M06-036 - Process Piping Materials - Module - US
M06-036 - Process Piping Materials - Module - US
M06-036 - Process Piping Materials - Module - US
A. Bhatia
P: (877) 322-5800
[email protected]
www.cedengineering.com
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
Pipe materials are selected on the basis of service requirements - most important
being the strength, and the corrosion resistance (stability). In making a choice, it is
necessary to know what materials are available and to what extent they are suited to
the specific application. The decision is quite involved and the choice is significantly
affected by the environment and the intended use. Some problems may occur
because of distortion and cracking caused by thermal expansion/contraction;
typically, a high-temperature alloy might change 4 inch per ft. from ambient to
1,000°C (1,832°F).
This course provides fundamental knowledge of the design and selection of process
piping materials. It covers the guidance on the applicable codes and materials. It
gives the pertinent information of the most common ASME/ASTM codes and material
standards highlighting the applications these are suited for.
This course is the 2nd of a 9-module series that cover the entire gamut of piping
engineering. All topics are introduced to the readers with no or limited background on
the subject.
The course material is divided into Four (4) distinct chapters as follows:
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Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
ii
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
CHAPTER - 1
The material selection may involve several factors like the high strength requirements
combined with high corrosion resistance of the material.
The first step is to understand the plant processes and the environmental conditions
to which the plant will be subjected.
• The process information can be obtained from the Process Flow Diagrams
(PFD) and Heat and Material Balance spread sheets provided by the Process
Engineering Discipline.
• The environmental exposure conditions can be obtained from the basis of the
design document.
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Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
The service life is the length of time a pipe is estimated to provide adequate
performance before maintenance, repair, or replacement. The following are
the general guidelines to be considered while designing the systems.
Corrosion can cause a pipe to deteriorate and shorten its service life.
The governing Code may depend upon the area where the unit is installed.
Power generation applications may fall under the Power Piping Code (ASME
B31.1), while units installed in chemical plants or refineries may be covered
by the Process Piping Code (ASME B31.3).
The Code sets the pressure and temperature limits for piping materials by
tabulating the allowable stresses. The designer uses these stresses to
determine the size and thickness of the pipe used.
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Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
The design temperature of the fluid in the piping is generally assumed the
highest temperature of the fluid in the equipment connected with the piping
concerned.
The design pressure of the piping system shall be not less than the pressure
at the most severe condition of coincidental internal/external pressure and
temperature expected during the service life.
1.1.6. Corrosion
Corrosion rates of carbon steel piping are assessed using the Langelier
Saturation Index (LSI) and other published corrosion production tools. In low
corrosive waters where the flow is stagnant, a 1.5 mm corrosion allowance is
adequate, but 3 mm is called out for conservatism in Carbon Steel (CS)
piping and equipment.
The potential for corrosion to occur, and the rate at which it will progress, is
variable and dependent upon a variety of factors.
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Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
• Soil Resistivity
− The greater the resistivity of the soil, the less capable the soil is of
conducting the electricity and the lower the corrosion potential.
Resistivity values in excess of about 5000 ohm-cm are considered
to present limited corrosion potential. Resistivity’s below the range
of 1000 to 3000 ohm-cm will usually require some level of pipe
protection, depending upon the corresponding pH level (example if
pH < 5.0, enhanced pipe protection may be needed for resistivity’s
below 3000 ohm-cm, if pH >6.5, enhanced pipe protection may not
be needed unless resistivity’s are below 1500 ohm-cm). As a
comparative measure, resistivity of seawater is in the range of 25
ohm-cm, clay soils range from approximately 750-2000 ohm-cm.
Soils that are of more granular nature exhibit even higher
resistivity.
• Chlorides
• Lime
• Sulfates
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Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
1.1.7. Economics
Two methods readily available to increase corrosion resistance are lowering the
carbon content of the material and reducing the instances of unprotected piping.
The most important considerations in evaluating various pipe system materials are
the strength, ductility, toughness, and corrosion resistance.
1.2.1. Strength
1. Modulus of elasticity
2. Yield strength
• Stress (σ)
• Strain (ε)
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Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
Young’s modulus (the tensile modulus or elastic modulus) is a ratio of stress and
strain along the axis and we can write into the following equation.
Where;
• F is pulling force.
A stress-strain curve is a graph derived from Stress (σ) versus Strain (ε) for a sample
of material.
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Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
Yield Point or Yield strength is defined as the stress at which a material begins to
plastically deform. Before the yield point the material will deform elastically and it will
return to its original shape when the stress is released. If the tension applied is over
the yield point, the deformation will be permanent and non-reversible.
Ultimate strength is the maximum stress applied before the material is completely
parted. As the load is increased beyond the yield strength, its cross-sectional area
will decrease until the point at which the material cannot handle any further load
increase. The ultimate tensile strength is that load divided by the original cross-
sectional area.
Elasticity is a property by virtue of which a material deformed under the load can
regain its original dimensions when unloaded. This property is utilized in piping
system designs where pipes may expand or contract due to temperature differences.
Young’s Modulus (modulus of elasticity) is the slope of the Stress-Strain curve within
the elastic limit (see the figure below).
Where the ratio is linear through a range of stress, the material is elastic; i.e. the
material will return to its original, unstressed shape once the applied load is removed.
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Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
If the material is loaded beyond the elastic range, it will begin to deform in a plastic
manner.
It means that once tensile is less than Yield Point, the Young’s Modulus is valid for
the calculation.
All of these properties are determined using ASTM standard test methods.
1.2.7. Ductility
1.2.8. Malleability
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1.2.9. Hardness
Hardness is the property of being rigid and resistant to pressure; not easily
scratched. It’s presence in metals can be an advantage for high pressure systems
but can be a disadvantage, as it can increase machining, cutting and fabrication
times. It is measured on Mohs scale.
1.2.10. Brittleness
The tendency for a metal to crack or break with deformation. Metals displaying this
property are not readily used for pipe or tube as this is a disadvantage to a material.
1.2.11. Toughness
Toughness is the ability of the metal to deform plastically and absorb energy in the
process before fracturing. It is the indicator of how the given metal would fail at the
application of stress beyond the capacity of the metal, and whether that failure will be
ductile or brittle.
1.2.12. Creep
**********
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Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
CHAPTER - 2
2. METALLIC PIPES
Metals are favored as process piping material because they offer a combination of
mechanical properties that are unique and not found among non-metals.
Metals are generally strong and many can be loaded or stressed to very high levels
before breaking.
The most widely used standard specification for steel products in the United States is
by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). It defines the specific
manufacturing process of the material and defines the exact chemical composition of
pipes, fittings and flanges, through percentages of the permitted quantities of carbon,
magnesium, nickel, etc.
• Specifications starting with “B” are for non-ferrous alloys (bronze, brass,
copper nickel alloys, aluminum alloys and so on).
