Ag
Au
Examples: 1. Cl2(s) + 2NaBr(aq) → 2NaCl(ag) + Br2(aq)
Metathesis (or double displacement) reaction - two compounds react to form two new
compounds. I
In general, these involve ions, and the positive ions exchange partners with the negative
ions to
form the two new compounds. In many of these reactions an insoluble substance is
formed.
Therefore to predict the products formed here, you must be familiar with some common
solubility
rules. The solubility rules can be summarized as follows:
Neutralization reaction - an acid or acid oxide (nonmetal oxide) reacts with a base or basic
oxide
(metal oxide). A salt is formed in the reaction, and for most of these, water is also
formed.
Oxidation-Reduction Reaction
The chemical equation in which there are changes in oxidation numbers (or oxidation
state) of the reactants are called oxidation-reduction or, sometimes more simply, redox
equations. Some of the simple types of reactions, combination, decomposition, and replacement
reactions actually involved oxidation and reduction. In general, however, these redox equations
are not so simple and thus cannot be balanced by inspection.
The term oxidation does not only refer to reactions with oxygen but has been expanded to
include any chemical reaction in which a substance increases in oxidation state by losing
electrons. Therefore, we define oxidation and reduction as follows:
1. Oxidation is any chemical change in which a substance loses electrons and thus
increases in oxidation state. For example, when a Zn atom loses two electrons to
become a Zn+2 ion, the zinc has increased in oxidation state (from 0 to +2):
Zn → Zn+2 + 2 e-
S + e- → S-2
In a given reaction, whenever one substance is oxidized, it loses electrons to another
substance, which is thereby reduced; that is, oxidation is always accompanied by reduction.
Hence those equations are called oxidation-reduction equations or often, more simply, redox.
electrons lost = 2
Example of a Redox Equation: Zn0 + S0 → Zn+2 S-2
e- gained = 2
reduction
45
The Zn is the reducing agent and the S is the oxidizing agent. This is therefore an example of an
oxidation-reduction equation. It is important to keep in mind when considering equations of this
type that there must be both oxidation and reduction taking place. Electrons cannot be lost
(oxidation) by one substance unless they are being gained (reduction) by something else.
In balancing a redox reaction, balance the number of atoms of each element on both sides
of the equation and the number of electrons lost or gained by the elements. This method of
balancing redox equations can be used for both molecular and ionic equations. The following are
some guidelines to follow in balancing redox equations.
Loss of e- or oxidation
Gain of e- or reduction
3. Separate the oxidation and reduction processes. Then balance the number of atoms in
the reactants and products by altering the number of molecules.
o +1 -2
H2 → H2O Oxidation (loss of electrons)
+2 -2 o
Cu O → Cu Reduction (gain of electrons)
4. Get the number of electrons lost in the oxidation process and the number of electrons
gained
in the reduction process according to the formula:
No. of e- = (no. of lost or gained per atom) x (no. of atoms per formula unit)
o +1 -2
H2 → H2O Oxidation (loss of electrons)
No. of e- lost = 1 x 2 = 2 e-
0 +1
+2 -2 o
Cu O → Cu Reduction (gain of electrons)
No. of e- gained = 2 x 1 = e-
+2 0
5. Balance the number of electrons lost and the number of electrons gained by altering
the
Number of molecules.
o +2 -2 +1 -2 o
H2 + Cu O → H2O + Cu
46
2 e- lost
2 e- gained
6. Balance by inspection the other elements which do not change in oxidation number.
Then,
check the number of atoms of each element on the left and right sides of the equation.
H2 + Cu O → H2O + Cu
Exercises:
The elements, compounds and chemical equations are being considered in performing
quantitative calculations. It makes use of concepts of formula (molecular) weight and moles, as
well as the factor unit method of calculations.
Percent is defined as parts per hundred, or a fraction of one hundred. For example if a
compound contains 15 grams of oxygen in 100 grams of compound, the substance contains 15%
oxygen by mass. In general percent is taken to mean by mass unless some other units are
specified, such as volume percent.
Any type of mass unit can be used to calculate percentage; that is, to find the percent
composition of a compound we can use either units such as atomic mass unit (amu) or other
mass units such as grams. For example, to calculate the percent of hydrogen and oxygen in
water, we can simply use the relative masses of the elements and the total relative mass, called
the formula weight, or we can consider the mass of 1 mole and use the common unit grams. In
either case, the percent composition of water (H2O)would be calculated as follows:
2.0 amu
H = 1.0 amu x 2 = 2.0 amu %H= x 100 = 11% H
O = 16.0 amu x 1 = 16.0 amu 18.0 amu
16.0 g
%O= x 100 = 89% O
18.0 g
Example Problem 2. It is found that 8.25 g of a metal combine with oxygen to form
17.80 g of
metal oxide. Calculate the percent of etal and oxygen in the
compound.
