A Technical Seminar Report on

An Introduction to MEMS
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
BY
S. Tulasi Naidu 17H51A0357

Department of Mechanical Engineering

CMR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to JNTU-HYD, Approved by AICTE)
Kandlakoya (V) Medchal Road, Hyderbad-501401

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 CMR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
&TECHNOLOGY
(AUTONOMOUS)
Kandlakoya, Medchal Road, Hyderabad, 501401
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled 'An Introduction to MEMS
' submitted by
S. Tulasi Naidu 17H51A0357
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CMR College of Engineering &
Technology, in the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor
of Technology in MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, is a record of the bonafide
work carried out during the academic year 2020-2021.

Internal Guide Head of the Department

Mr. K.P.V. Krishna Varma Dr. P. Ravi Kumar
Asst. Professor Professor

External Examiner

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 DECLARATION

We, students of 4 year B-Tech in Mechanical Engineering, CMR COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, Kandlakoya, Hyderabad hereby declare that under the
supervision of our guide K.P.V. Krishna Varma, We have carried out the Technical Seminar
titled 'An Introduction to MEMS' and submitted it in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
the award of the degree of Bachelor Of Technology Of The Jawaharlal Nehru Technological
University of Hyderabad during the academic year 2020-2021.

S. Tulasi Naidu 17H51A0357

Date:- 28/03/2021
Place:-Hyderabad

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Technical Seminar entitled ‘An Introduction to MEMS’ is the result of my sturdy
efforts. It is my duty to bring forward each one who is directly or indirectly in relation with the
project and without whom it would not have gained a structure.

We express our sincere regards to Dr. P. Ravi Kumar, Head of Department, Mechanical
engineering, CMR College of Engineering & Technology, Kandlakoya, Medchal, for giving me
permission to do this project and for constantly encouraging me throughout this project.

We express our sincere gratitude to our project guide Mr K.P.V. Krishna Varma, Assistant
Professor, Mechanical Department, CMRCET, Kandlakoya, Medchal, who has given total support
and initiated the concept to do this project successfully. I am very thankful to the staff of
Mechanical Department for helping me out as required.

Our sincere thanks to Major. Dr. V. A. Narayana, Principal, CMR College of

Engineering & Technology, Hyderabad, for providing all the necessary facilities to complete
this discretion.

We would like to thank the teaching and non-teaching staff of Mechanical Engineering
Department for sharing their knowledge with us throughout their course.

Finally yet importantly, we express our sincere thanks to Sri Ch. Gopal Reddy garu,
Secretary CMR Group of Institutions, for his continuous care towards our achievements.

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 ABSTRACT

This project comprises of solving the problem of purchasing components that are used in

various fields like automobile, machinery etc. Several places like Rani Gunj, have agglomeration

of crowd solely for the purpose of purchasing parts like bolts, nuts etc. This e- commerce website

eliminates most of the problems like waiting, ease of purchase & true pricing. Different sectors

of mechanical parts like steering components, hardware components, braking system etc., come

under one website without creating any confusion or unnecessary stress of travelling and

choosing which removes a lot of physical strain.

With the use of modules like Tk inter, SQL interacting with python, this e commerce

website has been created. The User Interface (UI) is very simple with minimalistic approach

towards the pathway throughout the duration of purchase. DBMS using SQL helps in managing

the data with creating any friction. It allows the creator or Data base manager to easily edit the

program at any point of time. It allows the flexibility to modify the looks of the website at our

will.

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 Contents
Page

1. Introduction… .................................................................................................... 7

2. Micro-electromechanical Systems (MEMS)… ................................................ 8

2.1 What is MEMS?…........................................................................................ 8
2.2 Definitions and Classifications… ................................................................. 9
2.3 History ........................................................................................................ 10
2.4 Applications ................................................................................................ 12
2.4.1 Established MEMS Applications ..................................................... 13
2.4.2 New MEMS Applications ................................................................. 16
2.5 MEMS Market ............................................................................................ 17
2.6 Miniaturization Issues… ............................................................................. 19

3. MEMS Fabrication Methods… ...................................................................... 20

3.1 Photolithography......................................................................................... 20
3.2 Materials for Micromachining .................................................................... 21
3.2.1 Substrates.......................................................................................... 21
3.2.2 Additive films and Materials……………………………………….22
3.3 Bulk Micromachining ................................................................................. 23
3.3.1 Wet Etching ...................................................................................... 23
3.3.2 Dry Etching ...................................................................................... 24
3.4 Surface Micromachining ............................................................................ 25
3.4.1 Fusion Bonding ................................................................................. 26

4. Future of MEMS… .......................................................................................... 27

4.1 Industry Challenges .................................................................................... 27
4.2 The Way Ahead .......................................................................................... 28

5. References…………………………………………………………….………..29

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Introduction
This report deals with the emerging field of micro-electromechanical systems, or
MEMS. MEMS is a process technology used to create tiny integrated devices or
systems that combine mechanical and electrical components. They are fabricated using
integrated circuit (IC) batch processing techniques and can range in size from a few
micrometers to millimetres. These devices (or systems) have the ability to sense, control
and actuate on the micro scale, and generate effects on the macro scale.

