Brink 2022 - Sleep and Affect - A Conceptual Review

Sleep Medicine Reviews 65 (2022) 101670
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Sleep Medicine Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/smrv
Sleep and affect: A conceptual review

Maia ten Brink a, *, Jessica R. Dietch b, Joshua Tutek c, Sooyeon A. Suh d, James J. Gross a,
Rachel Manber c
a
Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
b
School of Psychological Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
c
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
d
Department of Psychology, Sungshin University, Seoul, South Korea
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Everyday experience suggests that sleep and affect are closely linked, with daytime affect influencing
Received 2 December 2021 how we sleep, and sleep influencing subsequent affect. Yet empirical evidence for this bidirectional
Received in revised form relationship between sleep and affect in non-clinical adult samples remains mixed, which may be due to
15 June 2022
heterogeneity in both construct definitions and measurement. This conceptual review proposes a
Accepted 8 July 2022
granular framework that deconstructs sleep and affect findings according to three subordinate di-
Available online 18 August 2022
mensions, namely domains (which are distinct for sleep and affect), methods (i.e., self-report vs.
behavioral/physiological measures), and timescale (i.e., shorter vs. longer). We illustrate the value of our
Keywords:
Affect
granular framework through a systematic review of empirical studies published in PubMed (N ¼ 80
Sleep articles). We found that in some cases, particularly for sleep disturbances and sleep duration, our
Conceptual review framework identified robust evidence for associations with affect that are separable by domain, method,
Framework and timescale. However, in most other cases, evidence was either inconclusive or too sparse, resulting in
Granularity no clear patterns. Our review did not find support for granular bidirectionality between sleep and affect.
Methods We suggest a roadmap for future studies based on gaps identified by our review and discuss advantages
Timescales and disadvantages of our granular dimensional framework.
© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction In this article, we describe a framework for organizing the

complex and heterogeneous literature on associations between
Everyday experience tells us that certain affective states can sleep and affect, combining distinctions from sleep science and
make it difficult to fall asleep, sleep well, or sleep enough. It also affective science to illuminate patterns of empirical results at the
suggests that poor sleep might impair affective functioning. These intersection of the two fields. We then demonstrate how this
common experiences are congruent with the widespread view that framework can be used to clarify where empirical research
sleep and affect have bidirectional links (see Fig. 1) [1,2]. Despite the currently stands on the following three questions, related to three
intuitive appeal of this idea, the empirical evidence for links be- broad study designs: 1) What are the cross-sectional associations
tween sleep and affect remains mixed [1e6]. Among individuals between sleep and affect? 2) What can we learn from studies in
with mental health disorders such as insomnia, anxiety, depressive, which affective experience temporally precedes sleep experience?
post-traumatic stress, and bipolar disorders, affective states do and 3) What can we learn from studies in which sleep experience
seem to be related to sleep [7,8]. However, while it is commonly temporally precedes affective experience? We organize our results
assumed that the link between sleep and affect is also evident in in three sections corresponding to each of these three questions.
non-clinical populations, the empirical evidence is not as strong We conclude with suggestions for researchers moving forward.
[1,5] as might be expected from widespread lay beliefs.
2. Our granular dimensional framework
Sleep scientists and affective scientists each make distinctions

* Corresponding author.450 Jane Stanford Way, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA within their respective fields in terms of three dimensions: do-
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. ten Brink). mains, methods, and timescales. We believe that attending to these
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2022.101670
1087-0792/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. ten Brink, J.R. Dietch, J. Tutek et al. Sleep Medicine Reviews 65 (2022) 101670
frequency during sleep, and b) autonomic activity, encompassing

neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, and neuromodulatory systems, in
order to capture activation in the body during sleep.
For affect, we included four domains: negative valence, positive
valence, arousal, and specific emotions. We draw these categories
both from the range of published studies on bidirectional sleep-
affect links and from well-accepted categorization of affect along
two core axes, valence and arousal, that correspond to a continuum
of pleasantness to unpleasantness and a continuum from low to
high activation, respectively. Specific emotions such as sadness, joy,
anger, and fear are thought to occupy different positions on a cir-
cumplex of affect defined by the axes of valence and arousal [14]. As
with sleep, some affective constructs show empirical separability,
while others represent a mixture of related domains. We included
domains for both positive and negative valence because empirical
work indicates that they are separable and can co-occur in the same
affective experience [15,16]. The specific emotion categories we
focus on represent the constructs described in the literature
reviewed for this article, but do not represent all specific emotions.
2.2. Methods
We distinguish two broad methods of assessment (depicted in

Fig. 1. Bidirectional spiral depicting relationships between sleep and affect unfolding blue in Fig. 2A), namely self-report and behavioral and physiolog-
dynamically over time.
ical signals. We favor this terminology over the common “subjec-
tive vs. objective” distinction because, for both sleep and affect, we
three dimensions at once (see schematic of our framework in
face limitations in our ability to ground-truth the measurements
Fig. 2A) could deepen our understanding of points of contact be-
typically deemed “objective” without relating them to “subjective”
tween sleep and affect, help explain current inconsistencies, and
measures.
identify gaps in knowledge. We discuss each of these three di-
Self-report measures of sleep include questionnaires and daily
mensions below.
diaries. Behavioral/physiological measures of sleep include mea-
sures of movement, such as actigraphy, brain and muscle activity,
2.1. Domains usually captured with polysomnography (PSG), and other indices of
sleep health such as electrocardiography (ECG) [17,18]. In general,
Sleep and affect are each multi-faceted constructs that encom- sleep researchers tend to place the greatest confidence in the
pass a suite of experiences, behaviors, and physiological responses precision of polysomnography, considered the “gold standard,”
with separable and overlapping aspects [9,10]. They each contain moderate confidence in measures like actigraphy and daily diary,
distinct domains (depicted in gold in Fig. 2A); therefore we describe and least confidence in questionnaires about habitual sleep. At the
them separately. same time, PSG is not a feasible measure of habitual sleep over
For sleep, we start with Buysse's [11] five sleep health domains, extended periods of time, nor is it able to assess aspects of sleep
namely: 1) sleep duration, usually assessed by total sleep time; 2) related to one's perception. There is general acknowledgement that
sleep continuity, which can be captured by sleep efficiency, defined actigraphy and daily diary assessed across multiple weeks have
as the percent of time spent asleep, or as sleep fragmentation, using greater ecological validity than a few nights of laboratory poly-
fragmentation indices, minutes awake after sleep onset, or per- somnography [18,19]. Self-reported sleep quality has only moder-
centage of time awake during specific sleep stages; 3) sleep timing, ate agreement with behavioral/physiological measures of sleep
indexed by bedtime, wake time, dim light melatonin onset, circadian [19,20], suggesting that the subjective experience of sleep is not
nadir, or sleep timing relative to circadian preference; 4) sleep fully captured by behavioral/physiological measures. The agree-
quality or satisfaction, a subjective perception of sleep typically ment between self-report and behavioral/physiological measures
assessed by self-report; and 5) sleepiness and alertness, which can of sleep vary by population and sleep variable of interest. One can
be measured either as a subjective perception or by performance on argue that there is valuable information in the level of disagree-
tasks that require cognitive and/or attentional vigilance. For this ment between self-report and behavioral/physiological sleep
review, we broke the domain of sleep continuity into global and measures (e.g., “sleep state misperception”) and that it might be
specific measures of continuity. For global sleep continuity, we best to view the two as complementary. We also note that, unlike
included, for example, sleep efficiency and total wake time (time to behavioral/physiological measures of sleep, self-reported measures
sleep onset plus time awake after sleep onset). For specific sleep of sleep are inherently retrospective as they cannot be obtained
continuity, we included two domains: sleep onset latency (SOL) and during the experience of sleeping.