Solution: Since the compound contain only the two elements, metal
and
oxygen, the mass of oxygen is 17.80 g – 8.25 g = 9.55 g.
Therefore, the percent of metal (M) and oxygen (O) is
calculated as
Example Problem 1. How many grams of sulfur will combine with 15.0 g of Zn to form
ZnS?
1 mol Zn 1 mol S 32.1 g S
Solution: grams S = 15.0 g Zn x x x =
7.36 g
65.4 g Zn 1 mol Zn 1 mol S
Example Problem 2. How many grams of oxygen are there in 2.5 moles of Ca(NO3)2?
6 mol O atoms 16 g O atoms
Solution: 2.5 mol Ca(NO3)2 x X = 240
g 1 mol Ca(NO3)2 1 mol O atoms
Or
164 g Ca(NO3)2 96 g O atoms
2.5 moles Ca(NO3)2 x X
1 mol Ca(NO3)2 164 g Ca(NO3)2
= 240 g O atoms
The empirical formula of a compound gives the smallest whole number ratio of atoms
that make up the compound. This can be determined from the percent composition of the
compound or from the experimentally determined mass relationships of elements that make up
the compound.
The molecular formula of the compound is the true formula and shows the actual number
of atoms of each element present in one molecule of the compound. For example the empirical
formula of hydrogen peroxide is HO; however the actual molecular formula is found to be H2O2.
Both the empirical and molecular formulas for a compound are obtained from
experimental evidence. For majority of inorganic compounds, the molecular formula and the
empirical formula turn out to be the same. For organic compounds, however, this is very often
not the case.
To calculate the empirical formula of a compound, the following steps are carried out:
1. If not given directly, find out the relative number of grams of each element present
from the percentage composition of the compound by considering a total of 100 grams of the
compound.
2. Convert each of these quantities in grams to moles of atoms, using the atomic weight
of the element.
3. Convert the ratio of numbers obtained to the smallest possible whole numbers. One
way of doing this is to divide through by the smallest value and to multiply by what number is
necessary to obtain whole numbers.To calculate the molecular formula from the empirical
formula, the molecular weight must be known. This is done by adding all the relative masses of
the atoms in an empirical formula and dividing this total into the molecular weight. This tells
how many of the empirical units are present in one molecule. For example, the empirical formula
for hydrogen peroxide HO and the molecular weight is known to be 34. The relative mass of one
empirical formula is 1 + 16 is 17, and 34 : 17 is 2. Therefore, there are two of these empirical
units in one molecule, and thus the molecular formula is H2O2.
Problem Example. The compound is found to contain 27.3% carbon, 4.55% hydrogen,
and 36.4
% oxygen. The molecular weight is found to be 99.0. Calculate the
molecular weight.
Using the balanced chemical equations, the amount of materials produced or required in
a given
reaction can be calculated. A balance chemical equation can be interpreted in terms of atoms and
molecules, or in terms of moles. For example a balanced chemical equation,
can be read as 2 moles of hydrogen gas combine with 1 mole of oxygen gas to form 2 moles of
liquid water. The following relationships that can be obtained from the above equation are:
2 mol H2 = 1 mol O2
2 mol H2 = 2 mol H2O or 1 mol H2 = 1 mol H2O
1 mol O2 = 2 mol H2O
Problem Example1. Calculate the number of moles of NaOH that are necessary to produce 7.5
moles of
Na2SO4 from the reaction
= 15 mol NaOH
Limiting reagent
In general when a chemical reaction is carried out, one of the reagents will be used in
excess of the amount needed. The reagent that is not present in excess is the one that will
determine how much product can be obtained and is thus referred to as the limiting reagent. The
following are the steps that can be used in doing calculations to …
1. Calculate the number of moles of product that could be obtained for each reagent
given.
50
2. The reagent that gives the least number of moles of product is the limiting reagent
and is the
one that will determine the theoretical yield in the reaction.
3. Next the moles of theoretical yield are converted to any other desired units, such as
grams.
