Oda Bultum University

College of Natural Resource and Environmental Science

School of Graduate Studies

The Role of Agroforestry for Climate Change Mitigation and

Adaptation

A Graduate Seminar Paper for the Partial Fulfillment of MSc.

in Agroforestry and Soil Management

Submitted to: AlemayehuBeyene (Assistant Professor)

Submitted by: Hinsarmu Jamal

May, 2021

OdaBultum University, Chiro, Ethiopia

 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATION
AFS Agroforestry System

CO2 Carbon dioxide

C Carbon

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization

GHG Greenhouse gases

ICRAF International Centre for Research in Agroforestry

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

REDD+ Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation,

Conservation of existing Forest Carbon

SIWI Stockholm International Water Institute

UNIPCC United Nation Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

UNESCO United Nation Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,

°C Degree Celsius

°F Degree Faranite

% Percent

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Acronyms and Abbreviation....................................................................................................i
List of Table......................................................................................................................................iii
List of Figure.....................................................................................................................................iv
Summery............................................................................................................................................v
1. Introduction....................................................................................................................................1
2. Concept and definition...................................................................................................................2
2.1. Agroforestry,...........................................................................................................................2
2.2. Climate change........................................................................................................................3
2.3. Climate change Mitigation......................................................................................................3
2.4. Climate change adaptation.......................................................................................................4
2.5. Vulnerability of Agroforestry to Climate Change....................................................................4
2.6. Climate Change and Its Causes...............................................................................................5
3. Role of agroforestry for mitigation of Climate Change..................................................................6
3.1. Carbon sequestration...............................................................................................................6
3.2. Fertilizer use efficiency...........................................................................................................8
3.3. Improve soil fertility................................................................................................................8
3.4. Water (Quality and quantity)...................................................................................................9
4. Role of Agroforestry in climate change Adaptation.....................................................................10
4.1. Microclimate amelioration:...................................................................................................10
4.2. Biodiversity conservation:.....................................................................................................11
4.3. Balancing increased temperature...........................................................................................11
5. Contribution of Agroforestry to climate change mitigation and adaption.....................................13
5.1. Changing rainfall patterns......................................................................................................13
5.2. For insect pest management...................................................................................................14
5.3. For livelihood and food security............................................................................................15
5.4. In livestock production..........................................................................................................15
6. Conclusion....................................................................................................................................16
7. Reference......................................................................................................................................17

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 LIST OF TABLE
Table 1. Top five agroforestry based direct solutions to mitigation to climate change in
Europe…………………………………………………………………..10

Table 2. Top five agroforestry based direct solutions for adaptation to climate change in
Europe……………………………………………………………………14

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 LIST OF FIGURE
Fig 1: Direct, indirect and socio-economic effects of climate change on agricultural
production…………………………………………………………………5

SUMMERY
Climate change is real and happening all over the world which manifested by recurrent

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drought, floods, and famine that have threatened millions of people and livestock in recent
decades. Agro forestry, which is an ecologically based traditional farming practice,
integrates trees into the farming systems to increase agricultural productivity and
ameliorate soil fertility, control erosion, conserve biodiversity, and diversify income for
households and communities. The primary objective of this seminar is to review and
compile issues related to the role of agro forestry for the climate change mitigation and
adaptation.Agroforestryplay a significant role in mitigating climate change through
reduction of greenhouse gases accumulation via sequestrating and storing in plant biomass
of above ground, below ground and soil. It also plays a great role in enhancing the cope
upping strategies of the small holder farmers with the climate change.