The interdisciplinary nature of MEMS utilizes design, engineering and manufacturing

expertise from a wide and diverse range of technical areas including integrated circuit
fabrication technology, mechanical engineering, materials science, electrical
engineering, chemistry and chemical engineering, as well as fluid engineering, optics,
instrumentation and packaging. The complexity of MEMS is also shown in the
extensive range of markets and applications that incorporate MEMS devices. MEMS
can be found in systems ranging across automotive, medical, electronic, communication
and defence applications. Current MEMS devices include accelerometers for airbag
sensors, inkjet printer heads, computer disk drive read/write heads, projection display
chips, blood pressure sensors, optical switches, microvalves, biosensors and many other
products that are all manufactured and shipped in high commercial volumes.

MEMS has been identified as one of the most promising technologies for the 21st
Century and has the potential to revolutionize both industrial and consumer products
by combining silicon- based microelectronics with micromachining technology. Its
techniques and microsystem- based devices have the potential to dramatically affect of
all of our lives and the way we live. If semiconductor microfabrication was seen to be
the first micromanufacturing revolution, MEMS is the second revolution.

This report introduces the field of MEMS and is divided into four main sections. In the
first section, the reader is introduced to MEMS, its definitions, history, current and
potential applications, as well as the state of the MEMS market and issues concerning
miniaturization. The second section deals with the fundamental fabrication methods of
MEMS including photolithography, bulk micromachining, surface micromachining and
high-aspect-ratio micromachining; assembly, system integration and packaging of
MEMS devices is also described here. The third section reviews the range of MEMS
sensors and actuators, the phenomena that can be sensed or acted upon with MEMS
devices, and a brief description of the basic sensing and actuation mechanisms. The
final section illustrates the challenges facing the MEMS industry for the
commercialisation and success of MEMS.

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2. Micro-electromechanical Systems(MEMS)
2.1 What is MEMS?

Micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) is a process technology used to create tiny

integrated devices or systems that combine mechanical and electrical components. They
are fabricated using integrated circuit (IC) batch processing techniques and can range
in size from a few micrometers to millimetres. These devices (or systems) have the
ability to sense, control and actuate on the micro scale, and generate effects on the
macro scale. MEMS, an acronym that originated in the United States, is also referred to
as Microsystems Technology (MST) in Europe and Micromachines in Japan.
Regardless of terminology, the uniting factor of a MEMS device is in the way it is made.
While the device electronics are fabricated using ‘computer chip’ IC technology, the
micromechanical components are fabricated by sophisticated manipulations of silicon
and other substrates using micromachining processes. Processes such as bulk and
surface micromachining, as well as high-aspect-ratio micromachining (HARM)
selectively remove parts of the silicon or add additional structural layers to form the
mechanical and electromechanical components. While integrated circuits are designed
to exploit the electrical properties of silicon, MEMS takes advantage of either silicon’s
mechanical properties or both its electrical and mechanical properties.

Fig 1 Systematic Illustration of MEMS Components

In the most general form, MEMS consist of mechanical microstructures, microsensors,

microactuators and microelectronics, all integrated onto the same silicon chip. This is shown
schematically in Figure 1.
From a very early vision in the early 1950’s, MEMS has gradually made its way
out of research laboratories and into everyday products. In the mid-1990’s, MEMS
components began appearing in numerous commercial products and applications
including accelerometers used to control airbag deployment in vehicles, pressure
sensors for medical applications, and inkjet printer heads. Today, MEMS devices are
also found in projection displays and for micropositioners in data storage systems.
However, the greatest potential for MEMS devices lies in new applications within
telecommunications (optical and wireless), biomedical and process control areas.

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MEMS has several distinct advantages as a manufacturing technology. In the first place,
the interdisciplinary nature of MEMS technology and its micromachining techniques,
as well as its diversity of applications has resulted in an unprecedented range of devices
and synergies across previously unrelated fields (for example biology and
microelectronics). Secondly, MEMS with its batch fabrication techniques enables
components and devices to be manufactured with increased performance and reliability,
combined with the obvious advantages of reduced physical size, volume, weight and
cost. Thirdly, MEMS provides the basis for the manufacture of products that cannot be
made by other methods. These factors make MEMS potentially a far more pervasive
technology than integrated circuit microchips. However, there are many challenges and
technological obstacles associated with miniaturization that need to be addressed and
overcome before MEMS can realize its overwhelming potential.

2.2 Definitions and Classifications

This section defines some of the key terminology and classifications associated with
MEMS. It is intended to help the reader and newcomers to the field of micromachining
become familiar with some of the more common terms. A more detailed glossary of
terms has been included in Appendix A.

Figure 2 illustrates the classifications of microsystems technology (MST). Although

MEMS is also referred to as MST, strictly speaking, MEMS is a process technology
used to create these tiny mechanical devices or systems, and as a result, it is a subset of
MST.

