Journal of Education and Culture Studies

ISSN 2573-0401 (Print) ISSN 2573-041X (Online)

Vol. 2, No. 4, 2018
www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/jecs

Original Paper

Application of Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Approach to Foster

Students’ Understanding and Learning Performance

Mammy M. Helou, PhD1* & Linda K. Newsome, Ed.D2
1
Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
2
Arizona State University, Phoenix, United States
*
Mammy M. Helou, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia

Received: October 25, 2018 Accepted: November 8, 2018 Online Published: November 19, 2018
doi:10.22158/jecs.v2n4p347 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/jecs.v2n4p347

Abstract
The current study endeavours to explore the application of the Vygotskian sociocultural approach to
students’ cognitive development, particularly as related to the employment of experiential and peer
learning, from both teacher and student perspectives. This is followed by a discussion of the inferences
made in relation to the contributions of experiential and peer learning as salient educational delivery
modes. As such, a presentation of teachers’ recounts about learning to teach, and students’ reflections
on teaching to learn are provided. Finally, the current study concludes with: 1) Insightful erudition
learning and teaching curves impacting students’ performance, retention and progression; and 2)
Directions for future research in the area.
Keywords
Experiential learning, peer education, Lev Vygotsky, Vygotskian sociocultural approach, students’
understanding, students’ performance, students’ retention, students’ progression

1. Introduction
The traditional “Godly” approach to education, whereby the teacher is the expert on all issues, is no
longer practicable in today’s international educational environment. Given current collaborative and
peer teaching approaches, students can no longer be considered as passive recipients, and the teacher as
the source of all wisdom (Helou, 2005), whereby any failure to learn gets attributed to student faults
either in relation to their character, or their mental and academic abilities.
Teaching is viewed as a multi-dimensional activity which encompasses designing, organising and
supervision of harmonious activities, as well as planning and implementing delivery techniques and
assessments, all of which aim at ensuring student learning. Experiential learning encompasses a

347
www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/jecs Journal of Education and Culture Studies Vol. 2, No. 4, 2018

common-sense approach whereby students learn by doing, i.e., as a teaching approach, it relates to
students having to acquire and apply knowledge, as such, the salience of work-integrated learning.
When combined with both peer learning and e-learning, a stronger emphasis can then be placed on
critical analysis and lateral thinking, as opposed to reciting and rehashing textbook material and lecture
notes.
Accordingly, the current study evaluates the salient contributions of Lev Vygotsky as well as discusses
the implications of employing experiential and peer learning in classroom settings. Teachers’ recounts
and students’ reflections are presented on the benefits of the application of experiential and peer
learning as prominent modes of instruction.

2. Literature Review: The Sociocultural Perspective and the Vygotskian Approach to Teaching
and Learning
With an increasing commitment to enhance the understanding of the context of cognitive development,
various approaches have been employed to examine the relationship between the individual and their
social world (Rogoff, 1990; Tryphon & Voneche, 1996). This includes the sociocultural theory, which
emphasises the role of development through cooperative interactions between students and more
capable individuals within their environment (Woolfolk & Margretts, 2007).
A main endorser of the sociocultural theory was Lev Vygotsky (Woolfolf & Margretts, 2007), who
elaborated on problems of learning and the development of the mind (Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky
suggested two approaches to mediation through another individual (Brown, Metz, & Campione, 1996).
First, he believed that knowledge is co-constructed, as such, intellectual identity arises from functional
utility through the process of internalisation (Smith, 1996). This has been expressed in his statement
that “…every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and
later on the individual level; first between people (interpsychological), and then inside the child
(intrapsychological)’’ (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 57). Secondly, Vygotsky focused on the role of the others as
mediators of meaning, whereby, social settings create zones of proximal development that initially
operate in the context of shared interactions, but gradually get internalised and become part of the
learner’s critical independent developmental achievement. This again is depicted in his statement that
“only through the other do we become ourselves” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 144). Several studies have been
undertaken by contemporary researchers to further develop Vygotsky’s notions (John-Steiner &
Souberman, 1978; Karpov & Bransford, 1995).
Rogoff and Morelli’s (1989) findings indicated that investigations of the role of culture in cognitive
development allow enhancing the understanding of human adaptation. Furthermore, Rogoff (1990)
examined the relationship between students’ individual thinking and development processes and the
cultural context within which social interactions involving collaborative problem-solving take place.
Findings indicated that social interactions with and among students provide guidance, support,
direction and impetus for cognitive development. Furthermore, findings also showed that cultural
348
Published by SCHOLINK INC.
www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/jecs Journal of Education and Culture Studies Vol. 2, No. 4, 2018