wakefulness after sleep onset (WASO; e.g., minutes awake after sleep In affective science, affect is usually assessed via a combination
onset and number of awakenings). We also expanded the satisfac- of self-report measures, such as questionnaires or ratings of
tion/quality domain by adding a sleep disturbance domain, as momentary states, and a host of behavioral/physiological measures
measured by global sleep disturbance questionnaires such as the of affect that assess responses to affective stimuli. The latter include
Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index [12] and the Insomnia Severity Index reaction time, measures of facial expressions using electromyog-
[13]. Sleep research also examines aspects of sleep that have not raphy or facial coding, autonomic measures, such as ECG and skin
been fully mapped to these five domains. Therefore, we added the conductance response to affective stimuli, and neural measures,
following domains: a) sleep architecture, in order to capture macro- such as electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic
and micro-level neural activity such as sleep stages and spectral resonance imaging (fMRI) [21]. Affective scientists argue that use of
2
Fig. 2. Organizing framework concept and execution.

Panel A: Conceptual representation of our framework describing sleep and affect constructs (in black) as three dimensions. Domains are represented in gold and populated with six
example categories. Methods are represented in blue and populated with two example categories. Timescales are represented in teal and populated with two categories. These
specific categories are flexible, as represented by the ellipses, so the number and identity of categories within each dimension can change, as well as the number and identity of
dimensions. In the present review, we used the following categories: 10 sleep and 14 affect domains (see Tables S2-S4 for the full set of domains used in the present review), two
methods, self-report (in light blue) and behavioral/physiological signals (in bold blue); and two timescales, short-term (in light teal) and long-term (in bold teal).
The diagonal gray lines represent a hypothetical study in which sleep and affect are each assessed within two categories of domain, and for each of those, two methods at two
timescales, for a total of eight observations. In this example, there are seven unique associations. As an example of how to interpret each association, we draw attention to one single
association (represented by a thick black line); the association is between short-term self-reported sleep duration and long-term self-reported negative valence.
Panel B: Representation of the practical execution of organizing multiple studies into matrices (see Tables S2-S4) using the conceptual structure depicted in Panel A. The single
association from Panel A is entered in one cell (represented as a black dot). Multiple associations from one study table (multiple black dots) as well as from different studies
(different colored dots) can be entered into the table. In order to derive conclusions about associations, we analyze results from multiple studies in a given cell. Different study
designs, population samples, or other categorical moderators can be expressed as different versions of this matrix. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend,
the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
the terms “subjective”/“objective” can prevent researchers from simplicity, we use two broad categories, short-term and long-term.
taking seriously internal qualia that subjects report as well as We define short-term as measures examining one or a few in-
behavioral/physiological indices of internal processes. Instead, stances of sleep or affect, collected over 48 h or less, and long-term
affect researchers tend to consider a suite of “loosely coupled” [22] as measures examining either multiple instances or summarizing
measures as providing a holistic picture of the construct under across multiple instances, collected over more than 48 h. The choice
study [23]. Measures of affect tend to demonstrate moderate of 48 h as a cutoff is a compromise between timescales used in
coherence at best, but, as is the case for sleep scientists, affective sleep and affective literatures and is somewhat arbitrary. The
scientists argue that the degree of coherence between channels translation of the terminology of short- and long-term timescales
may itself carry important information. from the terminology of “state vs. trait” is complex. For example,
one individual's single instance measurement may reflect their
2.3. Timescales person-level average, as well as the variance away from their
average at that particular instance. Likewise, measuring multiple
We distinguish measures based on the time window they cap- instances over the long-term allows for calculation of person-level
ture (i.e., timescale of interest; depicted in teal in Fig. 2A). For averages as well as estimates of within-person variation.
3
Temporal dynamics are extremely important to consider when The following inclusion criteria were used to select studies: 1)
studying sleep, since sleep patterns on one night can influence original, published peer-reviewed articles that included healthy
subsequent sleep in the next hours or days. This is because ho- human participants between the ages of 18e65; 2) assessed af-
meostatic sleep drive builds up over the course of a day and, if fective experience with either self-report or behavioral/physiolog-
unfulfilled, continues to increase until full recovery sleep is attained ical data; (3) assessed sleep parameters with either self-report or
[24]. The timescale of interest, the resolution of measurement, and behavioral/physiological data; and (4) had the full text available in
the proximity of measurement to the sleep period are all relevant in English. Studies were excluded if they 1) only assessed affective
sleep research. The timescale of interest may be a single or multiple memory, learning, specific cognitions relating to sleep or affect,
sleep opportunities, depending on the research question. The res- stress, or affect regulation (and did not otherwise include a mea-
olution, captured by the sampling rate and summary strategy, may sure of affective experience)1; 2) used a mixed-age sample which
be milliseconds, minutes, hours, or longer. Examples of coarse included participants outside of the 18-65 range; 3) did not focus
resolution measurements include asking individuals to summarize on a healthy (i.e., non-clinical) sample or did not include a sub-
their sleep across periods of weeks, months, or years. For instance, sample/control group/subgroup analysis of healthy participants, 4)
sleep disturbances are usually measured with questionnaires that included participants likely to have a shift work or non-traditional
assess habitual sleep and hence most measures are inherently long- sleep schedule (e.g., nighttime caregivers); 5) included a sleep or
term. In most cases, sampling at a higher frequency over a longer affect intervention without reporting relationships between sleep
period is considered more ecologically valid, even when observa- and affect at baseline; 6) were systematic reviews, meta-analyses,
tions are summarized, than sampling fewer nights or shorter pe- dissertations, editorials, or conference proceedings; or 7) had an
riods. The timing of sleep assessments is also relevant. Sleep can be N < 25.
measured as it occurs, or later. In the case of later reporting, the The search process is reported according to PRISMA guidelines,
time since sleep occurred may vary widely from a few hours to when applicable (see PRISMA checklist in Supplementary Mate-
weeks or longer. Characterizing the timing of sleep and its mea- rials). See Fig. 3 for the description of the flow of the review process.
