What is Instrumentation?

Recorder
 Branch of physics which deals with the measur- This is the simplest form of measurement; it allows us
ing, monitoring and controlling variables in a pro- to know the current state of the variable.
cess industry.
CONTROL
 In general definition this can be defined as the
in process industries it refers to the regulation, com-
art and science of measurement and/or control.
mand or direction of all aspects of the process.
 Is achieved by using an “instrument” .
2 Types of Control:
What is an Instrument?
 Manual Control
 Is any device used directly or indirectly in order
 Automatic Control
to accomplish an objective or task.
Classification of Instruments
 An instrument is any sensing, measuring, trans-
mitting, indicating, or controlling device associat- Critical
ed with a process (including process variables)
An instrument which, if not conforming to specifica-
or system.
tion, could potentially compromise product or process
 Ex. Measuring a body temperature using a ther- quality and safety.
mometer.
Non-critical
An instrument whose function is not critical to prod-
Instrumentation based on industrial application: uct or process quality, but whose function is more of
an operational significance.
“It is a collection of instruments, devices, hardware or
functions or their application for the purpose of meas- Reference Only
uring, observing, transmitting, indicating, recording,
An instrument whose function is not critical to prod-
monitoring or controlling an industrial process or ma-
uct quality, not significant to equipment operation,
chine, or any combination of these.”
and not used for making quality decisions.
Measurement instrument
PROCESS
A measurement instrument is a device capable of de-
refers to the methods of changing or refining raw ma-
tecting change, physical or otherwise, in a particular
terials to create end products.
process. It then converts these physical changes into
some form of information understandable by the user. PROCESS CONTROL
Indication the regulation or manipulation of variables influencing
the conduct of a process in such a way as to obtain a
This is the simplest form of measurement; it allows us
product of desired quality and quantity in an efficient
to know the current state of the variable.
manner.

1
SYSTEM 2 Types of Control Loop
an arrangement, set or collection of physical compo- 1. Closed Control Loop – exists when a process var-
nents connected or related in such a manner as to iable is measured, compared to a set point and
form and/or act as an entire unit. action is taken to correct any deviation from set
point.
CONTROL SYSTEM
2. Open Control Loop – exist when the process var-
an arrangement of physical components connected or
iable is not compared, and action is taken not in
related in such a manner as to command, direct or reg-
response to on the condition of the process vari-
ulate itself or another system.
able.
Set point – a value for a process variable that is de-
sired to be maintained.
Process Variable – a condition of the process fluid that
can change the manufacturing process in some way.
Sensors
Integral part of loop that first senses the value of a
process variable that assumes a corresponding prede-
termined state and generates an output signal in dic-
tive of or proportional to the process variable.
Detectors
a device that is used to detect the presence of some-
thing, such as flammable or toxic gases or discrete
INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM parts.

 an arrangement of two or more instruments

connected together to perform a unified task.
Secondary Elements/Signal Generating Element
 Each instrument operates independently accord-
Transducer - a device that translates a mechanical sig-
ing to its specific task. Failure from one member
nal into an electrical signal.
of instrument, means failure of the entire instru-
ment system. Converter - a device that converts one type of signal
into another type of signal. (current into volt-
CONTROL LOOP
age ,analog to digital)
 a process management system designed to
Transmitter - a device that converts a reading from
maintain a process variable at a desired set
one sensor or transducer into a standard and trans-
point.
mits that signal to a monitor or controller.
 It is also the simplest form of instrumentation
system.

2
Types of Signal Standardized Signals Final Control Element
1. Analog Signal - a signal that has no discrete posi- The part of the control system that acts to
tions or states and changes value.
physically change the manipulated variable.
Pneumatic and Electrical Signals
Typically used to increase or decrease fluid
Pneumatic : 3-15 psi flow.
Electrical : 4-20 mA (Current)
Actuator
: 1-5 VDC (Voltage)
the part of a final control device that causes a
physical change in the final control device
Digital Signal - a signal that generates or uses binary when signaled to do so.
digit signals to represent continuous values or discrete
states.
Control Valves

Controlling Element manipulate the flow rate of gas or liquid;

whereas, the control switches manipulate the
 Known as the controller and is the brain of the
control system
electrical energy entering a system.