Fig 2: Classification of microsystems Technology

Micro-optoelectromechanical systems (MOEMS) is also a subset of MST and together

with MEMS forms the specialized technology fields using miniaturized combinations
of optics, electronics and mechanics. Both their microsystems incorporate the use of
microelectronics batch processing techniques for their design and fabrication. There are
considerable overlaps between fields in terms of their integrating technology and their
applications and hence it is extremely difficult to categorise MEMS devices in terms of

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sensing domain and/or their subset of MST. The real difference between MEMS and
MST is that MEMS tends to use semiconductor processes to create a mechanical part.
In contrast, the deposition of a material on silicon for example, does not constitute
MEMS but is an application of MST.

Transducer
A transducer is a device that transforms one form of signal or energy into another form.
The term transducer can therefore be used to include both sensors and actuators and is
the most generic and widely used term in MEMS.

Sensor
A sensor is a device that measures information from a surrounding environment and
provides an electrical output signal in response to the parameter it measured. Over the
years, this information (or phenomenon) has been categorized in terms of the type of
energy domains but MEMS devices generally overlap several domains or do not even
belong in any one category. These energy domains include:
• Mechanical - force, pressure, velocity, acceleration, position
• Thermal - temperature, entropy, heat, heat flow
• Chemical - concentration, composition, reaction rate
• Radiant - electromagnetic wave intensity, phase, wavelength,
polarization reflectance, refractive index,
transmittance
• Magnetic - field intensity, flux density, magnetic moment, permeability
• Electrical - voltage, current, charge, resistance, capacitance, polarization.

Actuator
An actuator is a device that converts an electrical signal into an action. It can create a
force to manipulate itself, other mechanical devices, or the surrounding environment to
perform some useful function.

2.3 History
The history of MEMS is useful to illustrate its diversity, challenges and applications.
The following list summarizes some of the key MEMS milestones.

1958 Silicon strain gauges commercially available

1959 “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom” – Richard Feynman gives a milestone
presentation at California Institute of Technology. He issues a public
challenge by offering $1000 to the first person to create an electrical motor
smaller than 1/64th of an inch.

1961 First silicon pressure sensor demonstrated

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1967 Invention of surface micromachining. Westinghouse creates the Resonant Gate
Field Effect Transistor, (RGT). Description of use of sacrificial material to
free micromechanical devices from the silicon substrate.

1970 First silicon accelerometer

1979 First micromachined inkjet
Early 1980’s: first experiments in surface micromachined silicon. Late 1980’s:
micromachining leverages microelectronics industry and widespread experimentation
and documentation increases public interest.
1982 Disposable blood pressure transducer
1982 “Silicon as a Mechanical Material” [9]. Instrumental paper to entice the
scientific community – reference for material properties and etching data
for silicon.
1982 LIGA Process
1988 First MEMS conference
1992 MCNC starts the Multi-User MEMS Process (MUMPS) sponsored by
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
1992 First micromachined hinge
1993 First surface micromachined accelerometer sold (Analog Devices,
ADXL50) 1994 Deep Reactive Ion Etching is patented
1995 BioMEMS rapidly develops
2000 MEMS optical-networking components become big business

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2.4 Applications
Today, high volume MEMS can be found in a diversity of applications across multiple
markets (Table 1).

Automotive Electronics Medical Communications Defence

Internal Fibre-optic
navigation Blood pressure network Munitions
Disk drive heads sensor guidance
sensors components
Air conditioning Muscle RF Relays,
compressor Inkjet stimulators & switches and
printer Surveillance
sensor drug delivery filters
heads systems
Projection
Brake force displays in
sensors & Projection
screen Implanted portable Arming systems
suspension communications
control televisions pressure sensors
devices and
accelerometers instrumentation
Fuel level and
Earthquake Voltage Embedded
vapour pressure Prosthetics
sensors sensors controlled sensors
oscillators
(VCOs)
Avionic Miniature
s analytical Splitters and
Airbag sensors couplers Data storage
pressure instruments
sensors
Mass data
"Intelligent" tyres storage systems Pacemakers Tuneable lasers Aircraft control

Table 1. Applications of MEMS .

As an emerging technology MEMS products are centred around technology-product
paradigms rather than product-market paradigms. Consequently, a MEMS device may
find numerous applications across a diversity of industries. For example, the MEMS
inkjet printer head nozzle in widespread use today has developed from a nozzle
originally used in nuclear separation. The commercialisation of selected MEMS devices
is illustrated in Table 2.