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 1. INTRODUCTION
Expected increasing temperatures, variations in rainfall distribution, extreme events, and
intense droughts are usually known as Climate change. These un expected events and
variations on climatic factors affect agricultural systems through the temperature variations,
water availability and quality, pest and disease, fire risk, storm damage, while agriculture
impacts climate through the emissions of GHGs. Agro forestry understood as the
integration of woody vegetation and lower story agricultural production-and their different
practices (silvopasture, silvoarable,riparian buffer strips, home gardens and forest farming)
are currently recognized as sustainable land use measures to overcome climate change
(Mosquera-Losada et al. 2016).Mitigation and adaptation options of agro forestry can be
implemented at agricultural (silvopasture,silvoarable, hedgerows and riparian buffer strips)
forestry (forest farming, silvopasture and forest farming) and per urban and urban (home
gardens) land cover, but also at farm level affecting landscape (through the adequate
distribution of forest and agricultural lands within and between farms or the hedgerows and
riparian buffer strips) mitigation and adaptation potential. Climate change is happening
now (Ripple et al. 2019) and urgent action is required to limit the temperature increase to
1.5 degrees (IPCC, 2019). Climate change risks (e.g. severe droughts, flooding, diseases)
can have extensive impacts on agricultural systems, triggering soil erosion, crop failure,
and loss of biodiversity, reduced soil moisture, pest damages and economic losses. More
extreme events and greater occurrence of drier and wetter conditions are already making it
difficult for farmers to plan planting and harvesting (SIWI, 2018), threatening current
production systems and food security as a result. Trees, forests and agriculture are key to
reducing carbon emissions and achieving the Paris Agreement targets. Replanting the right
tree species in the right place can help farmers adapt to climatic impacts infiltration to soils
and groundwater (Bargues Tobella et al., 2014), protecting water catchments and
watersheds. Moreover, trees provide a number of ecosystem services, such as water
regulation, climate buffering, soil fertility, erosion and flood control, as well as food,
fodder, medicine and wood – all important for resilience to climate change and reduced

1
vulnerability of local people (Verchot et al., 2007; Mbow et al., 2014).

Objective of this paper is to review and complain the role of agroforestry for climate
change mitigation and adaptation.

2. CONCEPT AND DEFINITION

2.1. Agroforestry,
Agroforestry is a land use system that deliberately integrates trees or shrubs with
agricultural crops and livestock in the same land management system (Nair
1993).Agroforestry can contribute to sustain agricultural production (Roshetko and
Bertomeu 2015), improve food security (Mbow et al. 2014), help alleviate temporal
shortages of water and energy (Coe et al. 2014), and facilitates adaptation to climate
change. Agroforestry context is defined as “a dynamic and ecologically based natural
resource management system through which perennial trees and shrubs are integrated with
farmland and rangeland either in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence to
diversify and sustain production and for increasing social economic and environmental
benefits for land users at all levels” (ICRAF, 2009)An agro forestry practice denotes a
specific land management operation on a farm or other management unit, and consists of
arrangements of agro forestry components in space and/ or time. Examples of agro forestry
practices are Tree home gardens, Woodlot, Wind breaks/shelterbelts, Boundary planting,
Live fences, Hedgerow intercropping, improved fallow, Intercropping under scattered or
regularly planted trees , Trees on rangelands ,Trees on soil conservation and reclamation
structures etc. The practices included here are just a few among the countless and diverse
agro forestry practices that exist in Ethiopia. Agroforestry practices involve combinations
of trees, crops, and animals in various spatial arrangements or temporal sequences on the
landscape .In Agroforestry practice there are integration of crops and/or livestock with trees
and shrubs. The resulting biological interactions provide multiple benefits, including
diversified income sources, increased biological production, better water quality, and
improved habitat for both humans and wildlife (Khanal, 2011).

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2.2. Climate change
Climate describes conditions over the long term and over an entire region. Climate is the
big picture. It is the big picture of temperatures, rainfall, wind and other conditions over a
larger region and a longer time than weather (UNESCO, 2019).Climate change is any
process that causes adjustments to a climate system could be described as creating climate
change. These processes include volcanic eruption to a cyclical change in solar activity.
The planet’s climate has constantly been changing over geological time. However, the
current period of warming is occurring more rapidly than many past events. Scientists are
concerned by the rapid human-induced warming because of the serious implications for the
stability of the planet’s climate. Today, however, the phrase is most often used as shorthand
for anthropogenic climate change in other words, climate change caused by humans. The
principal way in which humans are understood to be affecting the climate is through the
release of heat-trapping greenhouse gases into the air (UNESCO, 2019).

2.3. Climate change Mitigation

Mitigation refers to technological change and substitution that reduce input and emissions
per unit of life. Mitigation is nothing but remedial measure to cure the adverse impact
which has occurred in limited extent like increased carbon dioxide concentration and
preventing emission and allowing sinks of GHGs through carbon sequestration process. In
simple language, adaptation can be carried out at local level but mitigation is at globally.
Mitigation measure increases soil organic matter in the soil and ultimately improves soil
health and quality so that it enhances crop yield in agroforestry systems and also enhance
the adaptive capacity of soils, so is a ‘win–win’ option (Chavan et al., 2014,).Mitigation is
reducing climate change which involves reducing the flow of heat trapping green house
gases into the atmosphere, either by reducing source of these gases (for example, the
burning of fossil fuels for electricity, heat or transport) or enhancing the sinks that
accumulate and store these gases such as the oceans, forests and soil).The goal of
mitigation is to avoid significant human interference with the climate system and stabilize
greenhouse gas levels in a time frame sufficient to allow ecosystem to adapt naturally to
climate change(UNIPCC, 2014).