 Performs appropriate functions for maintaining Instrument applications:

the desired level (set point) of parameters to re-
 Factory automation instruments
store quality and rate of production.
Controller - a device that receives data from a meas-
 Plant safety or safeguarding instruments
urement instrument , compares that data to a pro-  Product Quality monitoring/control instru-
grammed set point, and, if necessary, signals a control
ments
element to take corrective action.
Common examples of controller:  Environmental condition monitoring /
control instruments.
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) – usually com-
puters connected to a set of input/output (I/O) devic-  Process variable measurement and con-
es. The computers are programmed to respond to in- trol instruments
puts by sending outputs to maintain all processes at
set point. Types of Instrumentation Symbols
Distributed Control System (DCS) – are controllers  Instrument Symbols
that, in addition to performing control functions , pro-
vide readings of the status of the process, maintain  Line Symbols
databases and advance man-machine interface.  Valves and Actuators

3
Instrument Symbols Process Line Symbols
 Symbols such as circles, lines, letters, and num-  Used to represent process lines and instrument
bers are used to provide information about the connections.
process.
 Process piping is generally shown with thick sol-
 Symbols may represent devices in the system or id lines.
indicate how devices are connected to each oth-
 Thin solid lines indicate instrument-to-process
er.
connections or instrument tubing. Signal Line
Symbols
 Signal line symbols indicate the type of signal
that connects two instruments
Valve and Actuator Symbols
 Indicates the action of actuation in a valve actua-
tor instrument.
 Also indicates the position during fail mode.
 Valve are usually drawn as a bow tie shaped
symbol
Tag Numbers
Instrumentation Identification Number or Tag Number
is an alphanumeric code that provides specific infor-
mation about an instrument or its function.
Loop Identification
 Loop identification numbers indicate the loop/
 In this notation, shapes denote function while system in which an instrument belongs.
the lines in the middle denote location or mount-
Functional Identifier
ing
 A functional Identifier is a series of letters, or
Line Symbols
letter code, that identifies the function of the
 Line symbols indicate how instruments are con- instrument.
nected to each other and to the process and rep-
 The first letter identifies the measured or initiat-
resents the types of signals transmitted in the
ing variable.
process.
 The succeeding letters designate one or more
 Line Symbols could either be a process line sym-
readout or passive functions and/or output func-
bol or a signal line symbol
tion

4
Process Flow Diagram Methods of Measurement
 It is the fundamental representation of a process Direct Method
that schematically depicts the conversion of raw
the process variable is directly measured in units that
materials to finished products without delving
represent the basic nature of that variable.
into details of how that conversion occurs.
Inferential Method
 It defines the flow of material and utilities, basic
relationships between major pieces of equip- is the measurement of a process variable indirectly by
ment, and establishes the flow, pressure and using another variable.
temperature ratings of the process.
Types of Measurement
Instrument List
Single Point Type
 Is an alphanumeric list of date related to a facili-
 the measurement depends on a fixed value of
ty’s instrumentation and control systems compo-
the process variable.
nents and functions.
 the reading is indicated either as high or low
 Reference the various documents that contain
the information needed to define the total instal- Continuous Type
lation.
 the measurement indicates the actual value of
Logic Diagrams the process variable.
 Drawings used to design and define the on-off or Instrument Range - refers to the capability of the in-
sequential part of a continuous process plant. strument to measure a variable.
 May involve the action of a simple switch or it Calibration Range - refers to the set of values within
may entail a series of steps comprising a com- the instrument measuring range where the scaled out-
plex automatic system. put; 4-20 mA, 3-15 psi or 1-5 V is set during calibration.
Location Plans Upper Range Value (URV) is the highest value of the
measured process variable that the output of a trans-
 Orthographic views of the plant, drawn to scale,
mitter is currently configured to measure.
that show the locations of instruments and con-
trol system components. Lower Range Value (LRV) is the lowest value of the
measured process variable that the analog output of a
Measurement is an important subsystem of a mecha-
transmitter is currently configured to measure.
tronics system. Its main function is to collect the infor-
mation on system status and to feed it to the micro Normally-Open Status
processor(s) for controlling the whole system. Meas-
The lamp will energize only if someone presses the
urement system comprises of sensors, transducers
switch, holding its normally-open contacts in the
and signal processing devices.
closed position. Normally-open switch are sometimes
referred to in the electrical industry as form-A con-
tacts

