CMT Reviewer Draft

Construction Materials and Testing
Reviewer
Introduction to Construction distillation. It is used for road
Materials and Testing surfacing and roofing.
5. Concrete is a composite material
What are construction materials? made of fine and coarse aggregate
It is defined as the materials, (think gravel, crushed stone,
supplies, fixtures, or equipment, any recycled concrete, and
combination of such items, and any geosynthetic aggregates) bound
other leased or purchased articles together by a liquid binder such as
when the materials, supplies, fixtures, cement that hardens or cures over
equipment or articles are to be utilized time.
or consumed during construction or 6. Asphalt is a mixture of aggregates,
are to be incorporated into binder and filler, used for
construction work pursuant to a constructing and maintaining roads,
bonafide written construction contract. parking areas, railway tracks, ports,
airport runways, bicycle lanes,
Types of Common Construction sidewalks and also play- and sport
Materials areas.
1. Steel is a metal alloy of iron and 7. Masonry construction uses
carbon and often other alloying individual units (such as bricks) to
material in its composition to make build structures that are usually
it stronger and more fracture- bound together by some kind of
resistant than iron. mortar. The strongest and most
2. Aggregates - Construction commonly used masonry unit now
aggregate is a broad category of is a concrete block, which may be
particulate material used in reinforced with steel.
construction, including sand,
What is materials testing?
gravel, crushed stone, slag,
recycled concrete and geosynthetic Materials testing is a respected
aggregates. Aggregates are the and established technique which is
most mined materials in the world. used to ascertain both the physical
They are divided into two and mechanical properties of raw
categories—fine aggregates and materials and components. It can be
coarse aggregates. used to examine almost anything from
3. Cement, in general, adhesive human hair to steel, ceramics or
substances of all kinds, but, in a composite materials.
narrower sense, the binding
Five major categories of materials
materials used in building and civil
testing
engineering construction. Cements
of this kind are finely ground Mechanical Testing
powders that, when mixed with
water, set to a hard mass. Also known as destructive
4. Bitumen- A black viscous mixture testing, reveals the properties of a
of hydrocarbons obtained naturally material under dynamic or static force.
or as a residue from petroleum
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Designed to ensure that materials are e. Aggregate Crushing Value
suitable for their intended applications.
Testing for Thermal Properties
Bitumen
Testing for thermal properties is
a. Determining bitumen content
used to measure materials’ ability to
b. Determining flash and fire point
transfer heat since it differs with each
of bitumen
substance and may depend on
c. Determining penetration of
structure, density, humidity, pressure
bitumen
and temperature.
d. Determining softening point of
Testing for Electrical Properties bitumen
e. Determining specific gravity of
Materials are subjected to
bitumen
electrical stresses under a variety of
f. Determining ductility of bitumen
controlled conditions, including liquid
g. Determining marshal stability of
contaminants, dust and fog, dry air
bitumen
electrical arc, or high voltage dielectric
breakdown conditions. Cement
Testing for resistance to corrosion, a. Fineness Test
radiation and biological b. Soundness Test
deterioration c. Consistency Test
d. Setting Time Test
Testing for breakdown or
deterioration of materials under Fresh Concrete
exposure to a particular type of
a. Slump Test
environment has greatly increased in
b. Compacting Factor Test
recent years.
c. VeBe Test
Non-destructive testing d. K-Slump Test
A testing and analysis technique Hardened Concrete
to evaluate the properties of a
a. Compression Strength Test
material, component, structure or
b. Flexural Strength Test
system for characteristic differences or
c. Rebound Hammer Test
welding defects and discontinuities
d. Ultrasonic Pulse velocity Test
without causing damage to the original
part. Steel Reinforcement
Tests carried out on different a. Tensile Strength Test
construction materials b. Bend Test
c. Re-bend Test
Aggregates
d. Shear Test
a. Sieve Analysis e. Brinell Hardness Test
b. Water Absorption f. Impact Test
c. Aggregate Impact Value g. Torsion Test
d. Aggregate Abrasion Value
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Why is CMT important? moment that the water is added to the
cement, to the time that the paste
Because it is critical for the
starts losing its plasticity.
viability and safety of a construction
project. CMT can reveal any number of Final Setting Time of Cement: It
issues related to construction quality. It is the time elapsed between the
can highlight future risks, help classify moment the water is added to the
a building site, and assist with cement and the time when cement
engineering decisions. Without CMT, paste loses its plasticity completely
engineers and builders may not know and has attained sufficient firmness to
if the quality of the construction meets resist certain definite pressure.
the requirements.
Standard Consistency Test
FAMILIARIZATION WITH THE
The standard consistency of
APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENT
cement paste is defined as the
USED IN TESTING OF MATERIALS
percentage of water added In 300gm
CEMENT/MORTAR weight of cement which will permit a
Vicat plunger having 50 mm length and
Cement Testing | Various Tests for
10 mm diameter to penetrate in
Cement | Equipment Used in
cement paste to a depth of 33-35 mm
Cement Testing
from the top of the mold.
Cement Tests
Soundness Test
- are performed to know the
The soundness of cement
strength, characteristics and
indicates the stability of any cement
properties of cement. Various
during the volume change in the
Test on cement is done
process of setting and hardening. In
nowadays to check the quality
case the volume change in cement is
of cement.
unstable after setting and hardening,
Various Tests for Cement/Mortar the concrete element will crack, which
can affect the quality of the structure or
Here are some of the various tests even cause serious accidents, known
conducted in cement. as poor dimensional stability.
Fineness Test Specific Gravity Test
The fineness of cement is a The specific gravity of cement is
measure of cement particle size and is defined as the mass of cement of
denoted as terms of the specific specified volume to the mass of water
surface area of cement. The Test is of the same volume of cement. It can
done by sieving cement samples also be defined as the density of
through a standard IS sieve. cement to the density of water for the
Initial and Final Setting Test same volume.
Initial Setting Time of Cement: It Equipment Used in Cement Testing

is the time elapsed between the
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Here are some of the apparatus and which measure 165 mm from the
equipment used in cement. points of the centre line of the cylinder
and O ring. Two or three moulds are
required for each test. To perform the
Vicat Needle Apparatus test, a water bath is also required.
Vicat apparatus is a penetration Le Chatelier Flask

device used in testing of hydraulic
Used to determine the specific
cements and similar materials to
gravity of hydraulic cement and lime.
determine their normal or standard
Glass flask 250 ml capacity, with
consistency. It is also used to
graduated neck from 0 to 1 ml and
determine the initial setting time and
from 18 to 24 ml in 0.1 ml graduation
final setting time of hydraulic cements
with accuracy of 0.05 ml.
and similar materials.
Weight approx.: 500 g
Flow Cone Apparatus
Le Chatelier Water Bath
It is used for viscosity and
fluidity determination of mortars, muds, Le Chatelier Water Bath, used
grouts, fluid materials and etc. for the determination of setting time
and expansion of cement samples.
Flame Photometer
Constructed with stainless steel
It is used to determine the alkali
inside chamber and exterior case in
content of cement.
painted steel sheet, it can hold up to
Automatic Mortar Mixer 12 Le Chatelier moulds (to be ordered
separately) in the removable rack,
It is expressively designed for supplied with the bath. The bath
the efficient mixing of cement pastes reaches the boiling point in approx. 30
and mortar, with two automatic minutes.
sequences of mixing cycle.
Cement Mortar Permeability
Bulk Density of Cement Set Apparatus
This apparatus is used for the Permeability apparatus is used
measurement of the apparent density to determine permeability to water of
(bulk density) of powder and non- cement mortar specimens with or
cohesive materials. It consists of sieve without water proofing compound.
funnel with tripod, unit weight measure
1 liter capacity with hopper, spatula, It comprises three brass/ gun
straight edge, large spoon. metal cells mounted on a stand and a
pressure chamber with a pressure
Le Chatelier Mold regulator. The cell can accommodate
Used for determining the 100mm dia x 50mm high specimen.
expansion of cement. The mould Each cell assembly consists of one
consists of a spring tensioned split base plate. The base plate has one
cylinder 30 mm internal diameter, 30 outlet for water and is recessed to hold
mm high with two indicator stems the specimen in place with a ring
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washer in between. The top plate has The test is also used to determine
an inlet for water and a suitable consistency between individual
connector for the application of batches.
pressurized water in the cell. The
Compressive Strength Test
mould and collar are clamped between
the base plate and the top plate with Out of many tests applied to the
the help of four tension rods and nuts. concrete, this is of an utmost
The cells are mounted on a stand. importance which gives an idea about
all the characteristics of concrete. By
CONCRETE
this single test one judge that whether
Concrete Testing | Various Tests for concreting has been done properly or
Concrete | Equipment Used in not.
Concrete Testing
Curing Test
Concrete Testing
Curing plays an important role
A concrete test is performed to on strength development and durability
learn more about the properties of a of concrete. Curing takes place
specific sample of concrete. A number immediately after concrete placing and
of different tests can be performed on finishing, and involves maintenance of
concrete both, on a job site and in a desired moisture and temperature
laboratory. conditions, both at depth and near the
surface, for extended periods of time.
Various Tests for Concrete
Properly cured concrete has an
Air Content Test adequate amount of moisture for
continued hydration and development
Air Content Test measures the of strength, volume stability, resistance
total air content in a sample of fresh to freezing and thawing, and abrasion
concrete, but does not indicate what and scaling resistance.
the final in-place air content will be,
because a certain amount of air is lost Flow Table Test
in transportation, consolidating,
The flow table test or flow test is
placement and finishing.
a method to determine consistency of
Concrete Slump Test fresh concrete. Flow table test is also
used to identify transportable moisture
The test measures consistency limit of solid bulk cargoes.
of concrete in that specific batch. It is
performed to check consistency of If consistency is not at the
freshly made concrete. Consistency desired level, concrete will not have
refers to the ease with which concrete the required strength and other
flows. It is used to indicate degree of qualities once it has set. If concrete is
wetness. Consistency affects too pasty, cavities may form within
workability of concrete. That is, wetter it. Rebar may become corroded, and
mixes are more workable than drier concrete will crack. Cavities also
mixes, but concrete of the same reduce the concrete strength.
consistency may vary in workability.
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Equipment Used in Concrete It is a round-nosed trowel used
Testing for mixing mortar and applying small
amounts in confined areas; it is also
Here are some of the apparatus and
used to replace crumbled mortar and
equipment used in concrete.
to patch concrete.
Compression Testing Machine
This Compression Testing
VeBe Consistometer
Machine is a hydraulic, electrically
operated unit, designed for conducting It is used for workability as well
compression tests on concrete as consistency for fresh concrete. A
specimens up to 20 cm. Diameter (or slump cone and a graduated rod
width and depth) and 30 cm, in height supplied with the instrument helps the
and also rocks and various other operator to find out slump values and
materials. Vibration Table with container and
acrylic disc is used to find out
Flow Table
workability of concrete expressed in
This equipment is used to Vee Bee degrees.
determine the flow of concrete. The
Vee Bee Degrees is defined as
apparatus consists of a flow table,
the time in seconds to complete
stainless steel flow mould, tamping
required vibrating at which the fresh
bar.
concrete flows out sufficiently to come
The steel cone, part of the in contract of the entire face of acrylic
apparatus, has a top dia. of 130 mm a disc.
base dia. of 200 mm and is 200 mm
Slump Test Apparatus
high. All metal parts are protected
against corrosion. It is used for the determination
of the consistency of freshly mixed
Flexural Testing Machine
concrete, where the maximum size of
Flexural Testing Machines has a the aggregate does not exceed 38mm.
range of 100 kN and 200 kN capacity
It consists of one slump cone
flexure testing machines have been
with handles and foot pieces. The
designed to meet the need for reliable
slump cone has internal dimensions
and consistent testing of flexural test
20cm. dia at base 10cm. top dia. and
on standard concrete beams,
30cm height. Foot pieces can be fixed
transverse test on kerbs and
to the clamps on the base plate. The
flagstones, indirect tensile tests on
base plate has lifting handle for easy
concrete and interlocking pavers.
transportation. One graduated steel
Mortar Mixer rod 16mm dia x 600mm long, rounded
at one end and graduated in mms.
It is used for mixing cement
pastes, mortars and pozzolona. Compaction Factor Apparatus
Gauging Trowel Designed to undertake a more

precise and sensitive test procedure
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than the simple slump test. The having a nominal maximum aggregate
apparatus consists of two conical size exceeding 40 mm.
hoppers mounted on a cylinder. Each
It allows accurate determination
hopper has a hinged flange with quick
of compression and flexural strength of
release mechanism and everything is
concrete and it provides superior
mounted on a rigid steel stand.
alignment accuracy.
The compacting factor is the ratio
between the weight of the partially
compacted concrete and the weight of
the fully compacted concrete. Cylindrical Mold
Dimensions: 500x400x1510 Hard plastic and steel cylinder

mm moulds are manufactured in
Weight: 55 kg accordance with dimensions and
tolerances stated in the related
Kelley Ball Penetration Apparatus standards. Two part and clamp
attached base plate cast iron, plastic
A test for the consistency of
and steel moulds are designed to be
concrete using the penetration of a half
durable, corrosion resistant and easy
sphere; a 1-inch (2.5-centimeter)
to clean.
penetration by the Kelly ball
corresponds to about 2 inches (5 Beam Mold
centimeters) of slump. Determines
depth of penetration of metal weight For casting concrete specimens
into plastic concrete. Apparatus for flexure tests.
consists of 30 lb. (14kg) cylinder with Specification: Made of cast iron.
hemispherically shaped bottom and The moulds are made of 4 plates
handle. The stirrup (frame) guides the assembled together. Each mould is
handle and acts as a reference for supplied complete with base plate.
measuring depth of penetration. Faces are machined flat to +/-0.2mm
Handle is graduated in 1/4" (6.4mm) and finished in size to 0.2mm
increments on one side and half-
centimeter increments on the other Curing Tank
side. Concrete may be tested as Specimens must be cured at a
placed in the forms prior to any stable temperature under water to
manipulation or in a suitable container. ensure consistent test results.
20lb version can be used with
lightweight concrete. Vibrating Table
Cube Mold Vibrating tables have been used