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2.4. Climate change adaptation
Adaptation refers to adjustments in ecological, social, or economic systems in response to
actual or expected climatic stimuli and their effects or impacts. It refers to changes in
processes, practices, and structures to moderate potential damages or to benefit from
opportunities associated with climate change (Chavan et al., 2014,). As adaptation emerges
as a science, the role of agroforestry in reducing the vulnerability of agricultural systems
(and the rural communities that depend on them for their livelihood) to climate change or
climate variability needs to be addressed (UNFCCC, 2013). Adaptation is adapting to life
in changing climate which involves adjusting to actual or expected future climate. The goal
is to reduce our vulnerability to the harmful effect of climate change(like sea level
encroachment, more intense extreme weather events or food insecurity).It also encompasses
making the most of any potential beneficial opportunities associated with climate change
(UNIPCC, 2014).

2.5. Vulnerability of Agroforestry to Climate Change

Vulnerability of agro forestry to climate change is Trees on farms may mitigate direct
climate impacts, e.g., providing erosion control (Ma et al. 2009; Mutegi et al. 2008) or
reducing the loss of grain production in drought years (Sileshi et al. 2011). But most of the
effects are indirect in the sense that agro forestry tends to improve livelihoods and well
being and thereby reduces vulnerability to climate impacts as much as development related
factors (Neupane and Thapa 2001, Mithöfer and Waibel 2003, Garrity et al. 2010). For an
example of direct effects, soil erosion is a serious problem in cultivated areas of the central
highlands of Kenya, as there is a strong negative correlation to maize production (Mutegi et
al. 2008). They estimated how crop yields might be affected by introducing different
erosion control measures into the conventional maize mono cropping system. Their results
showed that napier grass (Pennisetumpurpureum) alone had the highest erosion mitigating
effects but that this was accompanied by a loss in maize production, whereas a combination
of Napier grass with leguminous shrubs (Leucaenatrichandraor calliandracalothyrsus) led
to reduced erosion and an enhancement of maize production and soil fertility, particularly

4
in the second year of establishment of the hedges. Most effects of agroforestry are expected
to be indirect in the sense that agroforestry increases farmers’ food security, livelihoods,
and income, and thereby reduces climate vulnerability and raises adaptive capacities.

Fig 1: Direct, indirect and socio-economic effects of climate change on agricultural

production.

Source (Charles et al 2014)

2.6. Climate Change and Its Causes

Climate change is a natural phenomenon and the biological system has its inherent capacity
to adjust itself under changes happening in the external environmental conditions.
According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report indicated that
during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to 1.7 °C
(0.5 to 3.1 °F) in a moderate scenario, or as much as 2.6 to 4.8 °C (4.7 to 8.6 °F) in an

5
extreme scenario, depending on the rate of future greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC, 2019
Causes of climate change can be divided into two categories, natural cause, and human
cause. Natural causes include Continental drift, Volcanoes, The earth's tilt, and Ocean
currents. While human made causes contribute more to the climate change.

3. ROLE OF AGROFORESTRY FOR MITIGATION OF CLIMATE

CHANGE
3.1. Carbon sequestration
The process of removing additional carbon from the atmosphere and depositing it in other
"reservoirs" is principally known as Carbon sequestration. In practical terms, carbon
sequestration occurs mostly through the expansion of tree plantation (Chavan et al., 2014,).
Agroforestry Accumulate C in woody biomass and in soil to Reduce GHG emission.
Agroforestry also Reduce fossil fuel consumption, Reduce equipment runs in areas with
trees ,Reduce farmstead heating and cooling Reduce CO2 emission by C sink Reduce N2O
emissions: By greater nutrient uptake through tress ,By reducing N fertilizer consumption
in tree systems Enhance forage quality, thereby reducing CH4.Agro forestry, an
ecologically and environmentally sustainable land use, offers great promise to wards
mitigating the rising atmospheric CO2 levels through C sequestration (Nair, 2011). Tree
crop sequestered C at a higher rate than those containing only in annual crops or grasslands
(Brakas and Aune, 2011).Since annual crops will only accumulate carbon through roots and
retention of crops residue, whereas tree crops will accumulate carbon through, roots, litter
and above-ground biomass (Nair et al., 2009; Singh and Brakas and Aune (2011) reported
higher carbon accumulation rate from agro forestry with high diversity. Biodiversity
enhancement by AFS facilitated a better nutrient use and therefore increases C
sequestration compared with tree-less AFS (Nair et al., 2009; Howlett et al.,2011;Singhand
Pandey,2011).However, having a large carbon stock does not necessarily mean having
large C sequestration. Since tree C sequestration also depends on very stable (long-
standing) AFS and tree species like Faidherbia albida (`reversed leaf phenology`). For
example, evergreen trees like Persea americana, Syzigium speciesand Albizia species