surements is also important because sleep's internal structure and Publications were independently reviewed at the title/abstract
duration are impacted by the circadian regulation of sleep [24]. level by two authors (JRD & JT) against the inclusion/exclusion
Affective states, even when measured at a single moment in criteria. Studies that progressed to the next phase of review were
time, represent a process of generation and regulation that ranges then reviewed, further screened, and categorized by both authors,
from seconds to minutes, hours or days [10]. Initially, we attend to as described below, and discrepancies were resolved by consensus
some internal or external state of the world, make an appraisal or involving a third author (MtB, RM) as needed.
valuation of its meaning, and generate a response, whether an We also conducted a systematic risk of bias assessment using
external behavior or an internal thought. Each action then begets a the National Heart Lung and Blood Institute Quality Assessment
new state of the world, setting off the cycle again. Essentially, affect Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies [30]. Two
can be considered as a time series consisting of fluctuating states independent raters assessed the risk of bias of each manuscript (see
set off by perceptions, valuations, and responses to states of the Table S1). There was a high inter-rater agreement, with only 7
world. One affective state may continue to influence future affective manuscripts requiring discussion to reach agreement. A final
states. The timescales for these affective states are variable. For exclusion criterion was having high risk of bias (poor quality).
example: valuations and appraisals that form within hundreds of We entered the citation for each coded study in Table S1. As
milliseconds, thoughts within seconds, autonomic system re- shown in the schematic matrix in Fig. 2B, we entered the findings
sponses within seconds, cortisol and hypothalamic-pituitary- from each study into three tables. We classified studies as “cross-
adrenal axis activation over the course of minutes, moods that sectional” when participants’ sleep and affect experiences occurred
last minutes or hours, and personality traits such as neuroticism in overlapping time windows, or if the temporal ordering of the
that remain stable across contexts for weeks, months, and years experiences could not be determined (Table S2). We classified
[10,25]. As in the case of timescales for assessing sleep, assessing studies as “affect to sleep” when the affective experience tempo-
affect may vary across experimental designs in terms of the time- rally preceded the sleep experience (Table S3), and as “sleep to
scale of interest, the resolution of measurement (i.e., number, affect” when the sleep experience temporally preceded the affec-
timing of assessments, and summary strategies), and the proximity tive experience (Table S4). Studies were categorized as temporally
of the measure to the affective experience. For example, some sequential based on the period of time the sleep/affect was expe-
studies of affect measure it at a single time and others at repeated rienced, ignoring the timing of the measurement. We note that,
time points; some use measures reflecting affect over several days although we included in Tables S3 and S4 mostly studies in which
and others measure affect as it is experienced at multiple time both sleep and affect were measured repeatedly or at different
points (e.g., ecological momentary assessments). times, we did also include studies in which sleep and affect were
each measured at a single time point, even though the affective
3. Review of empirical studies from PubMed experience and the sleep experience referred to in the measure-
ment were temporally sequenced and non-overlapping. We
We applied our framework to a systematic review of the
PubMed database [26]. The review was pre-registered on Open
1
Science Framework, available at https://osf.io/7rksp/?view_ We made one exception, however, and included studies of affect recognition
only¼bee231f528424e0e90e5c557e7da63be. This registration in- because a large portion of the articles operationalized affect with a task where
participants had to recognize and label affect from faces or pictures. Affect recog-
cludes the search terms and inclusion/exclusion criteria. The
nition relies on a distinct set of psychological processes of perception, memory, and
PubMed database was searched from inception through September theory of mind to evaluate how people generally rate the affect of a picture [28].
1, 2020 with terms combining “affect,” “mood,” or “emotion” (and Affective experience, however, involves a more automatic assessment of one's own
appropriate derivations) with “sleep.” Search limitations were state, involving interception of internal sensations and introspective processes.
placed on age (adults/young adults/middle aged) and subjects These processes also appear to be dissociated in the brain [29]. Given how often
studies blurred this distinction, we decided to include but explicitly separate af-
(human). The search string is provided in the supplemental mate- fective experience from affect recognition results in the empirical review in order to
rials. Rayyan web-based software [27] was used to organize and illustrate how those measures perform differently from measures of affective
screen studies. experience (Table S4).
4
Where studies’ conclusions diverged, we designated confidence

in the associations (possible or robust) based on our assessment of
study quality, sample size, and proportion of studies with similar
findings. Cells that contained fewer than three results were
considered to reflect “inconclusive evidence” (gray hue). Other-
wise, we applied the following rules: 1) Cells where at least 60% of
results within a cell converged in a given direction were summa-
rized as “possible associations” (light hue) in that direction; 2) Cells
where there was convergence across at least 85% of results in a
given direction were summarized as “robust associations” (bold
hue) in that direction; 3) Cells where convergence was below 60%
were summarized as “inconclusive evidence” (gray hue). When
computing the above proportions, we weighted studies taking the
risk of bias assessment into account, so that “good” study quality
translated to a weight of 1 and “fair” translated to a weight of 0.5.
We also adjusted for multiple convergent results that were based
on the same sample by considering them as a single sample both in
the numerator and denominator. Some cells include both natural-
istic and sleep manipulation studies (i.e., partial or total sleep
deprivation); this pertains mostly to the sleep duration domain in
studies where sleep temporally precedes affective experience
(Table S4 and Fig. 6). Consequently, we conducted sensitivity
analysis to document the impact of excluding the sleep manipu-
lation studies on the conclusions.
Notably, we organized measures according to the actual oper-
ationalization of the construct, not the label provided by the au-
Fig. 3. PRISMA 2020 flow diagram for new systematic reviews that included searches thors. For example, a rating of sleepiness was categorized as
of databases and registers only.
Note: Two studies (indicated by an asterisk, *) that were known to the authors were
belonging to the “sleepiness” domain even if authors referred to it
not picked up by the search due to a PubMed classification error. as “sleep quality,” and purported “anger” measures that only asked
about unpleasantness rather than the specific experience of anger
were classified as “negative valence.” We also note that we orga-
therefore caution against interpreting temporal sequencing as nized results according to main findings, ignoring moderators, but
causal effects. denoted in the supplementary tables wherever effects were
Each column and row is split by dimensions (see Fig. 2B): moderated.
domain, method (either self-report or behavioral/physiological
signals), and timescale (either short- or long-term). Each column 4. Results
represents one particular domain of affect measured using one
methodology (either self-report or behavioral/physiological sig- Our PubMed search returned 9,011 studies. We deleted 10 du-
nals) at a particular timescale (either short- or long-term). Each cell plicates and added 2 studies that were known to the authors to be
represents the association between that particular sleep and affect indexed in PubMed but did not appear in the search results due to
sub-construct. errors in the MeSH terms for a total of 9,003 papers. The most
For each study, we extracted and coded the direction of asso- common reason for exclusion was studies that had N < 25 (see
ciations between sleep and affect variables based on whether there Fig. 3). The final sample included 80 papers. Studies were published
was a significant positive or negative linear association or no evi- between 1994 and 2020. Across all papers, there were 295,730
dence for a linear association. In addition, we coded the consistency participants (68% female). We present the results below in three
of associations when different measures were reported within a sections corresponding to the three questions we presented in the
single study that we categorized as belonging in the same domain, introduction. In each section, results are presented grouped by
method, and timescale; namely, we coded whether there were a sleep domain (corresponding to columns in Figs. 4e6).
