Environmental Challenges 9 (2022) 100627

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Environmental Challenges
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envc

Potential environmental pollution and human health risk assessment due to

leachate contamination of groundwater from anthropogenic impacted site
Omobolaji O. Afolabi a,∗, Elekwachi Wali b, Eze C. Ihunda c, Maureen C. Orji d, Victoria O. Emelu e,
Lilian C. Bosco-Abiahu f, Nnamdi C. Ogbuehi g, Sunny O. Asomaku e, Odinaka A. Wali h
a
Institute of Natural Resources, Environment and Sustainable Development, University of Port Harcourt, Choba, 5323 Port Harcourt, Nigeria
b
Department Of Geography, University Of Nigeria, University Road, 410001 Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria
c
Department of Geology, University of Port Harcourt, Choba, 5323 Port Harcourt, Nigeria
d
Development Studies, University of Passau, 94032 Passau, Germany
e
Centre for Disaster Risk Management and Development Studies, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria
f
Department of Environmental Management, Federal University of Technology Owerri, 1526 Owerri, Nigeria
g
Public Administration, National Open University, Victoria Island, 106104 Lagos, Nigeria
h
Department of Geography and Environmental Management, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Rumuolumeni, 5047 Port Harcourt, Nigeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: One of the consequences of landfill systems is the emission of leachate, which is capable of causing contamina-
Environmental pollution tion of the surrounding environment, including groundwater. Considering three major abandoned landfills in an
Human health risk urban area in Nigeria, the potential environmental pollution due to leachate generated from landfills and hu-
Leachate pollution index
man health risk assessment of nearby groundwater were examined using laboratory standards (APHA 2012). The
Groundwater
result revealed that the landfills’ leachate pollution index (LPI) is 18.84, 19.57, and 19.66, indicating potential
Carcinogenic Metals
pollution of the environment, including groundwater and soil. Conformity of groundwater indicated that Arsenic
(Ar-0.0001), Cadmium (Cd-0.002), Zinc (Zn-0.02), Barium (Ba-0.03), Manganese (Mn-0.05), Copper (Cu-0.02,
0.012), Chromium (Cr-0.006, 0.007), and Cobalt (Co-0.03, 0.015) are within the WHO permissible limit while
Nickel (Ni-0.06) and Lead (Pb-0.05) exceeded the permissible limit. Using the USEPA model for human health risk
assessment, the Total Hazard quotient (THQ) for ingestion and derma exposure indicated that the heavy metals
have ≤1 across the three landfills, indicating that the exposed population experience no significant health risk.
The THQ trended as Cd>Co>Zn>Ba>Mn>Cu>Cr>Ni>As>Pb for children across all the landfills. The estimation
for Total Carcinogenic Risk (TCR) for carcinogenic metals (As, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Pb) from various landfill indicated
no carcinogenic risk (TCR <10−6 ). Although the abandoned landfills showed potential environmental pollution
and contamination of groundwater; however, the health risk assessment of the groundwater revealed no signifi-
cant carcinogenic risk to the population exposed to it. Hence, the need for water treatment and evaluation of the
soil contamination status of landfills.

1. Introduction cause a significant impact on the surrounding surface and groundwa-

ter (Ololade et al., 2019; Naminata et al., 2018; Mishra et al., 2019;
Waste disposal through landfilling remains the most common Jabłonska-Trypuc et al., 2021) and farmland (Vaverková et al., 2020).
method of solid waste management in many developing cities and poses Heavy metals pose the most significant threat among various
a potential threat to various environmental components (Afolabi and leachate compositions due to their non-biodegradable, toxicity, envi-
Eludoyin, 2021; Aja et al., 2021). One of the landfilling system’s ronmental persistence, bioaccumulative, endocrine-disrupting, and car-
consequences is leachate emission (Hussein et al., 2019). Leachate is cinogenic nature (Hazrat et al., 2019). Due to its persistent nature, heavy
aqueous waste discharged from solid waste due to various physical, metals can be amassed in the environment over a period leading to
chemical, and biological interference in landfill systems (Youcai, 2018; possible contamination of the food chain. Accumulation of potentially
Parvin et al., 2021) and contains soluble organic compounds, inor- toxic heavy metals in biota causes a potential health threat to their con-
ganic contaminants, suspended solids, heavy metals, and dangerous sumers, including humans (Hazrat et al., 2019). Conversion techniques
substances (Wdowczyk and Szymanska-Pulikowska, 2021). The im- of leachate analysis are primarily based on chemical testing to ascertain
proper management of landfill/dumpsites and generated leachate can the concentration of heavy metals and organic compounds with carcino-

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (O.O. Afolabi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2022.100627
Received 11 June 2022; Received in revised form 4 September 2022; Accepted 3 October 2022
2667-0100/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
O.O. Afolabi, E. Wali, E.C. Ihunda et al. Environmental Challenges 9 (2022) 100627

