• Bacteriophage or Phage is a virus that infects and

replicates only within the body of bacteria.

• Bacteriophages were discovered independently by
Frederick W. Twort in the U.K and Félix d’Hérelle in
France.
• The term ‘bacteriophage’ has been derived from two
words; ‘bacteria’ and ‘phagein’, meaning devour. The
term was coined by Félix d’Hérelle.
• These are found throughout the world in different
environments and are even recognized as one of the
most abundant biological agents on earth. These are the
most abundant biological particles in water.
• Bacteriophages are diverse in their shape size and
genome organization depending on the type of bacteria
they infect, but the basic composition remains the same.
• All bacteriophages consist of a nucleic acid genome
which is enclosed inside a shell of phage-encoded capsid
proteins.
The head structure of different phages might differ, the
sizes of phages range between 24-200 nm in length.
• The shape, size, and structure of different
bacteriophages are different depending on the type of
bacteriophages.
• The studies on bacteriophages have increased over
the years, as the scope of their applications has
increased.
• The ability of phages to infect and possibly kill
infectious bacterial agents puts forward their potential
as a possible supplement or replacement for antibiotic
agents.
• The mechanism of infection of bacteriophages
remains almost the same where they first attach to
the host cell and enter their genome into the host cell
to suspend the host cellular machinery.
Structure of Bacteriophage:
• Even though there are different types of phages depending on the type and group of
bacteria, they infect, however, all phages share some common characteristics or
properties. Some of such characteristics or properties of bacteriophages are:
• Like all other viruses, bacteriophages are also highly species-specific towards their
host cell. The bacteriophages only infect a single species of bacteria or even specific
strains of bacteria within a species.
• The basic structure of all bacteriophages is the same. They consist of a core of
nuclear material surrounded by a protein capsid.
• Bacteriophages exist in three basic structural forms; an icosahedral head with a tail,
an icosahedral head without a tail, and a filamentous form.
• The genetic material or nuclear material of bacteriophages can be either DNA or
RNA, both of which can either be double-stranded or single-stranded.
• Bacteriophages are obligate intracellular parasites that remain latent outside the
host cell and require host cellular machinery to conduct their metabolic activities.
• Like bacteria, bacteriophages are also classified into different orders and families
depending on their morphology and genetic material. Some of the commonly
studied families include Inoviridae, Tectiviridae, Microviridae, and Rudiviridae.
Bacteriophage Models or Types
1. λ phage:
• Lambda phage or coliphage λ is a bacteriophage that infects the bacteria belonging to the
members of the bacterial species Escherichia coli (E. coli).
• The lambda phage was originally discovered by Esther Lederberg in 1951 in the US during her
studies on E. coli under ultraviolet irradiation.
• It belongs to the Siphoviridae family of the order Caudovirales which is defined by the lack of
envelope, non-contractile tail, and a linear double-stranded DNA molecule.
• Lambda viruses have been studied for various purposes to understand the lytic and
lysogenic lifestyles of various viruses and also as model viruses for viral studies.
• The virus has a temperate life cycle that enables it to either enter into the lytic phase or
reside within the host’s genome via lysogeny.
• The structure of the phage particle consists of a protein head or capsid, a non-contractile tail,
and tail fibers. The viral genome is present inside the capsid of the virus.
• The non-contractile tail of the virus indicates that the virus cannot force into the cell
membrane of the bacteria and must depend on existing pathways to invade the host cell.
• The virus consists of 12-14 different types of proteins comprised of more than 1000 protein
molecules and a single DNA molecule present in the phage head.
T4 phage:
• The T4 virus is a bacteriophage that infects the members of the bacterial species
Escherichia coli and thus, is also known as Escherichia virus T4.
• The virus is one of the seven Escherichia coliphages (name T1-T7), which were
discovered by Delbruck and coworkers in 1944 as models to study different
mechanisms of the phage community.
• The bacteriophage T4 belongs to the Caudovirales order of the Myoviridae family of
bacteriophages based on the presence of a non-enveloped head and contractile tail.
• The structure of bacteriophage T4 consists of a protein capsid, called, head which
consists of a linear double-stranded DNA molecule.
• At the end of the tail is a 925 Å long and 520 Å diameter contractile tail attached to a
special portal at the base of the head.
• There are six short tail fibers emerging from the baseplate that can recognize
receptor molecules on the host surface.
• Bacteriophage T-even viruses are among the most commonly studied and researched
group of bacteriophages that also are similar to one another in various factors.
• These are also one of the largest and most complicated groups of bacterial viruses as
their genetic makeup is made up of about 300 different genes.
Life Cycles of Bacteriophage:
• Viruses enter the host cell to reproduce during which the virus results in
different forms of infections to the host cell.
• The overall process of the entry of the virus, its replication, and exit from the
host cell comprises the lifecycle of viruses.
• Bacteriophages, like all other viruses, follow a similar trajectory where the virus