6
retained C in the leaves for longer period of time than deciduous tree species, which cause
regular inputs of organic matter into the soil, apart from the roots and its litter fall which is
usually low until canopy closure (Ajayi et al., 2011and Mosquera-Losada et al., 2011).
Udawatta and Jose (2011) reported individual tree in silvopastoral system to grew faster
than in conventional forest on the same site, allowing silvopastoral trees to store more C.
While C sequestration in the study area for itself may be insignificant in mitigating CO2,
producing fuel wood from arable or grazed land may still present interesting opportunities
in implementing REDD+ through: (1) the protection of existing forests, protected area and
other natural landscapes; (2) the conservation of soil productivity; (3) extent income
increased in agro forestry farmers reduces the incentive for further from natural forest and
protected area for income escalation , and finally (4) reduce leakage by supplying wood and
non-wood products (Albrecht and Kandji 2003; Angelsen et al. 2012; Montagnini and Nair
2004), it also substitutes the more energy-intensive construction materials like concrete,
steel, gypsum board, fossil fuels, plastic and aluminum (Nair 2008; Singh and Pandey
2011).Agroforestry has a potential to offset 5-360 t ha -1 of GHGs through energy
substitutions, up to 100 t ha-1 through materials substitution, and 1-5 t ha -1 through
reductions of fertilizer inputs by increasing eco efficient. Despite the potential of AFS in
substituting inputs of synthetic fertilizer and pesticides with bio pesticides and bio-
manure (Charles et al. 2013; Ulsrud ( et al.2008), integrating multiple-use species such as
trees for fodder and trees for land reclamation (phytoremediation) can substitute relatively
energy intensive (Kumar 2006; Singh and Pandey 2011).Other types of agroforestry
practices (i.e. forest farming) aiming at promoting understory production (i.e. medicinal
plants, mushrooms) helps to reduce this forest fuel loads, while increasing multiple
production for forest lands and jobs in rural areas. Moreover, silvoarable practices were
used in some areas of Europe in young tree plantations to reduce the tree-understory
competition, forcing deeper root penetration which on turns ensures tree presence and the
associated carbon linked to the presence of the woody vegetation (above and below the
soil).The initial combination of crops and young trees in afforestation and reforestation
increases plantation resilience to flooding and strong winds as the trees are better anchored.

7
Moreover, when a legume is sown as part of the understory, the tree development is
increased and the initial mortality rate of the plantations is reduced The presence of woody
vegetation in agricultural lands facilitate temperature stability, reducing impact of extreme
heat and the potential of ammonia and nitrous oxide volatilization and therefore GHG
emissions. Moreover, the adequate distribution of trees or shrubs may reduce wind speed
and therefore GHG emissions rates as well as nutrient recycling from agricultural lands and
even improve productivity as water retention and quality is ameliorated. The use of woody
vegetation (tree lines or hedgerows) is key to perform better from a productive point of
view in European countries such as Bulgaria or Check Republic (Kachova et al. 2016) with
increases in wheat production that can be over 20% compared with tree-less systems

3.2. Fertilizer use efficiency

Fertilizer use efficiency in India is generally very low (30-50%) and increasing temperature
is likely to reduce the fertilizer use efficiency. This will lead to increased fertilizer
requirement for meeting increased future food production demand. A large number of
resource poor farmers in tropics are not able to apply desired levels of fertilizers. Studies on
tropical AFS in nutrient-depleted soils have demonstrated the ability of deep-rooted trees to
absorb nutrients that have leached below the rooting zone of agronomic crops and to
recycle these nutrients via leaf litter and fine root turnover. Further, pruning of various agro
forestry tree species such as Gliricidia sepium, Calli andra spp., Sesbania sesban, Azadirach
ta indica, Pongamia glabra, Cassia fistula, Leucaena leucocephalaetc. Act as green manure,
thus, improving the nutrient-use efficiency in the system as a whole. (Lin et al., 2008).

