PADMA SESHADRI BALA BHAVAN SR. SEC.

SCHOOL
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
STD XII RAY OPTICS NOTES

What is ray optics?

Light is considered to be travelling in a straight line from one point to another. The
path is called a ray of light and bundle of such rays constitutes a beam of light.

Ray of light

Beam of light

REFLECTION
What is reflection?
The bouncing back of light into the same medium when light falls on a highly polished
surface like a mirror is called reflection of light.
Laws of reflection
• The incident ray, the normal at the point of incidence and reflected ray all lie in
the same plane.
• Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.

Spherical mirrors:
A spherical mirror is a part of a hollow sphere whose one face is reflecting and the
other opaque.
• If the reflecting surface of the spherical mirror caves inward then it is a
concave mirror.
• If the reflecting surface of the mirror bulges outward then it is a convex mirror.

Both the convex and concave mirrors are a part of a hollow sphere whose one face is
silvered and the other surface is reflecting as shown.

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Important terms related to spherical mirrors:
• Centre of curvature (C): It is the centre of the sphere of which the spherical
mirror is a part of.
• Radius of curvature (R): It is the radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a
part of.
• Pole (P): The geometric centre of the mirror is its pole.
• Principal axis: The line joining the pole and centre of curvature of the mirror is
the principal axis.
• Aperture: The effective diameter of the reflecting surface of the mirror is its
aperture. MN is the aperture of the mirror.

• Principal focus (F): Rays parallel and close to the principal axis after reflection
either converge or appear to diverge from a point on the principal axis. This point
is called the principal focus.
• Focal length: The distance between the pole and focus of a mirror is its focal
length denoted by f.

NOTE: THE DOTTED LINE THROUGH C IS THE NORMAL. ANY LINE PASSING
THROUGH C AT THE POINT OF INCIDENCE IS THE NORMAL (Recall radius is
perpendicular to the tangent in a circle)
• Focal plane: If a parallel beam of light close to the principal axis is incident,
making an angle with the principal axis, the reflected rays would converge or
diverge from a point in a plane through the focus F normal to the principal axis.
This plane is called the focal plane of the mirror.

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Real object: An object that either gives out its own light or reflects the light that fall
on it is a real object. LIGHT ALWAYS DIVERGES FROM A REAL OBJECT.

Real image: Real image is formed by the actual intersection of light rays after
reflection. It can be obtained on a screen.
Virtual image: Virtual image is formed when the light rays appear to be originating
from a point after reflection but does not actually meet.

Relation between focal length and radius of curvature for a mirror of small
aperture
Consider a ray parallel to the principal axis striking the mirror at M which after
reflection passes through F. CM will be the normal at the point of incidence M. Let θ be
the angle of incidence and MD the perpendicular from M on the principal axis.

∠𝑀𝐶𝑃 = θ and ∠𝑀𝐹𝑃 = 2θ

𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐷
Now tan θ = and tan 2θ =
𝐶𝐷 𝐹𝐷

For rays close to the principal axis and

small aperture of

mirror , tan θ≈ θ and tan 2θ≈ 2θ

𝑀𝐷 2𝑀𝐷
Thus = ; 2FD = CD
𝐹𝐷 𝐶𝐷

For small aperture D is very close to P

FD ≈ FP = f and CD ≈ CP = R

R= 2f OR f= R/2

Rules for drawing ray diagram:

Every point on the object gives out infinite number of rays. To find the position of
the image we need a minimum of two rays. The rays chosen could be
1) A ray incident parallel to the principal axis after reflection passes through the focus
(concave) or appears to diverge from the focus (convex).
2) A ray incident along the centre of curvature (concave) or directed towards centre of
curvature (convex) after reflection retraces its path.
3) A ray incident along the focus (concave) or appearing to pass through the focus
(convex) after reflection will be parallel to the principal axis.

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What happens if a ray is incident at an angle at the pole of the spherical mirror?
• For both the convex and concave mirror, the ray will be reflected back making
the same angle with the principal axis.
• Here the principal axis is the normal at the point of incidence and ∠𝑖 = ∠𝑟.

Image formation by a concave mirror:

1) Object at infinity: Image formed will be a real, highly diminished at the focus.

2) Object between pole and focus: Image formed will be virtual, enlarged and erect.

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3) Object at F: Image will be formed at infinity.

4) Object between F and C: Image formed is real, inverted and enlarged beyond C.

5) Object at C: Image formed is real, inverted and of the same size as the object at
C.

6) Object beyond C: Image formed is real, inverted and diminished between F and C.

Image formation by a convex mirror

1) Object at infinity: Image formed is virtual, highly diminished at the focus.

2) Object at a finite distance: Image formed is virtual, diminished and erect.

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Sign Convention: (Cartesian sign convention)
• All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror
• Distances measured in the direction of incident light are taken as positive and
distances measured opposite to the direction of incident light are taken as
negative.
• Heights measured above the principal axis are taken as positive and heights
measured below the principal axis are taken as negative.
•
Mirror formula:
It is the relation between object distance (u), image distance (v) and focal length
(f) of the mirror.
1) Concave mirror (Real image)

2) Concave mirror (Virtual image)

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3) Convex mirror

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Linear magnification: It is defined as the ratio of the height of the image to the
height of the object.