combination of multiple significant and non-significant associa-
tions, or a combination of significant associations in opposing di- 4.1. Cross-sectional associations
rections. Studies sometimes appeared in multiple cells (see black
dots in Fig. 2B) and occasionally appeared in multiple tables, as a Fig. 4 summarizes patterns of cross-sectional associations be-
given study frequently included multiple methods and findings. tween both self-report and behavioral/physiological measures of
We then summarized broad patterns in Figs. 4e6, with each sleep and self-reported affect, drawing from Table S2. Regarding
figure corresponding to Tables S2, S3, and S4, respectively. In each sleep domains, we found that by far, the largest number of studies
of the three figures, we included only sleep and affect variables was in the domain of sleep disturbances, followed by quality/
(columns and rows) in which at least one of the cells was populated satisfaction, and then duration. We note the paucity of cross-
by at least three results (see schematic in Fig. 2B) coded as low risk sectional studies reporting on the sleep domains of sleep onset
of bias (i.e., “good” in Table S1). We used the following color coding latency (SOL), waking after sleep onset (WASO), timing, sleep ar-
to indicate our conclusions for directions of association: orange for chitecture, and autonomic activity. We also note the dearth of
no evidence of an association, red for negative, and green for pos- studies in the affect domains of arousal and numerous specific
itive; and bold or light hues to indicate the robustness of a given emotions, particularly specific positive emotions. Regarding
association. In each cell of each figure (see Figs. 4e6), the number methods, the dominant methodology used in cross-sectional
indicates how many results were available in that cell and the studies was self-report. Regarding timescales, the number of
bubble size indicates our confidence in the result. cross-sectional studies examining both short- and long-term
5
Fig. 4. Summary of findings for cross-sectional associations between sleep and affect.
This figure summarizes Table S2. Only columns and rows from Table S2 that contain at least three studies in one cell are included. The column and row headers represent domains
(gold), methods (blue), and timescales (teal). The size of the bubble represents our confidence in the strength of the result. Low, moderate, and high confidence correspond to small,
medium, and large bubbles respectively. The number in the center of the bubble represents the number of studies in a given cell. The color of the bubble represents the direction of
evidence for the association. Light hues represent possible evidence for association and bold hues represent robust evidence for association. All associations are in the direction
represented by their domain labels. For a positive association between duration and negative valence, for example, that means that higher negative valence is associated with longer
duration. . (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
timescales of interest were relatively balanced, compared to studies duration and affect seemed to be non-existent or inconclusive, with
in which affective experience temporally preceded sleep experi- possible null associations with short-term positive valence
ence (Fig. 5) or vice versa (Fig. 4). [47,50,54], and a mix of null, positive, and negative associations
Cross-sectional associations between sleep disturbances and [37,50,54,56] with short-term negative valence. There did not seem
affect. The largest number of studies and the most robust associ- to be evidence for associations when timescales of sleep duration
ations were identified between self-reported sleep disturbances and affect were mismatched. There was evidence for robust null
and self-reported affect. Results for the domains of sleep distur- associations between short-term self-reported measures of nega-
bances, duration, timing, continuity, and quality were convergent. tive and positive valence and long-term self-reported [40,57,58]
This is not surprising given that many measures of sleep distur- and behavioral/physiological measures [34,58,59] of duration. The
bances were composites of the other domains. We identified robust pattern of findings in the sleep duration domain highlights the
positive associations between matching timescales for self-reports, insights that can be gained by considering distinctions between
such that greater short-term sleep disturbances were associated short- and long-term timescales and between self-reported and
with greater short-term negative valence in general [31e37], as behavioral/physiological measurement methods.
well as with specific negative emotions of depressive affect (which Cross-sectional associations between sleep continuity and
captured the combination of sadness and anhedonia) [38e41] and affect. There were very few cross-sectional associations in the
anxiety, fear, or threat specific emotions [38e40,42]. Greater long- domain of sleep continuity. There were not enough studies
term sleep disturbances were also associated with greater long- reporting SOL or WASO separately to derive any conclusions about
term negative valence [43e46]. The pattern of matched time- specific sleep continuity. In the global sleep continuity domain, two
scales also emerged for positive valence, reflecting possible short- of three studies reviewed [50,54,60] did not find evidence for an
term [31,33,34,38,47] and robust long-term [43,44,46,48] negative association between short-term self-reported continuity and
associations. There was a dearth of studies examining short-term negative valence, while the evidence for an association between
sleep disturbance associations with long-term affect and vice versa. long-term self-reported continuity and negative valence was
Cross-sectional associations between sleep quality/satisfaction inconclusive [49,50,61]. There were also too few studies with
and affect. The pattern of associations in the quality domain was mismatching time-scales to draw conclusions.
consistent with results for the sleep disturbances domain: better Cross-sectional associations between sleepiness and affect.
sleep quality is associated with lower negative valence (long-term: There was a robust cross-sectional association between short-term
[49e53]) and higher positive valence (short-term [49,54,55]: and self-reported sleepiness and negative valence [32,35,37,62]. There
long-term: [50e53]). However, when quality and negative valence were too few studies in other affect domains to draw any
were both measured at short-term timescales, we identified a conclusions.
possible null association [50,54,55]. This divergence from the results
pertaining to the domain of sleep disturbance supports the value of 4.2. Affect to sleep associations
considering sleep quality and sleep disturbances as separate domains.
Cross-sectional associations between sleep duration and Fig. 5 summarizes results from studies coded in Table S3. These
affect. Cross-sectional associations between self-reported sleep studies report associations between short-term self-reported affect
6
and subsequently experienced behavioral/physiological and self- Affect temporally preceding sleep duration. Despite a fairly
reported sleep. Only five domains of sleep (duration, global sleep large number of studies in the sleep duration domain, there was no
continuity, SOL, and sleep quality/satisfaction) had a sufficient clearly conclusive association between self-reports of short-term
number of studies to be included in the figure and interpreted. sleep duration and short-term negative [63,65e68] or positive
Nearly all sleep domains contained studies measuring at short- valence [63,65e67].
term timescales. Only two affect domains, negative and positive
valence, were well represented, and they were dominated by self- 4.3. Sleep to affect associations
report measures at short-term timescales. Across all studies of
affect temporally preceding sleep, there was no support for asso- Fig. 6 summarizes patterns from studies coded in Table S4. Just
ciations between affect and subsequent sleep, with the exception of over half of all results in this figure were in the sleep duration
sleep quality. domain. However, only three sleep duration results remained
Affect temporally preceding sleep quality/satisfaction. We conclusive after excluding sleep manipulation studies (either par-
identified a robust association between self-reports of short-term tial or total deprivation, denoted in the text with y) [74e86]. In
positive valence and long-term sleep quality/satisfaction contrast, most other domains were sparsely populated. Fig. 6 is the
[52,63,64]. However, the evidence for association with short-term only one of the three figures where the domain of micro- and
quality was inconclusive [63,65e67]. This divergence of results macro-sleep architecture had at least three studies in a cell. There
for long- and short-term sleep quality highlights the value of were very few studies of arousal and specific emotions.