Example
ASTM A105/A105M-02, Standard Specification for Carbon Steel Forgings for Piping
Applications, breaks down as follows:
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Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
• Official title = Standard Specification for Carbon Steel Forgings for Piping
Applications.
Many of the ASTM specifications have been adopted by the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) with little or no modification. The ASME designation
follows a similar scheme but uses the prefix S, for example, ASME-SA213 and ASTM
A213 are identical.
Grade refers to divisions of steel (A, B, C….) within different types of pipes. It defines
the mechanical properties such as the maximum tensile strengths and the yield
strengths.
• Grade A, B and C
− Grade B has higher tensile and yield strength than Grade A. It has
higher stress values and is better suited for machining operations.
− Grade C has higher tensile and yield strength than Grades A and
B.
The complete range of ASTM prefixes are A, B, C, D, E, F, G, PS, WK; however, the
piping requirements referenced in ASME B31.3 call for only A, B, C, D, and E. Higher
alphabet indicates higher tensile or yield strength steels, and if it is not alloyed, it has
an increase in carbon content.
Example
In this case:
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Silicon (Si) is used for the deoxidizing process. Deoxidized steel is called
“killed steel”.
Example
Another use of ASTM grade designators is found in pipe, tube, and forging
products, where the first letter P refers to pipe, T refers to tube, TP may refer
to tube or pipe, and F refers to forging.
The most commonly used material for metal piping systems is carbon steel (CS).
Carbon is present in all steels and is the principle hardening element. It raises tensile
strength, hardness, resistance to wear and abrasion. CS pipes are made of a variety
of grades to meet various process requirements of the industry.
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Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
Carbon Equivalent
The Carbon Equivalent (CE) for carbon steel intended for welding SHALL
NOT exceed 0.43% based on the long formula:
Characteristics
Carbon Steel losses all its stress resistance at 650°F/345°C. It is extremely difficult to
select material at 1200°F/650°C satisfying the needs of pressure and corrosive
properties of the fluid in the line.
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Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
Applications
• Non-corrosive piping system (fresh water, plant air, nitrogen, fuel gas, etc)
Standards
The most commonly used grades for piping are ASTM A106 and A53. A106 is
preferred for high temperature and high pressure services.
ASTM A53: Welded and Seamless Carbon Steel and Galvanized pipes
(moderate temperatures services). Pipe furnished in the following
types and grades.
• Type F - Furnace Butt Welded (also known as continuous
Weld) 1/8 in. to 4 in. NPS.
• Type E - Electric-Resistance Welded (ERW), Grades A and B
(1/8” to 24” NPS).
• Type S - Seamless (SMLS), Grades A and B (1/8” to 26” NPS).
ASTM A106: Seamless Carbon steel pipes for High Temperature Services.
Suitable for bending, flanging, and similar forming operations.
SMLS only
Furnished in Grade A, B and C of varying strength. Grades A and B
are available in most sizes and schedule numbers. Grade B permits
higher carbon and manganese contents than Grade A.
ASTM A135: Electric resistance welded (ERW) for conveying fluid, gas or vapor.
ERW Only
Furnished in Grade A and B.
ASTM A672: Electric fusion welded steel pipe for high pressure service at
moderate temperature services.
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Fittings
ASTM A216: Steel Castings for valves, flanges, fittings or other pressure-
containing parts for high-temperature service. Suitable for
fusion welding. The three grades included are WCA, WCB
and WCC.
ASTM A234: Pipe fittings of Wrought Carbon Steel and Alloy Steel for
moderate and elevated temperatures.
ASTM A 694: Forging, Carbon and Alloy Steel, for Pipe Flanges, Fitting,
Valves and Parts for High Pressure Transmission Service.
Killed steels are defined as those, which are thoroughly deoxidized during the melting
process. De-oxidation is accomplished by use of silicon, manganese and aluminum,
which combine with dissolved gases, usually oxygen, during steel making. This
results in cleaner, better quality steel which has fewer gas pockets and inclusions. It
minimizes the possibility or extent of hydrogen blistering and hydrogen embrittlement.
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Alloy steels are made by combining steels with one or more of other elements in total
amounts between 1.0% and 50% by weight to improve its mechanical and chemical
properties. Strictly speaking, every steel is an alloy, but not all steels are called "alloy
steels". The simplest steels are iron (Fe) alloyed with carbon (C) (about 0.1% to 1%,
depending on type). However, the term "alloy steel" is the standard term referring to
steels with other alloying elements added deliberately in addition to the carbon.
Common alloyants include manganese (the most common one), nickel, chromium,
molybdenum, vanadium, silicon, and boron.
Alloy steels are broken down into two groups: low-alloy steels and high-alloy steels.
The difference between the two is somewhat arbitrary:
• Material Classifications
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• Molybdenum
• Nickel
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Standards - Pipes
ASTM A335: Seamless Ferritic Alloy Steel pipe for High Temperature
Services.
A 335 Gr P I / P II is used for superheated high pressure
Steam Lines.
ASTM A369: Carbon & Ferritic Alloy Steel forged and bored pipe for high
temperature service
ASTM A691: Carbon and Alloy Steel pipe (Electric Fusion Welded for High
Pressure Service at High Temperature)
Fittings
ASTM A217: Martensitic Stainless Steel and Alloy Steel castings for
valves, flanges, fittings and other pressure-containing parts
intended primarily for high-temperature and corrosive service.
ASTM A420: Piping Fittings of Wrought Carbon Steel and Alloy Steel for
Low Temperature Service
ASTM A860: Standard Specification for Wrought High Strength Low Alloy
Steel Butt Welding Fittings
Forgings
ASTM A350: Forged Carbon and Low Alloy Steel requiring Notch
Toughness testing.
Steels containing 5% or more of alloying metals are generally called high alloy steels.
Chromium steel and Stainless steel belongs to this category in medium temperature
ranges. But at higher temperatures, a complex variety of alloy materials are used.
These are discussed below.
Process chemicals with ample amounts of sulfur compounds become quite corrosive
to steel at temperatures from about 550°F/290°C to 840°F/450°C. Chromium steels
containing 12 to 17% chromium can very well resist these corrosive attacks.
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Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
• Classification
These pipes are referred to with a P-number, such as P5, P9, P11 or P22
with corresponding weld fittings as WP5, WP9… and forged fittings with FP5,
FP9… number. They are often referred to as 1 ¼ CR-1/2 moly or 21/4 CR-1/2
moly depending on the percentage of chrome and molybdenum content.
The main drawback of Chromium Steels is that these become brittle after extended
heating cycles in 700°F – 1020°F (370°C-550°C) range.
Stainless Steel (SS) pipe and tubing are used to resist corrosion attack.
Stainless steel is not a single alloy, but a part of a large family of alloys with different
properties for each member. Chromium is the principle chemical component that
provides a naturally occurring protective layer of chromium oxide to resist corrosion.