5
Normally-Closed Status Flow Switches
The lamp would energize only if the switch was left A flow switch detects the flow of some fluid through
alone, but it would turn off if anyone pressed the pipe. Flow switches often use “paddles” as the flow-
switch. Normally-close switch are sometimes referred sensing element, the motion of which actuates one or
to in the electrical industry as Form B contacts. more switch contacts
Hand Switches On/Off Valves An on/off valve
A hand switch is an electrical switch actuated by a per- is the fluid equivalent of an electrical switch: a device
son’s hand motion. This may take a form of toggle, that either allows unimpeded flow or acts to prevent
pushbutton or rotary. flow altogether. Valve styles commonly used for on/
off service include ball, plug, butterfly, gate and
Limit Switches
globe.
A limit switch detects the physical motion of an object
Analog Electronic Instrumentation
by direct contact with that object. A limit switch will
be in its “normal” status when it is not in contact with An “analog” electronic signal is a voltage or current
anything. whose magnitude represents some physical measure-
ment or control quantity. An instrument is often classi-
Proximity Switches
fied as being “ analog” simply by virtue of using an an-
A proximity switch detects the proximity (closeness) alog standard to communicate information.
of an object. By definition, these switches are non-
4 to 20 mA Analog Current Signals
contact sensors, using magnetic, electric or optical
means to sense the proximity of objects. The most popular form of signal transmission used in
industrial Instrumentation System.
Pressure Switches
Relating 4 to 20 mA signals to instrument variables
A pressure switch detects the presence of fluid pres-
sure. Pressure switches often use diaphragms or bel- To calculate the equivalent milliamp value for any giv-
lows as the pressure sensing elements, the motion of en percentage of signal range, the equation takes the
which actuates one or more. form of the standard slope-intercept line equation
y=mx + b.
Level Switches
y = equivalent current in milliamps
A level switch detects the level of liquid or solid
(granules or powder) in a vessel. Level switches often x =the desired percentage of signal
use floats as the level-sensing element, the motion of
m= the span of 4-20 mA
which actuates one or more switch.
B = offset value
Temperature Switches
A temperature switch detects the temperature of an
object. Temperature switches often use bimetallic
strips as the temperature sensing element.

6
Temperature (sometimes called thermodynamic Temperature measurement, also known as ther-
temperature) is a measure of how hot or cold mometry, describes the process of measuring a
something is: specifically, a measure of the aver- current local temperature for immediate or later
age kinetic energy of the particles in a system. evaluation. Temperature measurement can be
While there is no maximum theoretically reacha- classified into a few general categories:
ble temperature, there is a minimum temperature,
a) Thermometers
known as absolute zero, at which all molecular
motion stops. Temperature is by far the most b) Probes
measured parameter.
c) Non contact
History about Temperature
International Practical Temperature Scale
1592- Galileo Galilei invented the liquid-in-glass
The International Practical Temperature Scale is
thermometer.
the basis of most present-day temperature meas-
1643- Athanasius Kircher invented the first mercu- urements. The scale was established by an inter-
ry thermometer. national commission in 1948 with a text revision in
1960. A revision of the scale was formally adopted
1714- Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit invented both the
in 1990 and still being used today.
mercury and the alcohol thermometer with Fahr-
enheit scale (1724). Nonelectric Temperature Sensors

1742 - Anders Celsius proposed a centigrade scale Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers

1800’s - William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) pos- Most versions have used mercury as the liquid.
tulated the existence of an absolute zero. The element mercury is liquid in the temperature
range of about −40 to 700°F (−38.9 to 356.7°C). As
1821 - Thomas Seebeck discovered the principle
a liquid, mercury expands as it gets warmer; its
behind the thermocouple the existence of the
expansion rate is linear. Because of mercury’s tox-
thermoelectric current.
icity and the strict governing laws, the use of the
1821 - Sir Humphry Davy noted the temperature mercury-in-glass thermometer has declined.
dependence of metals.
Bimetallic Thermometers
1932- C.H. Meyers built the first Resistance Tem-
Bonding two dissimilar metals with different co-
perature Detector (RTD).
efficients of expansion produces a bimetallic ele-
1948 – the name centigrade scale was change to ment. These are used in bimetallic thermometers,
Celsius temperature switches, and thermostats having a
range of 100 to 1000°F (−73 to 537°C). Solids tend
20th century - The development of temperature
to expand when heated.
sensors fully developed.

7
Filled-bulb Systems Vapor Filled Systems Temperature Sensors
Filled system thermometers have been used for dec- (Class II)
ades. They have a useful range of -125°F to 1200°F.
The vapor filled system uses a volatile liquid/
Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle of fluid expan-
sion to measure temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in a vapor combination to generate a temperature
sealed system and then heated, the molecules in that dependent fluid expansion. This form of meas-
fluid will exert a greater pressure on the walls of the urement is based on the vapor pressure curves
enclosing vessel. of the fluid and measurement occurs at the
transition between the liquid and vapor phas-
es.
Gas Filled Systems Temperature Sensors
(Class III)
Here, the change in pressure with the temper-
ature allows us to sense the bulb’s tempera-
ture. As the volume is kept constant, the pres-
sure varies in direct proportion to the absolute
temperature.
Gas filled systems do provide a faster response
than other filled devices, and as it converts
temperature directly into pressure it is particu-
larly useful in pneumatic systems. Nitrogen is
quite commonly used with gas filled systems.
Liquid Filled Systems Temperature Sensors (Class I) Mercury Filled Systems Temperature Sensors
Class I systems use a liquid fill fluid. Here, the volumet- (Class V)
ric expansion of the liquid drives an indicating mecha- Mercury expansion systems are different from
nism to show temperature as shown. The steel bulb,
other liquid filled systems because of the prop-
stem and indicator are completely filled under pres-
sure with a liquid. The system is totally filled to provide erties of the metal. Mercury is toxic and can
a constant volume. Expansion of the fluid in the tube affect some industrial processes and is used
is converted to pressure. This pressure expands the less in filled system. Mercury filled system pro-
Bourdon tube which moves the pointer on the scale. vides the widest range of operation (-40 °C to
The filling fluid is usually an inert hydrocarbon, such as 650°C)
xylene .

