Chapter 1 Bped 3

Course Code : MAJOR 5
Course Description : APPLIED MOTOR CONTROL AND LEARNING OF EXERCISE, SPORTS AND DANCE
Course Schedule : TTH (9:00 - 10:30)
Room : TE 124
Instructor : JOLIUS DOMINIC B. GANGANO
Introduction
Motor skills are tasks that require voluntary control over movements of the joints and body segments to achieve a
goal e.g riding a bicycle, walking, surfing, jumping, running, and weightlifting. The learning and performance of
these skills are what movement scientists refer to as motor learning and control, or skill acquisition. The study of
motor learning and control plays an integral role in both the performance and rehabilitation of these skills. eg
in stroke or total knee arthroplasty rehabilitation.
According to Roller et al (2012) the production and control of human movement
 Is a process that varies from a simple reflex loop to a complex network of neural patterns that communicate
throughout the Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
New motor patterns are learned through movement, interactions with rich sensory environments, and challenging
experiences that challenge a person to solve problems they encounter. The knowledge about motor control and
motor learning shape our understanding of how individuals progress from novice to skilled motor performance
throughout the lifespan. This page provides an overview about Motor Control and Motor Learning.
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Motor Control
Motor Control is defined as the process of initiating, directing, and grading purposeful voluntary movement . Shumway-Cook
has defined motor control as the ability to regulate mechanisms essential to movement
The Motor Control functions in the following way:
1. The task that needs to be completed is identified→ body gathers sensory information from the environment→ perceives the
information→ chooses a movement plan appropriate plan to meet the goal of the task,
2. Plan is coordinated within the CNS → executed through motor neurons in the brain stem and spinal cord → outcome
communicated to the muscles in postural and limb synergies, and in the head and neck→ motor units timed to fire in a specific
manner.
3. Sensory feedback supplied to the CNS by the movement → decision taken to (1) modify the plan during execution, (2)
acknowledge the goal of the task to be achieved, and (3) store the information for future performance of the same task-goal
combination.
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Theories of Motor Control
The organization and production of movement is a complex problem, so the study of motor control has been approached from a wide
range of disciplines, including psychology, cognitive science, biomechanics and neuroscience. The control of human movement has been
described in many different ways with many different models of Motor Control put forward throughout the 19th & 20th Centuries. There
is still a considerable lack of knowledge which details exactly what is acquired during skill acquisition and which practices are best in
order to develop these skills .
Motor Control Theories include the production of reflexive, automatic, adaptive, and voluntary movements and the performance of
efficient, coordinated, goal-directed movement patterns which involve multiple body systems (input, output, and central processing) and
multiple levels within the nervous system.
MOTOR CONTROL THEORIES AUTHOR DATE PREMISE CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS
 Movement is controlled by stimulus-  Use sensory input to control motor output