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 Cost Reduction/
Discovery Full
Product Evolution Application
Commercialisation
Expansion
Pressure sensors 1954-1960 1960-1975 1975-1990 1990-present
Accelerometers 1974-1985 1985-1990 1990-1998 1998
Gas sensors 1986-1994 1994-1998 1998-2005 2005
Valves 1980-1988 1988-1996 1996-2002 2002
Nozzles 1972-1984 1984-1990 1990-1998 1998
Photonics/displays 1980-1986 1986-1998 1998-2004 2004
Bio/Chemical sensors 1980-1994 1994-1999 1999-2004 2004
RF switches 1994-1998 1998-2001 2001-2005 2005
Rate (rotation) sensors 1982-1990 1990-1996 1996-2002 2002
Micro relays 1977-1982 1993-1998 1998-2006 2006

Table 2. Commercialisation of selected MEMS devices

2.4.1 Established MEMS Applications

i) Automotive airbag sensor

Automotive airbag sensors were one of the first commercial devices using MEMS. They
are in widespread use today in the form of a single chip containing a smart sensor, or
accelerometer, which measures the rapid deceleration of a vehicle on hitting an object.
The deceleration is sensed by a change in voltage. An electronic control unit
subsequently sends a signal to trigger and explosively fill the airbag.
Initial air bag technology used conventional mechanical ‘ball and tube’ type devices
which were relatively complex, weighed several pounds and cost several hundred
dollars. They were usually mounted in the front of the vehicle with separate electronics
near the airbag. MEMS has enabled the same function to be accomplished by
integrating an accelerometer and the electronics into a single silicon chip, resulting in a
tiny device that can be housed within the steering wheel column and costs only a few
dollars (Figures 3 and 4).
The accelerometer is essentially a capacitive or piezoresistive device consisting of a
suspended pendulum proof mass/plate assembly. As acceleration acts on the proof
mass, micromachined capacitive or piezoresistive plates sense a change in acceleration
from deflection of the plates. The sense plates can be seen in Figure 3.

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 Figure 4. (a) The first commercial accelerometer
from Analog Devices (1990); its size is less than
1 cm2 (left), and (b) capacitive sense plates, 60
microns deep (right).

Figure 5. Modern day MEMS accelerometer

The airbag sensor is fundamental to the success of MEMS and micromachining

technology. With over 60 million devices sold and in operation over the last 10 years
and operating in such a challenging environment as that found within a vehicle, the
reliability of the technology has been proven. An example of this success is today’s
vehicles – the BMW 740i has over 70 MEMS devices including anti-lock braking
systems, active suspension, appliance and navigation control systems, vibration
monitoring, fuel sensors, noise reduction, rollover detection, seatbelt restraint and
tensioning etc. As a result, the automotive industry has become one of the main drivers
for the development of MEMS for other equally demanding environments. Some of the
leading airbag accelerometer manufacturers include Analog Devices, Motorola,

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SensorNor and Nippondenso.

ii) Medical pressure sensor

Another example of an extremely successful MEMS application is the miniature
disposable pressure sensor used to monitor blood pressure in hospitals. These sensors
connect to a patients intravenous (IV) line and monitor the blood pressure through the
IV solution. For a fraction of their cost ($10), they replace the early external blood
pressure sensors that cost over $600 and had to be sterilized and recalibrated for reuse.
These expensive devices measure blood pressure with a saline-filled tube and
diaphragm arrangement that has to be connected to an artery with a needle.

Figure 5. Schematic illustration of a piezoresistive pressure sensor.

The disposable sensor consists of a silicon substrate which is etched to produce a
membrane and is bonded to a substrate (Figure 5). A piezoresistive layer is applied on
the membrane surface near the edges to convert the mechanical stress into an electrical
voltage. Pressure corresponds to deflection of the membrane. The sensing element is
mounted on a plastic or ceramic base with a plastic cap over it, designed to fit into a
manufacturer’s housing . A gel is used to separate the saline solution from the sensing
element.

iii) Inkjet printer head

One of the most successful MEMS applications is the inkjet printer head, superseding
even automotive and medical pressure sensors. Inkjet printers use a series of nozzles to
spray drops of ink directly on to a printing medium. Depending on the type of inkjet
printer the droplets of ink are formed in different ways; thermally or piezoelectrically.

Invented in 1979 by Hewlett-Packard, MEMS thermal inkjet printer head technology

uses thermal expansion of ink vapour. Within the printer head there is an array of tiny
resistors known as heaters. These resistors can be fired under microprocessor control
with electronic pulses of a few milliseconds (usually less than 3 microseconds). Ink
flows over each resistor, which when fired, heat up at 100 million ºC per second,
vaporizing the ink to form a bubble. As the bubble expands, some of the ink is pushed
out of a nozzle within a nozzle plate, landing on the paper and solidifying almost
instantaneously. When the bubble collapses, a vacuum is created which pulls more ink
into the print head from the reservoir in the cartridge (Figure 6). It is worth noting there
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 are no moving parts in this system (apart from the ink itself) illustrating that not all
MEMS devices are mechanical.

Figure 6. Thermal inkjet print technology.

2.4.2 New MEMS Applications

The experience gained from these early MEMS applications has made it an enabling
technology for new biomedical applications (often referred to as bioMEMS) and
wireless communications comprised of both optical, also referred to as micro-
optoelectromechanical systems (MOEMS), and radio frequency (RF) MEMS.

i) BioMEMS
Over the past few years some highly innovative products have emerged from bioMEMS
companies for revolutionary applications that support major societal issues including
DNA sequencing, drug discovery, and water and environmental monitoring. The
technology focuses on microfluidic systems as well as chemical testing and processing
and has enabled devices and applications such as ‘lab-on-a-chip’, chemical sensors,
flow controllers, micronozzles and microvalves to be produced. Although many devices
are still under development, microfluidic systems typically contain silicon
micromachined pumps, flow sensors and chemical sensors. They enable fast and
relatively convenient manipulation and analysis of small volumes of liquids, an area of
particular interest in home-based medical applications where patients can use devices
to monitor their own conditions, such as blood and urine analysis.