genic, estrogenic, and toxic properties (Jabłonska-Trypuc et al., 2021). geopolitical zone of Nigeria. The two LGAs are part of Port Harcourt
These methods allow for a preliminary estimation of the danger and risk city, located between latitudes 4º 45′ N and 4º 55′ N and longitude 6º
leachate poses to the environment and humans (Clarke et al., 2015) 55′ E and 7º 05′ E (Wali et al., 2018). The details of the three landfills
The primary concern about the leachate generated from landfills is (abandoned) involved in the study are presented in Table 1 and Fig. 1.
their pollution capability due to mobilization through the subsoil into
the surface (Parvin et al., 2021; Fadhullah et al., 2019) and infiltra- 2.2. Collection of sample
tion into the groundwater aquifers (Enitan et al., 2018). In recent times,
many water pollution studies have been linked to the impact of leachate The study samples include leachates from three abandoned landfills
on the physical, chemical and biological properties of the water bodies and nine (9) groundwater samples from nearby boreholes around the
coming in contact with the leachate. Enitan et al. (2018) estimated car- landfills. All the samples for the study were collected within November
cinogenic risks (CRing ) exceeded the suggested potential risk limits, with and December 2020 using suitable collection techniques. The influence
lead (Pb) having the highest CRing value for all age groups from surface of external factors such as rainfall was considered in selecting the pe-
water across a nearby landfill system. The values of pH, Electrical Con- riod for sample collection. Future studies in the area are encouraged to
duct (EC), and the concentrations of Organic Nitrogen, Total Dissolve consider other months of the year with high rainfall occurrence.
Solid (TDS), Total Suspended Solid (TSS), chloride, iron, and manganese i. Leachate: The landfills lack a leachate collection system; therefore,
had the most substantial influence on the properties of leachate. At the the leachate gathering at the different spots of the dumpsite base was
same time, leachate toxicity may also be a problem, as it may persist randomly collected and thoroughly mixed to make the whole sample.
after the treatment process is completed (Wdowczyk and Szymanska- This method was adopted at each dumpsite, and the mixed samples were
Pulikowska, 2021). Laniyan and Adewumi (2019) linked the exceeded taken to the laboratory for analysis.
concentration of Arsenic (As), Lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), and Potassium ii. Water Sample: Groundwater in the form of a borehole within <1 km
(K) in groundwater of their study to the reaction of the leachate of sur- of the landfills. Three (3) sampling points were selected from each land-
rounding dumpsites. fill, making a total of nine (9) sampling points across the three (3) land-
Leachate is the primary concern to public health; therefore, a risk fills, while the collection of water samples from various designated wa-
assessment of daily human exposure is essential. It involves charac- ter sources with a labeled lucid bottle. Before the water collection, the
terizing physical settings, identifying potential exposure populations lucid bottles were cleaned with a 70% sterilizer to prevent impurities
and pathways, and estimating the exposure concentrations and chem- and other forms of contamination. The borehole tap was left open to
ical intakes. Studies on possible human health-related risks through run before filling the water collection from each designated point and
the intake of both surface and groundwater have been reported the bottles. After that, the filled bottles were immediately placed in the
(Jabłonska-Trypuc et al., 2021; Khan et al., 2016; Elumalai et al., 2017; ice-parked cooling medium to arrest continuous microbial activities and
Edokpayi et al., 2018; Ahmad et al., 2021). The penetration of leachate preserve the water before being taken to the laboratory for analysis. The
from landfills can lead to contamination of groundwater, surface water, sample collection details were presented in Table (Supplementary Table,
and environmental components, especially for uncontrolled leachate. ST1) and Fig. 2.
Groundwater plays a vital role in the survival of humans and re-
mains the most reliable water source for many households in develop-
ing countries. Groundwater serves the purpose of drinking, irrigation, 2.3. Analysis of leachate and groundwater samples
and many industrial activities but has been considered safe for house-
hold consumption; several studies have shown contamination due to 2.3.1. Laboratory analysis of leachate and groundwater samples
human activities such as uncontrolled leachate from landfill systems The collected samples were analysed for relevant physicochemical
(Majolagbe et al., 2016; Aslam et al., 2018). At the close of the landfills (pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)), cations
system, there is a need to carry out environmental and health risk as- (Magnesium (Mg2+ ), Sodium (Na+ ), and Calcium (Ca2+ )), anions (Chlo-
sessment to ascertain the environment’s safety before being subjected to ride (Clˉ), Nitrate (NO3 ˉ), Phosphate (PO4 3− ), sulphate (SO4 2− ) and
activities such as building for living or industrial purposes. Many land- heavy metals (Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Zinc (Zn), Barium (Ba),
fill systems in Nigeria are converted to housing, farmland, and industrial Manganese (Mn), Copper (Cu), Cobalt (Co), Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni)
activities at the end of their usage; however, few risk assessments exist and Lead (Pb)) based on American Public Health Association standard-
about the environment and human health. Therefore, the study exam- APHA (American Public Health Association – APHA 2012) and Amer-
ines the potential environmental pollution due to leachate generated ican Standard for Testing Materials- ASTM (American Society Testing
from an abandoned landfill system and human health risk assessment of Materials – ASTM 2012) accepted standard procedures. The summary
groundwater around the landfills. of the analytical method used in analysing the sample parameters was
presented in Table 2.
The samples’ pH, EC, and TDS were determined electrometrically
2. Materials and methods with a multi-parameter data logger (multi 340i/set). The concentration
of Mg2+ and Ca2+ in samples was estimated by complexometric titration,
2.1. Study area while Na+ was determined by flame photometer. The values of NO3 ˉ and
PO4 3- were estimated by UV–visible spectrophotometer, the concentra-
The landfills are located within the Ikwere and Obio/Akpor Local tions of Clˉ in the samples were determined by Argentometric titration
Government Area (LGA) of Rivers State, a maritime state in the southern method while and SO4 2− was estimated based turbidimetric method
Table 1
Details of the landfill systems of the study.