Reflex Theory Sherrington 1906 response.  Stimulate good reflexes
 Reflexes are the basis for movement -  Inhibit undesirable (primitive) reflexes
Reflexes are combined into actions that create  Rely heavily on Feedback
behavior.
Dynamical Systems Theory Bernstein 1967  Movement emerges to control degrees of  Movement is an emergent property from the
freedom. interaction of multiple elements.
 Patterns of movements self-organize within  Understand the physical & dynamic
the characteristics of environmental properties of the body - i.e. Velocity-
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Turvey 1977 conditions and the existing body systems of important for dynamics of movement. May be
the individual. good to encourage faster movement in
 Functional synergies are developed naturally patients to produce momentum and therefore
Kelso & Tuller 1984 through practice and experience and help help weak patients move with greater ease.
solve the problem of coordinating multiple
muscles and joint movements at once.
Thelen 1987  De-emphasize commands from CNS in
controlling movement and emphasize
physical explanations for movement.
Hierarchical Theories Adams 1971  Cortical centers control movement in a top-  Identify & prevent primitive reflexes
down manner throughout the nervous  Reduce hyperactive stretch
system.  Normalize tone
 Closed-loop Mode: Sensory feedback is  Facilitate “normal” movement patterns
needed and used to control the movement.
 Developmental Sequence
 Voluntary movementts initiated by “Will”
 Recapitulation
(higher levels). Reflexive movements
dominate only after CNS damage.
Motor Program Theory Schmidt 1976  Adaptive, exible motor programs (MPs) and  Abnormal Movement - Not just reflexive,
generalized motor programs (GMPs) exist to also including abnormalities in central pattern
control actions that have common generators or higher level motor programs.
characteristics.  Help patients relearn the correct rules for
 Higher-level Motor Programs - Store rules for action
generating movements.  Retrain movements important to functional
task
 Do not just reeducate muscles in isolation
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Ecological Theories Gibson & Pick 2000  The person, the task, and the environment  Help patient explore multiple ways in
interact to infuence motor behavior and achieving functional task → Discovering best
learning. The interaction of the person with solution for patient, given the set of
any given environment provides perceptual limitations
information used to control movement.
 The motivation to solve problems to
accomplish a desired movement task goal
facilitates learning.
Systems Model Shumway-Cook 2007  Multiple body systems overlap to activate  Identifiable, functional tasks
synergies for the production of movements  Practice under a variety of conditions
that are organized around functional goals.  Modify environmental contexts
 Considers interaction of the person with the
environment.
 Goal-directed Behavior - Task Orientated
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Motor Learning
Definition
1. "The process of acquiring a skill by which the learner, through practice and assimilation, refines and makes automatic the desired
movement"
2. "An internal neurologic process that results in the ability to produce a new motor task" .
3. “A set of internal processes associated with practice or experience leading to relatively permanent changes in the capability for
skilled behavior
The Motor learning theories are:
MOTOR LEARNING THEORY AUTHOR DATE PREMISE CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS
 Closed Loop - Sensory feedback is used for the  Perform same exact movement repeatedly to
Adams Closed Loop Theory Adams 1971 ongoing production of skilled movement one accurate end point
 Slow movements  Increase Practice → Increase Learning
 Relies on sensory feedback (Sherrington)  Errors produced during learning → Increase
 Blocked Practice strength of incorrect perceptual trace
 Errors = Bad! Needs to be accurate!
 Memory Trace - Initiation of movement
 Perceptual Trace - Built up over a period of
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MOTOR LEARNING THEORY AUTHOR DATE PREMISE CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS
practice & is the reference of correctness.

 Improvements = Increased capability of
performer to use the reference in closed loop
Schmidt's Schema Theory Schmidt 1975  Open Loop  Optimal Learning → Task practiced under
 Schema - Abstract memory representation for many different conditions
events → RULE  Positive benefits for error production (learn
 Generalized Motor Program - Rules that allow from own mistakes)
for the generation of novel movements  Schema has rules for all stored elements, not
 Rapid, ballistic movements = recall memory just correct elements
withmotor programs and parameters to carry
out movement without peripheral feedback
 Variability of Practice → Improve Motor
Learning
Ecological Theory Newell 1991  Based on Systems & Ecological Motor Control  Patient learns to distinguish relevant perceptual
Theories cues important to action.
 Motor Learnining = Increases coordination
between perception and action thru task &
environmental constraints.
 Perceptual-motor workspace - Identifies mvmts
and perceptual cues most relevant to
performance of task
 Optimal task-relevant mapping of perception &
action → NO Rules!
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According to Bernstein's Model:
underlines degrees of freedom (the number of independent movements needed to complete an action, as a central component of
learning a new motor skill). It has 3 stages. They are:
Stage Description
Initial individual simplifies movements by reducing the degrees of freedom
Advanced individual gains a few degrees of freedom, which permits movement in more of the articulations involved in the task
Expert possesses all the degrees of freedom to carry out the task in an effective and coordinated manner.
According to Gentile's Model:
There are 2 stages in this Model. They are:
First Stage Second Stage
 Understanding the purpose of the task  fixation or diversification

 developing movement strategies appropriate for completing the task  redefining movement
 interpreting environmental information that is relevant to organizing movement.  adapting movement to change in task and in setting
 being able to perform the task consistently and efficiently
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Factors affecting Motor Learning:
1. Verbal instructions
2. Practice
3. Active participation and motivation
4. Possibility of errors
5. Postural control
6. Memory
7. Feedback
Clinical Significance of motor control and learning
Motor control and learning help therapists to understand the process behind movements, motor tasks and skills. By
acknowledging the theories of motor learning and control and integrating them into day- to-day practice, therapists will have
a better chance of:
1. identifying issues in motor performance,