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 ii) MOEMS
Optical communications has emerged as the only practical means to address the
network scaling issues created by the tremendous growth in data traffic caused by the
rapid rise of the Internet. Current routing technology slows the information (or bit) flow
by transforming optical signals into electronic information and then back into light
before redirecting it. All optical networks offer far superior throughput capabilities and
performance over traditional electronic systems.

The most significant MOEMS device products include waveguides, optical switches,
cross connects, multiplexers, filters, modulators, detectors, attenuators and equalizers.
Their small size, low cost, low power consumption, mechanical durability, high
accuracy, high switching density and low cost batch processing of these MEMS-based
devices make them a perfect solution to the problems of the control and switching of
optical signals in telephone networks. An example of a MEMS optical connect is shown
in Figure 12. Here a network of 256 MEMS micromirrors route information in the form
of photons (the elementary particle that corresponds to an electromagnetic wave) to and
from any of 256 input/output optical fibres.

2.5 MEMS Market

The three most well known market studies are the Network of Excellence in
Multifunctional Microsystems (NEXUS) study (1998), the System Planning
Corporation (SPC) study (1999) and the Battelle study (1990) and there is discrepancy
between each study [23, 24, 25 respectively]. The size of the MEMS market (M3) is
contingent on how MEMS is defined (M3 is shorthand for MEMS, Microsystems and
Micromachining and although it is not yet common, it is used as a reference for the
entire MEMS market. Smaller M3 figures are obtained if MEMS is considered as just
micromachining, which is more elemental and at the device level. Alternatively, much
larger M3 figures arise if MEMS is examined at the system or subsystem level (as in the
case of NEXUS). Depending on the study under review, the M3 market today ranges
from $4.2 billion to $14.2 billion. Much of the current market centres on read/write
heads for computer disk drives, pressure sensors, inkjet printer heads and
accelerometers. Table 3 provides the NEXUS worldwide M3 market size in 1996 and
forecasts for 2002 for existing MEMS product types.

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 1996
$ 2002 Units $
Product Types Units
(millions) (millions) (millions)
(millions)

HDD heads 530 4500 1500 12000

Inkjet print heads 100 4400 500 10000

Heart pacemakers 0.5 1000 0.8 3700

In vitro diagnostics 700 450 4000 2800

Hearing aids 4 1150 7 2000

Pressure sensors 115 600 309 1300

Chemical sensors 100 300 400 800

Infrared imagers 0.01 220 0.4 800

Accelerometers 24 240 90 430

Gyroscopes 6 150 30 360

Magnetoresistive sensors 15 20 60 60

Microspectrometers 0.006 3 0.15 40

TOTAL 1595 $13,033 6807 $34,290

Table 3. Worldwide M3 market size in 1996 and 2002 for existing MEMS product types in $US
millions

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2.6 Miniaturization Issues

As previously stated, MEMS is not about miniaturization; it is a manufacturing technology used

to create tiny integrated microdevices and systems using IC batch fabrication techniques.
Similarly, miniaturization is not just about shrinking down existing devices; it is about
completely rethinking the structure of a microsystem.
In order to manufacture a successful MEMS device basic physics and operating principles
including scaling laws need to be fully understood and appreciated at both a macro and
microlevel. Sometimes no advantages in terms of performance, size/weight, reliability and cost
can be gained with a MEMS device. Increased surface area (S) to volume (V) ratios at
microscales have both considerable advantages and disadvantages.

Some of these microlevel issues include:

• Friction is greater than inertia. Capillary, electrostatic and atomic forces as well
as stiction at a micro-level can be significant.
• Heat dissipation is greater than heat storage and consequently thermal
transport properties could be a problem or, conversely, a great benefit.
• Fluidic or mass transport properties are extremely important. Tiny flow spaces
are prone to blockages but can conversely regulate fluid movement.
• Material properties (Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, grain structure) and
mechanical theory (residual stress, wear and fatigue etc.) may be size
dependent.
• Integration with on-chip circuitry is complex and device/domain specific. Lab-
on-a- chip systems components may not scale down comparably.
• Miniature device packaging and testing is not straightforward. Certain MEMS
sensors require environmental access as well as protection from other external
influences. Testing is not rapid and is expensive in comparison with
conventional IC devices.
• Cost – for the success of a MEMS device, it needs to leverage its IC batch
fabrication resources and be mass-produced. Hence mass-market drivers must
be found to generate the high volume production.

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3. MEMS Fabrication Methods
MEMS fall into three general classifications; bulk micromachining, surface
micromachining and high-aspect-ratio micromachining (HARM), which includes
technology such as LIGA (a German acronym from Lithographie, Galvanoformung,
Abformung translated as lithography, electroforming and moulding).