Stainless steel must contain at least 10.5% chromium and, the more chromium the
alloy contains, the better the corrosion resistance. However, it is important to
remember there is an upper limit to the amount of chromium the iron can hold.
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By definition, stainless steel must contain a minimum of 50% iron. If it contains less
iron, the alloy is named for the next major element. For example, if the iron is
replaced with nickel, so the iron is less than 50%, it is identified as a nickel alloy.
There are five classes of stainless steel: austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, duplex, and
precipitation hardening. They are named according to how their microstructure
resembles a similar microstructure in steel. The properties of these classes differ but
are essentially the same within the same class. The table below lists the metallurgical
characteristics of each class of stainless steel.
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Ferritic Magnetic
(400 series) Non-hardenable by heat treatment
Crystallographic form – body centered cubic (BCC)
Low carbon grades easy to weld
Resistant to chloride stress corrosion cracking
Subject to 885ºF (475ºC) embrittlement at temperatures as low
as 600ºF (315ºC)
Subject to hydrogen embrittlement
Subject to ductile-brittle temperature embrittlement
Duplex Magnetic
(Ferrite + Non-hardenable by heat treatment
Austenite)
Contains both austenite and ferrite
High strength, easy to weld
Subject to 885ºF (475ºC) embrittlement at temperatures as low
as 600ºF (315ºC)
Subject to hydrogen embrittlement
Subject to ductile-brittle temperature embrittlement
Resistant to chloride stress corrosion cracking if ferritic network
Martensitic Magnetic
(400 series) Heat treatable to high hardness levels
Crystallographic form – distorted tetragonal
Hard to impossible to weld
Precipitation Magnetic
Hardening Ultra high strength due to precipitation hardening.
Crystallographic form – martensitic with micro-precipitates
Heat treatable to high strength levels
Weldable
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Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
The stainless steel family is quite large and specialized. There are hundreds of
grades and sub grades, and each class is designed for a special application.
These are the most popular of the stainless steels because of their ductility, ease of
working and good corrosion resistance. They are commonly called 18-8 because
they are composed of 18% chromium and 8% nickel.
This type of steel is very tough and ductile in the as-welded condition; therefore, it is
ideal for welding and requires no annealing under normal atmospheric conditions.
These are virtually non-magnetic and resist oxidation and corrosion of virtually all
chemicals over a wide range of temperatures.
The major weakness of the austenitic stainless steels is their susceptibility to chloride
stress corrosion cracking.
Key Grades
There are eighteen different grades, of which type 304L is the most widely used. The
other grades are developed from the 18–8 base by adding alloying elements to
provide special corrosion resistant properties or better weldability. For example,
adding titanium to Type 304 makes Type 321, the workhorse of the intermediate
temperature materials. Adding 2% molybdenum to Type 304 makes Type 316, which
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Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
has better chloride corrosion resistance. Adding more chromium gives Type 310 the
basis for high temperature applications.
• 316, 316L
• Grade 304
− Low cost among all other common stainless steels for piping
applications.
− Its varieties like piping’s; forgings etc. are governed by the codes
ASTM A312, A376, A358, A269, A249, A403, A182 and A351.
• Grade 304L
− Type 304L is the same as 304 except that 0.03% or less (normal
level is 0.08% max.) of carbon is maintained.
− Type 316 is similar to Type 304, but has a higher nickel content as
well as molybdenum for stronger resistance to heat and corrosion.
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Important
When using grades like 304 and 316, special attention should be paid to the carbon
content. This can be as high as 0.08%, which is too high if the steel is to be welded.
When choosing stainless steel for welding operations, low carbon content is crucial to
prevent the formation of chromium carbide. The greater the material thickness, the
longer the workpiece will take to heat during welding, and the lower the carbon
content has to be.
• Grade 317
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• Grade 318
• Grade 321
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• Grade 347
− Has better corrosion resistance than Grade 321 and much better
resistance than Grade 304.
Important
Alloys 310, 321 and 347 stainless steels are used in high temperature service
because of their higher creep and stress rupture properties. 321 and 347 alloys have
maximum temperatures of up to 1500°F/816°C for specific applications.
APPLICABLE STANDARDS
ASTM A312: Seamless and straight seam welded Austenitic Steel pipe (Gr.
TP 304/304L and Gr. TP 316/316L) intended for moderate and
general corrosive service and when 8” or smaller sizes are
needed.
ASTM A409: Welded large diameter austenitic steel pipe for corrosive and
high temperature services. Extra light wall thickness (schedule
5S) and light wall thickness (schedule 10S) stainless steel pipe
are covered by ASTM A09.
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Fittings
ASTM A182: Forged and socket fittings. Gr. F304/304L and Gr. F316/316L
is common.
Until the early 1980s, these alloys were not very popular because the inherent high
carbon content made them extremely brittle and imparted relatively poor corrosion
resistance. Then in the late 1970s a new steel refining technique, Argon Oxygen
Decarburization (AOD), was developed. This technique, together with the addition of
titanium or niobium, allowed the commercial development of extremely corrosion
resistant grades.
• Ferritic chromium steel contains 12% to 27% chromium and 0.08% to 0.20%
carbon.
• These alloys are the straight chromium grades of stainless steel since they
contain no nickel.
• Ferritic steels are magnetic and frequently used for automotive exhaust
systems, decorative trim and equipment subjected to high pressures and
temperatures.
• Ferritic stainless steels are resistant to chloride stress corrosion cracking, and
have high strength.
Key Grades
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The most widely used ferritic stainless steel is Type 409, a 10.5% Ce alloy with no
nickel. Key characteristics are:
These are characterized by having both austenite and ferrite in their microstructure,
hence the name Duplex Stainless Steel. Duplex stainless steels have high Chromium
content (between 18 and 28%) and a narrow Nickel range (between 4 - 7%). A ferrite
matrix with islands of austenite characterizes the lower nickel grades, and an
austenite matrix with islands of ferrite characterizes the higher nickel range.
They are better than austenitic and ferritic steels in tensile and yield strength while
offering good weldablity and formability. When the matrix is ferrite, the alloys are
resistant to chloride stress corrosion cracking. When the matrix is austenitic, the
alloys are sensitive to chloride stress corrosion cracking.
Key Grades
• Alloy 2205
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Carpenter 7-Mo PLUS‚® has the best corrosion resistance against nitric acid of any
of the stainless steels because of its very high chromium content and duplex
structure.
Applications
• FPSO
• Geothermal power
• Desalination plants
APPLICABLE STANDARDS
These were the first stainless steels developed because of the inability to obtain low
carbon steel. Like carbon tool steels, martensitic stainless steels derive their
excellent hardness from the carbon added to the alloy. Their ability to maintain a
keen edge comes from their high hardness and corrosion resistance.