TO NOTE:
• Magnitude of m > 1 then the image is enlarged and if |m| <1 then image is
diminished
• |m| = 1 for object at C for a concave mirror.
• Sign of m tells us if it is an erect or inverted image
• For a concave mirror, object at C, m=-1
• A concave mirror can form both real and virtual magnified image. Hence say m=+2
and m=-2 are possible.
• However, a concave mirror can form diminished images which are only real. Hence
1
m= + 2 is not possible.
• Magnification m=+1 only for a plane mirror
• For a convex mirror |m| is always <1
• Plane mirror is a special case of spherical mirror of R=∞, f=∞ and from mirror
formula we get v = -u

Spherical aberration:
• The inability of a spherical mirror of large aperture to converge a wide beam of
which at a single point is called spherical aberration.
• Rays close to the principal axis are called paraxial rays and those far away from
the principal axis are called marginal rays. Paraxial rays converge at a point
further away from the pole than the marginal rays. Hence image formed by the
mirror is blurred.

• For a mirror of small aperture or for a narrow beam of light close to the principal
axis all the rays are paraxial and hence there is no spherical aberration.

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 • Spherical aberration can be eliminated by using a parabolic mirror.

REFRACTION
What is refraction?
The direction of propagation of an obliquely incident ray of light changes at the
interface of two media. This phenomenon is called refraction of light.

Cause of refraction: The speed of light is different in different media and hence
refraction occurs. For a given PAIR of media, the medium in which the speed of light is
less is the optically denser medium and the medium in which the speed of light is more
is the optically rarer medium.
• When a ray of light travels from a rarer to a denser medium, at the interface it
bends towards the normal.
• When a ray of light travels from a denser to a rarer medium, at the interface it
bends away from the normal.

NOTE: Optical density is different from mass density. It is possible that mass density
of an optically denser medium may be less than an optically rarer medium. For example:
Mass density of turpentine is less than water but optical density is higher.

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Laws of refraction
• The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface at the point
of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
• The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is a constant.
Snell’s law
• The second law of refraction is also called Snell’s law.
sin 𝑖
• = constant = μ21 or n21 which is called the refractive index of the second
sin 𝑟
medium with respect to first medium.

The medium in which the light is incident is medium 1 and where the light is refracted is
medium 2

Refractive index n21 is a constant for a given pair of media and light of a given
colour.
• If i<r, it is a ray moving from denser to rarer medium and n21 < 1.
• If i>r, it is a ray moving from rarer to denser medium and n21 > 1.
𝐧𝟐
• Here n21 = refractive index of second medium w.r.t. first medium = 𝐧𝟏
𝐧𝟏
Similarly, n12 = refractive index of first medium w.r.t. second medium =
𝐧𝟐

Absolute refractive index: The refractive index of a given medium w.r.t. air or vacuum
is called absolute refractive index.

sin 45 𝑛𝑤
Here sin 32 = nwa = absolute refractive index of water = 𝑛𝑎

sin 45 𝑛𝑔
= nga = absolute refractive index of glass =
sin 28 𝑛𝑎

sin 45 𝑛𝑑
sin 17
= nda = absolute refractive index of diamond = 𝑛𝑎

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NOTE: For the same angle of incidence in air, angle of refraction is different for
different media i.e. refractive index is different for different pairs of media.

Relative refractive index: The refractive index of a medium with respect to another
which is not air is called relative refractive index.

Notice here that water is the rarer medium and glass the denser medium. Rarer and
denser are only for a given pair of media.
sin 𝑖 𝑛𝑔
= ngw = relative refractive index of glass w.r.t. water=𝑛𝑤
sin 𝑟

𝒏𝟐 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝟏 𝒗𝟏
Refractive index n21 = 𝒏𝟏 = =
𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝟐 𝒗𝟐
Relative refractive index of glass w.r.t water
𝐧𝐠 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐯𝐰
ngw = 𝐧𝐰 = =
𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐠𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐯𝐠
Relative refractive index is the ratio of the absolute refractive index.
𝐧𝐠𝐚 (𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐚𝐢𝐫)/(𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐠𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐬) 𝐯𝐰
ngw = 𝐧𝐰𝐚 = =
(𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐚𝐢𝐫)/(𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫) 𝐯𝐠

NOTE:
• Absolute refractive index is thus simply written as ng or nw.
• Refractive index of air or vacuum is 1.
• Speed in air or vacuum is c = 3x 108 m/s
𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐚𝐢𝐫 𝐜
• Thus, absolute refractive index of a medium = =
𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝐯

Principle of reversibility of light:

When a ray of light after undergoing a number of refractions and reflections has its
final path reversed, it will completely retrace its path. This is principle of reversibility
of light.

sin 𝑖 𝑛𝑏
Here for the 1st refraction from a to b: sin 𝑟 = nba = ------ (1)
𝑛𝑎
sin 𝑟 𝑛𝑎
For the 2nd refraction from b to a: = nab = --------- (2)
sin 𝑖 𝑛𝑏
Multiplying equations (1) and (2)
sin 𝑖 sin 𝑟
sin 𝑟
x sin 𝑖
= nba x nab = 1
𝟏
Thus nab = 𝐧𝐛𝐚

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Refraction through a glass slab:
When a ray of light is incident on a parallel
sided glass slab, it undergoes two refractions.
• For the 1st refraction
sin 𝑖
= nga ------- (1)
sin 𝑟1
• For the second refraction
sin 𝑟2
= nag -------- (2)
sin 𝑒
Since it is a parallel sided glass slab,
r1 = r2 (alternate angles)
Multiplying (1) and (2)
sin 𝑖 sin 𝑟2
x = nga x nag = 1
sin 𝑟1 sin 𝑒
sin 𝑖
=1 i=e
sin 𝑒
Thus, angle of incidence is equal to angle of emergence. THE INCIDENT AND
EMERGENT RAYS ARE PARALLEL TO EACH OTHER.