Location Study Site Code Geographical Year of Closedown Year Area Cover
Coordinate Establishment

Eneka LI-Eneka N 4° 56′ 6″ 1995 2010 200 m by 120m

E 7° 01′55″
Aluu LII-Aluu N 4° 56′10″ 1997 2012 350 m by 200 m
E 6° 57′54″
Iwofe LIII-Iwofe N 4° 48′23.4″ 2002 2014 200 m by 150m
E 6° 56′35.6″

2
O.O. Afolabi, E. Wali, E.C. Ihunda et al. Environmental Challenges 9 (2022) 100627

Fig. 1. Geographical representation of landfill systems.

Table 2
Analytical method for sample parameters.

Parameters Analytical Method

pH APHA 4500H+ B
EC, TDS APHA 2510A
Mg2+ , Na+ , Ca2+ APHA 3111B
Clˉ, NO3 ˉ, PO4 3− , SO4 2− APHA 4500Cl− B, APHA 4500-NO3 E, APHA 4500-P D, APHA 4500 SO4 2− E
Cd, Zn, Mn, Cu, Co, Cr, Ni, and Pb APHA 3111B
As, Ba APHA 3114 C, ASTM D 3651

based on APHA 4500 SO4 2− E method (Visible Light Method). The con- ical blank measurement (n = 18) while S is the slope of the calibration
centration of heavy metals in the samples was determined by absorp- curve (y = mx + b) (Ahmad et al., 2021).
tion spectrometer (Perkin Elmer 3100 model). All the parameters were
analysed based on standard procedures described by American Public 2.3.2. Toxicity of leachate
Health Association – APHA (2012), American Society Testing Materials i. Leachate Pollution Index (LPI)
– ASTM (2012), and Sokpuwu (2017). The leachate pollution index (LPI) is an index used to quantify the
degree of possible contamination from urban landfills on a scale from
5 to 100 (Kumar and Alappat, 2005; Koumalas et al., 2019). Using LPI,
Quality assurance/control the leachates’ pollution data can be presented uniformly. The LPI esti-
mation process includes the selection of pollutant variables and their
To ascertain the quality of the outcome from various analyses, stan- respective weights, the formulation of their sub-indices curves, and fi-
dard procedures and laboratory quality assurance were strictly followed nally, the aggregation of the selected variables for the final calculation
while samples were analysed in triplicates, and the mean was estimated of the LPI value (Koumalas et al., 2019).
for accuracy and precision. All analysis was subjected to a high-quality The LPI was estimated by the use of the following equation (Eq. (1)):
reagent from Fugro Nigeria Limited, Port Harcourt, and all instruments
𝑚
∑
such as Pyrex glassware and containers for the analysis were properly 𝑤𝑖 𝑝𝑖
washed in deionized water, then soaked overnight with a 10% HNO3 in 𝑖=1
𝐿𝑃 𝐼 = 𝑚
(1)
1% HCl solution, and later washed with deionized water and desiccated. ∑
𝑤𝑖
Detection limits including LOD and LOQ were estimated as LOD = 3 𝜎/S, 𝑖=1
LOQ = 10 𝜎/S respectively where 𝜎 is SD (standard deviation) of analyt-

3
O.O. Afolabi, E. Wali, E.C. Ihunda et al. Environmental Challenges 9 (2022) 100627

Hazard Index (HI): HI is the sum of all expected HQs (non-

carcinogenic risks) through different pathways and is employed to com-
pute the total potential non-carcinogenic risks of various contaminants
(Ahmad et al., 2021, Mohammadi et al., 2019).
𝐴𝐷𝐷 ∑
𝐻𝑄 = ; 𝐻𝐼 = 𝐻 𝑄 = 𝐻 𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝐻 𝑄𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑚 (5)
𝑅𝑓 𝐷
The value of HI ≤1 indicates no significant risk of non-carcinogenic
effects; however, HI >1 implies the probability of non-carcinogenic ef-
fects occurring, and the probability increases with a rising value of HI
(Ahmad et al., 2021).
iii. Carcinogenic Risk (CR) Coefficients
The estimation is that carcinogenic heavy metals determine the
health risk through different exposure pathways. It is calculated based
on the formula below;

𝐶𝑅 = 𝐴𝐷𝐷(𝐼𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙) × 𝐶𝑆𝐹

Fig. 2. Geographical representation of leachate and groundwater collection
point. ∑
𝑇 𝐶𝑅 = 𝐶𝑅 = 𝐶 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝐶 𝑅𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑚 (6)

Where: LPI= the weighted additive leachate pollution index; Where CSF: Cancer Slope Factor. Whereas TCR <10−6 , TCR
wi = the weight for the ith pollutant parameter; >1 × 10−4 , and LCR 1 × 10−6 to 1 × 10−4 indicate no carcinogenic
pi = the sub-index score of the ith leachate pollutant parameter; risk, high risk of developing cancer, and acceptable risk to humans, re-
n = the number of leachate pollutant parameters used in the calcu- spectively.
lation of LPI
3. Result and discussion
2.3.3. Health risk assessment of groundwater
To evaluate the health risk exposure of adults and children to 3.1. Physiochemical and heavy metal concentration in leachate
heavy metals in groundwater, the average daily dose (ADD), the non-
carcinogenic target hazard quotient (THQ), hazard index (HI), and life- 3.1.1. Physiochemical properties of leachate
time carcinogenic risk (LCR) coefficients can be estimated (Ahmad et al., From Table 3, the pH value of the leachates from the dumpsites
2021; Kamunda et al., 2016; Boateng et al., 2019). Human exposure ranges from 5.56 to 7.43, where the leachate from LI-Eneka and LII-Aluu
risk pathways of an individual to heavy metals contamination could be dumpsites have the highest Iwofe dumpsite has the lowest pH value. It
through three main pathways: inhalation via nose and mouth, direct in- indicated the pH of Iwofe dumpsite is slightly acidic while that of LI-
gestion, and dermal absorption through skin exposure (Edokpayi et al., Eneka and LII-Aluu are Alkaline. It is influenced by the non-operational
2018). Common exposure pathways to water are dermal absorption and years of the dumpsite, where LIII-Iwofe has a lower pH (usually below
ingestion routes. i. Average Daily Dose (ADD) 6.6) while older dumpsites reach values above 7.0. The finding was sup-
Exposure doses for determining human health risk through these ported by Nájera-Aguilar et al. (2019) and Singh et al. (2016).
two pathways have been described in the literature (Edokpayi et al., The EC in the leachate of LI-Eneka, LII-Aluu, and LIII-Iwofe was
2018; [USEPA] United States Environmental Protection Agency 1989, 194μS/cm, 889μS/cm, and 15700μS/cm, respectively. It was observed
Asare-Donkor et al., 2016) and can be calculated using Eqs. (2) and that dumpsites that have not been operational for a long time (LI-
3 as adapted from the US EPA risk assessment guidance for superfund Eneka and LII-Aluu) have lower EC than the recently closed dumpsite
(RAGS) methodology (Edokpayi et al., 2018, [USEPA] United States En-
vironmental Protection Agency 1989).
𝐼𝑛𝑔𝑅 × 𝐸𝐹 × 𝐸𝐷
𝐴𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐶𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 × × 10−6 (2) Table 3
𝐵𝑊 ∗ 𝐴𝑇 Physiochemical and heavy metal concentrations in leachate samples from
𝑆𝐴 × 𝐴𝐹 × 𝐴𝐵𝐹 × 𝐸𝐹 × 𝐸𝐷 landfills.
𝐴𝐷𝐷𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝐶𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 × × 10−6 (3)
𝐵𝑊 × 𝐴𝑇 Parameters Units LI-Eneka LII-Aluu LIII-Iwofe
Where; ADDing = Average daily dose through ingestion of water pH 7.43 7.28 5.56
(mg/kg/day); ADDderm = Average daily dose through dermal absorp- (EC) μS/cm 194 889 15,700
tion (mg/kg/day); C water = concentration of the heavy metals in water Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) mg/l 2.14 2.32 2.67
(mg/L); IngR: Ingestion rate; EF: Exposure Frequency; ED: Exposure Du- Chloride (Cl) mg/l 92.4 145 1408
Nitrate (NO3 ) mgNO3 /l 8.45 1.08 0.04
ration; BW: Body Weight; AT: Averaging Time; SA: Exposed Skin Area;
Phosphate (PO4 ) mgPO4 /l 9.93 1.13 0.02
AF: Skin Adherence Factor and ABF: Dermal Absorption Factor. All val- Sulphate (SO4 ) mgSO4 /l 4.80 3.11 764
ues are presented in Supplementary Table, ST2. ii. Target Hazard Quo- Magnesium (Mg) mg/l 6.43 3.75 103
tient (THQ) and Hazard Index (HI) Sodium (Na+) mg/l 54.2 82.4 678
Total hazard quotient: THQ is the ratio of ADD (from two exposure Calcium (Ca) mg/l 0.80 19.1 3464
Arsenic (As) mg/l 0.0001 0.0010 0.0152
pathways for water) and RfD (chronic reference dose for each metal in Cadmium (Cd) mg/l 0.002 0.002 0.002
mg/kg BW/day), which is typically used to estimate the potential non- Zinc (Zn) mg/l 0.09 0.02 0.87
carcinogenic risk of metals exposure to humans in different pathways Barium (Ba) mg/l 0.03 0.03 0.03
(Ahmad et al., 2021). Manganese (Mn) mg/l 0.05 2.19 11.7
Copper (Cu) mg/l 0.02 0.02 0.17
𝐴𝐷𝐷(𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎) Cobalt (Co) mg/l 0.03 0.03 0.03
𝑇 𝐻𝑄 = (4)
𝑅𝑓 𝐷 Chromium (Cr) mg/l 0.006 0.006 0.006
Nickel (Ni) mg/l 0.06 0.06 0.06
Where THQ <1 considers the exposed population experience no sig- Lead (Pb) mg/l 0.008 0.008 0.008
nificant health risk. Table 3, Eqn. (4)-(6)

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O.O. Afolabi, E. Wali, E.C. Ihunda et al. Environmental Challenges 9 (2022) 100627