enters the bacterial host cell in order to replicate.
• There are two types of lifecycles that differ in the mechanism of DNA
replication where, in one, the viral DNA is incorporated into the host DNA, but
in the other, the DNA replicates separately from the host DNA.
• These lifecycles might occur independently or alternatively in different types of
bacteriophages.
1. Lytic Cycle:
• The lytic cycle is one of the two lifecycles of bacteriophages where the viral
DNA remains as a free-floating molecule and replicates separately from the
bacterial DNA.
• The lytic cycle usually occurs in virulent phages as the phages result in the
destruction of the infected cell membrane during the release of the viral
particles.
• The lytic cycle is a virulent infection as it results in the destruction of a cell.
The lytic lifecycle of bacteriophage is completed in the following steps;
a. Attachment and Penetration:
• The first step in the lifecycle of a bacteriophage is attachment, where the ligands on
specific molecules on the surface of the viral particles bind to the receptor molecules
on the plasma membrane of the host cell.
• The receptors depend on the type of viruses as most orthomyxoviruses use receptors
like terminal sialic acid on an oligosaccharide side chain of a cellular glycoprotein.
• The ligand, however, is an aperture at the distal end of each monomer of the trimeric
viral hemagglutinin glycoprotein.
• Even though there is a high degree of specificity between the receptors and the
ligands, a number of viruses might use the same receptors.
• Besides, some bacteriophages might use other membrane glycoproteins as their
receptors.
• Once attached, the virus injects its nuclear material into the cytoplasm of the
bacterial cell.
• The viral genome (either DNA or RNA) remains in the cytoplasm, and in some cases
becomes circular and resemble the bacterial plasmid.
b. Biosynthesis and Transcription:
• Once in the cytoplasm, the viral genome hijacks the host cellular mechanism and
utilizes it to produce more viruses.
• In the case of DNA viruses, the DNA undergoes transcription to produce messenger
RNA that then directs the ribosome of the host cell.
• In the case of the lytic cycle, the mRNA encodes for various polypeptides, the first of
which destroy the host’s DNA.
• In the case of RNA viruses, an enzyme called reverse transcriptase is involved which
transcribes the viral RNA into DNA.
• The DNA is then transcribed back to mRNA, which then directs the destruction of
host DNA.
• The viral DNA then takes control of the host cell and produces different proteins
required for the assembly of new viruses.
• The viral DNA also undergoes replication to produce more genetic material for new
viral particles.
• The process of biosynthesis and DNA replication is mediated by different genes and
enzymes.
c. Assembly and Lysis:
• As biosynthesis and replication continue, a large number of viral proteins and
genomes are formed.
• Once enough viral particles are formed and matured, these particles under
assembly during which the genetic material of the virus is incorporated into
the viral protein, capsid.
• The newly assembled bacteriophages release the enzyme, lysin, into the
cytoplasm. The enzyme causes the lysis of the bacterial cell wall, resulting in
the release of newly formed phage particles.
• Thus, at the end of the lytic lifecycle, the infected bacterial cell and cell
membrane are destroyed.
Lysogenic Cycle:
• Lysogenic is one of the two lifecycles of bacteriophages defined by
the incorporation of the bacteriophage genome into the host
genome.
• During the lysogenic lifecycle, the host bacteria continue to live and
reproduce normally after the replication of bacteriophages.
• The genetic material of bacteriophage incorporated in the bacterial
DNA during the lysogenic lifecycle is called a prophage which can be
transmitted to daughter cells during the bacterial cell division.
• The lysogenic cycle is a temperate and non-virulent infection as the
bacteriophage doesn’t kill the host cell.
The process of lysogenic lifecycle occurs in the following steps;
a. Attachment and Penetration:
• The first step of the lysogenic lifecycle is identical to the first step of the lytic
lifecycle.
• The bacteriophage ligands attach to the receptors on the surface of the
bacterial cell wall.
• The attachment is highly specific as it is determined by the interaction
between the ligands and the receptors present on the surface of the bacterial
cell wall.
• After attachment, the viral genome is injected into the cytoplasm of the host
cell.
• The infective viral DNA or prophage is then incorporated into the host
chromosome, which converts the infective prophage into a non-infective
prophage.
b. Replication:
• The viral DNA then uses the host machinery to replicate as it continues to replicate
with the host chromosomes during cell division.
• In some cases, the prophage might be ejected from the host chromosome, and the
viral DNA might enter the lytic cycle.
• Unlike the lytic cycle, the bacterial cellular mechanism is not hijacked by the viral
particles, and no biosynthesis of viral proteins takes place.
• The prophage, however, can be transferred to the daughter cells during the bacterial
cell division.
• The process of replication continues until there are some stressors which can either
be physical stressors like UV radiation, low nutrient condition or chemical, which
might result in the transition of the lysogenic cycle into the lytic cycle.
• Once converted into the lytic cycle, the viral DNA undergoes transcription to
produce viral proteins. The proteins and viral genome are then assembled to form
complete viral particles which then are released from the host cell by lysis.
Characteristics Lytic Cycle Lysogenic Cycle