variation in relation to the tasks learned underline the importance of learners’ roles in participation in
social activity.
Recent studies support the sociocultural theory in that interactions between individuals form a basis for
linguistic development, which, in turn, are central to the transmission and internalisation of knowledge
(Zukow-Goldring & Ferko, 1994). Furthermore, John-Steiner and Mahn (1996) explained that the
experiences students bring in with them contribute to the literacy acquisition process. In addition,
Tharp’s (1989) further explained that sociolinguistics varies by culture in ways that are differently
compatible with the expectations of educational institutions.
Rogoff’s (1990) findings in relation to guided participation indicated that participation with more
capable peers facilitates learners’ skills and enhances motivation, creativity, imagination and
opportunities for elaboration. Furthermore, findings also showed that peer learning promotes greater
conceptual gains for students, thus, encouraging a stronger persistence in learning.
Cooper (2002) reported that in a positive educational environment, the teachers’ stance as role models
and mentors, and their choice of task and dialogue in the peer learning classroom represent vital
elements in affecting successful implementation of student learning. Furthermore, insightful studies
also report that the provision of elaborated help and effectively matching the guided peer learning
approach to the requirements of the learning task, as well as, the teacher’s ability and willingness to
move between different points on a teacher-centered to student-centered learning continuum, are all
potentially powerful approaches in promoting high-level of cognitive processing (King, 2002).
Drawing on the above studies, it is worthwhile to note that different measures and approaches were
employed in different research studies leading to a range of interpretations and applications of the
Vygotskian sociocultural perspective and the contributions of experiential and peer learning in the
classroom. For example, while some studies have employed secondary school, college and university
students; others have used learners with special educational needs, or students from various
cross-cultural backgrounds.

3. Method
The present study aims to expand the understanding of the link between cognitive development and its
application in classroom settings. To this effect, a series of focus group sessions were held to identify
aspects of university educators’ and students’ recounts, view and reflections in relation to the
application of the Vygotskian framework, especially as related to the employment of experiential and
peer learning to cognitive development, exchange and elaboration of knowledge and effective teaching.
To this end, thirty (30) educators and forty-six (46) students were engaged in the focus group sessions.
After discussions ended, and both educators’ and students’ responses were collected, the contents of the
feedback obtained were analysed and inferences were made. To facilitate the process of making such
inferences, the obtained data was then collated based on the themes that emerged as a result.
Accordingly, participants’ responses were thematised into three main categories relating to the
349
Published by SCHOLINK INC.
www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/jecs Journal of Education and Culture Studies Vol. 2, No. 4, 2018

relationship between cognitive development and the students’ social sources of individual thinking, the
role of language as a cultural tool, and the impact of aided participation, experiential and peer learning.

4. Result: Sources of Individual Thinking, Language and Aided Participation

The first emerging theme related to the link between cognitive development and the students’
environments, cultural backgrounds and social sources of thinking. Ninety one percent (91%) of the
participants mainly argued that the student’s cultural background was a major differentiating factor in
terms of the various methods in which they learn. This can be depicted by the statements, such as,
“…students with Anglo-Saxon backgrounds tend to work better in small groups …whereas some Asian
students feel shy, …I think it is all based on the student’s individual cultural background”. Furthermore,
these participants further argued that interaction with members of their society and general environment
positively contribute to their attitude toward education, thus, enhances their overall learning
experience.
The second theme related to the participants’ views in relation to the link between language as a
cultural tool and learning. The great majority of participants, amounting to ninety seven percent (97%)
agreed on the salience of language as a tool that allows students to interact, communicate, exchange
views, elaborate on previously attained knowledge, and, thus, better understand the subject matter and
further engage in their learning experiences.
The third theme related to the participants’ views in relation to assisted and collaborative learning.
Eighty nine percent (89%) of the participants heavily supported the role of assisted and collaborative
learning, as evidenced by such views relating to the use of scaffolding, to assist students to reach a goal.
Furthermore, eighty six percent (86%) of the participants reflected on the importance of experiential
learning and peer tutoring in the design of classroom seating so that a less able student would be
supported by a more able peer. In addition, seventy nine percent (79%) of the participating educators
agreed on the importance of using scaffolding based on students’ needs.