3.3. Improve soil fertility

Changing climatic scenario (higher temperatures, increasing CO2 concentrations, changes
in precipitation patterns etc.) could increase decomposition of organic matter, nutrient
cycling and nitrogen fixation. Keller et al., (2004) reported that climate change will directly
affect carbon and nitrogen mineralization through changes in temperature and soil moisture,
but may also indirectly affect mineralization rates through changes in soil quality. Agro
forestry can be a viable option to alleviate the degradation and loss of soil fertility from

8
agricultural fields. Parkland agro forestry is an important land use system that has a positive
influence on maintaining soil fertility mainly due to tree component. Agro forestry helps in
maintaining and enhancing soil fertility through organic matter(litter/root decay), nitrogen
fixation, through fall and stream flow, preventing soil and water erosion, nutrient cycling,
nutrient pumping, improving soil physico-chemical properties, improving soil biological
activity etc (Nair, 1993).

3.4. Water (Quality and quantity)

Climate change can alter the availability of water. About 8% of the global population is
projected to experience water shortage due to increased warming (1.7Cover normal) by
2040 and increasing to 14% of the population at 2.7C in 2043-2071 (IPCC 2014). Lin et
al., (2011) found that the VBS (Vegetated Buffer Strips) reduced the transport of both
dissolved and sediment bound herbicides and veterinary antibiotics in surface runoff by 58
to 72%. Udawatta et al., (2011) studied the effect of agro forestry buffers on reduction of
nonpoint-source pollution (NPSP). They found that grassland agro forestry buffers reduced
sediment, total N and total P losses by 32, 42 and 46%, respectively; compared with control
treatments and they recommend the design of agro forestry and grass buffers to improve
water quality. (Lin et al., 2008). Described the water quality enhancement benefits of
riparian buffer systems and indicated that riparian forest buffers can remove significant
amounts of sediment, nutrients and pesticides from both surface and subsurface waters.
Climate change is projected to reduce ground water resources significantly in most dry
subtropical regions. In a groundwater-dependent irrigated region in northwest Bangladesh,
the average groundwater level during the major irrigation period (January-April) is
projected to decrease in accordance with temperature rise. Agroforestry has potential for
improving water use efficiency by reducing the un productive components of the water
balance, i.e. run off, soil evaporation and drainage. Evaluated water balance and water
competition in alley cropping system and found that in alley cropping, water budget
components and water use patterns were improved significantly as indicated by increased

9
evapotranspiration (6-11%) and decreased net drainage (7-45%) and runoff (50-60%).(Lin
et al., 2008).
Table 1. Top five agroforestry based direct solutions to mitigate climate change in Europe.

Source Hernández-Morcillo et al., 2018

4. ROLE OF AGROFORESTRY IN CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION

4.1. Microclimate amelioration:

Agroforestry is ecologically dynamic, complex and sustainable system which provides
opportunity to create “mimic” of natural forest in farm land with high complementary
benefits like economic and environmental. In such condition tree systems are having ability
to improve microclimatic conditions by lowering temperature, evapotranspiration, moisture
reduction acting as a filter and providing buffer against direct sunlight. Microclimatic
amelioration is considered as one of the important role of trees in agroforestry systems to
provide sustainability. As a method of adapting agriculture to climate change, agroforestry

10
systems have been shown to increase on-farm production resilience to climate variability by
buffering crops from the effects of temperature and precipitation variation as well as strong
winds associated with storms (Lin, 2011). From the meteorological point of view
agroforestry systems providing two key facts viz.,shade tree concept (radiation)and
mechanic concept. For the first concept, shade will create microclimates with lower
seasonal means in ambient temperature and solar radiation as well as smaller fluctuations.
The shade tree reduces evaporative demands from soil evaporation and crop transpiration.
Addressing issues of climate change adaptation in the scenario of microclimate
improvement is important factor which reduces yield loss and drudgery of small farmers by
agroforestry interventions in agriculture. The mechanic concept of agroforestry is
maintaining shelterbelts and windbreaks to minimize the impact of wind speed in arid,
semiarid parts of country. These are providing crop assurance to farmers against extreme
climatic events by modifying weather condition of the field. Windbreaks and shelterbelts
reduce wind velocity, increasing moisture and decreasing temperature and also providing
shelter against direct sunlight. Therefore it is considered as good adaptive strategies of
climate change. Windbreaks are believed to reduce evaporative water losses from surfaces
downwind, and thus conserve soil moisture, based on the notion that increased shelter from
wind reduces evaporation (Hernández-Morcillo et al., 2018).