8
Bistate/Phase Change Sensors Law of Intermediate Temperature
These low cost nonelectric sensors are made from This law allows a thermocouple that is calibrated with
heatsensitive fusible crystalline solids that change a reference temperature to be used with another ref-
decisively from a solid to a liquid with a different color erence temperature. It also allows extra wires with
at a fixed temperature depending on the blend of in- the same thermoelectric characteristics to be added
gredients. They are available as crayons, lacquers, pel- to the circuit without affecting its total emf.
lets, or label .
Thermocouple Types
1.) Peltier Effect- If the junctions of a thermocouple
Thermocouples exist in many different types, each
are at the same temperature and a current is passed
with its own color codes for the dissimilar-metal wires.
through the circuit of the thermocouple, HEAT is pro-
duced at one junction and ABSORBED
2. ) Thompson Effect- The absorption or evolution of
heat when current is passed through an unequally
heated conductor.
3) Seebeck Effect - When two dissimilar metals with
different temperatures and they’re touching, they pro-
duce an emf or voltage .
Three Laws that Apply to Thermocouples
Law of Intermediate Metals
This law is interpreted to mean that the addition of
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
different metals to a circuit will not affect the voltage
the circuit creates. The added junctions are to be at A Resistance Temperature Detector or simply RTD is a
the same temperature as the junctions in the circuit. temperature sensor which measures temperature us-
For example, a third metal such as copper leads may ing the principle that the resistance of a metal chang-
be added to help take a measurement. This is why es with temperature. For most metals the change in
thermocouples may be used with digital multi-meters electrical resistance is directly proportional to its
or other electrical components. It is also why solder change in temperature and is linear over a range of
may be used to join metals to form thermocouples. temperatures.
Law of Homogenous Materials Thermistors
This law states that a thermocouple circuit that is Like the RTD, the thermistor is also a resistive device
made with a homogeneous wire cannot generate an that changes its resistance predictably with tempera-
emf, even if it is at different temperatures and thick- ture. Its benefit is a very large change in resistance per
nesses throughout. In other words, a thermocouple degree change in temperature, allowing very sensitive
must be made from at least two different materials in measurements over narrow spans.
order to generate a voltage.

9
Pyrometers This change in current can be observed in
Pyrometers also called as Radiation Thermometers three different ways.
was invented by Josiah Wedgwood. They are non-
1. The filament is dark. That is, cooler than
contact temperature sensors that measure tempera-
ture from the amount of thermal electromagnetic ra- the temperature source.
diation received from a spot on the object of measure- 2. Filament is bright. That is, hotter than the
ment. Pyrometers are mainly divided to two types:
temperature source.
a) Radiation
3. Filament disappears. Thus, there is equal
b) Optical brightness between the filament and
temperature source. At this time, the cur-
Radiation Pyrometers
rent that flows in the reference lamp is
measured, as its value is a measure of the
A radiation pyrometer also referred as infrared (IR)
temperature of the radiated light in the
thermometer is a noncontact radiant energy detector.
Every object in the world radiates IR energy. The
temperature source, when calibrated.
amount of radiant energy emitted is proportional to
the temperature of an object. Noncontact thermome-
ters measure the intensity of the radiant energy and
produce a signal proportional to the target tempera-
ture. The physics behind this broadcasting of energy is
called Planck’s Law of Thermal Radiation.
Optical Pyrometer
Optical Pyrometers work on the basic principle of us-
ing human eye to match the brightness of the hot ob-
ject to the brightness of the calibrated lamp filament
inside the instrument. In an optical pyrometer, a
brightness comparison is made to measure the tem-
perature. As a measure of the reference temperature,
a color change with the growth in temperature is tak-
en. The device compares the brightness produced by
the radiation of the object whose temperature is to be
measured, with that of a reference temperature. The
reference temperature is produced by a lamp whose
brightness can be adjusted till its intensity becomes
equal to the brightness of the source object. The radi-
ation.

10