Conventional macroscale manufacturing techniques e.g. injection moulding, turning,

drilling etc, are good for producing three dimensional (3D) shapes and objects, but can
be limited in terms of low complexity for small size applications. MEMS fabrication,
by comparison, uses high volume IC style batch processing that involves the addition
or subtraction of two dimensional layers on a substrate (usually silicon) based on
photolithography and chemical etching. As a result, the 3D aspect of MEMS devices is
due to patterning and interaction of the 2D layers. Additional layers can be added using
a variety of thin-film and bonding techniques as well as by etching through sacrificial
‘spacer layers’. Figure 7 shows the potential complexity of a MEMS system by the
addition of independent structural layers.

Figure 7. MEMS device complexity by structural layers

3.1 Photolithography

Photolithography is the photographic technique to transfer copies of a master pattern,

usually a circuit layout in IC applications, onto the surface of a substrate of some
material (usually a silicon wafer).

The substrate is covered with a thin film of some material, usually silicon dioxide
(SiO2), in the case of silicon wafers, on which a pattern of holes will be formed (Figure
17). A thin layer of an organic polymer, which is sensitive to ultraviolet radiation, is
then deposited on the oxide layer; this is called a photoresist. A photomask, consisting
of a glass plate (transparent) coated with a chromium pattern (opaque), is then placed

20
 in contact with the photoresist coated surface. The wafer is exposed to the ultraviolet
radiation transferring the pattern on the mask to the photoresist which is then developed
in a way very similar to the process used for developing photographic films. The
radiation causes a chemical reaction in the exposed areas of the photoresist of which
there are two types; positive and negative. Positive photoresist is strengthened by UV
radiation whereas negative photoresists are weakened. On developing, the rinsing
solution removes either the exposed areas or the unexposed areas of photoresist leaving
a pattern of bare and photoresist-coated oxides on the wafer surface. The resulting
photoresist pattern is either the positive or negative image of the original pattern of the
photomask.

Figure 8. Photoresist and silicon dioxide patterns following photolithography

3.2 Materials for machining

3.2.1 Substrates
The most common substrate material for micromachining is silicon. It has been
successful in the microelectronics industry and will continue to be in areas of
miniaturization for several reasons:
i) silicon is abundant, inexpensive, and can be processed to unparalleled purity
ii) silicon’s ability to be deposited in thin films is very amenable to MEMS
iii) high definition and reproduction of silicon device shapes using
photolithography are perfect for high levels of MEMS precision

21
 iv) silicon microelectronics circuits are batch fabricated (a silicon wafer contains
hundreds of identical chips not just one)
Other crystalline semiconductors including germanium (Ge) and gallium
arsenide (GaAs) are used as substrate materials due to similar inherent features,
but silicon is distinguished from other semiconductors in that it can be readily
oxidized to form a chemically inert and electrically insulating surface layer of
SiO2 on exposure to steam.

The homogeneous crystal structure of silicon gives it the electrical properties needed in
microelectronic circuits, but in this form silicon also has desirable mechanical
properties. Silicon forms the same type of crystal structure as diamond, and although
the interatomic bonds are much weaker, it is harder than most metals. In addition, it is
surprisingly resistant to mechanical stress, having a higher elastic limit than steel in
both tension and compression. Single crystal silicon also remains strong under repeated
cycles of tension and compression.

Figure 9. Low crystallographic index planes of silicon

The crystalline orientation of silicon is important in the fabrication of MEMS devices because
some of the etchants used attack the crystal at different rates in different directions (Figure 9)
Silicon is dominant as a substrate for MEMS but research and development is ongoing
with other non-semiconductor substrate materials including metals, glasses, quartz,
crystalline insulators, ceramics and polymers. The ability to integrate circuitry directly
onto the substrate is currently the underlying issue with today’s MEMS substrate
materials; hence the success of silicon.

3.2.2 Additive films and Materials

The range of additive films and materials for MEMS devices is much larger than the
types of possible substrates and includes conductors, semiconductors and insulators
such as:

• silicon - single crystal, polycrystalline and amorphous

• silicon compounds (SixNy, SiO2, SiC etc.)
• metals and metallic compounds (Au, Cu, Al, ZnO, GaAs, IrOx, CdS)
• ceramics (Al203 and more complex ceramic compounds)
• organics (diamond, polymers, enzymes, antibodies, DNA etc.)

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3.3 Bulk Machining

Bulk micromachining involves the removal of part of the bulk substrate. It is a

subtractive process that uses wet anisotropic etching or a dry etching method such as
reactive ion etching (RIE), to create large pits, grooves and channels. Materials typically
used for wet etching include silicon and quartz, while dry etching is typically used with
silicon, metals, plastics and ceramics.

3.3.1 Wet Etching

Wet etching describes the removal of material through the immersion of a material
(typically a silicon wafer) in a liquid bath of a chemical etchant. These etchants can be
isotropic or anisotropic.