Expression for lateral shift or lateral displacement:

• When a ray of light passes through a glass slab it undergoes no deviation-ANGLE
OF DEVIATION IS ZERO.
• But the emergent ray is laterally displaced or shifted.
• The perpendicular distance between the un-deviated incident ray and the
emergent ray is called lateral shift or lateral displacement.
• Thickness of the glass slab is the perpendicular distance between the two faces
through which the light is incident and emerges.

𝐭 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐢−𝐫)
Hence lateral shift d = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐫
For small angles of incidence
sin (i-r) ≈ (𝑖 − 𝑟)
cos (r) ≈ 1
𝑡 ( 𝑖−𝑟) 𝑟 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Thus d = = t (i-r) = ti (1- 𝑖 ) = ti (1-nag) = ti (1- ) = ti (1- 𝒏 ) = ti (1- 𝝁 )
1 𝒏𝒈𝒂
Lateral shift depends on
• Thickness of the glass slab
• Angle of incidence
• Nature of material of the slab (refractive index)

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Real depth and Apparent depth
One of the effects of refraction is that it produces a raising effect. Hence the bottom
of a tank or lake appears raised.

• Let O be a point object near the bottom of a tank filled with water.
• A ray OA incident normally passes un-deviated.
• Another ray incident at an angle i after refraction at the interface
XY passes un-deviated.
• The two refracted rays meet at I when produced backwards.
HENCE, I OS THE VIRTUAL IMAGE OF POINT OBJECT O.
For small angles of incidence
𝐴𝐵
Sin i ≈ tan i = 𝐴𝑂
𝐴𝐵
Sin r ≈ tan r = 𝐴𝐼
sin 𝑖 AB/AO AI Apparent depth
Thus 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟 = naw = = AO=
AB/AI Real depth
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉
nwa = 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉

Apparent shift:
OI is the apparent shift, that is the amount through which the bottom appears to be
raised.
Apparent shift OI = AO –AI
= Real depth – Apparent depth
𝐴𝐼
= AO [1-𝐴𝑂]
= AO [ 1- naw]
1
= AO [ 1- 𝑛𝑤𝑎]
𝟏 𝟏
OI = Real depth [1- 𝒏] OR Real depth [1- 𝝁]
Where n or μ implies it is the absolute refractive index of the denser medium.

Critical angle and Total internal reflection (TIR)

• When a ray of light is incident at the interface, a part of the light is reflected
and the rest refracted. This is called Internal reflection.
• Consider rays incident at the interface from a denser medium. The rays after
refraction at the interface bend away from the normal.

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 • As the angle of incidence increases, angle of refraction also increases.
• For a particular angle of incidence AO3 = ic, the angle of refraction tends to
900. This angle is called the critical angle.
• For angles of incidence greater than the critical angle, the ray is not refracted
but reflected back into the same medium. This phenomenon is called Total
Internal Reflection (TIR).

Relation between critical angle and Refractive index:

At ic
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑐
= naw
𝑠𝑖𝑛 90
Thus, sin ic = naw
𝟏 𝟏
OR sin ic = n 𝒂 =
w 𝒏

Critical angle: It is the angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of
refraction in the rarer medium tends to 900.
For TIR to take place
• The ray should be incident from the denser medium to rarer medium.
• Angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle

PRISM
What is a prism?
A prism is a wedge-shaped refracting material. The cross-section of a prism called
principal section is a triangle as shown.
The angle between the two refracting faces of a prism through which the light enters
and leaves is called the angle of the prism or refracting angle.

For an equilateral prism, angle of the prism is always 600.

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Refraction through a prism:
• ABC is the principal section of the prism
• OP is the incident ray, PQ the refracted ray, QR the emergent ray and i the
angle of incidence
• Since the ray is moving from rarer to denser medium it bend towards the normal
and r1 is the angle of refraction.
• For the second refraction r2 is the angle of incidence. Since the ray is now
moving from a denser to a rarer medium, it bends away from the normal. The
angle of emergence is e.
• The angle between the un-deviated incident ray OP and the emergent ray
QR is the angle of deviation δ.

PN and QN are the normal drawn at the two faces.

For the 1st refraction the deviation towards the normal
δ1 = i-r1 ------- (1)
For the second refraction the deviation away from the normal
δ2 = e-r2 ------(2)
In ΔPMQ, δ is the exterior angle
Hence δ= δ1 + δ2 = i-r1+e-r2
δ = i + e – (r1 + r2) -------(3)
NOTE: FOR A GLASS SLAB THE DEVIATIONS WERE SUBTRACTED AND HERE
THEY ARE ADDED.
In ΔPNQ: r1 + r2 + ∠𝑃𝑁𝑄 = 1800 -------- (4)
In quadrilateral APNQ: ∠A + ∠APN + ∠PNQ + ∠AQN = 3600
where A is the angle of the prism, ∠APN = ∠AQN = 900 as they are the normal drawn.
Thus A + 90 + ∠PNQ + 90 = 360
A + ∠PNQ =1800 ------- (5)
Comparing (4) and (5) we get r1 + r2 = A-------(6)
δ = i + e – (r1 + r2) -------(3)
r1 + r2 = A-------(6)
Substituting (6) in (3), we get
δ=i+e–A
OR i + e = A + δ
THUS, THE TWO IMPORTANT EQUATIONS TO REMEMBER ARE

r + r = A
1 2

A + δ = i + e

From δ = i + e – A it is clear that angle of deviation depends on the angle of incidence.