considering timescale in our framework. Evidence suggested a Sleep duration temporally preceding affect. For short-term
possible null association between short-term self-reported quality self-reported duration, we found no evidence for an association
and negative valence [63,65e69], supporting negative and positive with negative valence [54,65,66,68,69,87,88] and a possible null as-
valence as separate domains in the framework. sociation with positive valence [54,65e67,88]. For short-term
Affect temporally preceding sleep continuity. Within both the behavioral/physiological measures of duration, we found a possible
global sleep continuity domain [70e72] and the specific sleep null association with self-reported negative valence
continuity domain of SOL [70,71,73] measured at short-term [49,70,76y,77y,79e82y,86y,89e92] (46% of studies involved sleep
timescales with behavioral/physiological signals, we found a deprivation) but a negative association with behavioral/physiological
possible null association with short-term self-reported negative measures of negative valence [49,76y,77y,90] (50% of studies
valence. We identified a divergence of results when short-term SOL involved sleep deprivation). Likewise, different findings depending
was measured using self-report versus behavioral/physiological on methods also emerged for arousal, where we found a possible null
signals. In the former case, there was no conclusive evidence for any association with self-reported arousal [49,76y,80y,83,90,93] (33% of
associations with short-term self-reported negative valence studies involved sleep deprivation) but a negative association with
[63,65,67,68,73]; in the latter case, we identified a possible null behavioral/physiological measures of arousal [76y,90,92,93] (25% of
association with short-term self-reported negative valence studies involved sleep deprivation). Sensitivity analyses for results
[70,71,73]. With short-term self-reported SOL, we saw the opposite pertaining to behavioral/physiological signals of sleep duration
pattern to the one in the sleep quality domain described above. revealed that excluding studies involving partial or total sleep
Specifically, we identified a possible null association with positive deprivation only changed the conclusions for the association be-
valence [63,65,67,73], while the evidence was inconclusive for an tween short-term duration and short-term behavioral/physiological
association with negative valence. signals of negative valence; specifically, after excluding sleep studies
Fig. 5. Summary of findings for sequential studies in which affect temporally precedes sleep.
duration. . (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
7
Fig. 6. Summary of findings for sequential studies in which sleep temporally precedes affect.
duration. Asterisks (*) indicate that the conclusions are impacted if sleep manipulation studies are excluded. . (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
involving manipulation of sleep duration, there were not enough timescales and methodologies for self-reports. Better short-term
remaining studies to draw conclusions. sleep quality was associated with greater short-term positive
We identified a negative association between short-term valence [54,59,65e67,88,95,96] and possibly also with lower short-
behavioral/physiological signals of duration and short-term self- term arousal [59,68,95]. Better long-term sleep quality was associ-
report of the specific emotions of anger and aggression ated with greater long-term positive valence [48,94,97]. Finally,
[74y,79y,81y,82y] that replicated the behavioral/physiological despite the large number of studies [54,59,65e69,88,95,96], there
negative valence and arousal findings, but interestingly, not the was no clear pattern of association between short-term sleep quality
self-report findings. Because 100% of studies examining this asso- and short-term negative valence. There were no studies of long-term
ciation involved partial or total sleep deprivation, it is more accu- self-reported sleep quality temporally preceding short-term self-
rate to say that we identified a negative association between short- report or behavioral/physiological measures of negative valence.
term behavioral/physiological measures of manipulated sleep Sleep continuity temporally preceding affect. We identified
deprivation and short-term self-reported anger and aggression. possible associations for the specific continuity domain of SOL with
Examining associations at short-term timescales, we could not affect along matching methods and timescales. Longer short-term
conclusively identify an association between behavioral/physio- self-reported SOL was possibly associated with higher short-term
logical measures of duration and self-reported positive valence self-reported negative valence [65,67,68,88] and lower positive
[70,76y,77y,79y,82y,86y,89,91,92] (56% of studies involved sleep valence [65,67,88]. Behavioral/physiological measures of the spe-
deprivation). We also could not conclusively identify an association cific continuity domain of WASO, however, showed inconclusive
between behavioral/physiological measures of duration and self- associations with self-reported positive valence measured at
reported specific emotions of anxiety, fear, and threat matching long-term timescales [94,98,99]. There were very few
[74y,81y,82y,92] (75% of studies involved sleep deprivation); half of studies populating the WASO domain.
studies found a null association similar to the self-reported results Sleep architecture temporally preceding affect. The few
for negative valence and arousal, while the other half found a relevant existing studies did not conclusively reveal patterns of
negative association similar to the behavioral/physiological signal association for short-term macro- and micro-sleep architecture
results for negative valence and arousal. At long-term timescales, with either short-term self-reported negative [72,75y,89,91] or
we found a robust positive association between behavioral/physi- positive [75y,89,91] valence. Sensitivity analyses revealed that
ological signals measuring duration and self-reported positive excluding the single study involving partial or total sleep depriva-
valence [84y,85y,94] (67% of studies involved sleep deprivation). It tion did not change the inconclusive pattern of evidence (for
bears noting that, wherever we did so, excluding studies involving negative valence) or did not leave enough studies to draw conclu-
partial or total sleep deprivation did not yield a clearer pattern of sions (for positive valence).
associations. Even examining sleep deprivation studies alone, when
the cells included more than three studies, a conclusive pattern of 5. Discussion
association could not be identified.
Sleep quality/satisfaction temporally preceding affect. We Our granular dimensional framework allowed us to visualize
identified possible positive associations between matching patterns of converging results as well as discrepancies and gaps in
8
the literature. Below, we contextualize specific findings from therefore carefully examined the wording of specific items when
Figs. 4e6 relative to prior published reviews. Earlier reviews often reviewing and organizing studies within our framework in order to
struggled to make sense of seemingly contradictory associations avoid conflation.
and draw conclusions based on the limited pool of studies. Some
recent reviews [1,3,4,100] have begun to make headway by taking a 5.2. What can we learn from studies in which affective experience
more granular approach to patterns of association, similar to the temporally precedes sleep experience?