for the following applications:
The standard size of cube is
150 mm. Cubes of 100 mm size are – powder compaction in boxes
not suitable for concrete having a – removing air from concrete
nominal maximum aggregate size molds
exceeding 20 mm. Cubes of 150 mm – settle and compact products in
size are not suitable for concrete bulk bags and bulk boxes
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– to settle and compact 30 to 55 Aggregate Testing | Various Tests
gallon drums of powdered for Aggregates | Equipment Used in
chemicals Aggregate Testing
– vibrating ash shakeout system
Aggregate Testing
– to settle and compact metal
powders in molds Aggregate Testing is used to
– light duty applications for labs determine the material characteristics
and factories and properties of aggregate materials
– to settle and density activated for use in pavement construction. Test
carbon inside filter cartridges results are an important part of mix
and canisters design and can help predict pavement
– remove bubbles in sealed quality.
containers filled with water
Various Tests for Aggregates
Air Entrainment Meter
Here are the other tests for
An air entrainment meter is aggregates.
used to measure the amount of air that
Silt Content Test for Sand
is trapped within the mix. The water
column type consists essentially of a The permissible silt content in
stainless steel flanged cylindrical sand (fine aggregate) must not exceed
vessel with cover assembly, the values as specified in the
incorporating the measuring cylinder, standards. However, this method can
pressure gauge and valves. Supplied only be used for natural sand, it should
complete with hand pump and not be used for crushed rock sand.
calibration cylinder apparatus which is
essential for adjustment to site If silt content by weight exceeds
barometric pressure. 3% then washing of sand is necessary.
The cylindrical vessel of all models can After conducting few tests, a co-
also be used as unit weight measure relation can be developed for silt layer
for fresh concrete for density thicknesses at various intervals of
determination. time. The silt content at 10 minutes
can be fixed as inspection criteria.
Three-Meter Straight Edge
Bulking of Sand
It is a metal device normally 3.0
meters long and of straight section. It When sand is damp, the water
measures surface irregularity of coating on the surface of each sand
completed concrete and asphalt particle causes separation of particles
pavements. These are widely used for from one another due to surface
checking straightness and marking tension. This causes sand to bulk.
purposes. Bulked sand occupies more volume
and hence if volumetric measuring is
AGGREGATES done while proportioning it, bulking
correction is necessary.
Sieve Analysis
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Sieve analysis is done to check Flakiness Gauge
the gradation of aggregate. The test is
For determining flakiness index.
done as follow.
Particle is flaky when its thickness
Take required amount of (smallest dimension) is less than 0.6 of
aggregate sample the mid-size of the sieve fraction.
Gauge has seven labeled slots for
Arrange the required no of
rapid hand trying of particles from each
sieves as per the contract or job
of the seven sieve cuts. The mass of
requirement in an descending manner.
all flaky particles (passing appropriate
Shake vigorously the sieve set for at
slots) as percent of the sample is the
least 2 minute.
flakiness index.
Then measure the weight of
Void Content Apparatus (Fine
aggregate on each sieve and express
Aggregates)
it as the percentage of passing.
Used to determine the
Fineness Modulus
uncompacted void content of a fine
Fineness modulus is generally aggregate sample. Indicates the
used to get an idea of how coarse or angularity, sphericality, and workability
fine the aggregate is. More fineness of fine aggregate in a mixture. Includes
modulus value indicates that the 100 ml brass cylindrical measure,
aggregate is coarser and small value funnel assembly, funnel stand, and
of fineness modulus indicates that the glass plate for calibration.
aggregate is finer.
Void Content Apparatus (Coarse
Sieve the aggregate using the Aggregates)
appropriate sieves (80 mm, 40 mm, 20
Used to determine the void
mm, 10 mm, 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18
content of uncompacted coarse
mm, 600 micron, 300 micron & 150
aggregates. In operation, the
micron)
aggregate is allowed to free-fall
Equipment Used in Aggregate 115mm from the funnel bottom into a
Testing 154mm diameter by 160mm high
cylindrical measure. The excess
Here are some of the apparatus and heaped aggregate is struck of using
equipment used in aggregates. the included bar, the mass is
Laboratory Oven measured, and the void content is
computed. The apparatus consists of a
It is designed for drying, baking, stainless steel hopper, stand, measure
conditioning and moisture and strike-off bar and a 170mm square
determination. glass plate for calibration of the
Muffle Furnace measure.
Aside from the laboratory oven, Sieves

this one is designed for higher A sieve, or sifter, is a device for
temperature heating. separating wanted elements from
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unwanted material or for characterizing trigger mechanism to ensure an
the particle size distribution of a effective free fall of the hammer during
sample, typically using a woven screen test. The free fall can be adjusted
such as a mesh or net or metal. through 380±5mm. The hammer is
provided with a locking arrangement.
Sieve Shaker
Aggregate impact value test apparatus
Sieve Shakers save time and is supplied complete with a cylindrical
effort and improve accuracy for particle measure of 75mm dia x 50mm depth,
sizing operations. Shakers agitate a an automatic blow counter and a
stacked series of test sieves to tamping rod.
efficiently separate materials of all
different types.
Aggregate Crushing Value Test
Riffle Sample Divider
Apparatus
It allows dividing samples into
Aggregate crushing value test
two representative subsamples with a
apparatus is used for measuring
good accuracy. It is precisely designed
resistance of an aggregate to crushing.
to reduce the bulk of material to a
This is made of Mild Steel comprising
convenient representative size for
of:
laboratory analysis. When used
properly, it provides an accuracy that is WOOD
recognized through out the industry
Wood Testing | Equipment Used in
Proportional Caliper Device Wood Testing
Use to determine the Moisture Meter
percentage of flat particles, elongated
This is used to measure the
particles, or both flat & elongated
percentage of water in a given
particles in coarse aggregates. Steel
substance. The information can be
construction for strength & durability,
used to determine if the material is
plated for corrosion resistance. 6" x
ready for use, unexpectedly wet or dry,
16" (152.4 x 406.4mm) base plate with
or otherwise in need of further
four rubber feet for stability, and for
inspection. Wood and paper products
convenience in tabletop testing. Ratio
are very sensitive to their moisture
desired is obtained by selecting one of
content.
four adjustable positions: 2 = l:2; 3 =
1:3; 4 = 1:4; or 5 = 1:5. Universal Wood Tester
Aggregate Impact Value Test It is a screw type motor driven
Apparatus and its suitable for determination of
shear strength, hardness (Janka Ball
It is used for determining the
Test), Clavage, Static bend Plywood
aggregate impact value. The Sturdy
GripsNail/Screw withdrawal test,
Construction consists of a base and
compression (parallel-to-grain) and
support columns to form a rigid
many other tests on wood plywood
framework around the quick release
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Other Equipment Used in Hydrometer
An instrument used to measure
Beaker the specific gravity (or relative density)
of liquids. It is usually made of glass
A beaker is a simple container
and consists of a cylindrical stem and
for stirring, mixing and heating liquids
a bulb weighted with mercury or lead.
commonly used in many laboratories.
Beakers are generally cylindrical in Concrete Mixer
shape, with a flat bottom. Most also
A device that homogenously
have a small spout (or "beak") to aid
combines cement, aggregate such as
pouring as shown in the picture.
sand or gravel, and water to form
Beakers are available in a wide range
concrete.
of sizes, from one millilitre up to
several litres. Bucket
Graduated Cylinder It delivers concrete by means of
a tower crane. It has a bottom opening
It is a measuring instrument for
to allow concrete to flow out when in-
measuring fluid volume; a glass
place.
container whose sides are marked or
divided into amounts. Scoop
Thermometer A deep bowl for taking
something from a container.
The design essentially consists
of a lens to focus the infrared thermal Hammer
radiation on to a detector, which
converts the radiant power to an A deep bowl for taking
electrical signal that can be displayed something from a container.
in units of temperature after being A tool used to pound on
compensated for ambient temperature. something.
This permits temperature
measurement from a distance without Trowel
contact with the object to be Used to spread building
measured. A non-contact infrared materials such as plaster or cement.
thermometer is useful for measuring
temperature under circumstances A kind of vehicle that is build to
where thermocouples or other probe- be pushed around with a load inside
type sensors cannot be used or do not out.
produce accurate data for a variety of Equipment and Apparatus Used in
reasons. the University
Mechanical Balance Here are some of the photos of the
It is a measuring instrument apparatus and equipment used in our
used where the most accurate Soil Laboratory.
weighing are required.  Graduated Cylinder
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 Mortar & Pestle | Evaporating 2. Porosity
Dish - Porosity gives the volume of the
 Trowel material occupied by pores.
 Oven - It is the ratio of volume of pores
to the volume of material.
Lesson 1- General Properties - Porosity influences many
of Materials properties like thermal
conductivity, strength, bulk
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES density, durability etc.
The characteristics of the building
materials that can be observed and 3. Durability
measured without changing its - The property of a material to
chemical properties. withstand the combined action
of atmospheric and other
Properties of materials that are factors is known as durability of
checked and tested based on the material.
quality and condition of the materials - Durable materials retain their
without external force. original form, quality and
1. Bulk density serviceability when exposed to
2. Porosity the environment.
3. Durability
4. Density 4. Density
5. Density index - Density is the ratio of mass of
6. Specific gravity the material to its volume in a
7. Fire resistance homogeneous state.
8. Frost resistance - Almost all the physical
9. Weathering resistance properties of materials are
10. Spalling resistance influenced by its density values.
11. Water absorption - Density values of some building
12. Water permeability materials are given below.
13. Hygroscopicity
14. Coefficient softening
15. Refractoriness
1. Bulk Density
- Bulk density is the ratio of mass
to the volume of the material in 5. Density index
its natural state that includes - Ratio of bulk density of material
voids and pores. to its density is termed as
- It is expressed in kg/m3. density index. Hence it gives
- The bulk density of a material the volume of solid matter in the
governs its properties such as material.
strength, heat conductivity, - In nature, fully dense material is
permeability, etc. not available, so the density
- Bulk density values of some of index is always less than 1 for
the engineering materials are any building material.
given below. 6. Specific gravity
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Specific gravity=Density of the - It is mathematically defined as
objectDensity of water the ratio of weight of water
absorbed by the material to its
- Specific gravity of some total volume, including volume
materials is listed below. of pores, expressed as a
7. percentage.
F
12. Water permeability
- The ability of a material to
permit water through it is called
ire resistance water permeability.
- The ability to withstand fire - Dense materials like glass
without changing its shape and metals etc. are called
other properties. impervious materials which
- It is the ability of a material to cannot allow water through it.
resist the action of fire without
significant deformation and 13. Hygroscopicity
strength loss. - Hygroscopicity is the property
of a material to absorb water
8. Frost resistance vapor from the air.
- The ability of a material to resist - The hygroscopicity of a
freezing or thawing is called material depends on factors
frost resistance. such as its porosity, size of
- It depends upon the density and pores, surrounding conditions
bulk density of material. including relative humidity, air
temperature, etc.
9. Weathering resistance
- The property of a material to 14. Coefficient of softening
withstand all atmospheric - Coefficient of softening of a
actions without losing its material is the ratio of
strength and shape. compressive strength of a
saturated material to its
10. Spalling resistance compressive strength in dry
- The ability of a material to state.
undergo a certain number of - It affects the strength of water
cycles of sharp temperature absorbent materials like soil.
variations without failing is
known as spalling resistance. 15. Refractoriness
- It is dependent on the - This refers to the property of a
coefficient of linear expansion. material which cannot melt or
lose its shape at prolonged high
11. Water absorption temperatures (1580 degree
- The capacity of a material to Celsius or more).
absorb and retain water in it is
known as water absorption. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
- It depends on the size, shape
The mechanical properties of materials
and number of pores of
define the behavior of materials under
material.
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the action of external forces called
material and the strain are
loads.
remains elastic directly
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES proportional
 STRENGTH HARDNESS
 ELASTICITY
 TOUGHNESS Property of a material to resist
 PLASTICITY penetration by another material is
 DUCTILITY known as hardness. It embraces many
 HARDNESS different properties such as resistance
 BRITTLENESS to wear, scratching, deformation etc.
 CREEP
 MALLEABILITY Hardness measurement methods
 FATIGUE 1. Moh‘s scale
 IMPACT STRENGTH 2. Vicker‘s hardness
 ABRASION RESISTANCE 3. Rockwell hardness
4. Knoop test
STRENGTH
5. Brinell hardness
Strength of the materials refers
to the ability of a material to resist the
externally applied forces (tensile,
compressive and shear forces) without
breaking or yielding.
TOUGHNESS
ELASTICITY It is the ability of a material to

withstand bending without fracture due
It is the property of materials to to high impact loads.
regain its original shape after
deformation when the external forces It is also measured by the
are removed. amount of energy that a unit volume of
the material has absorbed after being
2 SUB PROPERTY stressed up to failure point and is the
area under stress strain curve.
Elastic limit Proportional limit
CREEP
It is defined as It is defined as When a part is subjected to a
the point up to the point up to constant stress at high temperature for
which the which the stress a long period of time, it will undergo a
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slow and permanent deformation is It is the ability of a metal to resist
called creep. suddenly applied loads.
PLASTICITY ABRASION RESISTANCE
It is the ability of material to It is the ability of a surface to

undergo some degree of permanent resist being worn away by rubbing or
deformation without rupture or failure. friction.
DUCTILITY FACTORS including materials
and surface finishing, aggregate
It is the property of a material which hardness, mix proportions,
enables it to draw out into thin wire aggregate/paste bond, and placing
with the application of a tensile force. and compaction.
BRITTLENESS THERMAL PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS
Breaking of a material with little
permanent distortion simply states the Thermal properties are those of a
property of brittleness. substance that are related to its heat
conductivity. In other words, these are
It is also a tendency of a
the qualities that a material exhibits
material to fracture when subjected to
when heat is applied to it.
shock loading or a blow.
MALLEABILITY HEAT CAPACITY
It is the ability of materials to be The heat capacity is an

rolled, flattened or hammered into thin extensive property that describes how
sheets without cracking by hot or cold much heat energy it takes to raise
working. the temperature of a given system.
• Forging The amount of heat required