The plot of the angle of deviation with the angle of incidence is called the i-d curve or i-
δ curve.

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i-d curve:

• As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation first decreases and
then increases.
• For the same angle of deviation there are two angles of incidence. This follows
symmetry of i and e from the equation i + e = A + δ, i.e. if i and e are interchanged
the value of δ remains the same.
• To elaborate, it follows principle of reversibility of light.

• If the emergent ray falls normally on a plane mirror, it retraces its path. Now i
and e are interchanged but the angle of deviation is the same.
SO THE TWO ANGLES OF INCIDENCE FOR WHICH THE ANGLE OF DEVIATION
IS THE SAME IS i AND e INTERCHANGED.
What happens at δmin?
• There is only one angle of incidence at δmin.
• From principle of reversibility, at δmin,
a. i = e
b. r1 = r2
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒆
(1 refraction 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝟏 = nga ;2nd refraction 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒆 = nag and thus 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝟐 = nga. As i = e, r1
st

= r2)
c. For an equilateral prism, the refracted ray is parallel to the base of the prism.

Recalling the important relations

r + r = A
1 2

A + δ = i + e

At δmin
𝐴
2r1 = A r1 = 2
𝐴+ 𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑛
2i = A + δmin i= 2
For the 1st refraction from air to glass
𝑨+ 𝜹𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 𝐬𝐢𝐧( )
= nga= 𝟐
𝑨
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐

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For small angled prisms, deviations are also very small and hence in the equation
𝐴+ 𝛿min⁡
𝑠𝑖𝑛
nga= 2
𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
𝐴+ 𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐴+ 𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ≈
2 2
𝐴 𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ≈
2 2
𝐴+ 𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐴+ 𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑛
nga = 2
𝐴 =
𝐴
2
Thus δmin = (nga-1) A OR δ = (nga-1) A
Thin prisms do not deviate light much.

NOTE:
1) For a glass slab, A = 0 as the two refracting faces are parallel and hence angle of
deviation 𝛿 = 0.
2) Why begin with angle of incidence say 300 for a prism?
When angle of incidence is small angle of refraction r1 is also small. But r1 + r2 = A. For
an equilateral prism A = 600. So r2 is large. the refraction at the second face is from
denser to rarer medium and if r2 > critical angle, TIR will take place and the ray will not
emerge out.

Dispersion of light
The splitting of white light into its constituent colours when it falls on a prism is called
dispersion of light.
The pattern of the colour components of light is called the spectrum of light.

Cause of dispersion: Dispersion occurs because the speed of light is different for
different colours in a medium as refractive index is different for different colours.
CAUCHY’S RELATION:
The relation between refractive index and colour of light (wavelength) is called Cauchy’s
relation.
𝐛
μ or n = a + , where a and b are called Cauchy’s constants and they are constants
𝛌𝟐
for a given pair of media. Writing refractive index as n or μ implies it is the absolute
refractive index.

𝟏
Wavelength of violet is 400nm and of red is 700nm. From Cauchy’s relation, n α 𝛌𝟐
and nV>nR
1) Violet is deviated the most and red the least
For small angled prisms δ = (n-1) A; since nV > nR, δV > δR

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2) Speed of violet in the medium is the least and red the greatest.
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Refractive index =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝑐 𝑐
That is n = 𝑣 OR v = 𝑛
As nV > nR, vV < vR

3) Violet undergoes maximum refraction and red the least

sin 𝑖
Refractive index n = .
sin 𝑟
As white light is incident, angle of incidence is the same for all colours.
sin 𝑖
sin r = 𝑛
As nV > nR, sin rR > sin rV
rR > rV OR rV < rR
That is violet bends more towards the normal and undergoes maximum refraction.

Angular dispersion (φ): It is the difference in deviation between any two colours.

Taking violet and red

φ = δV – δR = (nV-1)A – (nR-1)A
φ = (nV – nR)A

Thus, angular dispersion depends on the nature of material of the prism and angle
of the prism.

Dispersive Power (ω): It is the ratio of the angular dispersion to the mean
deviation produced by the prism.
𝝋 (nV – nR) A (nV – nR)
Taking violet and red ω = = =
𝜹𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 (nY – 1) A (nY – 1)
Mean deviation is the average deviation of the two colours chosen.
𝛿𝑉+ 𝛿𝑅
Here δmean = = δY
2
The mean deviation of violet and red is the deviation of yellow.
Dispersive power only depends on the nature of material of the prism and is
independent of the angle of the prism.

SPHERICAL SURFACES
What are spherical surfaces?
Spherical surfaces are a part of a solid sphere. Spherical surfaces can be convex or
concave.
If the refracting surface is CONVEX towards the RARER medium, it is a convex
spherical surface.

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If the refracting surface is CONCAVE towards the RARER medium it is a concave
spherical surface.

Some important definitions:

Pole: The geometric centre of the refracting surface is its pole.

Centre of curvature: The centre of the solid sphere of which the refracting surface is
a part of is centre of curvature.
Radius of curvature: The radius of the sphere of which the spherical surface is part
of is radius of curvature.
Aperture: The effective diameter of the refracting surface is its aperture.
Principal axis: The line joining the pole and centre of curvature is the principal axis.

Assumptions:
• Object is a point object on the principal axis.
• The aperture of the spherical surface is small.
• The incident and refracted rays make small angles with the principal axis.
Cartesian Sign Convention
• All distances are measured from the pole of the spherical surface.
• Distances measured in the direction of incident light are taken as positive and
distances measured opposite to the direction of incident light are taken as
negative.
• When the object is in the rarer medium, it is refraction from RARER TO
DENSER medium.
• When the object is in the denser medium, it is refraction from DENSER TO
RARER medium.
• In all derivations, n1 or μ1 will be the absolute refractive index of the rarer
medium and n2 or μ2 will be the absolute refractive index of the denser
medium.