5. Discussion
As anticipated, the data obtained in this study supports the results of previous researchers (Rogoff,
1990; Tryphon & Voneche, 1996), in that interactions with members of society and college
environment heavily impact students’ cognitive development, conceptual abilities, levels of motivations
and their persistence in learning. The educator’s practices in terms of the classroom activities,
assessments, aided learning techniques and student interactions are synergistic with Vygotsky’s notions
and views on cognitive development and learning.
Findings in relation to the first emerging theme, namely that cultural development, is linked to students’
interactions with members of their culture and educational environment support the Vygotskian notions
on the social sources of individual thinking. This further confirms previous research results of Rogoff
(1990). As such, it is essential for the educator to have a good grasp of students’ respective cultural
350
Published by SCHOLINK INC.
www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/jecs Journal of Education and Culture Studies Vol. 2, No. 4, 2018

backgrounds. The results of the current research in relation to the role of language as a cultural tool
impacting learning, and the way sociolinguistics varies by culture in ways that may not be coherent
with the expectations of tertiary institutions, also support Vygotsky’s views on the salient role of
language and its crucial effects on cognitive development. This conclusion further confirms previous
research results of Zukow-Goldiringand and Ferko (1994), and Tharp (1989).
Furthermore, as students are of culturally diverse backgrounds, it might be helpful for tertiary
institutions to continue to escalate the use of communication technology and computers to assist in
students’ English academic language proficiency, especially when it comes to overseas students.
Furthermore, the results related to the impact of more capable peer aided participation on the
conceptual capabilities of students, and their learning, also support Vygotsky’s views in that assisted
learning requires scaffolding by a more capable peer. Both educators’ and students’ views on cognitive
self-instruction and apprenticeships clearly represent the Vygotskian framework. This is also supportive
of previous research results (Cooper, 2002; King, 2002; Kouzulin & Presseisen, 1995). As such, it is of
the essence for educators to be conscientious of the assisted learning requirements of students as
opposed to merely and blindly sticking to a set syllabus, as a means of realising set learning outcomes.
Results also clearly indicated that students with different cultural backgrounds have different
preferences for methods of instruction and learning. These results agree with the findings of Rogoff and
Morelli (1989). The teaching implications of these findings relate to the need for efficient and effective
curriculum design, development and implementation of academic programs that address less capable
and culturally diverse students’ needs.
5.1 Learning to Teach: Educators’ Recounts
As per the inferences made based on teachers’ recounts, it is the view here that good teaching entails a
wide-range experience in material delivery, an explicit teaching philosophy, the practice of responsive
teaching and teaching innovation, especially in relation to the development and coordination of subjects
and programs of study, effective supervision of the programs offered at both the undergraduate and
postgraduate levels, effective use of student consultation and informal teaching sessions, among other
indicators.
A basic practical principle of learning is that of common sense, that is, people learn by doing. Thus, a
main philosophy of acquiring and using knowledge relates to experiential learning (Biggs, 1999;
Ramsden, 1992; Sampson & Cohen, 2001a, 2001b), along with a strong emphasis being placed on
critical analysis and lateral thinking (Cannon, 1992; Hativa, 2000), as opposed to pure teacher learning
(Prosser & Trigwell, 1999).
Teaching encompasses designing, organising and supervision of harmonious activities, delivery
techniques, and assessments, all of which aim at ensuring student learning. This allows various forms
of experiential learning to be administered, including the choice of delivery methods aimed at
motivating and capturing students’ attention and active engagement, techniques for encouraging class
discussion, and processes which encourage elaboration with previous course work and students’
351
Published by SCHOLINK INC.
www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/jecs Journal of Education and Culture Studies Vol. 2, No. 4, 2018