Isotropic etchants etch the material at the same rate in all directions, and
consequently remove material under the etch masks at the same rate as they etch
through the material; this is known as undercutting (Figure 10 a and b). The most
common form of isotropic silicon etch is HNA, which comprises a mixture of
hydrofluoric acid (HF), nitric acid (HNO3) and acetic acid (CH3COOH). Isotropic
etchants are limited by the geometry of the structure to be etched. Etch rates can
slow down and in some cases (for example, in deep and narrow channels) they
can stop due to diffusion limiting factors. However, this effect can be minimized
by agitation of the etchant, resulting in structures with near perfect and rounded
surfaces (Figure 10a).

Figure 10. Isotropic etching with (a) and without (b) agitation, and anisotropic wet
etching of (100) and (110) silicon (c and d respectively).

Anisotropic etchants etch faster in a preferred direction. Potassium hydroxide (KOH)

is the most common anisotropic etchant as it is relatively safe to use. Structures formed
in the substrate are dependent on the crystal orientation of the substrate or wafer. Most
such anisotropic etchants progress rapidly in the crystal direction perpendicular to the
(110) plane and less rapidly in the direction perpendicular to the (100) plane. The
direction perpendicular to the (111) plane etches very slowly if at all. Figures 19c and

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 19d shows examples of anisotropic etching in (100) and (110) silicon. Silicon wafers,
originally cut from a large ingot of silicon grown from single seed silicon, are cut
according to the crystallographic plane. They can be supplied in terms of the orientation
of the surface plane.

Dopant levels within the substrate can affect the etch rate by KOH, and if levels are
high enough, can effectively stop it. Boron is one such dopant and is implanted into the
silicon by a diffusion process. This can be used to selectively etch regions in the silicon
leaving doped areas unaffected.

3.2.2 Dry Etching

Dry etching relies on vapour phase or plasma-based methods of etching using suitably reactive
gases or vapours usually at high temperatures. The most common form for MEMS is reactive ion
etching (RIE) which utilizes additional energy in the form of radio frequency (RF) power to
drive the chemical reaction. Energetic ions are accelerated towards the material to be etched
within a plasma phase supplying the additional energy needed for the reaction; as a result the
etching can occur at much lower temperatures (typically 150º - 250ºC, sometimes room
temperature) than those usually needed (above 1000ºC). RIE is not limited by the crystal planes
in the silicon, and as a result, deep trenches and pits, or arbitrary shapes with vertical walls can
be etched.
Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE) is a much higher-aspect-ratio etching method that involves an
alternating process of high-density plasma etching (as in RIE) and protective polymer deposition
to achieve greater aspect ratios (Figure 11).

Figure 11. Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE)

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3.4 Surface Machining
Surface micromachining involves processing above the substrate, mainly using it as a
foundation layer on which to build. It was initiated in the 1980’s and is the newest
MEMS production technology. Material is added to the substrate in the form of layers
of thin films on the surface of the substrate (typically a silicon wafer). These layers can
either by structural layers or act as spacers, later to be removed, when they are known
as sacrificial layers. Hence the process usually involves films of two different materials:
a structural material out of which the free standing structure is made (generally
polycrystalline silicon or polysilicon, silicon nitride and aluminium) and a sacrificial
material, deposited wherever either an open area or a free standing mechanical structure
is required (usually an oxide).

Figure 12. Surface micromachining of a cantilever beam using a sacrificial layer

These layers (or thin films) are deposited and subsequently dry etched in sequence, with
the sacrificial material being finally wet etched away to release the final structure. Each
additional layer is accompanied by an increasing level of complexity and a resulting
difficulty in fabrication. A typical surface micromachined cantilever beam is shown in
Figure 21. Here, a sacrificial layer of oxide is deposited on the silicon substrate surface
using a pattern and photolithography. A polysilicon layer is then deposited and
patterned using RIE processes to form a cantilever beam with an anchor pad. The wafer
is then wet etched to remove the oxide (sacrificial) layer releasing and leaving the beam
on the substrate. More complex MEMS structures can be achieved using structural
polysilicon and sacrificial silicon dioxide, including sliding structures, actuators and
free moving mechanical gears. Figures 22 shows the process flow for the fabrication of
a micromotor by the commercially available Multi-User MEMS Process (MUMPS).

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 Figure 13. Surface micromachining of a MEMS micromotor using the Multi-
User MEMS Process (MUMPS).
The success of the surface micromachining process depends on the ability to
successfully remove all of the sacrificial layers to free the structural elements so that
they can be actuated. This step is responsible for curtailing the yield (percentage of the
devices on a wafer that function properly) and reliability of fabricated MEMS due to
the phenomenon known as stiction. Stiction refers to the sticking of structural elements
either to the substrate or the adjacent elements. Capillary forces from rinsing liquids, as
well as electrostatic and van der Waals forces can also produce permanent adhesion
after the system has dried.