4.2. Biodiversity conservation:

Agroforestry is a system of complex and integrated approach which provides opportunity to
intermingle trees, crops, pastures and animals in a managed aspect and providing shelter for
soil flora & fauna, birds, insects and wildlife. Traditional agroforestry systems are best
examples of agro-biodiversity conservations (Hernández-Morcillo et al., 2018).The
presence of trees further enhances diversity by providing shelter and habitat to a various
diversified flora and fauna. It also helps in conserving genetic diversity of wild cultivars or
landraces and trees that are in danger of loss and require priority conservation.

4.3. Balancing increased temperature

In Crop production the Despite the beneficial effects of higher CO2 on many crops,

11
associated increase in temperature would affect crop production considerably with more
depressing effects in tropics and subtropics. There is possibility of 5-10% decline in wheat
production with every1C rise of temperature by mid 21stcentury. IPCC indicated
probability of 10-40% loss in crop production in India with increase in temperature by
2080-2100).International Rice Research Institute predicted 20% drop in production per
degree Celsius of temperature rise. Rice becomes sterile if exposed to temperatures above
35 degrees for more than one hour during flowering and consequently produces no
grain).Agro forestry helps in increasing crop production by incorporating trees on the farm
through various beneficial effects that trees have on the microclimate and crop. Pardon et
al., (2018) found increase in the yield of wheat near the trees as compared to control in
poplar based agro forestry system and was attributed to the shading effect of trees during
heat waves, thereby buffering maximum temperature. They further found that tree row
presence resulted in significant increase in CP concentration of wheat and barley. Increased
CP concentration is one of the adaptive capacities of the crop to climate change.

In Crop phenology: the Advancement in spring phenology of 2.8 ±0.35 days per decade
has been observed in plants and animals in recent decades in most Northern Hemisphere
eco systems (between 30N and 72 N). These shifts have been attributed to changes in
climate (IPCC 2014). The phenology of the durum wheat in the two systems-agro forestry
system (AFS) and fellow system (FS) was almost the same until a thesis. After this stage,
the phenological development in FS was faster until shortly before reaching physiological
maturity. Crop ripened about 10-12 days earlier in FS as compared to AFS.

12
Table 2. Top five agroforestry based direct solutions for adaptation to climate change in
Europe.

13
Source Hernández-Morcillo et al., 2018

5. CONTRIBUTION OF AGROFORESTRY TO CLIMATE CHANGE

MITIGATION AND ADAPTION
5.1. Changing rainfall patterns

A 2C rise in the world’s average temperatures will make India’s summer monsoon highly
unpredictable. At 4C warming, an extremely wet monsoon that currently has a chance of
occurring only once in 100 years is projected to occur every 10 years by the end of the
century. An abrupt change in the monsoon could precipitate a major crisis, triggering more
frequent droughts as well as greater flooding in large parts of India. Dry years are expected
to be drier and wet years wetter. Limiting global warming to 1.5C, compared to 2C, may
reduce the proportion of the world population exposed to a climate change-induced increase
in water stress up to 50% (IPCC, 2014). Tree component in agro forestry helps to buffer
against extreme events by modifying temperatures, providing shade and shelter and by

14
acting as alternative food sources during periods of flood and drought. Tree-based systems
have some obvious advantages for maintaining production during wetter and drier years.
Firstly, their deep root systems are able to explore a larger soil volume for water and
nutrients, which will help during droughts. Secondly, increased soil porosity, reduced
runoff and increased soil cover lead to increased water infiltration and retention in the soil
profile which can reduce moisture stress during low rainfall years. Thirdly, tree-based
systems have higher evapo transpiration rates than row crops or pastures and can thus
maintain aerated soil conditions by pumping excess water out of the soil profile more
rapidly than other production systems (Lin et al., 2008). Various attributes of agro forestry
that helps in mitigating flood are food, firewood, medicine, construction material, reduction
soil erosion and water flow, trees with fast and constant production, wind break, clean air,
cover from rain etc. while fodder, shade, drought resistance, beautification, prevention of
soil erosion, attraction of rain etc. helps in combating drought conditions.