current paper. Konjarski's [1] review of studies with a sequential
design is notable in that it separated the domains of positive and For positive affect, we find that increased short-term self-re-
negative affect, and, like our review, excluded stress as an affective ported positive valence is associated with better long-term self-
experience. We begin with a summary of our findings for each of reported sleep quality, but we could not draw a conclusion about
the three questions we posed, corresponding to each of the three short-term sleep quality (see Fig. 5). In addition, the direction of
study designs. We note that findings are not always consistent influence of positive valence was inconclusive for short-term self-
across study designs. For example, we found cross-sectional evi- reported duration, and there was a possible null association with
dence that more long-term self-reported disturbed sleep and, short-term self-reported SOL (see Fig. 5). Although some reviews
separately, worse sleep quality/satisfaction are each associated suggest links between sleep and positive affect [1,66], Ong [3]
with more negative valence and less positive valence. However, this concluded that more than 65% of the studies they reviewed suf-
association was not evident in studies that examined how sleep fered from bias or design weaknesses and noted that between-
temporally preceded affect. Despite repeated claims of broad person variation in positive affect seemed more predictive of
construct bidirectionality in the sleep and affect literature, we did sleep outcomes than within-person variation. We also note that we
not identify any clear bidirectional patterns with our granular were not able to find past reviews that focused exclusively on non-
dimensional framework, such that there was no cell where there clinical samples. Most combined results from clinical and non-
was a temporal association from both affect to sleep and sleep to clinical samples.
affect. For negative affect, we find that there is either inconclusive
evidence of an association or possible null association between
5.1. What are the cross-sectional associations between sleep and short-term self-reported negative valence that temporally precedes
affect? short-term self-reported as well as behavioral/physiological mea-
sures of sleep (see Fig. 5). A review by Konjarski and colleagues [1]
Overall, results were more robust and consistent across came to similar conclusions in naturalistic sequential studies that
matching timescales for cross-sectional study designs compared to excluded stress as an affective experience. However, earlier reviews
temporally sequential designs. We conclude that long-term self- [2,6], which summarized both naturalistic and experimental
reported sleep disturbances and long-term self-reported sleep studies and did include stress as an affective experience concluded
quality show convergent cross-sectional associations with long- that there is a strong influence of negative affect on sleep. This
term self-reported negative as well as positive valence at match- discrepancy highlights the value of the granular framework we
ing timescales (see Fig. 4). At short-term timescales, these associ- proposed and used in our review.
ations are less robust or null, except for the association with self- We did not find enough studies meeting inclusion criteria to
reported negative valence, which remains robust. These conclu- draw conclusions about affective arousal preceding sleep (see
sions are consistent with past reviews, which identified cross- Fig. 5). However, work in clinical and adolescent populations sug-
sectional associations between trait-like measures of negative gests that we would expect to see robust effects of arousal on a
affect and long-term self-reported sleep quality [3,5]. There do not variety of sleep domains, particularly SOL [5,7,109]. More system-
appear to be any reviews of non-clinical adult samples to corrob- atic exploration of the arousal domain in a healthy adult sample is
orate our findings of positive associations between short-term self- clearly needed.
reported sleep disturbances and short-term self-reported depres-
sive affect and anxiety/fear/threat, but these patterns are consistent 5.3. What can we learn from studies in which sleep experience
with the clinical literature [101,102], adolescent literature [103], temporally precedes affective experience?
and with the related perseverative cognitions of rumination and
worry [104]. Several important patterns are evident. First, we found a larger
In addition, we conclude that sleep duration and global conti- number of studies with behavioral/physiological signals measuring
nuity show a null association or inconclusive evidence for associ- short-term sleep duration relative to any of the other sleep domains
ations with short- and long-term self-reported positive and (see Fig. 6), including a large number of experimental sleep
negative valence (see Fig. 4). This finding is contrary to the broad deprivation and restriction studies. Second, both self-report and
conclusions of some reviews [2,7,105]. However, other reviews behavioral/physiological measures of sleep at short- and long-term
acknowledge mixed evidence for both duration and continuity timescales seem not to predict subsequent short-term self-re-
[4,5,106] and suggest that sleep duration's association with nega- ported negative affect, even after excluding sleep deprivation and
tive valence may operate via affect regulation processes [5,105] or restriction studies (see Fig. 6). Examining only sleep deprivation
memory processes [107]. In addition, there is a literature corre- and restriction studies also did not show any conclusive pattern of
lating excessive sleep with greater negative affect [2], suggesting evidence. An exception is our finding about short-term self-re-
that the association may be non-linear. ported SOL, which corroborates Konjarski's conclusion [1]. This is
Finally, our finding that greater short-term self-reported surprising given the number of qualitative review papers that
sleepiness is associated with greater short-term self-reported report increased negative affect following sleep loss and depriva-
negative valence (see Fig. 4) fits with a pattern more broadly re- tion [2,7,110e112]. Our findings for duration are similar to Konjarksi
ported in the literature for sleep disturbances and deprivation in et al.’s [1] and Tempesta et al.’s [4] conclusions of mixed results. Our
clinical and non-clinical populations [7]. However, we note that a findings for sleep quality run counter to Konjarski and colleagues'
number of commonly used affect measures such as the Profile of [1] report of a robust inverse relationship between sleep quality
Mood States questionnaire include items relating to fatigue and and next-day negative affect. However, their review included het-
alertness, potentially inflating apparent associations [108]. We erogeneous samples including children, adolescents, older adults,
9
and clinical populations. Fairholme and Manber [5] conclude that signals; and 3) timescale distinctions between short-term and
sleep's influence on negative affect tends to appear in experimental long-term measures of phenomena. Most findings in the systematic
contexts, not in daily naturalistic studies. This distinction in con- review focused on sleep experience preceding affective experience,
texts may be helpful in future iterations of our framework. while the fewest findings focused on affective experience preced-
Third, our findings indicate mixed associations across a variety ing sleep experience.
of sleep domains with positive valence, which largely matches Overall, we noticed that studies tended to be concentrated in
other reviews [3,6], as well as arousal (see Fig. 6). Our null and just a few domains: the sleep domains of sleep disturbances,
inconclusive findings for the association of short-term self-re- quality/satisfaction, and duration, and the affect domains of nega-
ported and behaviorally/physiologically measured sleep duration tive and positive valence. We also identified areas that were
with affect is consistent with two past reviews [1,3], and our particularly understudied. Within sleep, these included the do-
findings of a possible positive association between sleep quality mains of WASO, sleep timing, sleepiness, macro- and micro-sleep
and subsequent positive valence are similar to Konjarski and col- architecture, and autonomic activity during sleep. Within affect,
leages’ review [1]. However, our conclusions diverge from theirs in these included the domains of affective arousal and specific emo-
two ways. First, whereas they reported a null association between tions beyond anxiety/fear/threat, anger/aggression, and depressive
short-term behavioral/physiological measures of global sleep con- affect. There was a paucity of studies measuring both constructs,
tinuity and self-reported positive affect, we did not find evidence but particularly affect, with behavioral/physiological signals. In
for a null association, though we found that studies reported studies where sleep temporally preceded affect or vice versa, there
different directions of association. Second, they reported [1] mixed were very few studies at long-term timescales.