Martensitic stainless steel is usually used for non-welded components such as forged
parts in compressors or as seamless threaded pipe for downhole production/injection
tubing. It is NOT used for welded items such as piping or vessels as it requires a
lengthy 2-stage post welding heat treatment which is often inconvenient or costly.
Key Characteristics
• This group is used where high strength, corrosion resistance, and ductility are
required.
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Key Grades
These steels are the latest in the development of special stainless steels and
represent the area where future development will most likely take place. They are
somewhat soft and ductile in the solution-annealed state, but when subjected to a
relatively low precipitation hardening temperature, 1000ºF (540ºC), their strength
more than doubles and they become very hard. The metallurgical structure of the
common grades is martensitic, but some of the special high nickel grades are
austenitic.
Key Characteristics
• Magnetic
The primary use of precipitation hardening steels is where high strength and
corrosion resistance are required. Aerospace and military applications have
dominated the applications in the past, but new uses are in instrumentation and fluid
control.
• Lower melting point (about 300 °C lower than pure iron) due to presence of
eutectic point at 1153 °C and 4.2 wt. % C.
• May not be used under severe cyclic conditions and other services if
safeguarded for heat, thermal and mechanical shock are not considered.
• May not be used in above ground flammable service above 300ºF (149ºC) or
above 400 psi (2760 kPa).
• Types of cast iron: grey, white, nodular, malleable and compacted graphite.
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− Ductile iron develops high strength and ductility with the addition of
small amounts of cesium or magnesium to grey iron. Generally
limited to temperature range of -20ºF to 650ºF (-29ºC to 343ºC)
and B16.42 ratings. Welding is not permitted.
APPLICABLE STANDARDS
Material Description ASTM Standard
Cast Steel A216 Gr.WCA
Gr.WCB
A352 Gr.LCB
Cast Stainless A351 Gr.CF-8
Gr.CF-8M
Steel Gr.CF-3M
A48 Class No.30
A126 Class B
Cast Iron A48 Class No.35
A126 Class C
Malleable Iron A197
A47M Gr.22010
A47 Class 32510
Ductile Iron A536 Gr.60-40-18
Gr.65-45-12
Where Stainless Steel fails in corrosive service, alloys containing large amounts of
nickel are used.
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Many of these alloying elements can be combined with nickel in single phase solid
solutions over a broad composition range to provide alloys with useful corrosion
resistance in a wide variety of environments. These alloys, in turn, provide useful
engineering properties in the fully annealed condition without fear of deleterious
metallurgical changes resulting from fabrication or thermal processing. Many of the
high-nickel alloys can be strengthened by solid solution hardening, carbide
precipitation, precipitation (age) hardening and by dispersion strengthened powder
metallurgy.
Some typical examples of Nickel Alloys are Monel, Hastalloy and Inconel.
• Monel
Monel (also known as Alloy 400) contains 67% nickel and 30% copper. The
benefits and applications include:
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− Its varieties like piping and forgings are governed by the codes
ASTM B165, B127, B164, B564; ASME SB 165, SB 366, SB 127,
SB 164 and SB564.
• Hastelloy
• Incoloy
Referred to as Nickel Alloy, Incoloy® 625 is a nickel (38- 46%) + iron (22%
min.) + chromium alloy (19 - 23.5%) with small amounts of molybdenum (2.5 -
3.5%), copper (1.5 - 3%), and titanium (6-1.2%). This combination gives
Incoloy 825 enhanced corrosion resistance in the harshest environments to
service temperature range from cryogenic to 1800°F (982°C). Like many of
the alloys in the Incoloy family, Incoloy 825 offers users a number of benefits:
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• Grade 904L
• Alloy 20
• Alloy 31
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2.11. Titanium
• Characteristics
• Applications
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− Titanium resists all forms of corrosive attack in fresh and sea water
to temperatures of 500°F (260°C).
Chlorine Chemicals
Hydrochloric Acid
Phosphoric Acid
Sea Water
Sulfuric Acid
Nitric Acid
• Standards
− ASTM B-363
2.12. Zirconium
• Characteristics
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• Applications
− Acetic Acid
− Citric Acid
− Formic Acid
− Hydrochloric Acid
− Lactic Acid
− Nitric Acid
− Phosphoric Acid
− Sulfuric Acid
• Standards
• Characteristics
• Applications
• Standards
2.14. Brass
• Characteristics
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2.15. Aluminium
• Characteristics
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2.16. Copper
Copper has long been used for all types of domestic water services and distribution
because it:
− is durable
− is self-supporting
− can be recycled
Copper may be annealed (i.e. heated, then cooled slowly) which improves its
properties, for example making it less brittle and stronger.
Although copper in general has good corrosion resistance, this depends on the
environment. Acidic conditions, either from the soil (if buried) or from the water, can
cause corrosion, so local pH levels should be checked before using copper pipes.
Common wall-thicknesses of copper tubing are "Type K", "Type L" and "Type M"
• Type K
− Type K has the thickest wall section of the three types of pressure
rated tubing and is commonly used for deep underground burial
such as under sidewalks and streets, with a suitable corrosion
protection coating or continuous polyethylene sleeve as required
by code.
• Type L
• Type M
− Type M has the thinnest wall section, and is generally suitable for
condensate and other drains, but sometimes illegal for pressure
applications, depending on local codes.
43
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
Types K and L are generally available in both hard drawn "sticks" and in rolls of soft
annealed tubing, whereas type M is usually only available in hard drawn "sticks".
ASTM A161: Covers seamless, hot finished and cold drawn, low carbon
and carbon-molybdenum steel still tubes, for use in carrying
fluids at elevated temperatures and pressures in various
types of Heaters. This specification includes tubes 2 to 9 in.
O.D. Inclusive and over 0.220 in. in minimum wall thickness.
ASTM A179: Covers seamless cold drawn low carbon steel tubes for
tubular head transfer apparatus. Includes sizes 1/8 to 3 in.
O.D. inclusive.
ASTM A182: This specification covers forged low alloy and stainless steel
piping components for use in pressure systems. Included are
flanges, fittings, valves and similar parts to specified
dimensions or to dimensional standards such as the ANSI
specifications referenced in the full ASTM Specifications.
ASTM A210: Covers seamless medium carbon steel boiler tubes and boiler
flues including safe ends, arch and stay tubes, and super-
heater tubes. Includes sizes 1/2 to 5 in. in O.D. and 0.035 to
0.500 in. in minimum wall thickness.
Summarizing:
The table below provides the summary of frequently used ASTM Grades.