2. developing treatment strategies to help patients remediate performance problems, and
3. planning programmes that include a new movement, or the reacquisition and/or modification of movement to be
taught in such a way that it is, consistent and transferrable (ability to perform movement under different environments
and conditions).
4. evaluating the effectiveness of intervention strategies employe
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References
1. Science for Sport Skill Acquisition Available: https://www.scienceforsport.com/skill-acquisition/ (accessed 4.10.2021)
2. Umphred, Darcy A. Umphred's Neurological Rehabilitation. 7th edition. St. Louis, Mo: Elsevier/Mosby, 2013.
3. Medical Dictionary for the Health Professions and Nursing. (2012). Retrieved March 11 2016 from http://medical-
dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/motor+learning
4. Shumway-Cook A, Woollacott M. Motor Control: Translating Research into Clinical Practice. Philadelphia: Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins, 2007. Print.
5. Bate P. Motor Control. In: Sheila Lennon & Maria Stokes. Pocketbook of Neurological Physiotherapy. Churchill
Livingstone, 2008. p31 - 40.
6. Krakauer JW. Motor learning: its relevance to stroke recovery and neurorehabilitation. Curr Opin Neurol. 2006
Feb;19(1):84-90. doi: 10.1097/01.wco.0000200544.29915.cc. PMID: 16415682.
7. Fitts PM, Posner MI. Human Performance. Brooks/Cole Pub. Co; Belmont, CA: 1967.
8. Bernstein N. The co-ordination and regulation of movements. The co-ordination and regulation of movements. 1966.
9. Gentile AM. A working model of skill acquisition with application to teaching. Quest. 1972 Jan 1;17(1):3-23.
10.Cano-de-la-Cuerda R, Molero-Sánchez A, Carratalá-Tejada M, Alguacil-Diego IM, Molina-Rueda F, Miangolarra-Page
JC, et al. Teorías y modelos de control y aprendizaje motor. Aplicaciones clínicas en neurorrehabilitación. Neurología.
2015;30:32–41. https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-neurologia-english-edition--495-articulo-theories-control-models-
motor-learning-S2173580814001424
11.Dr, Richard Keegan. Lecture 1 Classifying Skills and Abilities. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=wlvh8mxxsr4 [last accessed 01/03/16]
12.Dr, Richard Keegan. Lecture 2 Conceptualising Motor Learning. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=NOthWZhdXVE [last accessed 01/03/16]
13.Dr, Richard Keegan. Lecture 3 Models of Motor Learning Stages. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=i8xeLsfigGs [last accessed 01/03/16]
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14.Dr, Richard Keegan. Lecture 4 Structuring the Learning Experience. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=8OvZpBdyPFo [last accessed 01/03/16
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Course Code : MAJOR 5

According to Roller et al (2012) the production and control of human movement

The Motor Control functions in the following way:

Theories of Motor Control

MOTOR CONTROL THEORIES AUTHOR DATE PREMISE CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

 Movement is controlled by stimulus-  Use sensory input to control motor output

MOTOR CONTROL THEORIES AUTHOR DATE PREMISE CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

MOTOR CONTROL THEORIES AUTHOR DATE PREMISE CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

The Motor learning theories are:

MOTOR LEARNING THEORY AUTHOR DATE PREMISE CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

MOTOR LEARNING THEORY AUTHOR DATE PREMISE CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

practice & is the reference of correctness.

According to Bernstein's Model:

Initial individual simplifies movements by reducing the degrees of freedom

According to Gentile's Model:

There are 2 stages in this Model. They are:

First Stage Second Stage

 Understanding the purpose of the task  fixation or diversification

Factors affecting Motor Learning:

Clinical Significance of motor control and learning

1. identifying issues in motor performance,

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