Page 19 of 35
RARER TO DENSER
1) CONVEX SURFACE (Real image)
O is a point object on the principal axis. A ray OP incident normally passes un-deviated.
Another ray OA incident at an angle i after refraction bends towards the normal. The
two refracted rays converge to give a real image I. M is the foot of the perpendicular
from A to the principal axis.

In ΔOAC : i = α + γ ----- (1) ;

In ΔIAC : γ = β + r r = γ – β -------(2)

𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝑀
Tan α ≈ α = ; Tan β ≈ 𝜷 = ; Tan γ ≈ 𝜸=
𝑀𝑂 𝑀𝐼 𝑀𝐶

( Since incident and refracted rays make small angles with the principal
axis)
sin 𝑖 𝑖 𝜇2
Now ≈ =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟 𝑟 𝜇1
μ2 r = μ1 i μ2(γ – β) = μ1(α + γ )

𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝑀
μ2 ( - ) = μ1 ( + )
𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐼 𝑀𝑂 𝑀𝐶

1 1 1 1
μ2 ( - ) = μ1 ( + )
𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐼 𝑀𝑂 𝑀𝐶

As the aperture of the spherical surface is small, distances from M are

almost equal to distance from the pole P.
Thus MC ≈ PC = +R; MI ≈ PI = +v; MO ≈ PO = -u;

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
μ2( - ) = μ1( + ) OR
𝐑 𝐯 −𝐮 𝐑

𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 𝛍𝟐 − 𝛍𝟏
+ =
−𝐮 𝐯 𝐑

Page 20 of 35
2) CONVEX SURFACE (Virtual image)

In ΔOAC : i = α + γ ----- (1) ;

In ΔIAC : r = γ + β-------(2)

AM AM AM
Tan α ≈ α = ; Tan β ≈ β = ; Tan γ ≈ γ=
MO MI MC
( Since incident and refracted rays make small angles with the principal
axis)
sin i i μ2
Now ≈ =
sinr r μ1
μ2 r = μ1 i μ2(γ + β) = μ1(α + γ )
AM AM AM AM
μ2 ( + ) = μ1( + )
MC MI MO MC
1 1 1 1
μ2 ( + ) = μ1( + )
MC MI MO MC
As the aperture of the spherical surface is small, distances from M are
almost equal to distance from the pole P.
Thus MC ≈ PC = +R; MI ≈ PI = -v; MO ≈ PO = -u;

𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 𝛍𝟐 − 𝛍 𝟏
+ =
1 1 1 1
μ2 ( - ) = μ1 ( + ) OR
R v −u R −𝐮 𝐯 𝐑

3) CONCAVE SURFACE

In ΔOAC : γ = α + i i = γ - α ----- (1) ;

In ΔIAC : γ = r + β r = γ - β -------(2)
AM AM AM
Tan α ≈ α = ; Tan β ≈ 𝛃 = ; Tan γ ≈ 𝛄=
MO MI MC

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( Since incident and refracted rays make small angles with the principal
axis)
sin i i μ2
Now ≈ =
sinr r μ1
μ2 r = μ1 i μ2(γ - β) = μ1(γ - α )
AM AM AM AM
μ2 ( - ) = μ1 ( - )
MC MI MC MO
1 1 1 1
μ2 ( - ) = μ1 ( - )
MC MI MC MO
As the aperture of the spherical surface is small, distances from M are
almost equal to distance from the pole P.
Thus MC ≈ PC = -R; MI ≈ PI = -v; MO ≈ PO = -u;
𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 𝛍𝟐 − 𝛍𝟏
+ =
1 1 1 1
μ2(- + ) = μ1( + ) OR
R v −R u −𝐮 𝐯 𝐑

DENSER TO RARER
1) CONVEX SURFACE (Real image)
O is a point object on the principal axis. A ray OP incident normally passes un-deviated.
Another ray OA incident at an angle i after refraction bends away from the normal. The
two refracted rays converge to give a real image I. M is the foot of the perpendicular
from A to the principal axis.

In ΔOAC : γ = i + α i = γ - α ----- (1) ;

In ΔIAC : r = γ + β -------(2)

AM AM AM
Tan α ≈ α = ; Tan β ≈ 𝛃 = ; Tan γ ≈ 𝛄=
MO MI MC
( Since incident and refracted rays make small angles with the
principal axis)
sin i i μ1
Now ≈ =
sinr r μ2
μ2i = μ1r μ2(γ – α) = μ1(γ + β )

AM AM AM AM
μ2( - ) = μ1( + )
MC MO MC MI

Page 22 of 35
 1 1 1 1
μ2( - ) = μ1( + )
MC MO MC MI
As the aperture of the spherical surface is small, distances from
M are almost equal to distance from the pole P.
Thus MC ≈ PC = -R; MI ≈ PI = +v; MO ≈ PO = -u;

OR +
1 1 1 1 𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 𝛍𝟏 − 𝛍𝟐
μ2(−R + u ) = μ1(−R + v) =
𝐯 −𝐮 𝐑

2) CONVEX SURFACE (Virtual image)

In ΔOAC :α= i + γ i = α - γ ----- (1) ;

In ΔIAC : β = r + γ r = β - γ -------(2)

AM AM AM
Tan α ≈ α = ; Tan β ≈ 𝛃 = ; Tan γ ≈ 𝛄=
MO MI MC
( Since incident and refracted rays make small angles with the
principal axis)
sin i i μ1
Now ≈ =
sinr r μ2
μ2i = μ1r μ2(α - γ) = μ1(β - γ )
AM AM AM AM
μ2( - ) = μ1( - )
MO MC MI MC

1 1 1 1
μ2( - ) = μ1( - )
MO MC MI MC
As the aperture of the spherical surface is small, distances from
M are almost equal to distance from the pole P.