44
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
Low-Temp
Austenitic A312 Gr A403 Gr A182 Gr A182 Gr A193 Gr B8
TP304 WP304 F304 F304 A194 Gr 8
Stainless A312 Gr A403 Gr A182 Gr A182 Gr
TP316 WP316 F316 F316
Steel A312 Gr A403 Gr A182 Gr A182 Gr
TP321 WP321 F321 F321
A312 Gr A403 Gr A182 Gr A182 Gr
TP347 WP347 F347 F347
************
45
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
CHAPTER - 3
Three primary design factors for high temperature service applications are:
• Allowable deformation
The rise in temperature is often associated with increased ductility and the
corresponding lowering of the yield strength. The materials will overstress
and fail in the elastic range. The failure in such a condition is referred to
as a “creep failure” and is prevented by designing for reduced stress or
temperature or by specifying a material with higher creep strength.
46
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
When lowered below room temperature, the propensity for brittle fracture
increases.
• Environment
The table below gives the approximate temperatures for different materials before the
onset of creep.
47
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
Low temperatures have an undesirable effect on ductile steels, making them more
prone to brittle fracture.
Strength, ductility, toughness and other properties are changed in all metals when
they are exposed to temperature near absolute zero.
Project piping standards are generally based on the industry piping standard ASME
B31.3. It requires that
• Non-impact tested carbon steel can be specified for piping with a minimum
design temperature of -20°F (-29°C).
MOC’s will be chosen to meet code requirements for brittle fracture mitigation. The
basic materials selection philosophy used is:
− For temperatures colder than -20°F (-29°C) but warmer than -50°F
(-46°C). Impact tested CS should be specified.
Note - Low Temperature Carbon Steel (LTCS) is defined as carbon steel that
has been impact-tested at a temperature colder than -20°F (-29°C) according
to the mandatory requirements of the ASME/ASTM material standards (A333,
A334, A350, A352, A420). No special alloying is employed to improve low
temperature impacts.
48
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
Generally, a buried pipeline will not be subject to very low temperatures unless
buried in permafrost, so no specific caution beyond the general design
considerations would be required.
• Brass in ammonia
• Titanium in methanol
• Some stainless steels (i.e. the austenitic grades) are susceptible to stress-
corrosion cracking in chloride and caustic environments.
All selections shall be based per ASME code for Process pressure piping, B31.3.
• Carbon Steel
− Sch 80, Carbon Steel (CS), ASTM A106 Gr. B Seamless Pipe or
Where predicted corrosion rates for carbon steel are too high and where
lining or other protection of the carbon steel is not practicable, Corrosion
Resistant Alloy (CRA) materials shall be selected. Key environmental
parameters influencing the corrosion properties of CRAs are:
− Temperature
49
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
− Environment pH
Carbon dioxide (CO2) environments are typical in gas treatment systems and are
termed as “sweet” environments. Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic
acid. The action of carbonic acid is a general corrosion and a pitting corrosion which
is more insidious and can result in a rapid perforation.
• Carbon Steel
− Steels with less than 0.2% carbon are most affected by carbonate
SCC. Application of pH neutralizers, corrosion inhibitors,
dehydrators (glycol, methanol), SS cladding, or a combination
thereof, is effective in mitigating carbonic corrosion.
50
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
• Stainless Steels
Materials in the sour environment are susceptible to Sulfide Stress Cracking (SSC),
Hydrogen-Induced Cracking (HIC), Hydrogen embrittlement and exfoliation (HE-HIC)
that leads to various modes of failure including stepwise cracking.
H2S in combination with water and low pH will release free hydrogen, which can be
absorbed by the material and interact with the steel which becomes brittle. The key
factors leading to SSC are:
• Low temperatures
• Low pH
When these factors are combined, a crack can initiate in the material and propagate
until catastrophic failure, even when stresses are substantially inferior to the yield
limit of the material. SSC is particularly critical for offshore wells where deep sea
temperatures rarely exceed 4 or 5°C.
• Recommended Materials
API grades L80, C90, T95 and C110 are dedicated API grades suitable
for Sour Service environments. They comply with the following
requirements:
− Chemical composition
51
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
− Hardness limitation
• Martensitic Steels
• Ferritic Steels
− The ferritic stainless steels give good service in H2S and sulfide
bearing process streams under a variety of conditions. Types 409,
430 and 439 have been used with good success in refineries in
crude distillation, hydrodesulfurizing and hydrocracking processes.
All these applications involve exposure to various sulfurous
species including H2S, polythionic acid, ammonium hydrosulfide,
sulfur dioxide and others. Stress-cracking is not a problem,
although numerous pitting failures have been reported after shut-
downs when chloride-bearing waters were allowed to stand in the
equipment. 410 SS can be used to handle sour gases at hardness’
of Rc22 and below.
52
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
There are numerous examples of damage associated with hydrogen which are
contained under the collective term "hydrogen damage"; sometimes also coined
"hydrogen-assisted cracking" (HAC) if fracture is involved. Similar phenomena may
even be known under different terms.
• Carbon Steel
53
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
• Alloy Steels
− 1-¼ Cr – ½ Mo - (P-11)
− 5 Cr – ½ Mo - (P-5)
− 9 Cr-1 Mo - (P-9)
The guide used for selecting hydrogen resistant materials is API publication 941
entitled “Steels for Hydrogen Services at elevated Temperatures and Pressures in
Petroleum Refineries and Petrochemicals Plants”.
In seawater or brackish water, MONEL alloys 400 and K-500 give excellent service in
moderate or high-velocity systems, as do most nickel alloys. The following materials
are regarded as immune to corrosion when submerged in seawater at ambient
temperatures:
− Titanium alloys
− GRP
Sulfides and sulfurous gases are common to many applications, including fuel
combustion atmospheres, petrochemical processing, gas turbines, and coal
54
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
gasification. Piping systems are usually carbon steel and 5 Cr; ½ Mo with varying
corrosion allowances are applied for the fluid stream containing sulfur.
• Carbon Steel
• Stainless Steels
3.7.6. Oxidation
• Stainless Steels
55
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
Fluorine, the most electronegative of the elements, is also the most reactive. Its
oxidizing potential is so strong that it forms compounds with all common elements,
even some of the "inert" gases. Combustible substances burst into flame and even
asbestos becomes incandescent when held in a stream of fluorine.
Since all metals react directly with fluorine, metals which have useful resistance
depend on the formation of a protective fluoride film. At room temperature, nickel,
copper, magnesium and iron form protective films and are considered satisfactory for
handling fluorine at low temperatures.
• Stainless Steels
• Nickel Alloys
56
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
alloys 600, 625 and C-276. Nickel 201, MONEL alloy 400 and
INCONEL alloy 600 have excellent resistance to fluorine and
hydrogen fluoride. At high temperatures, Nickel 201 and MONEL
alloy 400 are preferred.
• Nickel Alloys
• Stainless Steels
− Highly alloyed ferritic stainless steels (that are able to more rapidly
form a thin oxide film) tend to outperform austenitic steels.