• Rolling processes necessary to increase the
temperature by 1 degree, (1K or
Examples of Malleable Materials: 1°C).
Aluminum, Copper, Tin, Lead
Two ways to measure heat capacity:
FATIGUE
 Cp : Heat capacity at constant
It is a failure of materials under pressure.
cyclic loads.
 Cv : Heat capacity at constant
3 stages of fatigue processes volume.
i) Initial fatigue damage
ii) Progressive cyclic growth of a crack
iii) Final stage

IMPACT STRENGTH
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THERMAL EXPANSION
 Most solids expand when

heated.
 Thermal expansion is a direct
result of an; THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
1. increase in the separation Basic Mechanism of Heat Transfer
distance of adjacent atoms. by Conduction:
2. greater thermal vibrations of
atoms  Heat is conducted by the
transfer of the energy of motion
between adjacent molecules.
Two mechanism:
1. Conduction of free electron

2. Atomic vibrations (phonons)
- Metal alloys have lower thermal

Thermal expansion is of three conductivities than pure metals.
types:
- Thermal conductivity of ceramics and
● Linear expansion polymers can be reduced by the
presence of porosity.
● Area expansion
● Volume expansion
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1. Chemical Composition
 The chemical composition of
engineering material indicates
the elements which are
combined together to form that
material. Chemical composition
of a material affects the
properties of engineering
materials very much. The
strength, hardness, ductility,
brittleness, corrosion
resistance, weldability etc.
MELTING POINT depends on chemical
composition of materials.
The melting point of a
substance is the temperature at which Example of Chemical Composition
it changes its state from solid to liquid.
A substance’s melting point depends Material Chemical Composition
on the pressure and is usually
specified at the standard pressure in Steel Fe, Cr, Ni
reference materials.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 2. Atomic Bonding
A chemical property is any of a  Atomic bonding represents how

material's properties that becomes atoms are bonded to each other
evident during a chemical reaction to form the material. Many
which is any quality that can be properties, such as melting
established only by changing a point, boiling point, thermal
substance's chemical identity. conductivity and electrical
conductivity of materials are
Chemical Properties: governed by atomic bonding of
1. Chemical Composition materials.
2. Atomic Bonding 3. Acidity or Alkalinity
3. Acidity or Alkalinity  Acidity or Alkalinity is an

important chemical property of
4. Toxicity engineering materials. A
material is acetic or Alkane, it is
5. Chemical Resistance decided by the ph value of the
6. Reactivity material.
7. Combustibility 4. Toxicity
8. Corrosion Resistance  A toxic material is defined as a

material that releases a
9. Oxidation chemical in sufficient quantities
10. Solubility to kill cells either directly or
indirectly through inhibition of
11. Permeability key metabolic pathways. The
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number of cells that are affected important property to consider
is an indication of the dose and when a substance is used for
potency of the chemical. construction or is being stored.
Asbestos 8. Corrosion Resistance
 Asbestos was a popular  Formation of rust (iron oxide) in
engineering material owing to metals, when they are
its heat resistance and strength. subjected to the atmosphere is
Most of its applications were in called corrosion. So, the metals
the 19th century. While should be corrosive resistant.
companies knew the dangers of To increase the corrosion
this material since the 1930s, it resistance proper measures
was not until the truth came out should be considered.
in 1970 that this material was Otherwise, it will damage the
banned. whole structure.
 Asbestos was mostly found in 9. Oxidation
the building industry, where it
was used for the construction of  It is a chemical reaction of the
shingles, cement products and metal surface with the oxygen
floor tiles. present in the air that causes
some of the metal to corrode (or
5. Chemical Resistance oxidize) and form the respective
metal oxide on the surface.
 Chemical resistance means that
materials can fulfill their 10. Solubility
function, even in harsh working
environments. Chemical-  It is the ability of a solid, liquid,
resistant materials don't require or gaseous chemical substance
surface treatment; they are able (referred to as the solute) to
to withstand exposure to dissolve in solvent (usually a
chemicals such as bases, liquid) and form a solution. The
solvents, and acids. solubility of a substance
fundamentally depends on the
6. Reactivity solvent used, as well as
temperature and pressure.
 Reactivity of a substance is a
chemical property as opposed 2 Parts of Solution
to a physical property. The
reason it qualifies as a chemical  Solvent
property is because it relies on  The part of solution that
its electron configuration to is being dissolved
determine how it will behave (usually the lesser
around other substances. amount)
7. Combustibility  Solute
 Combustibility is a measure of  The part of the solution
how easily a substance bursts that dissolves the solute
into flame, through fire or (usually the greater
combustion. This is an amount)
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*Solute achieve a good finish, and can also be
s referred to as "finishability".
dissolve
into 2. Weldability
Welding is a fabrication process
whereby two or more parts are fused
together by means of heat, pressure or
both forming a join as the parts cool.
To assess the weldability of a
metal, one can observe how it
solvents to form a solution. behaves during the process of fusion
and cooling, as well as evaluate its
Factors affecting Solubility sensitivity to cracks and notches.
 Temperature Another approach is to compare
 Forces and bonds the heating and cooling effects of the
 Pressure metal at the joint with that of a metal
with known weldability.
11. Permeability
 Permeability is a measure of the 3. Castability
ease of passage of liquids or refers to the ability of a material
gasses or specific chemicals to be easily cast or molded into a
through the material. desired shape and form.
Permeability is determined by
applying a head and It is based on factors such as
determining the depth of solidification rate, gas porosity,
penetration or the amount of segregation, and shrinkage.
liquid or gas passing through 4. Formability
the sample.
the ability of a material to be easily
TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES shaped, bent, stretched or formed into
The technological properties of a desired shape without cracking,
a material refer to its characteristics wrinkling or other defects.
that affect its behavior and Materials with good formability can
performance in different technological be easily deformed and shaped
applications. without undergoing significant changes
These properties are very in their microstructure or properties,
advantageous when it comes to while those with poor formability may
molding, shaping, and producing require preheating, annealing, or
materials. lubrication to achieve the desired
shape or may not be suitable for
1. Machinability certain forming processes.
refers to how easily a material can 5. Malleability
be cut to remove material with an
acceptable finish, at a lower cost. It refers to its ability to be easily
describes how well a material can deformed under compression without
cracking or breaking. It is a measure of
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a material's ability to be rolled or - Stones are first burnt and
hammered into thin sheets or other crushed
shapes without rupturing. - Brown in color, and sets quickly
Lesson 2- Cement when mixed with water
2. ARTIFICIAL CEMENT
DEFINITION OF CEMENT - Artificial cement is obtained by
Cement, in general, refers to all burning, at a very high
types of adhesives, but in a more temperature, a mixture of
specific sense, it refers to the tying calcareous (containing lime)
agents used in building and civil and argillaceous (containing
engineering construction. These are clay) materials.
made of powders that are finely - Obtained by burning at a high
powdered and when combined with temperature
water, form a solid mass. - Manufactured in the factories
Hydration, a chemical reaction - Prepared in different varieties
between the cement compounds and - It is made from Lime, Silica,
water that produces submicroscopic Alumina, Iron Oxide and
crystals or a substance with a high Magnesia.
surface area, is what causes setting - The mixture is heated to
and hardening. approximately 1400 degree C.
Constructional cements are PORTLAND CEMENT
frequently referred to as hydraulic
cements because of their hydrating - cement that is manufactured
qualities. These cements will even set from limestone and clay and
and solidify under water. Portland that hardens underwater.
cement is the most significant of these. - Ordinary Portland Cement
- Modified Portland Cement
CLASSIFICATION OF CEMENT
- Rapid Hardening POrtland
Cement can be generally classified as Cement
- Natural Cement - Low Heat Portland Cement
- Sulphate Resisting Portland
- Artificial Cement Cement
a. Portland Cement - Water-repellent Portland
Cement
b. Special Cement - Water-proof Portland Cement
1. NATURAL CEMENT SPECIAL CEMENT
- This type of cement can be
obtained by burning limestone - cement that serves some
containing 20-40% clay and specific function such as
crushing it to powder. altering the setting or hardening
- Manufactured from stones behavior of concrete, producing
different colors for architectural
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effects, imparting superior ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT
workability, imparting water
- Most common type
retention and plasticity to
- Develops strength and generate
mortars, resisting the heat at faster rate
penetration of water in walls or - Sufficient resistance to dry
containment vessels, or simply shrinkage and cracking
reducing the cost of the - Less resistance to chemical
cementing agent. attack
- High Alumina Cement
MODIFIED PORTLAND CEMENT
- Blast Furnace Cement
- Quick Setting Cement - Less heat of hydration than
- Calcium Chloride Cement Ordinary Portland Cement
- White Cement - Can be employed in hot
- Colored Cement climates
- Expanding Cement RAPID HARDENING PORTLAND
- Super Sulphate Cement CEMET
- Masonry Cement
- High early strength cement
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE - Burnt carefully at higher
METHOD OF HARDENING AND temperature than ordinary
SETTING Portland Cement
- Strength developed at 3 days
Non- Hydraulic Cement
with the same water-cement
- Water is not required ratio
- Requires dry conditions - Lighter than Ordinary Portland
- Basic materials are lime, Cement
gypsum, plaster, and
EXTRA RAPID HARDENING
oxychloride
PORTLAND CEMENT
- Rarely used as mortars for brick
or stone masonry. - Intergrinding calcium chloride
with rapid hardening Portland
Hydraulic Cement
Cement
- Hardens by hydration in the - Calcium chloride should not
presence of water exceed 3%
- Made by burning the main raw - - 25% higher than Rapid
material of non-hydraulic hardening at 1 to 2 days
cement at a very high - - 10% to 20% higher at 7 days
temperature LOW HEAT PORTLAND CEMENT
- Forms a water-resistant product
- Low percent of tricalcium
- There are 16 types
silicate
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON - High percentage of dicalcium
COMPOSITION AND silicate
CHARACTERISTICS
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- Less time than ordinary - Resist the action of acid and
Portland Cement high temperature
- Low compressive strength - 4-5 hrs initial setting time, about
- Initial setting time is 1hr 30 mins after initial for final
- Final setting time is 10 hrs setting
- Resistant to fire and not
SULPHATE RESISTING PORTLAND
affected by frost
CEMENT
QUICK SETTING CEMENT
- Below 5% of tricalcium
aluminate - Lower gypsum content, and
- Heat formed is not much bigger ground much finer than ordinary
than low heat Portland Cement Portland cement
- Cannot be easily and cheaply - Quite costly compared to
made ordinary Portland
- 5 minutes to start hardening, 30
WATER-REPELLENT PORTLAND
mins to finish
CEMENT
BLAST FURNACE SLAG CEMENT
- Small percentage of water
proofing materials - intergrinding Portland cement
- Mixed with a cement and clinker and granulated blast-
manufactured by A quacrete furnace slag
- Formed with ordinary or rapid - decreased rate of heat
hardening Portland Cement and evaporation
white cement - resistant to weathering agency
attacts
WATER-PROOF PORTLAND
- less expensive than ordinary
CEMENT
portland cement
- Mixing with ordinary or rapid - initial setting time is not less
hardening Cement, a small than 30 mins
percentage of some metal at - final setting is not more the
the time of grinding 10hrs
- Resistant to penetration of
WHITE CEMENT
water and some oils than
ordinary cement - Quite similar to OPC except for
- Resistant to the corrosive color
actions of acids or other harmful - Contains small amount of iron
salts oxide and magnesium oxide
- More expensive than OPC
OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS OF
- Not set earlier than 30mins
CEMENT
- Stored in close container
HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT COLORED CEMENT
- Quick-setting cement - Also known as Colourcrete
- Chocolate color
- From bauxite and limestone
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- Prepared by adding 5- 15% - Can resist highest concentration
color pigment before cement is of sulphates
finally ground - Heat of hydration is low
- Iron oxide for red and yellow,
MASONRY CEMENT
Chromium oxide for green, and
Cobalt for blue color - Intergrinding a mixture of
- Much costlier than OPC Portland cement clinkers with
inert materials
ACID RESISTANCE CEMENT
- Initial and final setting times are
- Contains acid-resistance 90min and 24hours respectively
aggregates such as quartz, - Superior to lime mortar, lime-
quartzites, etc. cement mortar, and cement
- Additive such a sodium mortar.
fluosilicate and aqueous
AIR ENTRAINING CEMENT
solutionor soluble gas
- Made up of OPC clinkers,
EXPANDING CEMENT
gypsum, limestone, and air-
- Formed by adding an entraining agents.
expanding medium and a
HISTORY OF CEMENT
stabilizing agent to the OPC
- This cement expands INVENTION OF POZZOLANA
HYDROPHOBIC CEMEN
- Almost 2000 years ago, the
- Contains admixture Greeks and Romans ground
- Initial strength is lower lime and “pozzolin” – a volcanic
- After 28 days, strength is similar ash that is these days known as
to OPC “pozzolana”
- The Romans mixed ground
PORTLAND POZZOLANA CEMENT
volcanic ash with lime to
- Interground blended mixture of produce cement, and after
cement and pozzolana observing that cement can be
- Natural or artificial material set underwater, cement started
- Commonly met with volcanic to be used in the construction of
ash, burnt clay, ash, and etc. ports. This mixture would later
- Higher tensile strength be named “Pozzolanic Cement”
- Evolves less heat during setting after the village of Pozzuoli in
- Less compressive strength in Vesuvius, near Rome.
early days - Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, a
- Less resistance to erosion and Roman architect and engineer
weathering action who lived in 1 AD, detailed
structures and related
SUPERSULPHATED CEMENT
technologies from the past in
- Resistant to seawater his book “Ten Books of
Architecture”, and
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recommended concrete for its some time later after adding
ability to give “polish to the floor water. Aspdin named his
and to create a strong creation “Portland Cement”. The
foundation”. The book also “Wakefield Arms” building,
mentioned the use of mixed which is still standing next to
lime and crushed rock, Kirkgate Station in England, is
pozzolan, for the reinforcement known to have been
of buildings, which is also said constructed using the binder
to preserve its hardness produced by Joseph Aspdin.
underwater. - In 1845, Isaac Johnson baked a
mixture of lime and clay mixture
HYDRAULIC CEMENT at a temperature of 1400°–
1500°C – as is still done today –
- In 1756, John Smeaton studied to produce the first modern
the chemical features of lime, Portland cement.
and reached significant - The use of reinforced concrete
conclusions on its binding first appeared in France in the
qualities. 1840s. Many other nations
- Joseph Parker produced a adopted the first cement
binder known as “Roman standard for Portland cement
Cement”, for which raw material that was established in
was obtained from the Germany in 1878, outlining the
limestone around London initial test procedures and
- The Renaissance ushered in a minimum qualities.
new era in which people were
encouraged to think in different Global cement output and use both
ways, and the doors of the increased at the turn of the century.
industrial revolution were Three important developments in
thrown wide-opened. the manufacturing process led to
- In 1822, Vicat used his modern Portland cement:
hydraulic binder in one of the
abutments of the Souillac - Development of rotary kilns
Bridge..He produced a synthetic - Addition of gypsum to control
binder by mixing silica, setting
aluminum and lime at certain - Use of ball mills to grind clinker
amounts. and raw materials
BIRTH OF PORTLAND CEMENT Significant developments have been