4. To find the amount of excess reagent, if desired, we first calculate the amount of the
excess reagent that will be used to produce the theoretical yield. The difference
between this amount and the amount present to start is the amount of excess.
Problem Example 1. A 50 g sample of calcium carbonate is reacted with 35.0 g phosphoric acid.
Calculate: (a) The number of grams of calcium phosphate that could be
produced.
(b) The number of grams of excess reagent that will remain.
SOLUTION
Example of a solution:
The solution of sugar in water. (The solute is sugar and the solvent
is
Water)
Types of solution:
1. saturated solution - a solution that contains the maximum amount of solute that can
be
dissolved by the solvent at a given temperature.
2. unsaturated solution - a solution that contains less solute than can be dissolved at a
given temperature.
3. supersaturated solution - is a rather unstable condition in which there is more
solute in
solution than can normally exist at a given temperature. If anything is
done to this solution to begin crystallization, all the excess solute will
precipitate out, leaving a saturated solution.
Ionic compounds are soluble in polar solvents but will not dissolve in nonpolar
solvents. Example: sodium chloride which is an ionic compound dissolves in water
which is a polar compound but not in carbon tetrachloride which is nonpolar.
Covalent compounds are soluble in nonpolar solvents. This is often called
“like
dissolves like”.
2. Temperature
3. Pressure
Solutions that contain only solids and liquids are not appreciably affected by
changes
in pressure.
For solution of a gas in a liquid, there is an appreciable effect. The solubility of
a gas
in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid
(Henry’s
Law: C = kP where: C is the solubility or concentration, k is the constant, and P is
the partial
pressure).
1. Particle size
52
Due to greater surface area that is exposed to the solvent, small particles will
dissolve
more rapidly than larger ones.
2. Rate of stirring
The rate of solution (that is, the rate at which the solute dissolves), can also be
increased by stirring. This causes more solute particles to come in contact with the
solvent molecules in a shorter period of time and hence causes the solute to dissolve
more rapidly.
3. Temperature
Increasing the temperature will always cause a solute to dissolve more rapidly.
This is
true whether the actual solubility increases or decreases at higher temperature. The
reason
for this increase is that the kinetic energy of the solute, solvent and solution all
increase.
Concentration of Solutions
The concentration of a solution expresses the amount of solute present in a given amount
of solution. The terms concentrated and dilute are just relative expressions. A concentrated
solution has more solute in it than a dilute solution; however, this does not give any indication of
the exact amount of solute present. The following are the methods of expressing quantitatively
the amount of solute present in a given solution:
Percent by Mass (Weight) - is simply the mass of solute divided by the mass of solution, all
multiplied
by 100.
mass of solute
percent by mass = x 100
mass of solution
Problem Example: If 28.5 g calcium hydroxide is dissolve in enough water to make 185
g of
solution, calculate the percent concentration of calcium hydroxide in
the
solution.
28.8 g Ca(OH)
Solution: x 100 = 15.4%
185 g solution
Percent by Volume
Volume of solute
percent by volume = x 100
Volume of solution
Mole fraction: For example, in a solution of A and B containing nA moles of A and nB moles
of B, the
concentration of A and B, expressed as mole fractions are:
nA nB
mole fraction of A = ; mole fraction of B =
nA + nB nA + nB
53
The number of moles is can be obtained by dividing the weight of the substance
by its
formula weight.
Molal concentration or Molality (m) – is defined as the number of moles of solute per kilogram
of
solvent. The unit used is molal.
moles of solute
molality (m) =
kilograms of solvent
An example of this would be a solution in which one mole of NaOH (40 g) was
dissolve in 1 kg of water to make a 1 molal solution
Molar concentration or Molarity (M) - is defined as the number of moles of solute per liter of
solution.
The unit is molar.
moles solute
molarity (M) =
liter of solution
equivalents of solute
normality =
liter of solution
weight in grams
number of equivalents =
equivalent weight
Problem Example: Calculate the normality of a phosphoric acid solution containing 2.50
g of
phosphoric acid in 135 ml of solution in a reaction that replace all
three
hydrogen ions.
54
98 g/mol
Solution: EW = = 32.67 g/eq
3 eq/mol
2.50 g
No. of equi = = 0.077 eq
32.67 g/eq
0.077 eq
Normality = = 0.57 N
0.135 L
ELECTROLYTES
An electrolyte is a substance that breaks up into ions when it goes into solution. A
substance that does not ionize is a nonelectrolyte. An electrolyte that is completely ionized is
classified as a strong electrolyte and the one that is partially ionized is a weak electrolyte
Electrolytes are minerals in your body that have an electric charge. They are in your
blood, urine and body fluids. Maintaining the right balance of electrolytes helps your body's
blood chemistry, muscle action and other processes.