(LIII-Iwofe). The value of EC of the LIII-Iwofe showed little significant

difference from the operational leachates reported by Wdowczyk and
Szymanska-Pulikowska (2021). EC is linked strongly to TDS- high
EC values correspond to high concentrations of dissolved substances
(Fan et al., 2006, Tatsi and Zouboulis, 2002). The highest TDS value
of 2.67 mg/l was found in the Iwofe dumpsite, where the EC was
also the highest, while Eneka and Aluu dumpsites have TDS values of
2.14 mg/l and 2.32 mg/l, respectively. The outcome showed similarity
with Wdowczyk and Szymanska-Pulikowska (2021) and confirms that
EC and TDS content in leachate decreases with the aging of the landfill
(Tatsi and Zouboulis, 2002).
The Cl value range from 92.4 mg/l for LI-Eneka dumpsite to
1408 mg/l for LIII-Iwofe; the finding showed the correlation in high
Cl and TDS of Iwofe dumpsite as the recently closed dumpsites. The
NO3 value range from 0.04 mgNO3 /l for the LIII-Iwofe dumpsite to 8.45
(mgNO3 /l) for the LI-Eneka dumpsite; the value reported therein is less
than those reported by Wdowczyk and Szymanska-Pulikowska (2021).
The PO4 values range from 0.02 mgPO4 /l for LIII-Iwofe dumpsite to
9.93 mgPO4 /l for LI-Eneka dumpsite, while the SO4 values range from
3.11 mgSO4 /l for LII-Aluu dumpsite to 764 mgSO4 /l for LIII-Iwofe
dumpsite. The higher concentration of SO4 in Iwofe dumpsite indicated
that the distribution of large amounts of organic matter is associated
with high sulfate concentration (Liu et al., 2011). Fig. 3. LPI of sampled landfills.
The cations found in the leachate of the dumpsite include Mg, Na+ ,
and Ca. The value of Mg ranges from 3.75 mg/l for LII-Aluu dump-
site to 103 mg/l for LIII-Iwofe dumpsite. The value of Na+ ranges the concentration can differ by several degree levels. Although, the LPI
from 382.4 mg/l for LII-Aluu dumpsite to 678 mg/l for LIII-Iwofe therein demonstrated uniformity which can be attributed to the quanti-
dumpsite, while the value of Ca ranges from 19.1 mg/l for LII-Aluu tative tool. The analysis showed that the LPI of LI-Eneka dumpsite was
dumpsite to 3464 mg/l for LIII-Iwofe dumpsite. The range values of 19.66, the LPI of LII-Alun dumpsite was 18.84, and the LPI of LIII-Iwofe
Ca reported are higher than the Mg concentration, and this outcome was 19.57. The higher value of LPI (>10) indicated a hazardous na-
showed similarity with that reported in similar studies (Wdowczyk and ture of the dumpsite, indicating potential contamination of surrounding
Szymanska-Pulikowska, 2021, Zhao et al., 2013). The Na+ presence in groundwater (Mishra et al., 2019, Mor et al., 2018).
the leachate could indicate plant and other bio-waste residues at the Arunbabu et al. (2017) indicated that leachate with an LPI value
dumpsite (Christensen et al., 2001). However, the presence does not greater than ten could have phytotoxic impacts on plants. The re-
necessarily impact the microbiological activities at the landfill. ported LPI (LII-Aluu-18.84) showed proximity with that reported for
dumpsite in Brazil for 2004 (LPI=17.68) and 2006 (LPI=17.94) by
3.1.2. Heavy metals concentration in leachate Mahler et al. (2020). The LPI showed similarity with LPI reported for
From Table 3, the Ar concentration in leachate range from landfills (Matuail landfill-19.9) in Bangladesh (Parvin et al., 2021);
0.0001 mg/l from LI-Eneka to 0.015 mg/l at LIII-Iwofe landfill while however, LPI reported (LI-Eneka-19.66; LIII-Iwofe-19.57) therein is
Cd, Ba, Co, Cr, Ni and Pb showed similar concentration of 0.002 mg/l, higher when compared to the Rowfabad landfill, Bangladesh (6.4)
0.03 mg/l, 0.03 mg/l, 0.006 mg/l, 0.06 mg/l and 0.008 mg/l respec- (Parvin et al., 2021), Ramna landfill site, India (15.6) (Mishra et al.,
tively for each the landfills. The Zn concentration in leachate ranges 2019) and semi aerobic Ampang Jajar, Malaysia (16.4) (Aziz et al.,
from 0.02 mg/l from LII-Aluu to 0.87 mg/l at the LIII-Iwofe landfill. 2010). Compared with Nigerian dumpsite, the reported LPI therein
Mn concentration in the leachate range ranges from 2.19 mg/l from is higher than LPIs (5.693, 6.184, and 5.895) of Warri dumpsite
LII-Aluu to 11.7 mg/l from LIII-Iwofe, while the Cu concentration in (American Public Health Association – APHA 2012), LPIs (17.85 and
leachate range from 0.02 mg/l from LII-Aluu to 0.17 mg/l from LIII- 16.87) of Soluos and Ewu Elepe dumpsite in Lagos (Salami et al., 2015);
Iwofe. Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Cu reported therein are lesser concentrations however, the LPI therein was lower in comparison to the LPI (23.54)
than those reported in similar studies (Parvin et al., 2021, Jahan et al., reported for Olusosun dumpsite in Lagos (Salami et al., 2015).
2016, Hossain et al., 2018). The heavy metal concentration of LI-Eneka
dumpsite trended as; Zn>Ni>Mn>Ba>Co>Cu>Pb>Cr>Cd>As, LII-Aluu 3.3. Physiochemical and heavy metal concentration in groundwater
Dumpsite trended as Mn>Ni>Co>Ba>Cu>Zn>Pb>Cr>Cd>As while the
LIII-Iwofe dumpsite trended as Mn>Zn>Cu>Ni>Co>Ba>As>Pb>Cr>Cd. The results of the groundwater physicochemical and heavy metals
The trend concentration indicated different compositions at various concentration from various point sources close to the landfills are pro-
dumpsites, and the finding showed similarity with a related study vided in supplementary tables ST3.
(Ololade et al., 2019).
3.3.1. Physiochemical properties of groundwater
3.2. Toxicity of leachate The mean concentration of the physicochemical and heavy metals
analysis of groundwater samples is presented in Table 5. The pH means
3.2.1. Leachate pollution index (LPI) the value of the groundwater ranges from 4.44-to 4.75, with LIII-Iwofe
Establishing the leachate pollution potential from landfill is signifi- having the lowest pH and LII-Aluu with the highest pH value. This indi-
cant and can be carried out through a quantitative tool developed by cated that the groundwater across the landfills is acidic and below the
Kumar and Alappat (2005) as an index known as LPI. The LPI was WHO permissible limit. According to Edokpayi et al. (2018), this is a
adopted in estimating the leachate contamination potential of three possible corrosion issue and potential heavy metal contamination.
dumpsites understudied, and the outcome was presented in Table 4 EC of the groundwater ranges from 14.7 μS/cm, 25.47 μS/cm, and
and Fig. 3. Mishra et al. (2019) and Arunbabu et al. (2017) noted that 57.93 μS/cm for LII-Aluu, LI-Eneka, and LIII-Iwofe, respectively. The
leachate composition exhibits significant variations across landfills, and EC of the sample is low and within the WHO permissible limit of