results for the association between short-term self-reported SOL
and short-term self-reported positive affect, whereas we identified 5.5. The value of granularity
a possible positive association. The fact that surveying a reasonably
broad array of studies finds contradictory results may suggest that Granularity in domains, methods, and timescales revealed
our categories of short-term behavioral/physiological signals of interesting patterns of association, supporting the main premise of
duration may not be capturing the most relevant methodological this conceptual review. The granular approach was helpful both for
distinctions for self-reported positive valence. For instance, incon- clarifying prior inconsistencies and for clarifying where associa-
clusive links may be attributable to differences in the degree of tions exist. Our framework revealed a number of cells that were
deviation in observed sleep duration from habitual sleep duration, populated by studies that indicated null results, thus helping
ranging from total deprivation to different levels of partial or distinguish between associations that are truly null and in-
restricted sleep, as well as to the effect of cumulative sleep insuf- consistencies in findings. The power of our framework to identify
ficiency [112]. The inconclusive results may also stem from the null patterns is particularly notable given a general publication bias
presence of non-linear associations. Indeed, Konjarski and col- whereby null results tend not to be published.
leagues [1] identified a U-shaped relationship between sleep Domain granularity was also important, as was apparent in
duration and affect, such that either shortened or extended self- Fig. 6, where our review clarified what was previously a set of
reported duration decreased positive and increased negative inconsistent results relating to sleep in relation to subsequent
affect the next day. Further research may need to reassess patterns negative affect. In this case, the added granularity revealed that
in terms of non-linear associations. Kahn and colleagues [2] also short-term behavioral/physiological signals measuring sleep
suggested that examining the ratio of positive to negative affect as duration were associated with specific emotion domains, such as
an index of healthy affective functioning may be more informative anger and anxiety, but not with the more general domains of af-
than either positive or negative affect alone. fective valence and arousal. Domain granularity helps to clarify
Finally, we conclude that greater short-term behavioral/physi- what might have previously been interpreted as inconsistent re-
ological sleep duration is associated with higher negative valence sults. In addition, our review revealed different patterns of cross-
and arousal when both are measured with short-term behavioral/ sectional association with negative and positive valence for the
physiological signals, but not self-report (see Fig. 6). This discrep- composite domain of sleep disturbances than for granular domains
ancy based on methodology has been noted by Fairholme & Man- of global continuity, quality/satisfaction, and sleepiness. This may
ber [5]. Interestingly, the specific emotions of anxiety/fear/threat be because composite sleep disturbance reflects an individual's
and anger/aggression, which are characterized by high arousal and integration not only across other specific sleep domains but also
high negative valence [14], show discrepant patterns of association their personal impact. This suggests that sleep disturbance is an
as well (see Fig. 6). We are unable to conclude whether there is any important domain to consider and is partially separable from other
association of short-term behavioral/physiological measures of domains.
duration and self-reported anxiety, both excluding and including We also found that adding methodological granularity to our
sleep manipulation studies (see Fig. 6), which partially aligns with framework mattered. Whereas collapsing across methods may
Pires and colleagues’ [100] review concluding that sleep depriva- provide more power to detect associations between domains, it
tion led to increased state anxiety, but sleep restriction did not. Our might also lead to interpreting inconsistent results as evidence of
finding of a robust negative association with anger (see Fig. 6) no association. Separating results based on methodology can reveal
driven by sleep deprivation and restriction is consistent with other potentially meaningful patterns, even across domains. For example,
reviews [6,7]. This indicates that conceptualizing self-reported this was apparent for self-reported sleep quality in Fig. 5 (affect
affect using discrete as well as continuous categories may help preceding sleep) as well as for sleep duration in Fig. 6 (sleep pre-
reveal patterns of association with sleep. ceding affect), where behavioral/physiological signals for both
sleep and affect show different associations compared to self-
5.4. Gaps identified by the framework report. At the same time, we find that in many cases, even a sin-
gle result in a single cell could encompass multiple, sometimes
We organized selected empirical findings using a framework contradictory findings. For instance, studies that measured associ-
that emphasized categorical distinctions across three dimensions: ations between behaviorally/physiologically measured WASO and
1) subordinate domains within sleep and affect; 2) methodological subsequent positive valence over a long timescale had contradic-
distinctions between self-report and behavioral/physiological tory findings. We also note that in order to avoid shared methods
10
bias, it is important to consider both self-reported and behavioral/ our proposed framework will keep evolving as more findings
physiological measures, and ideally consider cross-methods asso- emerge and new assessment techniques develop.
ciations when examining links between sleep and affect. We note that there are advantages and disadvantages to
Finally, timescale granularity in Fig. 5 (affect preceding sleep) different approaches to placing boundaries between categories
was valuable, as it revealed discrepant patterns of association for within each dimension. Indeed, it may not be possible to achieve
matched compared to mismatched timescales. In general, where fully orthogonal categories within dimensions and trying to do so
there was sufficient information to interpret the results, patterns of might not be important. In addition, methodology and timescale
association tended to match on timescale (i.e., short-term to short- are not fully separable. For instance, sleep disturbances are typically
term and long-term to long-term). measured with self-report questionnaires that refer to the past
week or month and hence are long-term. Another important
distinction that could prove useful relates to between- or within-
5.6. Interpreting inconsistent findings person analyses. Such distinctions may reveal bidirectional asso-
ciations for one level of analysis but not the other. The process of
Despite being populated by three or more studies, there was no identifying relevant dimensions and categories should be guided by
clear direction of association for some cells. These include the past theoretical work as well as empirical efforts.
following: 1) the cross-sectional association between short-term Beyond refining our framework, other possible explanations for
self-reported sleep duration and negative valence; 2) the cross- the inconsistent findings are that the assumption of linear associ-
sectional association between long-term global sleep continuity ation between sleep and affect may be mistaken and that there are
and negative valence; 3) the association between short-term self- moderators not characterized in this review that may explain var-
reported negative valence and subsequent sleep duration and 4) iations in association. These moderators may reveal different pat-
sleep onset latency; 5) the association between short-term self- terns of association, depending on the methods and timescales
reported positive valence and subsequent sleep duration and 6) used to measure sleep and affect variables.
sleep quality; 7) the association between short-term behavioral/
physiological signals measuring sleep duration and subsequent
5.7. Exploring moderators
self-reported positive valence and 8) anxiety/fear/threat; 9) the
association between short-term behavioral/physiological signals of
The current review did not systematically characterize moder-
WASO and subsequent self-reported positive valence; 10) the as-
ators.3 There are four categories of moderators that are likely to be
sociation between short-term self-reported sleep quality and sub-
particularly important to explore: demographic factors (such as
sequent short-term self-reported negative valence; and 11) the
sex, age, race, and socioeconomic status), sleep moderators, affect
association between short-term behavioral/physiological signals
moderators, and individual differences that moderate both sleep
measuring sleep architecture and subsequent short-term self-re-
and affect.
ported negative and 12) positive valence.