witnessed in production processes
- In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, a of cement over time. As a result, the
mason from Leeds, heated following systems have been
ground clay and limestone until adopted by the cement sector:
the limestone calcified, and then
ground the mixture once again, • Lepol system by Polysius in
observing that the mixture set 1928,
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• Vertical roll furnace in 1930, Soundness is the ability of cement
• Pre-furnace pre-heating to retain its volume while hardening.
cyclones in 1932, Cement is tested for its soundness by
• Fuller grill cooler in 1937 Le Chatelier Test and Autoclave Test.
• Mechanical classifiers in 1950,
3. Consistency of Cement
• The first furnace side-passing
system in 1960, Consistency of cement is the ability
• The pre-calcification system in of cement paste (cement + water) to
1966, flow under normal condition. Dry
• High-productive classifiers in Mortar (mix of cement and sand) or
1970 Dry concrete (mix of cement, sand and
The Future of Concrete and Cement aggregates) needs optimum water to
comes into workable condition. Thus,
In order to increase the optimum water-cement ratio should be
durability, strength, and applicability of maintained to get the workable cement
cement and concrete, new paste. The ability of cement paste to
technologies and innovations are flow is consistency.
continually being developed. Some
cutting-edge products, like roof tiles It is measured by Vicat Test.
and countertops, combine fibers and 4. Strength of Cement
unique materials, while offshore
manufacturing is also becoming more Factors affecting the strength of
popular with the rise of digitalization cement are:
and AI, which might minimize waste
a. Water-cement ratio of a mix.
and enhance productivity and working
b. Cement-fine aggregate ratio
conditions on-site.
c. Curing conditions
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT d. Size and shape of a specimen
e. The manner of moulding and
(A) PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
mixing
CEMENT f. Loading conditions
1. Fineness of cement g. Age of cement
Fineness of cement is a measure of Three types of strength of cement

the size of particles of cement. are measured:
Fineness is measured by doing sieve Compressive Strength: It is the most
analysis or air permeability method or common strength test. A test specimen
by sedimentation method. In sieve (50mm) is taken and subjected to a
analysis, the sizes of cement particles
compressive load until failure. The
are measured and in air permeability
loading sequence must be within 20
test, fineness of cement is mostly
seconds and 80 seconds.
measured by specific surface area.
2. Soundness of Cement Tensile strength: Though this test
used to be common during the early
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years of cement production, now it 7. Bulk density
does not offer any useful information
It is the volume taken up by the
about the properties of cement.
cement plus any air trapped between
Flexural strength: This is actually a the particles. Generally, cement has
measure of tensile strength in bending. 1000 to 1300 Kg/Cum of bulk density.
The test is performed in a 40 x40 x
8. Specific Gravity (Relative
160 mm cement mortar beam, which is
Density)
loaded at its center point until failure.
Normally specific gravity is defined
5. Setting Time of Cement
as the ratio between the weight of a
Cement sets and hardens when given volume of material (cement) and
water is added. This setting time can weight of an equal volume of water.
vary depending on multiple factors, Generally, Portland cement have a
such as fineness of cement, cement- specific gravity of value around 3.15.
water ratio, chemical content, and The value of specific gravity is change
admixtures. Cement used in with change in type of cement.
construction should have an initial
9. Loss of Ignition (LOI)
setting time that is not too low and a
final setting time not too high. Hence, Cement losses its weight when it is
two setting times are measured: being heated at 900 to 1000 0C. This
loss of weight upon heating is
Initial set: When the paste begins to
calculated as loss of ignition. Loss on
stiffen noticeably (typically occurs
ignition shows the pre-hydration or
within 30-45 minutes)
carbonation of cement due to
Final set: When the cement hardens, prolonged or improper storage
being able to sustain some load (exposure to atmosphere). Pre-
(occurs below 10 hours) hydration of cement reduce the
strength of cement and influences the
6. Heat of Hydration setting time of cement. Carbonation of
When water is added to cement, the cement causes a change in strength,
reaction that takes place is called porosity, pore size distribution, and
hydration. Hydration generates heat, chemistry in cement
which can affect the quality of the paste/concrete/mortar.
cement and also be beneficial in (B) CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
maintaining curing temperature during CEMENT
cold weather.
Main Chemical Compounds of
The heat of hydration of Portland
Portland Cement
cement is calculated by determining
the difference between the dry and the Portland Cement mainly comprises
partially hydrated cement (obtained by four basic chemical compounds.
comparing these at 7th and 28th
01. Tricalcium silicate:
days).
● Oxide composition: 3CaO.SiO2
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● Abbreviation: C3S Secondary Chemical Compounds in
Portland Cement
● This compound helps cement to
harden rapidly and is also ● Lime (CaO)
responsible for initial set and ● Free lime (CaO) leads to
early strength. expansion after hydration which

results into the disintegration of
02. Dicalcium Silicate: hardened concrete.
● Oxide composition: 2CaO.SiO2 ● Magnesia (MgO): The excess
● Abbreviation: C2S amount of MgO leads to the
● This compound helps cement to expansion due to the hydration
harden slowly and it is also of MgO in hardened concrete.
responsible for increase in ● Na2O & K2O (Alkali Oxides)
strength after one-week of age. ● The excess amount of alkalis
like Na2O & K2O leads to the
03. Tricalcium aluminate:
alkali-aggregate reaction, which
● Oxide composition: 3CaO.Al2O3
results in disruptive expansion.
● Abbreviation: C3A
● This compound helps to Composition of Cement
develop strength in the first few 1. Lime (60%-65%)
days. It is responsible for ● Calcium oxide or calcium
trioxide
hydration of cement and also
2. Silica (17%-25%)
responsible to generate high ● Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
heat of hydration. 3. Alumina (3.5%-9%)
● Aluminum oxide (Al2O3)
04. Tetracalcium aluminoferrite: 4. Iron oxide (0.5%-6%)
● Fe2O3
● Oxide composition: 5. Magnesium oxide (0.5%-4%)
4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 ● MgO
● Abbreviation: C4AF 6. Sulphur Trioxide (1%-2%)
● SO3
● This compound contributes in
7. Alkalis (0.5%-1.3%)
hydration process and slightly ● Sodium and potassium
influences the strength of can be added to cement
in small amounts as
cement.
alkali metal oxides, such
as sodium oxide (Na2O)
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and potassium oxide PORTLAND CEMENTS
(K2O).
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
8. Gypsum (0%-0.2%)
● Calcium Sulfate This is the most common type of
Dihydrate (CaSO4 · cement used for general construction
2H2O) purposes. It is made from a mixture of
limestone, clay, and other materials
USES OF CEMENTS
that are heated to high temperatures in
Cement is used widely for the a kiln.
construction of various structures.
Some of them are listed below: 2. Modified Portland Cement
1. It is used in mortar for plastering, it has been altered from its original
masonry work, pointing, etc. composition to enhance its properties
2. It is used for making joints for for specific applications. This can
drains and pipes. include adding additional materials
3. It is used for the water-tightness of such as pozzolans or slag to increase
the structure. strength, durability, or other desired
4. It is used in concrete for laying characteristics.
floors, and roofs and constructing 3. Rapid Hardening Portland
lintels, beams, stairs, pillars, etc. Cement
5. It is used where a hard surface is
required for the protection of This is a type of cement that is
exposed surfaces of structures designed to provide greater strength
against the destructive agents of and faster setting times than standard
the weather and certain organic or Portland cement.
inorganic chemicals. 4. Low Heat Portland Cement
6. It is used for precast pipes
manufacturing, piles, fencing posts, this type of cement produces less
etc. heat during the hydration process
7. It is used in the construction of compared to OPC. This makes it
important engineering structures suitable for large concrete structures
such as bridges, culverts, dams, such as dams, where excessive heat
tunnels, lighthouses, etc. can cause cracking.
8. It is used in the preparation of 5. Sulphate Portland Resisting
foundations, watertight floors, Cement
footpaths, etc.
9. It is employed for the construction This type of cement is used in
of wells, water tanks, tennis courts, areas where the soil has a high
lamp posts, telephone cabins, concentration of sulphate ions, which
roads, etc. can react with the cement and cause it
to deteriorate.
Types of Cement
6. Water Repellent Portland Cement
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This is a type of cement that decorative concrete, terrazzo flooring,
contains water-repelling agents to and architectural precast concrete.
reduce the absorption of water by the
4. Colored Cement
hardened cement paste. This can help
to prevent damage to concrete Colored cement is similar to white
structures caused by water infiltration, cement, but it includes pigments that
such as freeze-thaw damage or give it a specific color. It is used for
corrosion of embedded reinforcement. decorative purposes, such as in
masonry work, flooring, and plastering.
7. Water-Proof Portland Cement
5. Blended Cement
This is a type of cement that is
formulated to create a concrete that is This type of cement is made by
impermeable to water. It is often used blending two or more types of
in applications where a high degree of cementitious materials, such as OPC,
water resistance is required, such as in fly ash, slag, or silica fume. Blended
basements, swimming pools, and cement can improve the strength,
water storage tanks. durability, and workability of concrete
while reducing the environmental
OTHER VARIETIES OF CEMENT
impact of cement production.
1. High Alumina Cement
6. Blast Furnace Slag Cement
A type of hydraulic binder that is
It is a type of hydraulic cement that
made from bauxite and limestone. It
is made by grinding a mixture of
contains a high percentage of alumina
granulated blast furnace slag (a
(up to 50%) and is known for its high
byproduct of steel production) with
early strength, rapid hardening, and
Portland cement clinker. The resulting
good resistance to high temperatures
cement has lower heat of hydration,
and chemical attack.
lower permeability, and higher
2. Quick Setting Cement resistance to sulfate attack than
Portland cement.
This is a type of cement that sets
and hardens rapidly, typically within 5
to 30 minutes of mixing with water. It is
often used in situations where fast
setting times are critical, such as in 7. Acid Resistance Cement
emergency repairs or when
Acid-resistant cement, also known
construction schedules are
as acid-proof cement, is a type of
compressed.
hydraulic cement that is formulated to
3. White Cement resist the corrosive effects of acids and
other chemicals. It is typically
It is made from raw materials with a
composed of a blend of Portland
low iron content and is used for
cement, fine silica, and acid-resistant
aesthetic purposes, such as in
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aggregates such as quartz, flint, or aluminate to clinker during the grinding
granite. stage of cement production.
8. Expanding Cement 12. Masonry Cement
Expanding cement is a type of Masonry cement is a type of
hydraulic cement that expands during blended hydraulic cement designed to
the hardening process. It is often used bond masonry units like bricks, blocks,
in applications where controlled and stones together.
expansion is desired, such as in the
TESTS FOR CEMENTS
repair of concrete structures or in pre-
stressed concrete applications. FIELD TESTS FOR CEMENT:
9. Hydrophobic Cement Date of Manufacturing: As the

strength of cement reduces with age,
A type of cement that is designed
the date of manufacturing of cement
to repel water and resist the
bags should be checked.
penetration of water into the concrete.
It contains water-repelling agents such Cement Color: The color of cement
as stearic acid or oleic acid, which should be uniform. It should be typical
create a barrier to water penetration cement color i.e. gray color with a light
within the concrete. greenish shade.
10. Portland Pozzolana Cement Whether Hard Lumps are Formed:

Cement should be free from hard
Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
lumps. Such lumps are formed by the
is a type of hydraulic cement that is absorption of moisture from the
made by blending Portland cement atmosphere.
clinker with pozzolanic materials such
as fly ash, volcanic ash, or calcined Temperature Inside Cement Bag: If
clay. The pozzolanic materials react the hand is plunged into a bag of
with calcium hydroxide released during cement, it should be cool inside the
the hydration process to form cement bag. If a hydration reaction
additional cementitious compounds, takes place inside the bag, it will
resulting in a cement with enhanced become warm.
strength and durability properties. Smoothness Test: When cement is
11. Supersulphated Cement touched or rubbed in between fingers,
it should give a smooth feeling. If it felt
This is a type of cement that rough, it indicates adulteration with
contains higher amounts of calcium sand.
sulphate than ordinary Portland
cement. It is created by adding a Water Sinking Test: If a small quantity
of cement is thrown into the water, it
mixture of calcium sulphate, calcium
should float some time before finally
sulfate hemihydrate, and calcium
sinking.
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The smell of Cement Paste: A thin produce cement paste of
paste of cement with water should feel standard consistency.
sticky between the fingers. If the • It is also sometimes called as
cement contains too much-pounded Normal Consistency (CPNC).
clay and silt as an adulterant, the • The Standard consistency of a
paste will give an earthy smell. cement paste is defined as that
consistency which will permit a
Glass Plate Test: A thick paste of Vicat’s apparatus plunger
cement with water is made on a piece having 10mm dia. and 50mm
of a glass plate and it is kept under length to penetrate to a depth
water for 24 hours. It should set and of 33-35 mm from the top of the
not crack. mold.
Block Test: A 25mm × 25mm ×
3. INITIAL SETTING AND FINAL
200mm (1”×1”×8”) block of cement
SETTING TESTS OF CEMENT:
with water is made. The block is then
immersed in water for three days. After Initial Setting time-
removal, it is supported 150mm apart
When the paste will start
and a weight of 15kg uniformly placed
loosing its plasticity, the needle will
over it. If it shows no sign of failure the
penetrate only to some depth.
cement is good.
The period elapsing between
1. FINENESS TEST OF CEMENT: the time when water is added to the
• This test of cement is cement and to the time at which the
performed to check the needle penetrates the test block to a
fineness of cement according depth equal to 33-35mm from the top
to standard specifications. is taken as initial time.
• The fineness of cement can be
measured either by the grain For OPC it is generally taken as
size of cement or by the 30min.
surface area of cement.
Final Setting time-
• The sieve Test (IS 4031- part-I)
– 90 µ size sieve. The cement is considered fully
• The fineness of cement has a set when the center needle makes an
significant effect on the impression while the annular
hydration and in increasing the attachment fails to do so.
rate of gain strength. The
The cement is said to be hard if
strength of cement is directly
it does not pierce more than 0.5mm.
proportional to its fineness.
It is generally taken as 10 hrs.
2. STANDARD CONSISTENCY
TEST OF CEMENT: 4. SOUNDNESS TEST :
• It is used to find out the The Cement is said to be unsound
percentage of water required to if it has excess of lime.
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Due to high proportions of even give it any regard at all. But
magnesium content or Calcium underneath that drab grey exterior is a
sulphate content. hidden world of complexity.
Because of inadequate burning of Concrete is one of the most
cement. versatile and widely-used construction
Due to insufficiency in fineness of materials on earth. It has four primary
grinding or thorough mixing of raw ingredients: Water, sand (also called
materials. fine aggregate), gravel (also known as
coarse aggregate), and cement. A
It cause appreciable change in the recipe that is not quite a paragon of
volume of cement after the cement has sophistication. One ingredient falls
set causing disruption of the set and from the sky, and the rest comes
hardened mass. essentially straight out of the ground.
Le-Chatlier’s Apparatus is used for But, from these humble beginnings are
the test. born essentially the basis of the entire
world’s infrastructure.
In case the expansion is more than
10mm than the cement is said to be Did you know…
unsound.
● Concrete is the second most
5. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH used material on earth after
TEST OF CEMENT : water.
It is Laboratory method to ● Concrete production contributes
determine the strength of cement. 5% of annual anthropogenic
global CO2 production.
The size of cube mould is 70.6mm.
● Concrete in the middle of the
Cement and standard sand mortar Hoover Dam, which opened in
is used to make the cube. 1936, is still drying out!
Three cubes are tested for the ● The largest ever, unreinforced
strength. concrete dome construction is
the Pantheon in Rome, which is
The average value is taken for the over 2000 years old.
compressive strength of the three ● 99% of all ‘cracked’ concrete is
cubes for each period respectively. associated with other
construction factors and not the
material as delivered.
● Concrete sets and hardens
underwater.
Lesson 3- CONCRETE ● Concrete actually has elastic
properties.
Concrete is as much a part of
the urban landscape as trees are to a Classification
forest. It’s so ubiquitous that we rarely
CLASSIFICATIONS OF CONCRETE
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The most commonly used preliminary tests of fresh and
classification of concrete is according hardened concrete, made of the
to: determined constituents for the
intended construction conditions
1. The terms of the mixing of
and purpose of the structure.
concrete
2. Bulk density of the concrete Specification for concretes of the first
3. The type of binder and second categories is determined
4. The consistency of the fresh by Articles 26 - 62 of the above-
concrete mentioned Rulebook.
5. Concrete class
6. The purposes of concrete and Classification according to the bulk
other. density of concrete
Concrete can be classified according

Classification according to the
to bulk density, as follows:
terms of mixing of concrete
● Lightweight concrete, whose
Depending on the conditions under
which fresh concrete prepares, there bulk density does not exceed
are two different categories of 1900 kg/m3. This type of
concrete: concrete is prepared with light
porous filling, with total or partial
● The first category of concrete use of quartz sand as fine filling,
(B.I), which can be mixed without with a hydraulic binder and
the previous tests, but the amount water and admixtures in
of cement determined by Article 26 particular circumstances. The
of the Rulebook on technical norms increase of bulk density up to
for concrete and reinforced 2,100 kg/m3 is acceptable only
concrete must be used. The first when it comes to the
category of concrete (B.I) includes improvement of mechanical
the following concrete classes: MB characteristics.
10, 15, 20, and 25 and they can be
placed only at the construction site Technical norms that must be fulfilled
where they were mixed and, during the designing, construction, and
● The second category of concrete maintenance of blocks and structures
(B.II) with concrete class MB 30 or of concrete and reinforced concrete,
prepared with light aggregate filling,
more, as well as concrete with
are determined by the Rulebook on
special properties and transported
technical norms for concrete and
concrete of all concrete classes.
reinforced concrete prepared with
Concretes over 60 MB are special natural and artificial lightweight
concrete, which can be used only aggregate filler.
for specific purposes. The
composition of concrete of category
B.II is determined on the basis of
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● Classic (ordinary) concrete with classes of Portland cement can be
bulk density from 1900 kg/m3 to used as a binder, the asphalt-
2500 kg/m3 and, concrete bitumen, which is obtained
● Heavy-weight concrete with a by processing oil, is used as a binder.
bulk density of higher than 2500 Instead of aggregate that has rounded
kg/m3. High bulk density of edges (gravel), for the production of
concrete is achieved by using asphalt, it is used aggregate with
sharp edges also called gravel
heavy-weight aggregates, such as
(crushed stone). Asphalt - concrete is
barite, iron ore (magnetite,
used for flexible (elastic) structures,
hematite, and limonite), splinters
mostly for asphalting streets and
or specially made balls of iron and roads. Their purposes are completely
steel. In order to improve the different, although there are areas
protective characteristics of where they can overlap.
heavy-weight concrete,
compounds of Boron or Lithium Polymer-concretes are a type of
are added to concrete. The concrete for whose preparation instead
compressive strengths of heavy- of cement polymers are used as a
weight concrete are not high and binder. Concrete in which polymer is
they don't exceed 40 MPa, and used as an admixture - concrete is
called Polymer Cement Concrete -
the tensile strength ranges from 1
PCC or Polymer Modified Concrete -
to 3 MPa.
PMC.
The provisions of the Rulebook on
Classification according to the
technical norms for concrete and consistency of concrete
reinforced concrete ("Official Gazette
SFRY", No. 11/87) also apply to According to the Rulebook on
special types of concrete and technical norms for concrete and
structures, for hydro-technical reinforced concrete ("Official Gazette
structures, concrete pavement SFRY", No. 11/87), there are four
structure, and similar, unless it is types of concrete consistency: solid,
indicated otherwise. low-plastic, plastic, and liquid.
Classification of concrete according The consistency of fresh

to the type of binder concrete is the set of all fresh concrete
properties that affect its workability and
Depending on the type of binder used processability. Concrete consistency
for preparing concrete there are: can also be defined as the degree of
stiffness or mobility of fresh concrete.
● Cement-concretes, Concrete consistency can be also
● Asphalt-concretes and defined as the degree of stiffness, i.e.,
● Polymer concretes the agility of fresh concrete.
Unlike conventional cement- Classification according to the

concrete, where different types and concrete class
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The concrete class (MB) is the Early Use of Concrete (6500 BC)
normed compressive strength in MPa,
The first concrete-like structures
based on the characteristic strength of
were built by the Nabataea traders or
concrete at the age of 28 days. The
Bedouins who occupied and controlled
characteristic compressive strength is
a series of oases and developed a
a value below which can be expected
small empire in the regions of southern
at most 10% of all compressive
Syria and northern Jordan in around
strengths of tested concrete (a 10 %
6500 BC. They later discovered the
fractile).
advantages of hydraulic lime -- that is,
For the construction of concrete cement that hardens underwater -- and
blocks, the following concrete classes by 700 BC, they were building kilns to
(MB) are used: 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, supply mortar for the construction of
40, 45, 50, 55, and 60. rubble-wall houses, concrete floors,
and underground waterproof cisterns.
It is not allowed to use concrete The cisterns were kept secret and
class lower than MB 15 for reinforced were one of the reasons the Nabataea
concrete. were able to thrive in the desert.
Classification of concrete according In making concrete, the