Thus MC ≈ PC = -R; MI ≈ PI = -v; MO ≈ PO = -u;

+
𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 𝛍𝟏 − 𝛍𝟐
=
1 1 1 1
μ2( + ) = μ1( + ) OR
−u R −v R 𝐯 −𝐮 𝐑

Page 23 of 35
3) CONCAVE SURFACE

In ΔOAC : i = γ + α ----- (1) ;

In ΔIAC : r = γ + β -------(2)

AM AM AM
Tan α ≈ α = ; Tan β ≈ 𝛃 = ; Tan γ ≈ 𝛄=
MO MI MC
( Since incident and refracted rays make small angles with
the principal axis)
sin i i μ1
Now ≈ =
sinr r μ2
μ2i = μ1r μ2(γ + α) = μ1(γ + β )
AM AM AM AM
μ2(MC + ) = μ1(MC + )
MO MI

1 1 1 1
μ2(MC + ) = μ1(MC + )
MO MI
As the aperture of the spherical surface is small,
distances from M are almost equal to distance from the
pole P.
Thus MC ≈ PC = +R; MI ≈ PI = -v; MO ≈ PO = -u;

+
1 1 1 1 𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 𝛍𝟏 − 𝛍𝟐
μ2(R + −u) = μ1(R + −v) OR =
𝐯 −𝐮 𝐑

𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 𝛍𝟐 − 𝛍𝟏
THUS Rarer to denser : + =
−𝐮 𝐯 𝐑
:⁡ +
𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 𝛍𝟏 − 𝛍𝟐
Denser to rarer
𝐯
=
−𝐮 𝐑

Page 24 of 35
 LENSES
What is a lens?
A lens is a piece of refracting material bounded on both sides by spherical surfaces or
one plane and one spherical surface.
Types of lenses
• If both the spherical surfaces of the lens are convex towards the rarer medium,
it is a convex lens or bi-convex lens or double convex lens.
• If the radius of curvature of the two surfaces are equal, then it is an equiconvex
lens.
• If one surface is plane and the other, then it is a plano-convex lens.

• If both the spherical surfaces of the lens are concave towards the rarer medium,
it is a concave lens or bi-concave lens or double concave lens.
• If the radius of curvature of the two the two surfaces are equal, then it is an
equiconcave lens.
• If one surface is plane and the other convex, then it is a plano-concave lens.

Some important definitions:

• Principal axis: The line joining the centres of curvature of the two spherical
surfaces is called the principal axis.
• Optic centre (O or C): The geometric centre of the lens is called the optic
centre. It divides the lens in the ratio of its radius of curvature. For a
equiconvex or equiconcave lens, it is the mid-point between the poles of the
spherical surfaces.

• Principal focus (F): Rays parallel to the principal axis after refraction either
converge or appear to diverge from a point on the principal axis and this point is
called the principal focus.

Page 25 of 35
 • Focal length (f): The distance between the optic centre and the focus is the
focal length of the lens.
• Aperture: The effective diameter of the refracting surface of the lens is its
aperture.

Lens Maker’s formula: It is the relation between the focal length of the lens,
refractive index of the material of the lens and the radius of curvature of the
spherical surfaces.
Assumptions:
• Lens is a thin lens. (distance from pole ≈ distance from optic centre)
• Object is a point object on the principal axis
• Aperture of the lens is small
• Incident and refracted rays make small angles with the principal axis.
Cartesian sign convention:
• All distances are measured from the optic centre of the lens.
• Distances in the direction of the incident light are positive and in the opposite
direction are negative.
Derivation:

O is a point object on the principal axis. A ray incident along the principal axis passes
un-deviated. Another ray OA incident at an angle i after refraction bends towards the
normal.
Refraction at XP1Y:
In the absence of the second refracting surface, the two refracted rays will meet at I’
and form a real image.
Since this is refraction from a rarer to a denser medium
𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 𝛍𝟐 − 𝛍𝟏
+ = --------- (1)
−𝐮 𝐯′R1
Where P1O ≈ CO = -u; P1C1 ≈ CC1 = +R1; P1I’ ≈ CI’ = +v’

Refraction at XP2Y:
For the second refraction, I’ acts as a virtual object and I is the position of the final
real image formed. AB is the incident ray. Since this is refraction from a denser to a
rarer medium, it bends away from the normal and I is the position of the final real
image formed.
𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 𝛍𝟏 − 𝛍𝟐
+ = --------- (2)
𝐯 −𝐯′ R2
Where P2I’ ≈ CI’ = +v’; P2C2 ≈ CC2 = -R2; P2I ≈ CI = +v

Adding equations (1) and (2) we get

𝝁𝟏 𝝁𝟏 𝝁𝟐 − 𝝁𝟏 𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 1 1 1 1
+ = + μ1 ( - ) = (μ2 – μ1) ( - )
−𝒖 𝒗 R1 R2 𝑣 𝑢 𝑅1 𝑅2

Page 26 of 35
 1 1 (μ2 – μ1) 1 1 1 1 μ2 1 1
( - )= ( - ) ( - )= ( -1)( - )
𝑣 𝑢 μ1 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑣 𝑢 μ1 𝑅1 𝑅2