Electrolytes are substances containing free ions, especially ionic compounds dissolved in
water, that act as electrical conductors. Nutritionally, they serve as aids to re-hydration. If you
consume large amounts of pure water during periods of physical exertion, the water can dissolve
salts in your cells, impeding the normal function of the cells. In extreme cases, it can even lead to
fatal water poisoning. But a drink containing electrolyte allows your body to use the water to re-
hydrate without suffering those ill effects.
If your electrolytes are too high you may experience: Blood agglutination, heat states,
hypertension, nervous tension, migraines, high platelets, kidney problems, adrenal stress, high
minerals, cardiac stress, excessive plasma, edema, arthritis, colitis, skin disorders hemorrhoids,
allergies, vascular disorders, high cholesterol.
If your electrolytes are too low you may experience: Anemia, cold states, deficiency
stress, hypotension, nervous exhaustion, dull headaches, low platelets, kidney weakness, adrenal
fatigue, poor retention of minerals, cardiac weakness, low plasma, chronic fatigue, osteoporosis,
anxiety, pituitary, muscle weakness.
ELECTROLYTES IMPORTANCE
Calcium Fluoride Gives tissues elasticity. It is essential to the walls of the
blood vessels, muscular tissue, connective tissue, surface
of bones and the enamel of teeth.
Calcium Phosphate Important in blood coagulation, without it there could be
no blood coagulation. It restores tone to weakened organs
and tissues.
Calcium Sulfate Blood purifier and healer. Found in the liver where it
helps remove waste products. Cleans out non functional
organic matter in the tissues
Ferric Phosphate It is an oxygen carrier. It enters into the composition of
hemoglobin. It takes oxygen inhaled by the lungs and
carries it to the blood stream. It gives strength and
toughness to the cellular walls, especially the arteries.
Potassium Chloride Bonds with tissue salt and causes fibrin. It is associated
with mucous thickening and blood for clotting purposes.
Potassium Phosphate Is a nerve nutrient. Tissue salt sharpens mental faculties
and creates a betterdisposition.
55
Colloids
The colloids are intermediate between solutions and precipitates. The particles in
colloids are larger than the molecules or ions that make up solutions. They are not large enough
to settle out upon standing, however, as a precipitate will do. The colloidal particles are in the
approximate range of about 0.1 to 10 nm. Thes colloidal particles can consist of individual, very
large molecules, such as starch, or aggreagates of smaller particles. The components of colloids
are the dispersed particles (dispersed phase) and dispersing medium (dispersing phase).
Dispersed particles are the colloidal particles comparable to the solute in a solution. The
dispersing medium is the substance in which the colloidal particles are distributed, comparable to
the solvent in solution. Milk is an example of a colloid; butterfat constitutes the dispersed
particles and water is the dispersing medium.
As with solutions, colloids may exis in any one of the three physical states of matter.
These different types of colloids have different names:
Name of Dispersed Dispersing Example
colloid Particles Medium
foam gas liquid Whipped cream
Solid foam Gas Solid Styrofoam
Liquid Liquid gas Fog
aerosol
emulsion liquid liquid mayonnaise
Gel liquid solid Jello
Solid aerosol solid gas Smoke
sol solid liquid Paint
Solid sol solid solid Gems, such as
ruby, turquoise
or garnet
4. Sour taste
56
pH below 7 pH = 7 pH above 7
←---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------→
More acidic neutral More basic
1. pH = 4. Answer: acidic
2. pH = 9. Answer: basic
3. pH + 7. Answer: neutral
4. A solution that turn blue litmus paper red. Answer: basic
5. A solution that has no action on litmus paper. Answer: neutral
6. [H+1] = 2.5 x 10-5 M Answer:
7. [OH-1] = 3.0 x 10-5 M Answer:
8. 0.020 M HCl solution Answer:
9. 0.020 M NaOH solution Answer:
10. water Answer:
57
Chemical kinetics consists of the study of (a) the rate or speed at which the reaction
takes place, or the reaction rate and (b) the path or mechanism by which a reaction takes place.
change in concentration
Rate =
change in time
2. Temperature. Since temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the
molecules in a gas, as the temperature increases, the average kinetic energy increases. Since
Molecules have higher average kinetic energy, therefore the rateof reaction is more rapid. As a
general approximation, the rate roughly doubles for each 10 oC rise in temperature.