5
O.O. Afolabi, E. Wali, E.C. Ihunda et al. Environmental Challenges 9 (2022) 100627

Table 4
Leachate Pollution Index (LPI) in samples.

LI-Eneka LII-Aluu LIII-Iwofe

Parameters Conc. wi pi wi pi Conc. wi pi wi pi Conc. wi pi wi pi

pH 7.43 0.055 6 0.33 7.28 0.055 5.5 0.30 5.56 0.055 6.5 0.36
EC 194 – – – 889 – – 15,700 –
TDS 0.08 0.05 28 1.4 2.32 0.05 24 1.2 2.67 0.05 23 1.15
Cl 2.14 0.048 30 1.44 145 0.048 25 1.2 1408 0.048 30 1.44
NO3 117 0.053 100 5.3 1.08 0.053 100 5.3 0.04 0.053 98 5.19
PO4 92.4 – – – 1.13 – – – 0.02 –
SO4 8.45 – – – 3.11 – – – 764 –
Mg 9.93 – – – 3.75 – – – 103 –
Na+ 4.80 – – – 82.4 – – – 678 –
Ca 6.43 – – – 19.1 – – – 3464 –
As 54.2 0.061 5.5 0.34 0.0010 0.061 10 0.61 0.0152 0.061 10 0.61
Cd 0.80 – – – 0.002 – – – 0.002 –
Zn 7.43 0.056 5 0.28 0.02 0.056 5.5 0.31 0.87 0.056 6.5 0.36
Ba 194 – – – 0.03 – 0.03 –
Mn 0.08 – – – 2.19 – 11.7 –
Cu 2.14 0.05 7 0.35 0.02 0.05 6 0.3 0.17 0.05 7 0.35
Co 117 – – – 0.03 – 0.03 –
Cr 92.4 0.064 6.5 0.42 0.006 0.064 6.5 0.42 0.006 0.064 6.5 0.42
Ni 8.45 0.052 8 0.42 0.06 0.052 5 0.26 0.06 0.052 8 0.42
Pb 9.93 0.063 9 0.57 0.008 0.063 8 0.50 0.008 0.063 8 0.50
Σwi 0.552
Σwipi 10.85 10.4 10.8
LPI 19.66 18.84 19.57

Conc. = Concentration, LPI= Leachate Pollution Index, wi = the weight of pollutant parameter, pi = the sub-index score of pollutant parameter.

Table 5
Mean concentration of physiochemical and heavy metal in groundwater close to landfills.

Parameters Units LI-Eneka LII-Aluu LIII-Iwofe WHO

pH 4.62 4.75 4.44 6.5–9.2

(EC) μS/cm 25.47 14.7 57.93 300
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) mg/l 15.3 8.83 34.77 500
Chloride (Cl) mg/l 1.0 1.0 1.00 250
Nitrate (NO3 ) mgNO3 /l 0.02 0.02 0.02 50
Phosphate (PO4 ) mgPO4 /l 0.02 0.02 0.02
Sulphate (SO4 ) mgSO4 /l 1.55 2.5 4.15 400
Magnesium (Mg) mg/l 0.15 0.15 0.12 150
Sodium (Na+ ) mg/l 0.07 0.07 0.39 200
Calcium (Ca) mg/l 1.02 0.55 0.81 75–200
Arsenic (As) mg/l 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.01
Cadmium (Cd) mg/l 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003
Zinc (Zn) mg/l 0.02 0.02 0.02 3.0
Barium (Ba) mg/l 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.7
Manganese (Mn) mg/l 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Copper (Cu) mg/l 0.02 0.012 0.02 2
Cobalt (Co) mg/l 0.03 0.015 0.03 0.05
Chromium (Cr) mg/l 0.006 0.007 0.006 0.05
Nickel (Ni) mg/l 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.02
Lead (Pb) mg/l 0.008 0.008 0.05 0.01