μ2
But is the refractive index of glass w.r.t. air = absolute refractive index μ.
μ1
1 1 1 1
( - 𝑢 ) = ( μ-1)(R1 - R2)
𝑣
We know that for an object at infinity, image is at the focus.
Thus u = −∞ and v = +f

1 1 1 1
( - ) = ( μ-1)( - )
f −∞ R1 R2

1
But ∞ = 0 and hence
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=( 𝛍-1)( - ) is the required lens maker’s formula.
𝐟 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐

NOTE:
For a convex lens:
• CC1 is in the direction of incident light
• Thus R1 is positive,
• CC2 is opposite to the direction of incident
light.
• So R2 is negative.
• Lens maker’s formula for a convex lens is
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=( 𝛍-1)( + )
𝐟 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐

For a concave lens:

• CC1 is opposite to the direction of incident light.
• Thus R1 is negative.
• CC2 is in the direction of incident light.
• So R2 is positive.
• Lens maker’s formula for a concave lens is
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=( 𝛍-1)(- - )
𝐟 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐

For a equiconvex lens R1 = R2 say equal to R and thus

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
=( 𝛍-1)(𝐑 + 𝐑) OR 𝐟 =( 𝛍-1)(𝐑 )
𝐟

For an equiconcave lens where R1 = R2 = R

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
=( 𝛍-1)(-𝐑 - 𝐑) OR 𝐟 =( 𝛍-1)(-𝐑 )
𝐟

For a plano-convex lens R1 = R and R2 = ∞

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=( 𝛍-1)(𝐑 + ∞ ) OR 𝐟 =( 𝛍-1)(𝐑 )
𝐟

For a plano-concave lens R1 = -R and R2 = ∞

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=( 𝛍-1)(-𝐑 - ) OR 𝐟 =( 𝛍-1)(-𝐑 )
𝐟 ∞

Page 27 of 35
PRINCIPAL FOCUS
First principal focus of a convex lens:
It is the position of the (real) object on the principal axis for which the image is
formed at infinity.

1 1 1 1
( - ) = ( μ-1) ( + )
v u R1 R2
Here u = f1; v = ∞
1 1 1 1 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
( - ) = ( μ-1) ( + ) - = ( 𝛍-1) ( + )
∞ f1 R1 R2 𝐟𝟏 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
Here f1 is negative

Second principal focus of the convex lens:

It is the position of the (real) image on the principal axis for the object at infinity.

1 1 1 1
(⁡ - ) = ( μ-1) ( + )
v u R1 R2
Here u = ∞; v = f2
1 1 1 1 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
( - ) = ( μ-1) ( + ) = ( 𝛍-1) ( + )
f2 ∞ R1 R2 𝐟𝟐 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
Here f2 is positive

First principal focus of a concave lens:

It is the position of the (virtual) object on the principal axis for which the image is
formed at infinity.

1 1 1 1
( - ) = ( μ-1) (- - )
v u R1 R2
Here u = f1; v = ∞
1 1 1 1 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
( - ) = ( μ-1) (- - ) - = ( 𝛍-1) (- - )
∞ f1 R1 R2 𝐟𝟏 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
Here f1 is positive

Page 28 of 35
Second principal focus of the concave lens:
It is the position of the (virtual) image on the principal axis for the object at infinity.

1 1 1 1
( - ) = ( μ-1) (- - )
v u R1 R2
Here u = ∞; v = f2
1 1 1 1 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
( - ) = ( μ-1) (- - ) = ( 𝛍-1) (- - )
f2 ∞ R1 R2 𝐟𝟐 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
Here f2 is negative

NOTE:
• A first and second focal lengths of a convex lens and concave lens are
equidistant on either side of the optic centre and are generally just written as F.

F F F F

• In a lens, 2f is not equal to R. Hence 2F IS NOT TO BE WRITTEN AS C and

the point is represented as only 2F

Lens maker’s formula diagram for a concave lens

THIN LENS FORMULA

• All lenses considered are thin lenses.
• Refraction at the two surface is shown as a single refraction at the optic axis of
the lens.
Rules for drawing ray diagrams for a convex and concave lens:
1) A ray parallel to the principal axis after refraction either passes through the
focus (convex) or appears to diverge from the focus (concave). (Second principal
focus)

Page 29 of 35
2) A ray passing through the focus(convex) or directed towards the focus (concave)
after refraction is parallel to the principal axis. (First principal focus).

3) For a thin lens, a ray passing through the optic centre passes un-deviated.

Ray diagrams for a convex lens:

1) Object at infinity: Image is a real, inverted and highly diminished image at the
focus

2) Object beyond 2F: Image is a real, inverted and diminished image formed between
F and 2F.

3) Object at 2F: Image formed is a real, inverted and same size as the object formed.

4) Object between F and 2F: Image formed is real, inverted and magnified formed
beyond 2F.

Page 30 of 35
5) Object at the focus: Image is formed at infinity.

6) Object between the optic centre and focus: Image formed is virtual, erect and
magnified.

Ray diagrams for a concave lens:

1) Object at infinity: Image formed is virtual, erect and point sized at the focus.

2) Object at a finite distance from the lens: Image formed is virtual, erect and
diminished. NOTE: THE IMAGE IS FORMED BETWEEN OPTIC CENTRE AND
FOCUS.

Thin lens formula: It is the relation between object distance u, image distance v and
focal length f of the lens.
Sign Convention: (Cartesian sign convention)
• All distances are measured from the optic centre of the lens.
• Distances measured in the direction of incident light are taken as positive and
distances measured opposite to the direction of incident light are taken as
negative.