3. Catalyst. A catalyst is a substance that alters the speed of a reaction without being
consumed. Generally a catalyst is used to speed up a reaction, but there also catalyst s that slow
down a reaction (called a negative catalyst or inhibitor). A catalyst alters the speed of the
reaction by changing the activation energy, or the energy barrier.
Reaction Mechanisms
The mechanism of a reaction shows the path or steps by which the reaction takes place.
This is determined by the experimentally determined rate law or by the kinetics of the reaction.
For example, for the general reaction 2 A + B → C, the following two possible mechanisms
could be proposed.
1. A + B → AB (slow step)
AB + A → C (fast step)
2. A + B → AB (slow step)
AB + A → C (fast step)
Note that in both of these if the two steps are added together, they give the overall
equation,
A + B → AB
AB + A → C
__________________________
A + B + AB + A → AB + C
Which can be simplified to
2A + B→ C
58
Equilibrium Constants
The equilibrium constant for a given reaction at equilibrium must remain constant at a
given temperature. Therefore, if any change in conditions causes a change in the concentration
of any of the products or reactants, the others must also change in such a way as to compensate
for this; that is. the position of equilibrium will shift in order to compensate for the change. This
means that if more of one of the reactants is added to the system in equilibrium, the forward
reaction will speed up momentarily and for a short period of time the system is not in
equilibrium. As more of the products are formed, however, the rate of the reverse reaction also
increases. It soon establishes a new position of equilibrium in which there is a somewhat higher
concentration of products than there was originally. Thus, we say that the equilibrium has shifted
to the right.
Another way of stating this is by the Principle of Le Chatelier, which was formulated by
the French chemist Henry Louis Le Chatelier in 1888. This principle states that if a stress is
applied to a system at equilibrium, the system will shift, if possible, in such a way as to reduce
the stress. In the example given above, the stress can be reduced by using up some of the added
reactant and forming more product.
2. Temperature. The shift caused by the change in temperature will depend on wether
the reaction is exothermic or endothermic. For an exothermic reaction, heat can be considered
as one of the products. If the temperature is increased, it will have the same effect as increasing
one or more of the products; the equilibrium will shift to the left in order to relieve the stress on
the system. If the temperature is decreased, it would cause the equilibrium to shift to the right to
form more heat and thus relieve the stress on the system. For an endothermic reaction, heat
could be considered as a reactant and the changes would just be the opposite for an exothermic
reaction; that is, an increase in temperature would cause a shift to the right and a decrease in
temperature would cause the shift to the left.
Na2CO3 K2SO3
Zn(ClO3)2 Al(ClO3)3
Mg3(PO3)2 Na2SO4
(LiCa)2(SO4)3 (LiMg)2(CO3)3
59
BaCr2O7 Ba(HSO3)2
Cu(OH)2 SnS2
Fe(NO2)2 Cu(NO2)2
Ca(HSO4)2 CaCr2O7
Al2(SO3)3 Al2(SO3)3
PbS2 Hg(CN)2
Mg(CN)2 Mg(OH)2
H2CO3 H2SO4
HNO2 HNO3
H3PO4 H3PO3
H2SO3 H2CO3
Na2CO3 K2SO3
Zn(ClO3)2 Al(ClO3)3
Mg3(PO3)2 Na2SO4
(LiCa)2(SO4)3 (LiMg)2(CO3)3
BaCr2O7 Ba(HSO3)2
Cu(OH)2 SnS2
Fe(NO2)2 Cu(NO2)2
Ca(HSO4)2 CaCr2O7
Al2(SO3)3 Al2(SO3)3
PbS2 Hg(CN)2
Mg(CN)2 Mg(OH)2
H2CO3 H2SO4
HNO2 HNO3
H3PO4 H3PO3
H2SO3 H2CO3
Na2CO3 K2SO3
Zn(ClO3)2 Al(ClO3)3
Mg3(PO3)2 Na2SO4
(LiCa)2(SO4)3 (LiMg)2(CO3)3
BaCr2O7 Ba(HSO3)2
Cu(OH)2 SnS2
Fe(NO2)2 Cu(NO2)2
Ca(HSO4)2 CaCr2O7
Al2(SO3)3 Al2(SO3)3
PbS2 Hg(CN)2
Mg(CN)2 Mg(OH)2
H2CO3 H2SO4
HNO2 HNO3
H3PO4 H3PO3
H2SO3 H2CO3
60
Energy-Mass Relations
Example: the energy possessed by a book which falls to the floor from
the top
of the table. (The potential energy of the book decreases
and its
kinetic energy increases as it falls).