3.7.9. Nitriding
57
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
• Nickel Alloys
• Coatings
Amine units are widely used in upstream oil and gas applications and in refineries for
removing CO2, H2S and related constituents from hydrocarbon gas streams. Both
lean amine and rich amine pose corrosive issues. Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
and general corrosion are the potential degradation mechanisms. Proprietary amine
solvents are used to remove acid gas (CO2) from the incoming process feed stream.
These amine solvents charged with the acid gases are corrosive. Factors that
influence corrosiveness include the type of amine, solution strength, acid gas
composition, acid gas loading, temperature, velocity, organic acids and the presence
of heat-stable salts (HSAS). Oxygen contamination of the amine during storage and
processing can lead to the formation of organic acids such as formic, acetic, etc.
• Carbon Steel
58
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
− Several factors can limit the use of carbon steel, including: the
formation of organic acids; high acid gas loadings; corrosive
contaminants; erosion and/or high velocities; and high
temperatures. Process control is critical in avoiding corrosion
problems in amine systems, including limiting heat-stable salt
loadings, filtering out solids and controlling temperatures and pH.
• Stainless Steels
Materials which are NOT suitable for amine service include martensitic stainless
steels (12Cr, AISI 410 etc.), aluminum and copper-based alloys.
For additional guidance for avoidance of corrosion of stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
refer to API 945.
Crevice corrosion is a concern when local high caustic concentrations are produced
as a result of heating and/or solution evaporation. For this reason, care in design of
heat transfer equipment (avoiding crevices) is advisable.
59
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
− Above 180°F (82°C), cracking is highly likely for all concentrations above
about 4% wt.
• Carbon Steel
• Stainless Steels
• Nickel Alloys
60
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
Acids can be either oxidizing or reducing in nature. Some metals are resistant to
oxidizing acids (e.g. nitric) while others are resistant to reducing acids (e.g.
hydrochloric or sulfuric). By alloying such metals it is possible to produce materials
that resist corrosion in both media.
The choice of an alloy for a specific environment will depend on the acid or the
mixture of acids present, on concentration, temperature, aeration, contaminants, flow
characteristics, the presence and tightness of crevices, other material in the system,
and many other environmental conditions.
• Sulfuric acid: The most commonly used nickel alloys in processes containing
dilute sulfuric acid are INCOLOY alloys 25-6MO, 825 and 020, and INCONEL
alloy G-3. For aggressive, hot, sulfuric acid environments, INCONEL alloys
625, 622, C-276 and 686 are most often selected.
• Hydrochloric acid: The high-nickel alloys are among the few metallic
materials with useful resistance to hydrochloric acid solutions. The presence
of oxidizing contaminants (e.g. ferric or cupric ions) can drastically change the
corrosivity and corrosive characteristics of a hydrochloric acid environment
and the presence of such species must be considered in material selection.
The most commonly used nickel alloys in processes containing dilute
hydrochloric acid are INCOLOY alloys 25-6MO, 825 and 020, and INCONEL
alloy G-3. For aggressive, hot hydrochloric acid environments, INCONEL
alloys 625, 622, C-276 and 686 are more often selected.
• Phosphoric Acid: Pure phosphoric acid has no effective oxidizing power and
is classified as a non-oxidizing acid, much like dilute sulfuric. Commercial
phosphoric acid, however, usually contains impurities such as fluorides and
chlorides that markedly increase its corrosivity. The most commonly used
nickel alloys in processes containing pure phosphoric acid are INCOLOY
61
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
alloys 825, 020 and 25-6MO, and INCONEL alloy G-3. For aggressive, hot
phosphoric acid environments, especially those contaminated with halides,
INCONEL alloys 625, 622, C-276 and 686 are selected.
When dissolved in water, salts increase their conductivity and thereby are able to
carry higher corrosion currents. Therefore, galvanic effects are more pronounced in
salt solutions than in pure water. Salts may be categorized and their corrosive
characteristics defined in table below:
The most commonly used nickel alloys in process environments containing sulfate
salts are INCOLOY alloys 25-6MO, 825 and 020 and INCONEL alloys G-3, 625, 622,
C-276 and 686. For processes using chloride salts, the most commonly used
materials are MONEL alloy 400 (for reducing conditions), INCOLOY alloys 25-6MO,
825 and 020, and INCONEL alloys G-3, 625, 622, C-276 and 686.
62
x Nitric Acid: Nitric acid is a strongly oxidizing and, because of this, alloys with
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
Dry chlorine is not particularly corrosive at ambient temperatures. Chlorine gas reacts
with the water to form equal parts of hypochlorous and hydrochloric acid.
Hypochlorous acid is an oxidizing acid and bleaching agent which is reduced to
hydrochloric acid in the bleaching reaction. This combination of an oxidizing and a
non-oxidizing acid is responsible for the corrosive effect of moist chlorine on metals.
x Stainless Steels
63
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
x Nickel Alloys
Corrosion rates of carbon steel piping are assessed using the Langelier Saturation
Index (LSI) and other published corrosion production tools. In low corrosive waters
where the flow is stagnant, a 1.5 mm corrosion allowance is adequate but 3 mm is
called out for conservatism in CS piping and equipment.
For higher corrosive waters, corrosion assessment will consider temperature, oxygen
concentration, halide concentration, and other pertinent factors.
Above ground piping will be fabricated from 304L SS (or 316L SS), no corrosion
allowance will be added.
MIC is a form of corrosion caused by living bacterial. It is often associated with the
presence of tubercles or slimy biofilms. MIC Corrosion is usually observed as
localized pitting, sometimes under deposits or as tubercles that shield the organisms.
64
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
In CS, damage is often characterized by cup-shaped pits within pits and in austenitic
stainless steel as subsurface cavities. Critical Factors to be considered with MIC
include:
x Temperature
x Oxygen Concentration
MIC has been found in heat exchangers, in the bottom of water storage tanks, piping
with stagnant or low flow, and in piping in contact with some soils. Using well or
ground water is especially susceptible to MIC contamination.
x A project hydrotest water quality specification should be issued for use during
fabrication and construction, especially during hydrostatic tightness testing of
equipment and piping.
x One of the most important steps is removal of water from equipment and
equipment immediately after the hydro test followed by proper drying,
preservation and capping.
x Using dry, oil free compressed air with a dew point of -40°F (-40°C) has been
proven to be effective.
In Refineries, frequent failures have been experienced in cooling water and fire water
services especially in the form of seam opening in ERW pipes.
65
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
For lower diameter pipes (up to 6” in diameter), seamless pipes are recommended
considering lower thickness in this range, which are detrimental in case of any weld
deficiencies.
Corrosion is the destructive attack on a pipe by a chemical reaction with the materials
and environment surrounding the pipe. The corrosion protection measures include:
wall thickness.