300 μS/cm ([WHO] World Health Organization 2011). The outcome of Na+ in sampled groundwater was 0.07 mg/l for LI-Eneka and LII-
indicates low mineralization (Naminata et al., 2018), and the extent Aluu and 0.39 mg/l for LIII-Iwofe. The mean concentration of Ca
of EC can be influenced by natural weathering and anthropogenic ac- in sampled groundwater was 1.02 mg/l, 0.55 mg/l, and 0.81 mg/l
tivities. It is directly proportional to the TDS (Hameed et al., 2010). for LI-Eneka, LII-Aluu, and LIII-Iwofe, respectively, and the mean
The TDS concentration of LI-Eneka. LII-Aluu and LIII-Iwofe groundwa- concentration of all the inorganic elements of the sampled ground-
ter are 15.3 mg/l, 8.83 mg/l, and 34.77 mg/l, respectively, within the water was within the permissible limit ([WHO] World Health Or-
WHO permissible limit of 500 mg/l. Similar but higher concentration ganization 2011). They are from natural sources, although anthro-
was reported by Afolabi et al. (2021), while Adebayo et al. (2015) and pogenic activities can also increase their concentration in groundwa-
Ganiyu et al. (2018) noted that a TDS value of less than 1000 mg/l im- ter (Adimalla and Wu, 2019). NO3 is of human origin from activities
plies that the water samples can be classified as freshwater. Considering such as fertilizer application (Hansen et al., 2017, Zhang et al., 2018,
inorganic elements, the concentration of Cl, NO3, and PO4 in ground- He and Wu, 2019).
water across the sampled locations was 1.0 mg/l, 0.02 mgNO3 /l, and
0.02 mgPO4 /l, respectively. The mean concentration of SO4 in sam- 3.3.2. Heavy metals concentration in groundwater
pled groundwater was 1.55 mgSO4 /l, 2.5 mgSO4 /l, and 4.15 mgSO4 /l From Table 5, the concentration of As, Cd, Zn, Ba, and Mn in
for LII-Aluu, LI-Eneka, and LIII-Iwofe, respectively. The mean concen- groundwater across the sampled locations was 0.0001 mg/l, 0.002 mg/l,
tration of Mg in sampled groundwater was 0.15 mg/l for LI-Eneka 0.02 mg/l, 0.03 mg/l and 0.05 mg/l respectively. The mean concen-
and LII-Aluu and 0.12 mg/l for LIII-Iwofe. The mean concentration tration of Cu in sampled groundwater was 0.02 mg/l for LI-Eneka and

6
 O.O. Afolabi, E. Wali, E.C. Ihunda et al.
Table 6
ADD (Ingestion and Derma) from groundwater for adult and children across the landfills.

HM Adult-ADDingestion Adult-ADDDerm Children-ADDingestion Children-ADDDerm

LI LII LIII LI LII LIII LI LII LIII LI LII LIII

As 4.51×10−11 4.51×10−11 4.51×10−11 2.9×10−12 2.9×10−12 2.9×10−12 2.64×10−11 2.64×10−11 2.64×10−11 6.4 × 10−13 6.4 × 10−13 6.4 × 10−13
Cd 9.02×10−10 9.02×10−10 9.02×10−10 1.94×10−12 1.94×10−12 1.94×10−12 5.28×10−10 5.28×10−10 5.28×10−10 4.2 × 10−13 4.2 × 10−13 4.2 × 10−13
Zn 2.64×10−8 2.64×10−8 2.64×10−8 5.6 × 10−11 5.6 × 10−11 5.6 × 10−11 6.16×10−8 6.16×10−8 6.16×10−8 5 × 10−11 5 × 10−11 5 × 10−11
Ba 3.96×10−8 3.96×10−8 3.96×10−8 8.4 × 10−10 8.4 × 10−10 8.4 × 10−10 9.24×10−8 9.24×10−8 9.24×10−8 7.5 × 10−11 7.5 × 10−11 7.5 × 10−11
Mn 6.6 × 10−8 6.6 × 10−8 6.6 × 10−8 1.4 × 10−10 1.4 × 10−10 1.4 × 10−10 1.54×10−7 1.54×10−7 1.54×10−7 1.25×10−10 1.25×10−10 1.25×10−10
Cu 2.64×10−8 1.58×10−8 2.64×10−8 5.6 × 10−11 3.36×10−11 5.6 × 10−11 6.16×10−8 3.70×10−8 6.16×10−8 5 × 10−11 3 × 10−11 5 × 10−11
Co 3.96×10−8 1.98×10−8 3.96×10−8 8.4 × 10−10 4.2 × 10−11 8.4 × 10−10 9.24×10−8 4.62×10−8 9.24×10−8 7.5 × 10−11 3.75×10−11 7.5 × 10−11
Cr 2.71×10−9 3.16×10−9 2.71×10−9 5.82×10−12 6.79×10−12 5.82×10−12 1.58×10−9 1.85×10−9 1.58×10−9 1.26×10−12 1.47×10−12 1.26×10−12
Ni 2.71×10−8 2.71×10−8 2.71×10−8 5.82×10−11 5.82×10−11 5.82×10−11 1.58×10−8 1.58×10−8 1.58×10−8 1.26×10−12 1.26×10−12 1.26×10−12
Pb 3.61×10−8 3.61×10−8 2.26×10−8 7.76×10−12 7.76×10−12 4.85×10−12 2.11×10−9 2.11×10−9 1.32×10−8 1.68×10−12 1.68×10−12 1.05×10−12

LI=LI-Eneka, LII=LII-Aluu, LIII=LIII-Iwofe, HM-Heavy Metals.

7

Table 7
THQ and TCR from groundwater for adult and children across the landfills.