5.2. For insect pest management

Climate change will indirectly affect crop productivity by changing pest and disease
dynamics and ultimately food security. Every 1 C increase in temperature in southwest
Europe was associated with an additional migration of 14.4 ± 2.4 species to England.
Armyworm, (Mythimna separata), reaches outbreak proportions after heavy rains and
floods. Outbreaks occurred when rainfall exceeded the average 89cm. Hamilton et al.,
(2005) found that soybean grown under the elevated CO2 atmosphere had 57% more
damage from the insects like Japanese beetle, potato leafhopper, western corn rootworm
and Mexican bean beetle than those grown under the ambient conditions. However, reduced
temperature and humidity fluctuations under shade can also have a suppressing effect on
pest and diseases. For example, these conditions tend to reduce the spread of witches’
broom disease on cacao. An alley cropping experiment in Rwanda with Sesbania sesban
found that trees seemed to reduce the incidence of maize rust (Pucciniasorhii) (Lin et al.,
2008).

15
5.3. For livelihood and food security
Dhyani et al., (2 00 5) have indicated the potential of agro forestry for rural development
and employment generation to the tune of 5.763 m human days/yr from Indian Himalayas
alone. Acacia senegal based agro forestry system in parts of Barmer and Jodhpur districts
of Rajasthan is best example of livelihood improvement potential of agro forestry. Acacia
senegal is a source of gum Arabic which has very high commercial value. In addition to
harvesting crop grain for food and crop straw for fodder, the farmers harvested substantial
quantity of gum Arabic through small intervention using gum inducer provided by
CAZRI.Leguminous crop (mung bean) sown under beer (Ziziphusmauritiana) plantation
produced 0.2 t/ha of grain and 0.8 t/ha quality beer fruits from same land unit even when
seasonal rainfall was as low as 200 mm, thus rendering a drought proofing mechanism to
the system. The economics of this improved system indicated that in case of sole
leguminous crop (mung bean) farming, the net profit per hectare was Rs. 4800 ha -1,
however, in case of beer intercropping, the profit was to a tune of Rs. 8000 ha -1. Further,
results of regression analysis of data on climatic variables suggest negative effect of
maximum temperature on food security which requires climate resilient technology for its
addressable (Rajput S et al 2019).

5.4. In livestock production

Livestock production globally contributes about 9% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide
(CO2), 37% of methane (CH4) and 65% of nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions (FAO, 2009).
Livestock-keeping diversifies rural communities’ production options and is often adapted
to relatively marginal environments, which can promote climate resilience. Due to
deforestation for agricultural expansion access to tree resources from natural forests and
woodlands is lost (FAO, 2010). The increased competition between human food and animal
feed, the greater demand for animal products globally and the changing environmental
impacts, emphasize the increasing importance of agro forestry for livestock sector. Dawson
et al., (2014) studied how integration of fodder trees on the farm land helps in mitigating
the climate change.

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.

6. CONCLUSION
Agro forestry is increasingly recognized as a land management system that can serve as a
response option for both climate change adaptation and mitigation, while addressing many
of the challenges that smallholder farmers are facing. Agro forestry can generate multiple
livelihood and environmental benefits, as it can help to mitigate climate change and help
farmers to adapt to extreme and variable weather. Agro forestry supports tree-related
ecosystem services, such as regulation of water and sediment flows, carbon and nutrient
cycling in soils and it provides habitat for biodiversity. This leads to increased soil fertility,
reduced soil erosion and flood and pest control. Benefits of agro forestry to smallholder
farmers include increased farm productivity and reduction of external inputs such as
conventional fertilizers and chemicals for pest management, leading to increased income.
The enhancement of forest C stocks through agroforestry can be considered as one of the
main options for reducing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere Agroforestry is a unique
extensive action involving the integration of woody plants with crop and livestock
components. Therefore, in the recent decades, the role of agroforestry in climate change
mitigation received strong attention. Thus, the greatest role of agroforestry in relation to
climate change is in mitigating the emissions of CO2 by sequestering carbon from the
atmosphere. Because the adoption of agroforestry practice has greater potential to increase
C sequestration of predominantly agriculture dominated landscapes than the mono crop
agriculture.

17
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