66
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a
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
x Inorganic zinc coatings are NOT typically used under insulation, as zinc
coatings exposed to water, at temperatures above 150°F (66°C) become
passivated, which can result in the coating becoming a cathode to the steel,
resulting in the preferential corrosion of the steel substrate. Where insulation
is required, the inorganic zinc coating should be covered with an additional
epoxy coating.
x Good practice is to procure bulk carbon steel piping with an inorganic zinc
primer. The primer can then be top coated in the field with most high
performance coating systems where the operating temperature is below the
melting point of zinc 750°F (400°C). Insulated equipment and piping, where
the process temperature is between 32°F (0°C) and 300°F (150°C), should be
coated to provide protection against corrosion under insulation (CUI).
x For cold insulation, when cellular glass with vapor stops, sealants, and vapor
barrier are specified, the insulation system is inherently impervious to water,
and will eliminate corrosion concerns. Other sealed insulation systems such
as pre-insulated PIR systems with sealed vapor barriers offer the same
degree of protection.
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Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
x Chemical composition is associated with the heat of pipe. A heat of pipe is all
items forged from the same cast ingot, and therefore have the same chemical
composition.
x Mechanical tests may be associated to a lot of pipe, which would be all from
the same heat and have been through the same heat treatment processes.
The manufacturer performs these tests and reports the composition (in a mill
traceability report) and the mechanical tests (in a material test report), both of which
are referred to by the acronym MTR.
For critical applications, third party verification of these tests may be required; in this
case an independent lab will produce a certified material test report (CMTR), and the
material will be called certified. By etching the heat number on the components made
from this batch of material, it ensures that there is full traceability from the component
to the material certificate and therefore the chemical composition of the component is
known.
Maintaining the traceability between the material and the MTR is an important quality
assurance issue. QA often requires the heat number to be written on the pipe.
Precautions must also be taken to prevent the introduction of counterfeit materials.
As a back up to etching/labelling of the material identification on the pipe, Positive
Material Identification (PMI) is performed using a handheld device; the device scans
the pipe material using an emitted electromagnetic wave (x-ray fluorescence/XRF)
and receives a reply that is spectrographically analyzed.
Mill’s name
68
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
Test number
******
69
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
CHAPTER – 4
4. BURIED PIPING
2. Plastic Pipes
Ductile iron pipe (DIP) is an outgrowth of the cast iron pipe industry. While both
ductile and cast iron are created by introducing carbon, ductile iron differs in that it is
made by adding magnesium, phosphorous and sulfur into the hot molten iron bath.
The process gives DIP an ability to slightly deform (bent) without cracking. This is a
major advantage of ductile iron pipe. Ductile pipe is used mainly in domestic water
distribution service in sizes ranging from 8 inches to 42 inches in diameter.
x Characteristics
Drawbacks - Heavy
Plastics are solid materials that contain one or more polymeric substances which can
be shaped by flow. Polymers, the basic ingredient of plastics, compose a broad class
of materials that include natural and synthetic polymers. Nearly all plastics are made
from the latter. In commercial practice, polymers are frequently designated as resins.
For example, a polyethylene (PE) pipe compound consists of PE resin combined with
colorants, stabilizers, anti-oxidants or other ingredients required to protect and
enhance properties during fabrication and service.
Common pipe materials include Polyethylene (PE or HDPE for High- Density PE),
polypropylene (PP), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS),
and Polybutylene (PB).
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Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
Plastics are divided into two basic groups, thermoplastics and thermosets, both of
which are used to produce plastic pipe.
4.3.1. Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics soften and melt when sufficiently heated and harden when cooled, a
process that is totally reversible and may be repeated. Thermoplastics can be
shaped during the molten phase of the resin and therefore can be extruded or
molded into a variety of shapes, such as pipe, pipe fittings, flanges or valves.
Thermoset plastic pipes are composed of epoxy, polyester and phenolic resins.
Fiberglass-reinforced pipe (FRP) is the most common form of thermoset-type pipe. It
offers high strength and is corrosion resistant. Fiberglass pipe is suited for the direct
bury and aboveground applications in potable water transmission, force main or
gravity sewer systems, and all applications where there is a corrosive carrier or
external environment.
The drawbacks are high material costs, brittleness (may crack) and high installation
cost.
PVC (POLYVINYL CHLORIDE) is, by far, the most common plastic material in
domestic potable water piping, sanitary sewers, storm sewers and culverts, chemical
processing, chilled water distribution, deionized water, and industrial piping systems.
Its basic properties are chemical inertness, corrosion and weather resistance, high
strength to weight ratio, electrical and thermal insulators. The service temperature is
140°F. Joining methods are solvent welding, threading (Schedule 80 only), or
flanging. It is light in weight and generally grey in color.
71
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
x Limitations
PVC cannot be left out in the sun as the thermal properties will
change and damage the pipe.
x It is not resistant to alcohol, petrol, acetic acid and other organic solvents
although it is good against diluted inorganic acids, salts, animal fats and oils.
x ABS can operate from -40 to 76°F up to 210 psi. It is important to reduce the
allowable pressure suitably when used at higher temperatures.
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Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
water loops, and demineralized water. Joining methods are coil fusion and socket
heat welding.
x It offers good resistance to most acids and bases but should not be used with
active oxidizing agents like nitric acid and aromatics.
Polyethylene (PE) and high density polyethylene (HDPE) is the most chemically inert
of all commodity plastic materials and is therefore extremely chemical and corrosion
resistant. The number one characteristic that sets HDPE apart from other pipe types
is that it can be made to be flexible. It can be bent to a radius 25 times the nominal
pipe diameter, a feature which can do away with many fittings required for directional
changes. With its flexibility, HDPE adopts itself on rough terrain.
This is the most used plastic material and will be discussed more in subsequent
paragraphs.
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Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
x PFA has all the excellent chemical resistance qualities of PTFE plus higher
mechanical strength at higher temperatures.
x PFA tube is widely used in the services of ultra-pure chemicals like in the
semiconductor, laboratory, environmental and pharmaceutical industries. It
has a temperature range of -325 to 500°F (-198 to 260°C).
x Schedule – refers to a plastic pipe with the same outside diameter and
wall thickness as iron or steel pipe of the same nominal size.
x IPS – refers to plastic pipe that has the same outside diameter as iron
pipe of the same nominal size.
The plastic pipe material designation provides quick identification of the pipe
material’s principal structural and design properties.
74
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
Standard specifications for PE pipe allow the pipe to be made to either control inside
diameters or to control outside diameters. The inside diameter system is typically
applied to small diameter sizes only and is intended for use with insert type fittings.
The outside diameter systems are intended for use with fittings that require a
predictable outside diameter, also independent of wall thickness.
SIDR System
Standard Inside Diameter Sizing (SIDR) convention system is based on the inside
diameters of the Schedule 40 series of iron pipe sizes (IPS).