to purpose Nabataea understood the need to
keep the mix as dry or low-slump as
Depending on the intended use there possible, as excess water introduces
are: voids and weaknesses into the
concrete. Their building practices
● Hydro-technical concretes included tamping the freshly placed
● Concretes for pavement concrete with special tools. The
structure tamping process produced more gel,
● Prestressed concretes which is the bonding material
● Precast concretes produced by the chemical reactions
● Decorative (visible) concretes that take place during hydration which
● Concretes for radiation bond the particulates and aggregate
together.
protection (heavy-weight
concrete) Egypt (3000 BC)
● The thermal insulating
Around 3000 BC, the ancient
concrete (lightweight
Egyptians used mud mixed with straw
concretes)
to form bricks. Mud with straw is more
● The waterproofing concretes similar to adobe than concrete.
● The soundproofing concretes However, they also used gypsum and
(lightweight concretes) lime mortars in building the pyramids,
● Concretes for fire protection, although most of us think of mortar
● Concrete and mortar for and concrete as two different
reparation, etc. materials. The Great Pyramid at Giza
required about 500,000 tons of mortar,
HISTORY
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which was used as a bedding material cemented rubble. The Romans built
for the casing stones that formed the most of their structures by stacking
visible surface of the finished pyramid. stones of different sizes and hand-
This allowed stone masons to carve filling the spaces between the stones
and set casing stones with joints open with mortar. Above ground, walls were
no wider than 1/50-inch. clad both inside and out with clay
bricks that also served as forms for the
China (3000 BC)
concrete. The brick had little or no
About this same time, the structural value and their use was
northern Chinese used a form of mainly cosmetic. Before this time, and
cement in boat-building and in building in most places at that time (including
the Great Wall. Spectrometer testing 95% of Rome), the mortars commonly
has confirmed that a key ingredient in used were a simple limestone cement
the mortar used in the Great Wall and that hardened slowly from reacting
other ancient Chinese structures was with airborne carbon dioxide. True
glutenous, sticky rice. Some of these chemical hydration did not take place.
structures have withstood the test of These mortars were weak.
time and have resisted even modern
200 B.C.
efforts at demolition.
By this time, the Romans had
700 B.C. perfected building with concrete,
though in a different way than we use it
Around 700 B.C., the Bedouins
today. The Romans would create most
discovered cement that hardens
of a structure with loose rocks and
underwater and created kilns for
materials and cement them together
producing mortar. They used that
by hand with mortar. They even used
mortar to help construct floors, houses
cosmetic bricks in combination with
and other structures. During this time,
their version of cement. Using non-
they also began tamping the concrete
structural blocks established concrete
material and had an understanding
as a purposeful and aesthetic product.
that the substance wouldn’t work as
well if it were too saturated. For their more artistic
endeavors — or those that needed
Rome (600 BC) enhanced durability — the Romans
By 600 BC, the Greeks had created cement from volcanic sand
discovered a natural pozzolan material that reacted with lime and water.
that developed hydraulic properties 1414
when mixed with lime, but the Greeks
The collapse of the Roman
were nowhere near as prolific in
Empire made the interest in concrete
building with concrete as the Romans.
dormant until manuscripts explaining
By 200 BC, the Romans were building
the substance resurfaced during this
very successfully using concrete, but it
year. Then came a new appreciation
wasn’t like the concrete we use today.
for the building material. This year
It was not a plastic, flowing material
serves as one of the many turning
poured into forms, but more like
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points in the history of concrete. It The Portland cement Joseph
started the chain reaction for the Aspdin created wasn’t exactly the
discovery of new ways to make and same as what we produce today. While
use concrete for centuries to come. Aspdin didn’t include specific ratios or
temperatures for making his Portland
1793
cement, we know that he couldn’t have
John Smeaton created a more achieved the high temperatures we do
efficient method of producing hydraulic today to heat substances.
lime in 1793. He used limestone that
contained clay and fired it until the Today, we have a standard
substance turned into a clinker. The formula for Portland cement. It was
clinker could then get ground into created back in 1917 by the American
powder. The product was used to help Society for Testing and Materials,
cement set, and the modernized along with the National Bureau of
production made it easier to make Standards. The standard formula
concrete and have it set quickly. created a consistent quality no matter
when or where someone made the
1824 substance.
This year was very vital in the
history of concrete because it’s when Even before we developed a
bricklayer Joseph Aspdin created formula for Portland cement, builders
Portland cement. Named as such were using concrete in projects all over
because it was similar to building the world once again. In the early
stones in Portland, England, Portland 1900s, concrete regained public
cement is very strong. To make the acceptance as a building material, with
cement, Aspdin burned chalk and clay these types of structures going up:
in a kiln until there was no more
carbon dioxide. He later refined the ● A Paris apartment building in
portions of limestone and clay that 1902
created the clinker. Aspdin helped spur ● The first concrete high-rise in
the use of cement and concrete in Ohio in 1904
modern constructions. In his goal to ● A 328-foot bridge in Rome in
create a better alternative to the 1911
Romans’ building material, he inspired
competition to create even better After these and other buildings,
versions of his Portland cement. ready-mix concrete was developed. In
1913, the material was delivered in
Concrete change over the years Baltimore, Maryland. It helped make
In the late 1800s, individuals in job sites more efficient since workers
Germany, France and the United no longer had to mix concrete on-site.
States were simultaneously developing Instead, it arrived premixed from a
steel-reinforced concrete. At the time, plant in early versions of what we now
it was used for industrial builds, but it consider cement trucks.
would go on to play a role in residential
buildings and other structures.
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Some decades later, we discovered ● The National Museum of Brazil
that producing small air bubbles, ● The Geisel Library at UC San
known as air entrainment, improved Diego
concrete. After the introduction of air-
entrainment substances to concrete in These buildings show off concrete’s
1930, the building material was easier versatility as a building material. As
to work with and less prone to technology advanced, builders and
freezing. Now architects in colder architects were able to create curves,
climates could choose the material cut-outs and other eye-catching design
without worrying about cracks or elements out of concrete. The
breakage. substance’s style flexibility allowed it to
build churches, museums, housing
Around the same time, builders and more, along with some historical
developed thin-shell concrete. Roofs, concrete structures.
domes, arches and other similar
structures were made of a thin shell of TYPES
concrete. Because of the strong,
rounded shapes of these structures, There are many different types of
they did not require thick layers of the concrete, some of which can be used
material. The lighter weight of thin- for the same purpose. It depends on
shell concrete makes the rest of the the goal you wish to achieve. You can
building safer from collapse since it choose the appropriate form of
doesn’t need to support a heavy concrete to accomplish the task
material. 1. Normal Strength Concrete
As we worked with concrete, we Normal strength concrete is made
made it a stronger and more resistant
up of a combination of several
building material. We discovered
fundamental ingredients — aggregate,
easier ways to make it, transport it and
concrete and sand — in a 1:2:4 ratio.
use it. Along with those discoveries,
builders and architects constructed This mixture produces normal strength
buildings in different styles. Brutalist, concrete that can be used for many
modern and other concrete structures applications. It takes about 30 to 90
include feats and artistic creations minutes to set, but this is dependent
such as: on the weather conditions at the
concrete site and the cement’s
● Yale University’s Paul Rudolph properties.
Hall
● The Science Hills museum in It’s normally used for pavements or
Japan buildings that don’t need high tensile
● Jubilee Church outside of Rome strength. It is not very good for many
● The Salk Institute research center other structures since it doesn’t
in California withstand the stresses created by wind
● The Villa Saitan housing complex loading or vibrations very well.
in Japan
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2. Reinforced Concrete Prestressed concrete units are
used for many large concrete projects.
This form of concrete is widely To create prestressed concrete, you
used in industry and modern must use a special technique. Like
construction. Reinforced concrete gets reinforced concrete, it includes bars or
its strength through the help of wires, tendons. But these bars or tendons are
steel rods or cables that are placed in stressed before the actual application
the concrete before it sets. A more of the concrete.
familiar name for these items is rebar.
Lately, people have used fibers to When the concrete is mixed and
reinforce this concrete. placed, these bars are placed at each
end of the structural unit where they
These reinforcements resist tensile are used. When the concrete sets, this
forces to avoid cracking or breaking. unit is put into compression.
Meanwhile, the concrete itself resists
compressive forces to withstand heavy This compression enhances the
weight. Together, the two materials strength of the lower section of the unit
create a strong bond against many and improves its resistance against
applied forces, such as vehicles. In tensile forces. However, this process
essence, they become a single requires skilled labor and heavy
structural element. equipment. Normally, prestressed units
are created and assembled on-site.
Invented in the 19th century, it Prestressed concrete is used to build
dramatically changed the construction bridges, heavy-loaded structures or
industry. Roadways, buildings and roofs that have long spans.
bridges require reinforced concrete.
Next time you visit a construction site, 4. Precast Concrete
you’ll likely see reinforced concrete
As with most classes of concrete,
with rebar.
precast concrete must be made and
3. Plain or Ordinary Concrete cast according to specific
measurements. These concrete units
This is another concrete that uses
are eventually transported to the
the common mix design of 1:2:4 with
application site and assembled for use.
its components of cement, sand and
aggregates. You can employ it to make You frequently see these units
pavement or buildings where there is transported to worksites as you drive
not a high demand for tensile strength. on highways. Precast concrete is used
It faces the same challenges as for:
normal strength concrete — it doesn’t
stand up very well to vibrations or wind ● Concrete blocks
loading. Plain or ordinary concrete is ● Precast walls
also used in dam construction. The ● Staircase units
durability rating of this kind of concrete ● Poles
is very satisfactory.
The advantage of using precast
4. Prestressed Concrete
concrete is its speedy assembly. Since
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the units are manufactured in a factory, barium, is the crushed rock most often
they are of very high quality. employed.
6. Lightweight Concrete
Lightweight concrete is any kind of 8. Stamped Concrete