61
Forms of Energy:
1. heat energy (thermal energy) - a form of energy that flows from one body to
another due to
temperature difference. The direction of heat flow is from hot substance
to cold
substance.
5. light or radiant energy – it travels through space. It can be obtained from the sun
6. nuclear energy – energy released from the nucleus of atoms when they split. It is
also
known as atomic energy.
Like matter, there is a law of conservation of energy which states that energy cannot be
created or destroyed but can be changed from one form to another. For example, in starting a car,
the battery produce chemical energy, which produces an electric current (electrical energy)
which is transmitted to the spark plugs. These cause the compressed gas in the cylinders to ignite
and produce the mechanical energy that causes the car to move.
It is now known that matter and energy are inter-convertible. This was shown by the
German-American physicist Albert Einstein (1879-1955) This relationship between matter and
energy is shown by the equation,
The unit erg is a small unit of energy related to calories and joules as follows:
1.0 g (3.0 x 1010 cm/s)2 = 9.0 x 1020 g.cm2/s2 = 9.0 x 1020 ergs
This amount 2.2 x 1013 calories of heat would raise the temperature of 2 x 108 liters
(about 220,000 tons) of water from 0 o to 100 oC.
In ordinary chemical reactions the energy changes are relatively small and, hence, the
loss or gain in mass is quite small. For example, the maximum is about 5 x 105 cal, which
corresponds to about
2 x 10-8 g. This quantity is too small to be detected on most balances.
Measurements in Chemistry
Mass is the quantity of matter in a particular sample of matter. The mass of a body is
constant and does not change, regardless of where it is measured. Kilogram (kg) is the basic SI
unit for mass.
The weight of the body is the gravitational force of attraction between the body’s mass
and the mass of the planet on which the body is weighed. Thus, the weight of the body varies,
depending on where it is weighed, whereas the mass does not. For example, on the moon the
gravitational force of attraction is considerably less than it is on the earth and, therefore, a body
will weigh less on the moon than it is on the earth. The SI unit for weight is Newton (N).
The weight of a body is equal to its mass multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity, g
whose value on earth is 9.8 m/s2 or 32.2 ft/s2.
Length is simply measured with a ruler divided into inches or centimeters, or a meter
stick. Meter (m) is the SI basic unit for length.
The unit angstrom (A) is another unit of length that is often used to discuss size of atoms:
(1A = 10-8 cm = 10-10 m), or 1 m = 1010 A. The unit nanometer (nm), however, which is a
similar size unit (10 A = 1 nm) is preferred and is often used in place of A.
Volume is the space occupied by an object. It is measured in several ways. A liquid can
be measured in a graduated cylinder, in a volumetric flask, or with a buret or pipet. The SI unit
for volume is cubic meter (m3).
To find out the volume of a regular solid we can measure the dimensions of it and
multiply them together. For example, for a rectangular object, Volume is equal its length
multiplied by its width and its height (V = L x W x H).
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To find the volume of an irregular solid, we can place it in water, and measure the
amount of water that is displaced.
Volume of irregular object = Volume of water and the object – Volume of
water
A cube 1 cm on a side will hold a volume of exactly 1 ml. Therefore 1 ml = 1 cm3 or cc.
These units, since they are exactly the same, are often used interchangeably.
3. Temperature
The Fahrenheit scale, named after the German physicist Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit
(1686 -1736)
is the scale where the freezing point of water is 32oF, and the boiling point of water is 212 oF.
The Celsius scale, named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701 – 1744) is
the scale where the freezing and boiling points of water are 0 and 100 oC respectively.
-40 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- - 40
To convert the temperature from the Fahrenheit scale to the Celsius scale and vice versa,
the temperature difference between the freezing and boiling points of water in the two
temperature scales are used. And be ratio and proportion the following are the formulas obtained:
o
F = 9/5 oC + 32 or o
F = 1.8 (oC) + 32 → Conversion from oC to oF
o
C = 5/9 (oF – 32) or o
C = oF – 32 → Conversion from oF
to C o
1.8
0 -------------------------------------------- 273
-273 -------------------------------------------- 0
The Kelvin scale, named after the British physicist and mathematician William
Thompson (1824–
1907), who was later titled Lord Kelvin, is set up with a theoretical lower limit of zero. It is
called an absolute temperature scale since its zero (the lower limit) is called absolute zero. This
corresponds to
-273 oC. On the Celsius and Kelvin scales the size of the degree is the same; just the zero point is
different. Thus, to convert from oC to K just add 273.