3.4.1 Fusion Bonding

In order to form more complex and larger MEMS structures, micromachined silicon
wafers can be bonded to other materials in a process known as fusion bonding. It is a
technique that enables virtually seamless integration of multiple layers and relies on the
creation of atomic bonds between each layer either directly (with heating and pressure
in the case of glass to wafer bonding), or through a thin film of silicon dioxide (Figure
14). The resulting composite has very low residual stress due to matching coefficients
of thermal expansion from each layer. In addition, the mechanical strength of the bond
is comparable to that of the adjoining layers resulting in a very strong composite
fabrication technique for enclosed cavities and channels. High-aspect ratio structural
layers can also be bonded to silicon substrates in a similar manner. Photoresist and
polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) are used as MEMS fusion bonding media and have
proved very successful for the bonding of polyimide.

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 Figure 14. Formation of sealed cavity using fusion bonding

4. The Future of MEMS

4.1 Industry Challenges
i) Access to Foundries.
MEMS companies today have very limited access to MEMS fabrication facilities,
or foundries, for prototype and device manufacture. In addition, the majority of the
organizations expected to benefit from this technology currently do not have the
required capabilities and competencies to support MEMS fabrication. For
example, telecommunication companies do not currently maintain
micromachining facilities for the fabrication of optical switches. Affordable and
receptive access to MEMS fabrication facilities is crucial for the commercialisation
of MEMS.

ii) Design, Simulation and Modelling.

Due to the highly integrated and interdisciplinary nature of MEMS, it is difficult
to separate device design from the complexities of fabrication. Consequently, a
high level of manufacturing and fabrication knowledge is necessary to design a
MEMS device. Furthermore, considerable time and expense is spent during this
development and subsequent prototype stage. In order to increase innovation and
creativity, and reduce unnecessary ‘time-to-market’ costs, an interface should be
created to separate design and fabrication. As successful device development also
necessitates modelling and simulation, it is important that MEMS designers have
access to adequate analytical tools. Currently, MEMS devices use older design
tools and are fabricated on a ‘trial and error’ basis. Therefore, more powerful and
advanced simulation and modelling tools are necessary for accurate prediction of
MEMS device behaviour.

iii) Packaging and Testing.

The packaging and testing of devices is probably the greatest challenge facing the
MEMS industry. As previously described, MEMS packaging presents unique
problems compared to traditional IC packaging in that a MEMS package typically
must provide protection from an operating environment as well as enable access to
it. Currently, there is no generic MEMS packaging solution, with each device

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 requiring a specialized format. Consequently, packaging is the most expensive
fabrication step and often makes up 90% of the final cost of a MEMS device.

iv) Standardization.
Due to the relatively low number of commercial MEMS devices and the pace at
which the current technology is developing, standardization has been very difficult.
To date, high quality control and basic forms of standardization are generally only
found at multi-million dollar (or billion dollar) investment facilities. However, in
2000, progress in industry communication and knowledge sharing was made
through the formation of a MEMS trade organization. Based in Pittsburgh, USA,
the MEMS industry group (MEMS-IG) with founding members including Xerox,
Corning, Honeywell, Intel and JDS Uniphase, grew out of study teams sponsored
by DARPA that identified a need for technology roadmapping and a source for
objective statistics about the MEMS industry. In addition, a MEMS industry
roadmap, sponsored by the Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International
organization (SEMI), has also been identified to share pre-competitive information
on the processes, technology, application and markets for MEMS.

4.2 The Way Ahead

The market for MEMS devices is still being developed but does not have the explosive
growth of, for example, the IC industry in the 1970s. Comparison will always be made
between the two, but this is not realistic as there is no ‘dominant technology’ in MEMS
analogous to metal oxide semiconductor circuitry, which accelerated the exponential
growth of the digital electronics industry. Most of the research today is focused on
surface micromachining, but in industry the majority of shipped devices are still
manufactured using much older bulk methods. Although some surface micromachined
devices are being produced in volume, it will take a few more years for this approach
to make a large impact; devices using both surface and bulk continue to be marketed.

Despite MEMS being an enabling technology for the development and production of
many new industrial and consumer products, MEMS is also a disruptive technology in
that it differs significantly from existing technology, requiring a completely different
set of capabilities and competencies to implement it. MEMS involves major scaling,
packaging and testing issues, and, as a disruptive technology, faces challenges
associated with developing manufacturing processes that no longer fit established
methods. For the true commercialisation of MEMS, foundries must overcome the
critical technological bottlenecks, the economic feasibility of integrating MEMS-based
components, as well as the market uncertainty for such devices and applications. Cost
reduction is critical and will ultimately result from better availability of infrastructure,
more reliable manufacturing processes and technical information as well as new
standards on interfacing.

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References

1. Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center, http://bsac.eecs.berkeley.edu

2. Sandia National Laboratories, SUMMiT * Technologies, http://www.mems.sandia.gov
3. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), http://www.darpa.mil/MTO/
4. Kovacs, G.T.A., Micromachined Transducers Sourcebook, McGraw-Hill, New York,
NY, 1998.
5. Lion, K.S., Transducers: Problems and Prospects, IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Electronics and Control Instrumentation, Vol. IECI-16, No.1, July 1969, pp. 2-5.

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