LI-Eneka LII-Aluu LIII-Iwofe

Adult Children Adult Children Adult Children

HM THQ TCR THQ TCR THQ TCR THQ TCR THQ TCR THQ TCR

As 3.54×10−33 7.21×10−11 4.58×10−16 4.06×10−11 3.54×10−33 7.21×10−11 4.58×10−16 4.06×10−11 3.54×10−33 7.21×10−11 4.58×10−16 4.06×10−11
Cd 6.99×10−29 3.55×10−10 8.87×10−6 4.65×10−10 6.99×10−29 3.55×10−10 8.87×10−6 4.65×10−10 6.99×10−29 3.55×10−10 8.87×10−6 4.65×10−10
Zn 8.21×10−16 – 1.71×10−14 – 8.21×10−16 – 1.71×10−14 – 8.21×10−16 – 1.71×10−14 –
Ba 9.69×10−24 – 2.62×10−14 – 9.69×10−24 – 2.62×10−14 – 9.69×10−24 – 2.62×10−14 –

Environmental Challenges 9 (2022) 100627

Mn 3.69×10−14 – 7.64×10−12 – 3.69×10−14 – 7.64×10−12 – 3.69×10−14 – 7.64×10−12 –
Cu 3.08×10−15 – 6.42×10−15 – 1.11×10−15 – 2.31×10−15 – 3.08×10−15 – 6.42×10−15 –
Co 2.92×10−8 – 6.08×10−11 – 7.29×10−8 – 1.52×10−11 – 2.92×10−8 – 6.08×10−11 –
Cr 1.75×10−15 1.59×10−9 2.21×10−16 8.42×10−10 2.15×10−20 1.86×10−9 3.02×10−16 9.85×10−10 1.75×10−15 1.59×10−9 2.21×10−16 8.42×10−10
Ni 1.46×10−15 4.64×10−8 1.84×10−16 2.69×10−8 1.46×10−15 4.64×10−8 1.84×10−16 2.69×10−8 1.46×10−15 4.64×10−8 1.84×10−16 2.69×10−8
Pb 3.82×10−13 3.07×10−9 4.83×10−16 1.79×10−11 3.82×10−13 3.07×10−9 4.83×10−16 1.79×10−11 1.49×10−13 3.84×10−8 1.89×10−14 1.20×10−10

TCR>1: No Significant Health Risk, TCR <10−6 : No Carcinogenic Risk.

O.O. Afolabi, E. Wali, E.C. Ihunda et al. Environmental Challenges 9 (2022) 100627

Fig. 4. Total Carcinogenic Risk (TCR) assess-

ment of groundwater with potential leachate
contamination.

LIII-Iwofe and 0.12 mg/l for LII-Aluu. The mean concentration of Co cardiovascular and kidney diseases, lung fibrosis, and lung and nasal
in sampled groundwater was 0.03 mg/l for LI-Eneka and LIII-Iwofe cancer (Kinuthia et al., 2020).
and 0.15 mg/l for LII-Aluu. The mean concentration of Cr in sampled
groundwater was 0.006 mg/l for LI-Eneka and LIII-Iwofe and 0.007 mg/l 3.4. Human health risk assessment of heavy metals in groundwater
for LII-Aluu. The mean concentration of Ni in sampled groundwater was
0.06 mg/l for all the studied locations. The mean concentration of Pb The human risk of exposure to carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic
in sampled groundwater was 0.008 mg/l for LI-Eneka and LII-Aluu and heavy metals as potential groundwater contamination due to
0.12 mg/l for LIII-Iwofe. Heavy metals such as As, Cd, Zn, Mn, Cu, Cr, leachate from abandoned landfills was evaluated for adults and
and Co are within the permissible limit of WHO standards; however, children based on average daily dose-ADD (ingestion and derma)
Ni and Pb (of LIII-Iwofe) exceeded the permissible limit. This showed in Table 6, hazard quotient-HQ (supplementary tables ST4-5)
similarity with Saheed et al. (2020), Laniyan and Adewumi (2019), and total carcinogenic risk-TCR in Table 7 and Fig. 4. The to-
and Naminata et al. (2018), who all reported Cr, Ni, and Pb contam- tal hazard quotient (THQ) indicated that heavy metals have ≤1
ination of groundwater due to leachate of landfill systems. Cr, Ni, and across the three landfills, implying that the exposed population
Pb are metals with no biological advantage, and their high concentra- experience no significant health risk. The THQ (adult) trended in
tion in groundwater is dangerous to human health and adversely affects descending order of Co>Pb>Mn>Ni>Cr>Cu>Zn>Ba>Cd>As for LI-
children in many ways (Saheed et al., 2020). Pb poisoning in humans Eneka and LIII-Iwofe while LII-Aluu trended as Co>Pb>Mn> Cr>
damages the kidneys, liver, heart, brain, skeleton, and nervous system Ni>Cu>Zn>Ba>Cd>As. The THQ (children) trended in descending
(Flora et al., 2006, Kinuthia et al., 2020). Chronic exposure to low Pb order of Cd>Co>Zn>Ba>Mn>Cu>Cr>Ni>As>Pb for all the locations.
levels can limit the intelligence capacity of children (Kinuthia et al., The estimation for TCR for carcinogenic heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Ni,
2020). In its compounded form, Cr, chromates of Ca, Zn, Sr, and Pb are and Pb) from various landfills indicated no carcinogenic risk (TCR
highly soluble in water, toxic, and carcinogenic (Nwaichi et al., 2016). <10−6 ). According to USEPA, CR and TCR values below 1 × 10−6 are
Human exposure to Ni can result in health impacts such as allergies, considered negligible, and the metals of interest are non-carcinogenic

8
O.O. Afolabi, E. Wali, E.C. Ihunda et al. Environmental Challenges 9 (2022) 100627

risk (Alsafran et al., 2021). This outcome implies that exposure through Aja, D., Okolo, C.C., C, C., Nwite, N.J., Njoku, C., 2021. Environmental risk assessment in
ingestion and derma has no carcinogenic risk to the population exposed selected dumpsites in Abakaliki metropolis, Ebonyi state, southeastern Nigeria. Envi-
ron. Chall. 4, 100143. doi:10.1016/j.envc.2021.100143.
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