Heat energy is the form of energy transferred from one body to another due to difference
in temperature. It is often measured in calories (cal) or kilocalories (kcal). A calorie is the
amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 oC (from 14.5o to 15.5
o
C for example).
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to produce a given change
in temperature for a given mass of a substance. In the metric system this is usually expressed as
the number of calories necessary to increase the temperature of one gram of a substance by one
degree Celsius.
Specific Heat = . calorie .
(gram) ( Celsius)
o
In the SI system this is usually expressed as the number of joules necessary to increase
the temperature of one kilogram of a substance by one Kelvin.
To solve for the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a given mass of a
substance, the formula is: Q = mc ∆T where Q = amount of heat
m = mass of substance
c = specific heat of the substance
∆T = change in temperature = Tf – To
Problem Example 1. How many calories would be required to raise the temperature of 45.0
gram of sodium chloride from 25.0 oC to 85.0 oC?
Given: m = 45.0 g Required: Q in calories
To = 25.0 oC
Tf = 85.0 oC
Exercise Problems: 1. Calculate the number of kilocalories and kilojoules required for each:
a. to raise the temperature of 100 g of liquid water from 12 oC to
85 oC.
b. to raise the temperature of 0.10 kg of water from 15 oC to 85
o
C.
2. Calculate the specific heat of each:
a. Exactly 150 cal of heat will raise the temperature of 18.5 g of a
liquid
from 22 oC to 44 oC.
b. Exactly 80 cal of heat will raise the temperature of 10 g of an
unknown metal from 20 oC to 60 oC.
Solution: = m/V
= 12 g / 1.6 ml
= 7.5 g/ml
Problem Example 2. A cube measures 3.00 cm on each edge and has a mass of 308 g. Calculate
the
density in g/cm3.
Given: m = 308 g
V = s3 = 3.00 cm x 3.00 cm x 3.00 cm
= 27.0 cm3
Required: density in g/cm3
66
Solution: density = m / V
= 308 g/ 27.0 cm3
= 11.4 g/cm3
The specific gravity of a substance gives the relative density of the substance as
compared to some standard. In general, water at 4 oC is taken as the standard, and thus the
specific gravity expresses the density of the substance as compared to water.
Specific gravity = . density of substance .
Density of water at 4 oC
Thus, if the specific gravity of the substance is 2, that substance has a density two times as great
as the density of water at 4 oC or its density is 2.00 g/ml.
Specific gravity is a ratio of two densities with the same unit so that it (specific gravity) is
unitless. To find the density of the substance in g/ml from the specific gravity, just multiply the
specific gravity by the density of water at 4 oC which is 1.0 g/ml. The specific gravity therefore
is numerically equal to the density in g/ml.
Density of the substance = specific gravity of substance x density of water at 4
o
C
or
Density of the substance = specific gravity of substance x 1.0 g/ml
Specific Gravity of Some Substances:
Water 1.00
Ether 0.708
Benzene 0.880
Acetic acid 1.05
Chloroform 1.49
Carbon tetrachloride 1.60
Sulfuric acid (concentrated) 1.83
Bromine 3.12
Problem Example1. The specific gravity of an organic liquid is 1.3. Calculate the volume of 84
g of the
Liquid.
Given: m = 2 g
V = 15 ml
Solution: density = m ÷ V
= 2 g ÷ 15 ml
= 0.133 g/ml
Exercise Problems: 1. Calculate the density of each of the following in grams per cubic
centimeter.
a. a substance with a mass of 365 g and a volume of 62 ml.
b. a piece of metal measuring 1.0 cm by 2.5 cm by 10.0 cm having a
mass of 50 g.
c. a substance with mss of 425 kg occupying a volume of 230 liters.
2. Calculate the mass in grams of each of the following (use the table of
specific
gravity):
a. a 20 ml volume of ether
b. a 470 ml of benzene
c. a 0.1 liter of bromine
3. Calculate the volume, in milliliters , of each of the following (use table of
specific
gravity):
a. 80 g of carbon tetrachloride
b. 2.2 kg of benzene
c. 3.5 g of acetic acid
4. Calculate the specific gravity of each of the following:
a. a substance with a density of 3.75 g/ml
b. a substance with a volume of 50 ml and a mass of 20 g
5. Calculate the density in pounds per cubic foot of each of the following
(use the
table of specific gravity):
a. Ether b. bromine
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MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the best answer and encircle the letter of your answer.