The lytic cycle is a type of lifecycle of Lysogenic is another type of lifecycle of

bacteriophages where the viral DNA remains as a bacteriophages which is defined by the
Definition
free-floating molecule and replicates separately incorporation of the bacteriophage genome
from the bacterial DNA. into the host genome.

The lytic cycle is also called the infective cycle or The lysogenic cycle is also called a temperate
Also called
virulent cycle. cycle or non-virulent cycle.

In the lytic cycle, the viral DNA remains in the In the lysogenic cycle, the viral DNA is
Viral DNA
cytoplasm of the host cell. incorporated into the host chromosome.

The lysogenic cycle consists of a prophage

Prophage No prophage is present in the lytic cycle.
stage.

Host DNA is destroyed by various proteins encoded

Host DNA The host DNA is not affected by the viral DNA.
by the viral DNA.
 Characteristics Lytic Cycle Lysogenic Cycle

The viral DNA replication occurs separately Viral DNA replication occurs along with
Viral replication
from the host DNA replication. the host DNA replication.

The productivity of viral DNA and viral The productivity of viral DNA and viral
The productivity of viral DNA
proteins is high. proteins is low.

Host cellular mechanism is completely Host cellular mechanisms remain

Host cellular mechanism
hijacked by the viral DNA. unaffected.

The lytic cycle is immediate and is The lysogenic cycle takes a longer
Duration
completed within a short period of time. period of time.

The lytic cycle cannot transition into a The lysogenic cycle can transition into
Transition
lysogenic cycle. the lytic cycle.
 Characteristics Lytic Cycle Lysogenic Cycle

As the cycle is an infective cycle,

The cycle is a non-infective cycle that
Infection symptoms of viral infections can be
doesn’t result in symptoms.
observed.

The viral DNA cannot be transferred The viral DNA can be transferred into
Transfer from the host cell to the daughter cell the daughter cell during the lysogenic
during the lytic cycle. cycle.

The lytic cycle doesn’t allow genetic The lysogenic cycle allows the genetic
Genetic recombination recombination of the host recombination of the host
chromosome. chromosome.

The lytic cycle ends with the lysis of the The lysogenic cycle doesn’t result in the
Lysis of host cell
host cell. lysis of the host cell.
Applications of Bacteriophages:
• Bacteriophages have been considered to be potential antibacterial
therapeutics for the treatment of various infectious bacterial diseases in
humans and animals. In the beginning, the clinical application of
bacteriophages was limited to the treatment of acute intestinal infections and
skin infections. Later, however, the application of bacteriophages in surgical
practices for the treatment of prurient infectious complications was initiated.
The following are some of the application of bacteriophages in different areas;
Treatment of bacterial infections:
• With the increasing cases of bacterial resistance against numerous antibiotics,
the potential use of bacteriophage a possible treatment has been explored.
• As the bacteriophage infects only bacteria and is harmless to humans, the
administration of such bacteriophages into humans helps in the destruction of
such infectious bacteria.
• Besides, the application of bacteriophages on burn wounds has shown to
reduce the chances of infection and sepsis by a large number.
In food hygiene and safety:
• Bacteriophages are used to control and eliminate bacterial contaminants from food surfaces
and food-borne spoilage.
• Bacteriophages are highly specific, which makes them attractive for sanitization of ready-to-
eat foods like milk, vegetables, and meat products.
• Many bacteriophages have been commercialized for their use as spray sanitizers to disinfect
cattle hides prior to slaughter in order to reduce contamination in the meat.
• Some bacteriophages are also useful as surface and environment decontaminants as they
can disinfect stainless stain as efficiently as a quaternary ammonium compound.

In agriculture:
• Some bacteriophages that are specific to plant bacteria have also found their application in
agriculture.
• These phages are used for the treatment and prevention of bacterial diseases in plants. The
use of bacteriophages in the place of antibiotics prevent the clumping of antibiotics on the
plant surface, which then might be harmful to the health of the consumers.