Page 31 of 35
 Heights measured above the principal axis are taken as positive and heights
•
measured below the principal axis are taken as negative.
Assumptions:
• Lens is a thin lens. (distance from pole ≈ distance from optic centre)
• Aperture of the lens is small

Convex lens (Real image)

△ ABC and △ A′B′C are similar
AB CB
= ---------- (1)
A′ B′ CB′
△ XCF and △ A′ B ′ F are similar
XC CF
=
A′ B′ B′ F
AB CF
= ---------- (2)
A′ B′ CB′ −CF
CB CF
Equating (1) and (2) we get =
CB′ CB′ −CF

CB = -u; CB’ = +v; CF = +f

−u f −1 1 1
= -uv + uf = vf ÷ by uvf we get + =
v v−f f v u
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
OR = - is the lens formula
𝐟 𝐯 𝐮

Convex lens (Virtual image)

△ ABC and △ A′B′C are similar
AB CB
= ---------- (1)
A′ B′ CB′

△ XCF and △ A′ B ′ F are similar

XC CF
=
A′ B′ B′ F
AB CF
= ---------- (2)
A′ B′ CB′ + CF
CB CF
Equating (1) and (2) we get =
CB′ CB′ + CF
CB = - u; CB’ = - v; CF = +f
−u f 1 1 1
= uv - uf = - vf ÷ by uvf we get - =-
−v −v+f f v u
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
OR = - is the lens formula.
𝐟 𝐯 𝐮

Concave lens
△ ABC and △ A′B′C are similar
AB CB
= ---------- (1)
A′ B′ CB′
△ XCF and △ A′ B ′ F are similar
XC CF
=
A′ B′ B′ F
AB CF
= ---------- (2)
A′ B′ CF − CB′
CB CF
Equating (1) and (2) we get =
CB′ CF − CB′
CB = - u; CB’ = - v; CF = - f
−u −f u −f 1 1 1
= = uv - uf = - vf ÷ by uvf we get - =-
−v −f + v v −f + v f v u
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
OR = - is the lens formula.
𝐟 𝐯 𝐮

Page 32 of 35
Linear magnification:
It is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.

△ ABC and △ A′B′C are similar

AB CB
= CB′
A′ B′
A′B′ CB′
But m = =
AB CB
A’B’ = +hi; AB = +ho; CB’ = -v; CB = -u
+hi −v v
Thus m = +h = −u =
o u
𝐯
For a lens m = 𝐮

Sign convention summary:

Mirror:
Mirror Object Image Focal
distance u distance v length f
Convex -ve +ve +ve

Concave -ve +ve (Virtual) -ve

-ve (Real)

Lens:
Lens Object Image Focal
distance u distance v length f
Convex -ve +ve (Real) +ve
-ve (Virtual)
Concave -ve -ve -ve

Power of a lens:
Power of a lens is a measure of the convergence or divergence, which a lens introduces
in the light falling on it.
Observe the two ray diagrams:

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Clearly, a lens of shorter focal length bends the incident light more, while converging it
in case of a convex lens.

Shorter the focal length, greater is the degree of divergence in a concave lens.
Power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length expressed in metre.
𝟏
Thus, P =
𝐟
The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre (D).
1D = 1m–1.
The power of a lens of focal length of 1 metre is one dioptre. Power of a lens is positive
for a converging or convex lens and negative for a diverging or concave lens.

Lenses in contact
Consider two lenses A and B of focal length f1 and f2 placed in contact with each other.
Let the object be placed at a point O beyond the focus of the first lens A. The first
lens produces a real image at I1. Image I1 serves as a virtual object for the second lens
B, producing the final image at I. Since the lenses are thin, we can assume that the
optic centre of the lenses are coincident at P.

(Note: Formation of image by the first lens is presumed only to facilitate determination
of the position of the final image. Also I is closer to the lens combination than I1 as the
convex lens is a converging lens.)

For lens A:
1 1 1
= v - u -------------- (1)
f
1 1
For lens B:
1 1 1
= v − v -------------- (2)
f
2 1

Adding equations (1) and (2)

1 1 1 1 1 1
+ f = v - u + v −v
f
1 2 1 1

1 1 1 1
Thus f + = - u ------------(3)
1 f2 v
If the two lens system is regarded as a single lens of focal length F
1 1 1
= - --------- (4)
𝐹 v u
Comparing (3) and (4) we get
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + OR P = P1 + P2
𝐅 𝐟𝟏 𝐟𝟐

This can be extended to many thin lenses in contact

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + …….
F f1 f2 f3 f4
OR P = P1 + P2 + P3 ……

Page 34 of 35
A concave and convex lens in contact:
Here I is further away from the combination than I1 as the concave lens is a
diverging lens,
For convex lens:
1 1 1
= v - u -------------- (1)
f
1 1
For concave lens:
1 1 1
= v − v -------------- (2)
f
2 1

Adding (1) and (2)

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = - + − + = - ----(3)
f1 f2 v1 u v v1 f1 f2 v u
If the two lens system is regarded as a single lens of focal length F
1 1 1
= - --------- (4)
𝐹 v u
Comparing (3) and (4) we get
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + ;
𝐅 𝐟𝟏 𝐟𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
But since the second lens is a concave lens f2 is negative: = - ; 𝐏 = 𝐏𝟏 − 𝐏𝟐
𝐅 𝐟𝟏 𝐟𝟐

************************************************************

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