Matching Type. Match the element in column A with their Latin name in column B. Write the
letter of your answer in the space provided.
A B
Classify the following into compound or mixture. If it is a mixture, further classify into
homogeneous or heterogeneous.
Classify the following into compound or mixture. If it is a mixture, further classify into
homogeneous or heterogeneous.
. Atom Atomic No. Atomic Mass Mass No. No. of p No. of e- No. of
n .
.Boron .
.Magnessium .
.Nickel .
.Bromine .
____________________ silicon
____________________ sodium
72
____________________ It is brittle.
____________________ mercury
____________________ copper
____________________ fluorine
Multiple Choice. Choose the best answer and encircle the letter of your answer.
Multiple Choice. Choose the best answer and encircle the letter of your answer.
. Atom Atomic No. Atomic Mass Mass No. No. of p No. of e- No. of
n .
.Fluorine .
.Calcium .
.Germanium .
.Argon .
.Iodine .
Multiple Choice. Choose the best answer and encircle the letter of your answer.
1. It states that no two electrons in any given atom can have exactly the same set of quantum
numbers
or, within any given orbital there can be two electrons with opposite spins.
a. Hund’s Rule b. Octet Rule c. Pauli Exclusion Principle d.
Aufbau Order
2. It states that in filling a particular sublevel, electrons occupy orbitals of equal energy one at a
time
before there is any pairing.
a. Hund’s Rule b. Octet Rule c. Pauli Exclusion Principle d.
Aufbau Order
3. An element with an electron configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p3 belong to
a. Period 5, Group IVA c. Period 5, Group IVB
b. Period 4, Group VA d. Period 4, Group VB
4. The electron configuration in the last energy level of the atom of element in Period 5 and
Group IVA is
a. 5s2 5p3 b. 4s2 3d10 4p3 c. 4s2 3d10 4p4 d. 5s2 4d10 5p2
5. He devised a table of elements arranged according to increasing atomic number after he had
determined the charge of the nucleus.
a. Lothar Meyer b. Dmitri Mendeleev c. H.G. Moseley d. John Dalton
6. In the periodic table devised by Lothar Meyer, the element next to nickel in his arrangement
is
a. Copper b. cobalt c. rhodium d. palladium
7. The horizontal rows in the periodic table of elements are called the
a. periods b. groups c. subgroups d. series
8. The alkaline earth metals are located at
a. Period 1 b. Period 2 c. Group !A d. Group IIA
9. The noble gases are located at
a. Period 6 b. Group VIIIA c. Group VIIA d.
Group VIIIB
10. The elements in group VIIA are called the
a. Transition Elements c. Halogens
b. Lanthanide Series d. Actinide Series
11. The elements in IA through VIIA are called
a. Representative Elements c. Transition Elements
b. Noble Gases d. Inner Transition Elements
12. The elements having 8 valence electrons are the
a. Representative Elements c. Transition Elements
b. Noble Gases d. Inner Transition Elements
13. The elements having two energy levels incomplete with electrons are the
a. Representative Elements c. Transition Elements
b. Noble Gases d. Inner Transition Elements
14. The elements with atomic numbers 58-71 and 90-103 are members of
a. Representative Elements c. Transition Elements
b. Noble Gases d. Inner Transition Elements
15. The valence electrons are located in the
a. energy level 1 b. energy level 4 c. energy level 7 d. outermost energy
level
16. The electron dot notation of the carbon atom consist of the symbol of carbon surrounded by
a. 2 dots b. 3 dots c. 4 dots d. 5 dots
17. The differentiating electron of the K atom makes it different from the
a. Ca atom b. Na atom c. Ar atom d. Rb atom
18. The differentiating electron in the Na atom is located in the sublevel
a. 1s b. 2s c. 2p d. 3s
19. The amount of energy released when an atom gains an electron is called
a. first ionization energy b. second ionization energy c. electron affinity d.
electronegativity
20. The general tendency of an atom to attract electrons towards itself in a compound is called
76
9. What are the compounds whose atoms are held together by ionic bonds?
__________ __________ __________ __________
_______________________________
______________________________