concrete that has a density of less
Also known as imprinted or
than 1920kg/m3. Lightweight concrete
textured concrete, stamped concrete is
is created by using lightweight
designed to realistically replicate the
aggregates. Aggregates are
look and pattern of natural stones,
ingredients that add to the density of
tiles, brick and granites. Stamped
the style of concrete. These lightweight
concrete is often used to construct
aggregates are made up of various
patios, pool decks, interior floors and
natural, artificial and processed
driveways.
materials, which include:
This style is achieved by using
● Clays
professional stamping pads to create
● Expanded shales
an impression on the surface of the
● Scoria
concrete. To get a natural finish, you
● Pumice can also use various texture work and
● Perlite coloring stains.
● Vermiculite
Some of the advantages of
The most important property of stamped concrete include:
lightweight concrete is that it has very
● Affordability compared to natural
low thermal conductivity. Common
pavers and stone
uses for lightweight concrete include
● Easy maintenance once sealed
creating long-spanning bridge decks
and building blocks. It can also be ● Becomes slip-resistant with a non-
used to protect steel structures. skid additive
● Enhances outdoor space and
7. High-Density Concrete adds value
● Durable and long-lasting
High-density concrete has a
● Extensive pattern and color
very specific purpose. It is frequently
used in the construction of atomic choices
power plants. The heavyweight
9. Air-Entrained Concrete
aggregates used in the creation of
high-density concrete help the Some types of concrete hold
structure resist radiation. billions of microscopic air cells in every
Crushed rocks are normally cubic foot. These tiny air pockets
used. Barytes, a colorless or white relieve the internal pressure on the
material that consists of barium sulfate concrete. They provide tiny chambers
and is the principal ingredient in
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where water can expand when it agents are sometimes used to delay
freezes. how long the concrete takes to set.
The air is entrained in the Ready-mix concrete is preferred
concrete by adding several foaming to concrete mixed on-site because the
agents during the mixing process, mixture has higher precision and
including: having the concrete ready to pour
reduces confusion on the worksite.
● Fatty acids
Ready-mix concrete can be used for
● Resins buildings, roadways, walls and more.
● Alcohols
11. Self-Consolidated Concrete
Because this concrete is mixed at
the site of application, the mixing and Self-consolidating concrete will
entraining process requires careful compact on its own due to its weight
engineering supervision. The entrained when put in place. This non-
air adds up to about 3% to 6% of the segregating, highly flowable concrete
volume of the concrete. Almost all will fill the formwork and spread easily
concrete used in a freezing into place to encapsulate the
environment or where there are reinforcement without the need for
freeze-thaw cycles is air-entrained. vibration or mechanical consolidation.
This highly workable concrete is best
10. Ready-Mix Concrete used for applications and areas where
there is thick reinforcement.
Concrete prepared and bathed
in a centrally located plant is known as Some benefits of self-
ready-mix concrete. This concrete is consolidated concrete include the
mixed as it is transported to the site in following:
the familiar cement trucks seen often
● Self-leveling
on roads and highways. Once the
trucks reach the worksite, the cement ● Enhanced hardened properties
can be used immediately because it ● Improved consolidation in
does not need further treatment. congested areas
Ready-mix concrete is a specialty ● Safer work environment
concrete that is mixed based on ● Reduced equipment and labor
specifications developed with great ● Increased detailing flexibility
precision. ● Smoother surfaces
● Reduced noise
Creating ready-mix concrete
requires a centralized location where 12. Polymer Concrete
the concrete can be prepared. These
locations need to be placed at an Polymer concrete aggregates,
adjustable distance from the worksite. compared to those in other concrete
If the concrete takes too long to reach types, are bound together in a matrix
the worksite, it will be of no use. In with polymer instead of cement. This
most cases, the worksite is too far type of concrete is made of limestone
from the preparation plant. Retarding gravels, silica, quartz, granite pebbles
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and other high-compressive strength and pavements. It is designed to deal
materials. If these materials are not with the problems of stormwater runoff
dry, clean and dust-free, it can have a and pools of water and puddles on
negative impact on the concrete’s roadways or airport runways.
binding ability.
Other concrete absorbs water.
The polymer resin serves as the Roadways that use previous concrete
binder and the aggregate is the have fewer problems with
compressive stress material. Polymer hydroplaning, tire spray and snow
concrete composites contain a distinct buildup. It also reduces the need for
combination of properties in their curbing and storm sewers.
formulation. Some of these properties
It is composed of a mixture of
include:
cement, water and coarse aggregates.
● Rapid curing ambient temperatures It contains no sand, which creates an
● Good adhesion to surfaces open-scale, porous structure. This
● Long-term durability allows water to pass through the layers
● High flexural, tensile and more easily. Some kinds of previous
compressive strengths concrete will pass several gallons of
● Low permeability to water and water through its surface per minute.
some solution 15. Vacuum Concrete
● Lightweight formula
● Strong chemical resistance In certain applications, such as
deck slabs, parking lots and industrial
Polymer concrete also has a few floors, concrete will have a higher
distinct categories, including: water content than necessary when
poured into the formwork. In these
● Polymer impregnated concrete
cases, the excess water must be
● Polymer cement concrete removed with a vacuum pump before
● Partially impregnated the concrete begins to set. Compared
to a normal construction method, the
13. Rapid-Set Concrete
vacuum technique can help make the
In a hurry? Then you need concrete platform or structure ready to
rapid-set concrete. It’s ideal when use sooner.
you’re short on time to complete a 16. Pumped Concrete
project. It has faster set times and is
very resistant to low temperatures, so If you’ve ever wondered what
it can be used any time of the year. It’s types of cement mixtures used in the
especially useful in winters when the flooring of a very tall building are, the
cold weather does not allow you to use answer is probably pumped concrete.
many other kinds of concrete. The secret to pumped concrete is that
it is very workable, so it can be
14. Pervious Concrete
conveyed easily via a pipe to an upper
This is one of the most common floor. This pipe will be a flexible or rigid
kinds of concrete used to build roads
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hose that discharges the concrete to Roll compacted concrete can be
the required area. found in roadworks, airport runways,
car parks, pavements and industrial
Pumped concrete can also be
servicing.
used:
● To create superflat floors on lower
structures
● In construction projects like
19. Glass Concrete
roadways and bridges
● For more personal items, like Another, more modern form of
swimming pools concrete, glass concrete features the
use of recycled glass. This form of
It is a reliable, efficient and concrete is used when aesthetic
economical way to apply concrete and appeal is an important element in the
is often the only way that concrete can design of the concrete.
be placed in certain locations. Very
fine aggregates are used in pumped Commonly used in the large-
concrete. The finer the aggregate used format slabs found in flooring or on
in the mix, the freer the concrete flows decorative façades, this concrete can
from the pipe. have shining or colored glass
embedded during the mixing process
17. Limecrete to give it a distinctive splash of color or
sparkle.
This concrete uses lime instead
of cement, along with lightweight 20. Asphalt Concrete
aggregates like glass fiber or sharp
sand. It’s mainly used for the More commonly known as
construction of floors, vaults and “asphalt” or “blacktop,” this is a form of
domes. Limecrete has many concrete often used for constructing
environmental benefits because it is so sidewalks, roads, parking lots, airport
easily cleaned and is renewable. It can runways and highways— almost
also be used with radiant floor heating. anywhere pavement is needed.
Asphalt is a dark mineral composed of
18. Roll Compacted Concrete bitumens, which are a form of
hydrocarbons.
It’s a familiar sight on many
American highways — a heavy roller The desire for asphalt grew
compacting a layer of concrete. Roll- along with the automobile industry.
compacted concrete is a strong, dense Known for its durability, workability,
concrete used on heavily trafficked skid resistance, stability, fatigue
highways with vehicles that carry large resistance, flexibility and permeability,
loads. This concrete emits fewer it still requires a properly designed
emissions during the production mixture. It is a composite mixture of
process, which benefits the aggregates and asphalt. The different
environment. mixtures of asphalt are used for
different purposes.
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21. Shotcrete Concrete Though all high-strength concrete
can be labeled as high-performance,
Shotcrete differs from other not all high-performance concrete
forms of concrete primarily in the way (HPC) will be in the high-strength
it is applied. Shotcrete is shot through category. HPC meets particular
a nozzle onto a frame or formwork. efficiency standards, such as:
Since this application requires higher
air pressure, the compaction process ● Easy placement
takes place at the same time as the ● Heat of hydration
placing. ● Environmental standards
● Longevity and durability
Shotcrete can be used to repair
● Life-term mechanical properties
damaged wood, concrete or steel
● Strength gain in early age
structures. It is also commonly used
● Toughness
when access to a work area is difficult
or when formwork is impractical or ● Permeability and density factors
cost-prohibitive.
However, HPC may be limited in
22. High-Strength Concrete strength in some cases, depending on
the application you plan to use it in.
High-strength concrete is any
concrete mix that is greater than 40 COMPOSITION
megapascal (40MPa), which is the Major ingredients of concrete are:
tensile strength of concrete. High-
strength concrete that meets this 1. Binding material (like cement, lime,
determinant can handle much more polymer)
stress and pressure compared to 2. Fine aggregate (sand)
concrete at 20MPa or 30MPa.
3. Coarse aggregates (crushed stone,
This type of concrete can jelly)
withstand strenuous conditions before
it shears, cracks or breaks. The 4. Water.
increased strength in this concrete is
accomplished by reducing the water-
cement ratio to a low rate. A small quantity of admixtures
like air entraining agents, water
High-strength concrete above proofing agents, workability agents etc.
40MPa is often used for civil and may also be added to impart special
commercial construction, which properties to the plain concrete
includes buildings and infrastructure mixture.
projects, structural beams, columns,
load bearing walls and any other In the proportioning of concrete
application where increased capacity it is kept in mind that voids in coarse
and durability are required. aggregates are filled with sand and the
voids in sand are filled with cement
23. High-Performance Concrete paste.
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Cement is the binding material. After used, in case of machine mixing and
addition of water it hydrates and binds water cement ratio of 0.5 to 0.6 is used
aggregates and the surrounding for hand mixing.
surfaces like stone and bricks.
WATER
Generally richer mix (with more
cement) gives more strength. Setting ● AGGREGATE
time starts after 30 minutes and ends ● BINDING MATERIAL
after 6 hours. Hence concrete should ● CEMENT
be laid in its mould before 30 minutes ● ADMIXTURE
of mixing of water and should not be
subjected to any external forces till
final setting takes place. ● WATER
● AGGREGATE
Coarse aggregate consists of crushed
● AIR
stones. It should be well graded and
● CEMENT
the stones should be of igneous origin.
They should be clean, sharp, angular
and hard. They give mass to the ● WATER
concrete and prevent shrinkage of ● AGGREGATE
cement. ● AIR
Fine aggregate consists of river sand. ● BINDING MATERIAL
It prevents shrinkage of cement. When Composition of Basic Concrete Mix
surrounded by cement it gains mobility,
If we evaluate the concrete
enters the voids in coarse aggregates
composition to see what concrete is
and binding of ingredients takes place.
made of, we can see there are four
It adds density to concrete, since it fills
basic ingredients within the concrete
the voids. Denser the concrete higher
material mix:
is its strength.
● Binding materials like cement or
Water used for making concrete
lime
should be clean. It activates the
● Aggregates or Inert Materials
hydration of cement and forms plastic
○ Fine aggregate (sand)
mass. As it sets completely, concrete
becomes hard mass. Water gives ○ Coarse aggregate (stone
workability to concrete which means chips, brick chips)
water makes it possible to mix the ● Water
concrete with ease and place it in the ● Admixture (e.g. Pozzolana)
final position. More the water the better
the workability. However excess water A brief description of the concrete
reduces the strength of concrete. ingredients is given below.
Figure 3.1 shows the variation of Binding Materials
strength of concrete with water cement
ratio. To achieve required workability Binding material is the main
and at the same time good strength a element of a concrete material mix.
water cement ratio of 0.4 to 0.45 is Cement is the most commonly used
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binding material. Lime could also be binder as the mixture of cement and
used. When water is mixed with the addition(s).
cement, a paste is created that coats
Major ingredients of concrete are:
the aggregates within the mix. The
paste hardens, binds the aggregates, 1. Binding material (like cement, lime,
and forms a stone-like substance. polymer)
Aggregates 2. Fine aggregate (sand)
Sand is a fine mixture. Gravel or 3. Coarse aggregates (crushed stone,
crushed stone is the coarse mixture in jelly)
most mixes.
4. Water.
Water
A small quantity of admixtures
Water is required to react with like air entraining agents, water
the cement (hydration) and to supply proofing agents, workability agents etc.
workability with the concrete. The may also be added to impart special
number of water combined in pounds properties to the plain concrete
compared with the number of cement mixture.
is named the water/cement
Cement is the binding material.
quantitative relation. The lower the w/c
After addition of water it hydrates and
quantitative relation, the stronger the
binds aggregates and the surrounding
concrete. (Higher strength, less
surfaces like stone and bricks.
permeability).
Generally richer mix (with more
Concrete is a mixture of cement, cement) gives more strength.
water, fine aggregate (sand) and
Aggregates are essential
coarse aggregate (gravel or crushed
components of concrete. They act as
rocks) in which the cement and water
inert material in concrete. Fine
have hardened by a chemical reaction
aggregate and coarse aggregate are
– hydration – to bind the nearly (non-
two main types of aggregate for
reacting) aggregate.
concrete. As the name indicates, they
Other materials in addition to are basically classified depending on
the above are often incorporated, such the sizes of aggregate particles.
as fine powders that can substitute Coarse aggregate consists of crushed
some of the cement, known as stones. It should be well graded and
additions, and small quantities of the stones should be of igneous origin.
chemicals, known as admixtures, They should be clean, sharp, angular
which can alter and improve some and hard. They give mass to the
properties. concrete and prevent shrinkage of
cement. Fine aggregate consists of
The use of additions, most of which
river sand. It prevents shrinkage of
are fine powders like the cement and
cement.
which participate in the hydration
reactions, requires the definition of the When surrounded by cement it
gains mobility, enters the voids in
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coarse aggregates and binding of mixer, or during transport. Regardless
ingredients takes place. It adds density of how it is mixed, the critical point is to
to concrete, since it fills the voids. ensure the concrete is uniform in color
Denser the concrete higher is its and consistency for optimal setting.
strength. Hand mixing cement, using shovels,
and other mixing tools takes its toll on
Water used for making concrete
workers’ hands, again requiring a
should be clean. It activates the
strong durable glove for enhanced
hydration of cement and forms plastic
protection.
mass. As it sets completely, concrete
becomes hard mass. Water gives 3. Transporting and Placing
workability to concrete which means Methods of transporting concrete
water makes it possible to mix the vary widely from wheelbarrow and
concrete with ease and place it in the manual hauling to conveyor belt
final position. More the water the better operations, to more advanced projects
the workability. However excess water involving cranes and pumps. All of
reduces the strength of concrete. these methods require some level of
manual operating demanding
advanced safety wear. From physically
hauling wheelbarrows to operating and
securing larger machines and
PROCESS
equipment hauling the concrete,
Concrete Manufacturing Processes companies have an obligation to
Overview ensure their gloves meet safety
requirements.
1. Batching
The first step involves gathering the 4. Compacting and Placing
ingredients necessary to produce the During mixing and transport air is
particular type of concrete. The type of often entrapped, greatly reducing the
batching, volume or weighted, is quality and strength. One of the final
contingent on the amount of concrete stages of production involves
being produced. Volume batching, compacting the product to eliminate
typically involved in producing smaller the air pockets and ensure durability.
batches, requires a tedious amount of This can be done by involving
manual gauge box measuring and machinery that temporarily liquefies
lifting. Due to the strenuous the concrete, instantly expelling
environment, this stage of the trapped air, or by hand tooling.
manufacturing process requires critical
5. Curing and Finishing
care in selecting the right safety gear
This process takes place
to safeguard against cuts, blisters and
immediately after concrete is
other environmental hazards.
compressed and involves close
2. Mixing attention to detail regarding moisture
Depending on the type and quantity levels and contracting as it dries. This
needed for a particular job, concrete process is crucial in preventing
can be mixed by hand, by stationary cracking and durability issues. Many
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types of curation involve potent state, this heterogeneous material
chemicals to seal the slab that can be becomes a stone-like mass. The
incredibly hazardous to workers if extensive use of concrete in the
exposed. construction field has made it a
material of huge concern for
Properties
engineers. To participate in the vast
● GRADE uses of concrete an engineer must
● COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH know its properties. Here in this article,
● CHARACTERISTIC we have provided a glimpse of the
STRENGTH properties of concrete.
● TENSILE STRENGTH Strength
● CREEP
● SHRINKAGE Strength of concrete are of the
following types:
● MODULAR RATIO
● POISSON’S RATIO a. Compressive strength
● DURABILITY b. Tensile strength
● UNIT WEIGHT c. Flexural strength
d. Shear strength
● DURABILITY Compressive Strength
● GOOD WORKABILITY
● IMPERMEABILITY Two types of test specimens are used
● COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH in Bangladesh -(1) Cube and (2)
● POROSITY Cylinder.
● DRYING SHRINKAGE AND The cube specimens of
CREEP concrete of the desired proportion are
● MODULUS OF ELASTICITY cast in steel or cast iron molds,
normally 6-inch cube. The standard
cylinder specimen of concrete is 6 inch
● STRENGTH in diameter and 12 inches in height
● WORKABILITY and cast in a mold generally made of
● ELASTIC PROPERTIES cast iron;
● IMPERMEABILITY
● SURABILITY Standard cubes and cylinders
are tested at prescribed ages,
● SEGREGATION
generally, 28 days, with additional tests
● BLEEDING
often made at 1, 3, and 7 days. The
● FATIGUE
specimens are tested for crushing
strength under a testing machine. The
Concrete has completely different cube tests give much greater values of
properties when it is the plastic stage crushing strength, usually 20 to 30 %
and when hardened. Concrete in the more than those given by cylinders.
plastic stage is also known as green
concrete. Concrete is a mixture of According to British standards,
several materials. At the hardened the strength of a cylinder specimen is
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equal to three-quarters of the strength It is the real determining factor
of the cube specimen. in the compressive strength of short
columns. The average strength of
Effect of age on concrete strength:
concrete in direct shear varies from
Concrete attains strength with about half of the compressive strength
time. Ordinary cement concrete gains for rich mixtures to about 0.8 of the
above 70 to 75% of its final strength compressive strength for lean
within 28 days and about 90 to 95 % in mixtures.
the course of one year. It is often
Workability
desirable to check the suitability of a
concrete long before the results of the The strength of concrete of a
28-day test are available. When no given mix proportion is very seriously
specific data on the materials used in affected by the degree of its
making concrete are available, the 28- compaction. It is therefore vital that the
day strength may be assumed to be consistency of the mix be such that the
1.5 times of the 7 days’ strength. Tests concrete can be transported, placed
have shown that for concrete made and finished sufficiently easily and
with ordinary Portland cement the ratio without segregation. A concrete
of the 28 days to 7 days’ strength satisfying these conditions is said to be
generally lies between 1.3 to 1.7, and workable.
the majority of the results fall above
Factors affecting the workability of
1.5. The extrapolation of 28 days’
concrete are:
strength from the 7 days’ strength is,
therefore quite reliable; ■ Water Content
The rate of gain of strength of ■ Mix Proportions
the different type of cement concretes ■ Size of Aggregates
are shown in the figure below ■ Shape of Aggregates
■ Grading of Aggregates
Tensile strength ■ Surface Texture of Aggregates
Concrete is very weak in ■ Use of Admixtures
tension. The tensile strength of ■ Use of Supplementary
ordinary concrete ranges from about 7 Cementitious Materials
to 10 percent of the compressive ■ Time
strength. ■ Temperature
Flexural strength Usually, a Slump test is done to
The flexural strength of plain indirectly determine the workability of a
concrete is almost wholly dependent concrete mix.
upon the tensile strength. However, Elastic Properties
experiments show that the modulus of
rupture is considerably greater than Concrete is not perfectly elastic
the strength in tension. for any range of loading, an
appreciable permanent setting taking
Shear strength place for even low loads. The
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deformation is not proportional to the Segregation
stress at any stage of loading. The
The tendency of separation of
elastic properties of concrete vary with
coarse aggregate grains from the
the richness of the mixture and with
concrete mass is called segregation. It
the intensity of the stress. They also
increases when the concrete mixture is
vary with the age of concrete.
lean and too wet. It also increases
Durability when a rather large and rough-
textured aggregate is used. The
Durability is the property of
phenomenon of segregation can be
concrete to withstand the condition for
avoided as follows.
which it has been designed, without
deterioration over a period of years. i. Addition of little air-entraining
Lack of durability can be caused by agents in the mix.
external agents arising from the ii. Restricting the amount of water to
environment or by internal agents the smallest possible amount.
within the concrete. iii. All the operations like handling,
Causes can be categorized as placing and consolidation must be
physical, mechanical and chemical. carefully conducted.
iv. Concrete should not be allowed to
Physical cause arises from the
fall from large heights.
action of frost and from differences
between the thermal properties of Bleeding
aggregate and of the cement paste,
while mechanical causes are The tendency of water to rise to the
associated mainly with abortion. surface of freshly laid concrete is
known as bleeding. The water rising to
Impermeability the surface carries with it, particles of
Penetration of concrete by sand and cement, which on hardening
materials in solution may adversely form a scum layer is popularly known
affect its durability, for instance, when as laitance. Concrete bleeding can be
Ca(OH)2 is being leached out or an checked by adopting the following
attack by aggressive liquids (acids) measures.
takes place. Permeability has an i. By adding more cement
important bearing on the vulnerability ii. By using more finely ground
of concrete to water and frost. In the cement
case of reinforced cement concrete,
iii. By properly designing the mix and
the penetration of moisture and air will
using the minimum quantity of
result in the corrosion of steel. This
water
leads to an increase in the volume of
the steel, resulting in cracking and iv. By using little air entraining agent
spalling of the concrete. Permeability v. By increasing the finer part of fine
of concrete is also of importance for aggregate
liquid retaining and hydraulic
Fatigue
structures;
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Plain concrete when subjected stored and generated by dams.
to flexure, exhibits fatigue. The flexure Concrete is a good choice for dam
resisting ability of concrete of a given building because of the heavy weights
quality is indicated by an endurance that water pressure places on the
limit whose value depends upon the structure.
number of repetitions of stress. In
concrete pavement design, the
allowable flexural working stress is 2. Residential Buildings
limited to 55% of the modulus of Concrete is used to construct the
rupture. skeleton of modest structures, villas,
Desirable Properties of Concrete and even high-rise buildings. This
includes the foundation, slabs, and, of
Durability: Ability of hardened course, columns and beams.
concrete to resist deterioration caused Formwork can be classic or modern.
by weathering, chemicals, and
abrasion 3. Commercial Buildings
Commercial buildings are safer to
Workability: Ease of placing, use than most other types of
handling, and finishing construction materials since they are
made of concrete. Compared to steel
Weather Resistance: Resistance to
buildings, it is often more affordable
deterioration caused by freezing and
and requires less upkeep. Heat flow
thawing, wetting and drying, and
from inside to outside and vice versa
heating and cooling
may be easily managed, which lowers
Erosion Resistance: Resistance to the amount of energy used.
deterioration caused by water flow,
4. Roads or Driveways
traffic, and wind blasting
Concrete streets, pavements, and
Chemical Resistance: Resistance to driveways are more durable and
deterioration caused by de-icing salts, stronger than asphalt roadways. The
salt water, sulfate salts long-lasting service time and the less
maintenance required for concrete
Water Tightness: Resistance to water
roads make it the first choice of
infiltration
material for the construction of roads
Strength and driveways.
Economy 5. Marine Construction
Concrete has had extensive use as
Uses of Concrete
a construction material for seawalls,
The major uses of concrete are: jetties, groins, breakwaters, bulkheads,
and other structures exposed to
1. Concrete Dams
seawater. The performance record has
Concrete's qualities, namely its
generally been good.
strong strength and low density, make
it a better choice as a building material 6. Culverts and Sewers
for dams. Water and power are both
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Sewers and underground Methods for Testing Compressive
construction works need strong and Strength of Concrete
durable building materials and
1. Rebound Hammer or Schmidt
concrete is the ideal one. Culverts,
piers, foundation, abutments are Hammer (ASTM C805)
constructed using a special concrete
mix. Method: A spring release mechanism
7. Foundations is used to activate a hammer which
impacts a plunger to drive into the
Reinforced cement concrete is
surface of the concrete. The rebound
typically used to create the foundation
distance from the hammer to the
of both high-rise and low-rise
surface of the concrete is given a
structures because it is strong and has
value from 10 to 100. This
a large load bearing capability.
measurement is then correlated to the
8. Fences concretes’ strength.
The precast concrete industry's
Pros: Relatively easy to use and can
growth has benefited the concrete
be done directly onsite.
fencing sector. Precast construction
speeds up the production and Cons: Pre-calibration using cored
installation of fence components samples is required for accurate
compared to conventional concrete measurements. Test results can be
fence building. Additionally, it is skewed by surface conditions and the
gorgeous and more charming. presence of large aggregates or rebar
below the testing location.
9. Concrete Bridges
Reinforced concrete strength, 2. Penetration Resistance Test
durability, ductility, weather resistance, (ASTM C803)
fire resistance, and long-lasting life Method: To complete a penetration
cycle makes the concrete the finest resistance test, a device drives a small
alternative for constructing the bridges. pin or probe into the surface of the
Several forms of concrete, including concrete. The force used to penetrate
self-compacted, post-stressed, and the surface, and the depth of the hole,
prestressed concrete, may be used in is correlated to the strength of the in-
the building of bridges. place concrete.
CONCRETE TESTING Pros: Relatively easy to use and can
be done directly onsite.
7 Methods for Testing Concrete
Strength Cons: Data is significantly affected by
surface conditions as well as the type
There are many different
of form and aggregates used.
practices aside from cylinder break
Requires pre-calibration using multiple
tests that can be used. Here are seven
concrete samples for accurate strength
different approaches to consider when
measurements.
choosing a method of strength testing.
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3. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (ASTM These samples are then compressed
C597) in a machine to monitor the strength of
Method: This technique determines the in-situ concrete.
the velocity of a pulse of vibrational
Pros: These samples are considered
energy through a slab. The ease at
more accurate than field-cured
which this energy makes its way
specimens because the concrete that
through the slab provides
is tested for strength has been
measurements regarding the
subjected to the actual thermal history
concrete’s elasticity, resistance to
and curing conditions of the in-place
deformation or stress, and density.
slab.
This data is then correlated to the
slab’s strength. Cons: This is a destructive technique
that requires damaging the structural
Pros: This is a non-destructive testing
integrity of the slab. The locations of
technique which can also be used to
the cores need to be repaired
detect flaws within the concrete, such
afterwards. A lab must be used to
as cracks and honeycombing.
obtain strength data.
Cons: This technique is highly
6. Cast-in-place Cylinders (ASTM
influenced by the presence of
C873)
reinforcements, aggregates, and
Method: Cylinder molds are placed in
moisture in the concrete element. It
the location of the pour. Fresh
also requires calibration with multiple
concrete is poured into these molds
samples for accurate testing.
which remain in the slab. Once
4. Pullout Test (ASTM C900) hardened, these specimens are
Method: The main principle behind removed and compressed for strength.
this test is to pull the concrete using a
Pros: Is considered more accurate
metal rod that is cast-in-place or post-
than field-cured specimens because
installed in the concrete. The pulled
the concrete is subjected to the same
conical shape, in combination with the
curing conditions of the in-place slab,
force required to pull the concrete, is
unlike field-cured specimens.
correlated to compressive strength.
Cons: This is a destructive technique
Pros: Easy to use and can be
that requires damaging the structural
performed on both new and old
integrity of the slab. The locations of
constructions.
the holes need to be repaired
Cons: This test involves crushing or afterwards. A lab must be used to
damaging the concrete. A large obtain strength data.
number of test samples are needed at
7. Wireless Maturity Sensors
different locations of the slab for
(ASTM C1074)
accurate results.
Method: This technique is based on
5. Drilled Core (ASTM C42) the principle that concrete strength is
Method: A core drill is used to extract directly related to its hydration
hardened concrete from the slab. temperature history. Wireless sensors
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are placed within the concrete ● Ingredients of concrete are readily
formwork, secured on the rebar, before available in most places.
pouring. Temperature data is collected ● Unlike natural stones, concrete is
by the sensor and uploaded to any free from defects and flaws.
smart device within an app using a ● Concrete can be manufactured to
wireless connection. This information the desired strength with an
is used to calculate the compressive economy.
strength of the in-situ concrete element
● The durability of concrete is very
based on the maturity equation that is
high.
set up in the app.
● It can be cast to any desired shape.
Pros: Compressive strength data is ● The casting of concrete can be
given in real-time and updated every done on the working site which
15 minutes. As a result, the data is makes it economical.
considered more accurate and reliable ● The maintenance cost of concrete
as the sensors are embedded directly is almost negligible.
in the formwork, meaning they are
● The deterioration of concrete is not
subject to the same curing conditions
appreciable with age.
as the in-situ concrete element. This
● Concrete makes a building fire-safe
also means no time is wasted onsite
waiting for results from a third-party due to its non-combustible nature.
lab. ● Concrete can withstand high
temperatures.
Cons: Requires a one-time calibration ● Concrete is resistant to wind and
for each concrete mix to establish a water. Therefore, it is very useful in
maturity curve using cylinder break storm shelters.
tests.
● As a soundproofing material cinder
Other relevant information concrete could be used.
Disadvantages of Concrete
Concrete is a mix of several
different materials: water, fine ● Compared to other binding
aggregates (or sand), coarse materials, the tensile strength of
aggregates (or gravel), chemical concrete is relatively low.
additives, and, most importantly, ● Concrete is less ductile.
cement. Cement is what binds all of ● The weight of concrete is high
these ingredients together to give compared to its strength.
concrete its durability and distinctive,
● Concrete may contain soluble
grey appearance. It’s widely used
salts. Soluble salts cause
especially in the field of engineering
efflorescence.
and construction. The reason for this is
its advantages over other materials.
However, there are also Additional Lecture for Concrete
disadvantages.
• Definition of Concrete
Advantages of Concrete
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Concrete is a construction This practice covers procedure for
material composed of cement, fine making and curing concrete test
aggregates (sand) and coarse specimen of concrete in the laboratory
aggregates mixed with water which under accurate control of materials
hardens with time. Portland cement is and test conditions using concrete that
the commonly used type of cement for can be consolidated by rodding or
production of concrete. Concrete vibration.
technology deals with study of
This practice provides standardized
properties of concrete and its practical
requirements for preparation of
applications.
materials, mixing concrete, and
• Grade of Concrete making and curing concrete test
specimens under laboratory
Grade of concrete is defined as
conditions. If the specimen preparation
the minimum strength the concrete
is controlled, the specimen may be
must possess after 28 days of
used to develop information for
construction with proper quality
following purposes:
control. Grade of concrete is denoted
by prefixing M to the desired strength 1. Mixture proportioning for concrete
in MPa. For example, for a grade of project
concrete with 20 MPa strength, it will 2. Evaluation of different mixtures and
be denoted by M20, where M stands materials
for Mix. This grade of concrete is 3. Correlation with nondestructive
converted into various mix proportions. tests
4. Providing specimens for research
Two Types of Concrete Mixes
purposes
▪ Nominal Mix – These are those
The number of specimen and the
which are generally used for small
number of test batches are dependent
scale construction and small
on the established practice and the
residential buildings where concrete
nature of the test program. Usually
consumption is not high. Nominal
three or more specimens should be
mixes for grades of concrete such as
prepared for each test age and test
M15, M20, and M25 are generally
conditions unless otherwise specified.
used for small scale construction.
What happens if concrete is not cured
▪ Design Mix – These concrete are
properly?
those for which mix proportions are
obtained from various lab tests. Large When concrete is not cured
structures have high strength properly, its durability, strength and
requirements, thus they go for higher abrasive resistance are affected. Due
grades of concrete such as M30 and to inadequate curing, concrete
above. The mix proportions of these develops plastic shrinkage cracks,
concretes are based on mix design. thermal cracks, along with a
considerable loss in the strength of the
 Making and Curing of surface layer. When the surface of the
Concrete Test Specimen concrete is not kept moist within the
Reviewer
first 24 hours after the casting, the 6. Sampling of concrete, slump-
evaporation from the exposed testing technique and the condition
horizontal surface results in plastic of test equipment,
shrinkage cracks and a weak and 7. The amount of free water in the
dusty surface. concrete, and
8. Time since mixing of concrete at
• Slump Test of a Concrete
the time of testing.
Concrete slump test or slump
Types of Concrete Slump Test
cone test is to determine the
workability or consistency of concrete True Slump – True slump is the only
mix prepared at the laboratory or the slump that can be measured in the
construction site during the progress of test. The measurement is taken
the work. It has been widely used for between the top of the cone and the
workability tests since 1922. The top of the concrete after the cone has
slump is carried out as per procedures been removed as shown in the figure.
mentioned in ASTM C143 in the United
Zero Slump – Zero slump is the
States, IS: 1199 – 1959 in India and
indication of very low water-cement
EN 12350-2 in Europe. Generally,
ratio, which results in dry mixes. This
concrete slump value is used to find
type of concrete is generally used for
the workability, which indicates water-
road construction.
cement ratio, but there are various
factors including properties of Collapsed Slump – This is an
materials, mixing methods, dosage, indication that the water-cement ratio
admixtures etc. also affect the is too high, i.e. concrete mix is too wet
concrete slump value. or it is a high workability mix, for which
a slump test is not appropriate.
• Factors which influence the concrete
slump test Shear Slump – The shear slump
indicates that the result is incomplete,
1. Material properties like chemistry,
and concrete to be retested.
fineness, particle size distribution,
moisture content and temperature
of cementitious materials. Size,
texture, combined grading,
cleanliness and moisture content of
the aggregates,
2. Chemical admixtures dosage, type,
combination, interaction, sequence
of addition and its effectiveness,
3. Air content of concrete,
4. Concrete batching, mixing and
transporting methods and
equipment,
5. Temperature of the concrete,