The dimension ratio, DR, is the ratio of the pipe outside diameter to the wall
thickness. The lower the DR, the thicker shall be the pipe wall - which correlates to a
higher pressure rating. It is a given by following expression:
x DR = OD / t
75
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
Plastic pipes which when made to the same Dimension Ratio and from the same kind
of material are able to offer the same pressure rating independent of pipe size.
SDR’s 9 series include 9, 11, 13.5, 17, 21, 26, and 32.5.
A beneficial feature of the use of preferred numbers is that when a preferred number
is multiplied or, is divided by another preferred number, the result is always a
preferred number.
The table below lists the Standard Dimension Ratios (all based on preferred
numbers) which appear in the various ASTM, AWWA and CSA DR-PR based
standards for PE pipes.
76
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
The result of the use of these standard preferred number values is that a pipe’s
standard pressure rating (PR) is a consistent result, independent of pipe size, which
simply depends on its standard dimension ratio and the standard HDS of the material
from which the pipe was made. This relationship is shown below:
Standard Pressure Ratings for Water, at 73°F (23°C), for SDR-PR Pipes, psig
For the purposes of pressure pipe design, the pipe’s pressure rating (PR) is
determined by the hydrostatic design stress (HDS) that is assigned to the material
from which the pipe is made.
x For example, HDPE (PE4710) DR 17 pipe has a static pressure rating for
water of 125 psig.
x OD controlled pressure pipes are pressure rated per ASTM F714 using the
formula below.
77
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
Where:
The table below provides Pressure Rating and Allowable Total Pressure during
Surge for PE4710 pipe at 80°F.
78
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
The pressure rating of a plastic pipe is determined at 73.4°F. The strength of a plastic
pipe decreases as the fluid temperature becomes warmer and therefore the plastic
pipe needs to be de-rated for higher temperatures. The table below shows a de-
rating factor for the increase in fluid temperature.
73.4 1.00
80 .93
90 .77
100 .67
110 .51
120 .43
130 .33
140 .23
For example, the maximum working pressure for PVC piping is above 150 psig for all
pipe sizes through 8 inches in diameter, but this is only for temperatures of 73.4°F.
Any temperature above 73.4°F will result in a reduced working pressure within the
piping system up to a maximum of 140°F. At this temperature the de-rating factor is
0.23, where it is 1.0 at 73°F.
79
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
Description PE PVC
*Safe Working Rating from 80-160 PSI. Ratings from 80-600 PSI.
Pressures (PSI)
(Surge pressures in HDPE
80
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
Ease of Joining, Laying Easy to join using the heat PVC pipes use gasketed –
and Bending fusion procedure. Fused push-on joints.
joints are self –restrained
Rigid, but will bend on
and do not require thrust
long radius. Can be bent
blocks.
by heating.
Can be installed with
PVC pipes require Bolt on,
horizontal directional
or Thrust Blocks.
drilling (HDD) techniques,
which is a trenchless
installation technique.
PE pipe can withstand impact much better than PVC pipe, especially in cold weather
installations where other pipes are more prone to cracks and breaks. Because heat
fused PE joints are as strong as the pipe itself, it can be joined into long runs
conveniently above ground and later, installed directly into a trench or pulled in via
directional drilling or by using the re-liner process.
Many of the PE resins used in PE pipes are stress rated not only at the standard
temperature, 73°F, but also at an elevated temperature, such as 140°F. Typically, PE
materials retain greater strength at elevated temperatures compared to other
thermoplastic materials such as PVC. At 140°F, PE materials retain about 50% of
81
Process Piping Materials – Module 2 – M06-036
their 73°F strength, compared to a PVC pipe which loses nearly 80% of its 73°F
strength when placed in service at 140°F. As a result, PE pipe materials can be used
for a variety of piping applications across a very broad temperature range.
Most plastic piping products are manufactured from 1/4” (6 mm) diameter through
120” (3050 mm) diameter under applicable industry standards (ASTM, AWWA, etc.)
for pressure and non-pressure applications. HDPE pipe is available both in iron pipe
(IPS) and ductile iron pipe sizes (DIPS). IPS sized HDPE pipe has the same outside
diameter as black iron or carbon steel pipe.
Standard straight lengths for extruded pipe are 40 feet long; however, shorter lengths
or lengths 60 feet long or longer, depending on transportation restrictions, may be
produced.
Metallic pipe is strong and easy on cost and work. CS is most common material, but
its corrosion resistance is very poor. Stainless steel scores better in corrosion
resistance but is expensive.
Lined pipes combine the mechanical strength of steel and the corrosion resistance of
plastics. They have wide operating range from -18 to 500°F (-28 to 260°C), offer low
pressure drop and available in sizes ½” through 12” and beyond. Liners can be
bonded and locked or loose lined. Bonded plastic line pipe can operate at full
vacuum. Pipes are generally flanged in lengths of 20 ft. (6 meters) with the lined
material protruding onto the flange faces. A wide range of linings are available to
choose from:
x Polypropylene (PP)
x PTFE
x Cement mortar lined pipes were used traditionally for water and sewerage
transport. HDPE has taken over in water transport so cement mortar lines are
hardly used.
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PVC and CPVC are rarely used as lining material because of low temperature range.
However they are widely used as a straight pipe in most domestic water applications.
Costs for piping comparisons should include both the costs of the materials as well
as the construction costs. The pipe cost is usually given in dollars per unit length,
traditionally in dollars/linear foot, plus the costs of the fittings, connections and joints.
Construction costs will depend on the type of digging necessary, special field
equipment requirements, and an allowance for in-field adjustments to the system.
Access to pipe systems will also be a relevant cost factor, as manhole spacing is
dependent on pipe size.
The table below provides a sample typical average cost for sanitary sewers
(excluding service connections and manholes). The cost per linear foot in the table is
based on an average trench depth of eight feet and excludes service connections
and manholes.
Summarizing:
Plastic pipes are widely used today. Some characteristics are underlined below:
x Plastic pipes can be used in a wide temperature range of -76 to 140°F and
have an estimated service life of conservatively 50 to 100 years.
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This completes the 2nd module of the 9 module series. Please refer to the other
course modules in Annexure -1.
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Annexure -1
MODULES 1 to 9
A-1
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CHAPTER – 3: VALVES
This chapter describes the various types of valves and their applications.
The characteristics, ratings, advantages and disadvantages of most
commonly used valves such as gate valve, ball valve, globe valve,
butterfly valve, check valve, diaphragm valve and various safety relief
valves are provided. The material of construction and selection criteria is
covered. Reference of relevant ASME codes and their proper service
applications in pressure piping applications is provided.
A-3
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A-4
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the layout and access requirements for Platforms (Ladders and Stairs).
A-5
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A-6
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A-7