personal experiences. Furthermore, the adoption of experiential learning allows for the experimentation
with various teaching techniques, innovation with new methods of content delivery, evaluation of how
well the innovation works with the students and adaptations as need be, thus, overall enhancing the
teaching skills over time. Embracing peer reviews and student feedbacks through student evaluations or
otherwise, and listening to the remarks generated in the process, aid in the development of enhanced
teaching skills over the years.
In addition, student advising, and informal face-to-face consultations are extremely valuable in making
student learning possible. This enables teachers to spot students’ poor areas of comprehension with
subject contents and intervene to fill in the gaps in their learning, as need may be, and encourage them
to actively engage with the subject contents and forthcoming class activities.
In terms of research supervision, experiential learning allows for mentoring and preparing students to
meet the set expectations and requirements ahead of them, and providing advice and suggestions, as
opposed to merely transmitting information and telling them what to do. In this sense, the supervision
exercise significantly contributes to the supervisor’s learning in as much as it advances students’
research skills and knowledge in their relative research areas, and keeps up their levels of motivation,
interest and emotional excitement (Delamont, Atkinson, & Perry, 1997). It is the view here that the
enhancement of teaching and learning is a rather dynamic process, i.e., it is never ending in the sense
that educators continue to learn and improve on their teaching skills with time. Accordingly, the saying
that “a teacher is a student for life”, is indeed true.
5.2 Teaching to Learn: Students’ Reflections
From a student perspective, experiential learning provides by far more opportunities for the student to
experiment over time and learn by doing, as opposed to pure traditional didactic and authoritative
teacher learning or transmission of subject contents, where the student is considered a passive recipient,
and the teacher/expert is the source of all wisdom (Brookfield, 1990; Ramsden, 1992). Furthermore,
with the traditional telling of information/knowledge, any failure to understand and learn is mostly
attributed to student faults, as determined by their personality traits and/or capabilities (Biggs, 1999).
Students do not just learn from their teacher, or from their own previous experiences, but they also
learn from and with each other (Wilson, 2001). Hands-on peer learning strategies, including group
term-projects, undertaking critical analysis of papers published in internationally refereed journals,
group oral presentations, role plays of allocated case study scenarios, and peer assessments are
extremely helpful in encouraging active student participation (Cohen & Sampson, 2001), thus, enhance
the learning experience. Furthermore, it is also helpful if students are encouraged to keep a learning
journal for group work activities (Sampson & Cohen, 2001), and, if possible, have the student outcome
assessed by student groups themselves, a larger class group, as well as the lecturer/guest lecturer(s)
(Bennington & Moss, 2001; Morgan, Dunn, Parry, & O’Reilly, 2004).
As per the reported findings above, both peer reviews and student feedback comments in relation to the
outcome of group work, and informal peer learning strategies, adopted in previously taught
352
Published by SCHOLINK INC.
www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/jecs Journal of Education and Culture Studies Vol. 2, No. 4, 2018

undergraduate and postgraduate subjects include: “It has been challenging”, “it allowed us to brain
storm and take risks as a group which individually we may not have taken”, “it provided us with the
opportunity to try new things”, “it was good to learn about different cultural perspectives to the same
issues discussed”, and “group work has helped us to learn and know one another in terms of our
individual strengths and weaknesses, which facilitated the allocation of tasks among each other”. Even
though difficulties may surface among members within small groups, educators were of the view that
informal peer learning remains an invaluable approach to effective teaching. Furthermore, students
were of the opinion that learning can be facilitated using collaborative small group work, as, in their
view, it provides the opportunity to experience informal peer learning, allows for brain storming, and
provides the opportunity to undertake group oral discussions and presentations. They further
emphasised that it also enables students to learn from each other’s experiences, and to a large extent,
help them to express their views in terms of providing and receiving feedback from one another.

6. Conclusion: Fostering Students’ Understanding and Learning Performance

The aim of the current study is to enhance the understanding of the context and links of cognitive
development and the use of experiential and peer learning. To this end, this study explored the
application of the socio-cultural framework in teaching, understanding and learning. In this regard, it is
crucial to note that the three emerging themes stemming out of this study as discussed above are not
isolated but overlapping and interlinked.
One methodological criticism that could be made of this study is that the participants involved in this
study, in terms of both educators and students, were randomly selected from a higher level educational
institution. Future research could overcome this problem by involving a considerable number of
educators and students from various tertiary institutions located in areas having different multicultural
blends and socio-economic conditions. This allows to undertake a comparison of their respective
teaching practices and views on cognitive development and learning.
Overall, even though far more has been written about the Vygotskian framework, and its application in
today’s classrooms, than can be discussed in the current study, it can be concluded that this study
supports previous findings that the Vygotskian approach, and the application of the socio-cultural
theory, have heavily contributed to understanding the context of cognitive development, student
learning and the development of the mind. Given the abovementioned views on the sociocultural
approach to teaching, understanding and learning, it can be concluded that the adoption of experiential
and peer learning allows for the administration of both sides of the coin, namely that of teaching to
learn and learning to teach.

353
Published by SCHOLINK INC.
www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/jecs Journal of Education and Culture Studies Vol. 2, No. 4, 2018