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Construction Materials and Testing

Initial Setting Time of Cement: It Equipment Used in Cement Testing

Vicat apparatus is a penetration Le Chatelier Flask

Gauging Trowel Designed to undertake a more

Dimensions: 500x400x1510 Hard plastic and steel cylinder

Cube Mold Vibrating tables have been used

Aside from the laboratory oven, Sieves

ELASTICITY It is the ability of a material to

It is the ability of material to It is the ability of a surface to

It is the ability of materials to be The heat capacity is an

• Forging The amount of heat required

i) Initial fatigue damage

ii) Progressive cyclic growth of a crack

iii) Final stage

 Most solids expand when

1. Conduction of free electron

- Metal alloys have lower thermal

A chemical property is any of a  Atomic bonding represents how

2. Atomic Bonding 3. Acidity or Alkalinity

3. Acidity or Alkalinity  Acidity or Alkalinity is an

8. Corrosion Resistance  A toxic material is defined as a

BIRTH OF PORTLAND CEMENT Significant developments have been

Fineness of cement is a measure of Three types of strength of cement

responsible for initial set and ● Free lime (CaO) leads to

early strength. expansion after hydration which

9. Hydrophobic Cement Date of Manufacturing: As the

10. Portland Pozzolana Cement Whether Hard Lumps are Formed:

Concrete can be classified according

Classification of concrete according The consistency of fresh

Unlike conventional cement- Classification according to the

Classification of concrete according In making concrete, the

Lightweight concrete is any kind of 8. Stamped Concrete

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