References
Bennington, L., & Moss, S. (2001). Self, Peer and Tutor Assessments of Oral Presentations.
International Journal of Management Literature, 1, 81-90.
Biggs, J. (1999). Teaching for Quality Learning at University: What the Student Does. Buckingham:
Open University Press.
Brookfield, S. D. (1990). The Skilful Teacher: On Technique, Trust and Responsiveness in the
Classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Brown, A. L., Metz, K. E., & Campione, J. C. (1996). Social Interaction and Individual Understanding
in a Community of Learners: The Influence of Piaget and Vygotsky. In A. Tryohon, & J. Voneche
(Eds.), Piaget-Vygotsky: The Social Genesis of Thought. East Sussex: Psychology Press.
Cannon, R. (1992), Lecturing. HERDSA Green Guides No. 7. Campbelltown: Higher Education
Research and Development Society of Australasia.
Cohen, R., & Sampson, J. (2001). Implementing and Managing Peer Learning. In D. Boud, R. Cohen,
& J. Sampson (Eds.), Peer Learning in Higher Education: Learning from & With Each Other.
London: Kogan Page Limited.
Cooper, M. A. (2002). Classroom Choices for Enabling Peer Learning. Theory into Practice, 41, 53-57.
https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4101_9
Delamont, S., Atkinson, P., & Perry, O. (1997). Supervising the PhD: A Guide to Success. Buckingham:
Open University Press.
Hativa, N. (2000). Teaching for Effective Learning in Higher Education. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic
Publishers.
Helou, M. (2005). Imagery, Perception and Learning: Contributions of Rene Descartes and the
“Cartesean Dualism”. The International Journal of Learning, 12, 161-164.
https://doi.org/10.18848/1447-9494/CGP/v12i03/47655
John-Steiner, V., & Mahn, H. (1996). Sociocultural Approaches to Learning and Development: A
Vygotskian Framework. Educational Psychologist, 31, 191-206.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.1996.9653266
Karpov, Y. V., & Bransford, J. D. (1995). L.S. Vygotsky and the Doctrine of Empirical and Theoretical
Learning. Educational Psychologist, 30, 61-66. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3002_2
King, A. (2002). Structuring Peer Interaction to Promote High-Level Cognitive Processing. Theory into
Practice, 41, 33-39. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4101_6
Kouzulin, A., & Presseisen, B. Z. (1995). Mediated Learning Experiences and Psychological Tools:
Vygotsky and Feuerstein’s Perspectives in a Study of Student Learning. Educational Psychologist,
30, 67-75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3002_3
Morgan, C., Dunn, L., Parry, S., & O’Reilly, M. (2004). The Student Assessment Handbook: New
Directions in Traditional & Online Assessment. London: Routledge.
Prosser, M., & Trigwell, K. (1999). Understanding Learning and Teaching: The Experience in Higher
354
Published by SCHOLINK INC.
www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/jecs Journal of Education and Culture Studies Vol. 2, No. 4, 2018

Education. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Ramsden, P. (1992). Learning to Teach in Higher Education. London: Routledge.
Ramsden, P. (2003). Learning to Teach in Higher Education. London: Routledge.
Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in Thinking. New York: Oxford University Press.
Rogoff, B., & Morelli, G. (1989). Perspectives on Children’s Development from Cultural Psychology.
American Psychologist, 44, 343-348. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.2.343
Sampson, J., & Cohen, R. (2001a). Designing Peer Learning. In D. Boud, R. Cohen, & J. Sampson
(Eds.), Peer Learning in Higher Education: Learning from & With Each Other. London, Kogan
Page Limited.
Sampson, J., & Cohen, R. (2001b). Strategies for Peer Learning: Some Examples. In D. Boud, R.
Cohen, & J. Sampson (Eds.), Peer Learning in Higher Education: Learning from & With Each
Other. London: Kogan Page Limited.
Smith, L. (1996). The Social Construction of Rational Understanding. In A. Tryphon, & J. Voneche
(Eds.), Piaget-Vygotsky: The Social Genesis of Thought. East Sussex: Psychology Press.
Tharp, R. G. (1989). Psychocultural Variables and Contrasts: Effects on Teaching and Learning in
Schools. American Psychologist, 44, 349-359. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.2.349
Tryphon, A., & Voneche, J. (1996). Introduction. In A. Tryphon, & J. Voneche (Eds.), Piaget-Vygotsky:
The Social Genesis of Thought. East Sussex: Psychology Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Wilson, J. T. (2001). Project Management Teams: A Model of Best Practice in Design. In D. Boud, R.
Cohen, & J. Sampson (Eds.), Peer Learning in Higher Education: Learning from & With Each
Other. London: Kogan Page Limited.
Woolfolk, A., & Margetts K. (2007). Educational Psychology. Frenchs Forest: Pearson Education
Australia.
Zukow-Goldring, P., & Freko, K. R. (1994). An Ecological Approach to the Emergence of the Lexicon:
Socializing Attention. In V. John-Steiner, C. P. Panofsky, & L. W. Smith (Eds.), Sociocultural
Approaches to Language and Literacy: An Interactionist Perspective. New York: Cambridge
University Press.

355
Published by SCHOLINK INC.