Regarding sleep moderators, we highlight the following three:
The absence of clear associations in these cells suggests that our
1) different levels of “severity” for each sleep construct, 2) typical
framework may have overlooked some important distinctions or,
sleep habits and deviations from them, and 3) individual differ-
alternatively, identified distinctions that are not the relevant ones
ences in resilience to sleep perturbations. Essentially, there may be
to explain associations. Thus, future research may need to identify
different effects of receiving a lower or higher “dosage” of restful
which features of these studies might explain contradictory find-
sleep, and these effects may be non-linear, vary individually, and
ings, as this could guide the conduct of future, more definitive
depend on prior sleep. “Healthy” and “unhealthy” sleep likely
research.
represent a continuum, rather than a dichotomy [11]. Therefore, it
Refining our framework could provide a roadmap for such ex-
will be important to collect repeated data over time in order to
plorations. For example, we found that some single columns (such
determine the effects of sleep changes relative to a person's mean
as macro- and micro- sleep architecture) encompassed an
or baseline. It is also important to understand how individuals react
extremely broad set of outcomes, suggesting that finer-grained
to atypical sleep conditions, since their ability to function cogni-
categorization might provide additional insights. Similarly, our
tively, attentionally, and physically can strongly interact with their
framework also includes overlapping domains that might need to
affective function [2].
be separated. For instance, for affect, specific emotions combine
Regarding affect moderators, we propose the following three
different aspects of valence and arousal, and, for sleep, neural and
potential moderators: 1) affective stimuli, 2) individual differences
autonomic activity, such as slow wave sleep, may overlap with
in affective reactivity, and 3) affect regulation. One way to
other sleep domains, such as a physiological measure of sleep
conceptualize the importance of affective stimuli or antecedents
quality. It is also possible that greater clarity can be gained by
involves thinking about the severity or “dosage” of an affective
greater granularity in methods; for example, by further separating
experience when comparing across studies. It is also important to
naturalistic from experimental methods, as Konjarski and col-
consider that, even with identical antecedents, individuals experi-
leagues [1] did in focusing their review exclusively on naturalistic
ence different affective reactions. Finally, affect regulation pro-
studies. In addition, it is possible that different timescale categories
cesses can arise almost immediately and nearly inseparably from an
than the ones we used (shorter or longer than 48 h) might be even
initial affective reaction [10]. Using certain affect regulation stra-
more relevant.2 Categorizing studies based on information about
tegies [5,105,113] has been shown to impact sleep outcomes, and,
the sampling resolution or proximity of measurement to the
conversely, poor sleep seems to impair some affect regulation ca-
experience may reveal more clear patterns [112]. We expect that
pabilities [105].
Regarding moderators that can simultaneously impact both
2
sleep and affect, we propose to focus on individual differences in
We believe that the three temporal aspects we described above, namely
timescale of interest, sampling resolution, and proximity of reporting relative to the
period reported on, provide greater granularity and clarity than the traditional
3
labels of “retrospective” (i.e., measuring experiences from the past) versus “pro- Although we summarized main effects, numerous studies in our empirical re-
spective” (i.e., measuring real time experiences over an extended period in order to view reported moderation by affect regulation, which we denoted in the supple-
observe subsequent developments). mentary tables by asterisks.
11
beliefs about sleep [114], affect [115], and the relationship between be expected from widespread lay beliefs. In fact, contradictory
them. These beliefs could alter particular domains within sleep and findings suggest a more nuanced relationship.
affect, alter patterns of associations differently at different time- 2. Bringing insights from both sleep science and affective science
scales, and impact perceptions (self-report measures) differently to bear, we offer an organizing framework that distinguishes
from behaviors and physiology. findings according to important differences in both sleep and
affect domains, methods, timescales.
5.8. Other future directions 3. The results of conducting a review using this framework reveal a
concentration of studies examining 1) cross-sectional associa-
We limited the scope of this review by excluding two specific tions between sleep disturbances and positive and negative
domains of affect: pain [116] and stress [117]. These complex af- affect valence, and 2) temporally sequential associations be-
fective states, whose definitions combine negative valence, arousal, tween behavioral/physiological measures of sleep duration and
and appraisals of goals, self-efficacy, and coping resources, are each subsequent affect. They also reveal large gaps in scientific
the subject of extensive literatures and have been previously knowledge, particularly for studies where affect temporally
reviewed (for example, pain: [118,119]; stress: [120,121]). The precedes sleep.
utility of our framework for organizing these two bodies of litera- 4. We found inconclusive or no evidence for several associations,
ture remains unknown. For feasibility, we also constrained our particularly between sleep duration and negative valence, that
review to a single search index. Future work should draw from even had been expected based on past reviews.
broader pools of indexed articles. 5. We did not find evidence for bidirectionality between sleep and
affect when the two constructs were examined at a more
6. Conclusion granular resolution.
6. A granular framework, such as the one we propose could help
Scientific understanding requires not only amassing empirical identify important factors that do or do not impact the links
evidence but also developing appropriate frameworks to interpret between sleep and affect.
findings. Currently, researchers interested in bidirectional links
between sleep and affect have gathered data with a variety of
samples and measures but have not been able to fully synthesize Research agenda
the many disparate findings. In this article, we proposed that
studies of sleep, affect, and their relationship can be more clearly 1. Efforts should be made to organize existing and future empirical
understood by appreciating how they differ in domains, methods, work according to distinctions within the domains, methods,
and timescale. We presented a new organizing granular dimen- and timescales measured.
sional framework that incorporates insights from both sleep sci- 2. Future research should systematically test other categories and
ence and affective science and opens the door for fruitful boundaries within each of the three dimensions (domains,
collaboration at the intersection of the two fields. methods, timescales) to address inconclusive patterns of asso-
Based on our review, we identified several patterns. First, in ciation and continue refining our framework. In particular, we
cross-sectional studies measured with self-report, more disturbed believe three timescale distinctions will be important to char-
sleep was robustly associated with greater self-reported negative acterize more thoroughly: timescale of interest, sampling reso-
valence, depressive affect, and anxiety/fear/threat as well as lower lution, and proximity of measurement to experience.
positive valence. The pattern appeared similar, though less robust, 3. Future reviews could apply our framework to additional affec-
for worse sleep quality. Second, there were relatively fewer studies tive domains, such as pain and stress, that were beyond the
in which affect was measured preceding sleep, and we found either scope of this review.
a lack of evidence or inconclusive evidence for the association be- 4. We encourage more exploration of individual and sample de-
tween negative and positive valence and sleep domains. Third, mographic moderators, sleep moderators (in particular,
most studies in which sleep experience preceded affect examined different levels of severity/dosage for each sleep domain, typical
how short-term behavioral/physiological measures sleep duration sleep habits, and individual differences in resilience to sleep
related to subsequent affect. We identified null or inconclusive disturbance), affect moderators (in particular, affective stimuli,
associations with short-term self-reported negative valence, posi- individual differences in affective reactivity, and use of affect
tive valence, arousal, and anxiety/fear/threat, but negative associ- regulation), and individual differences that moderate both sleep
ations for behavioral/physiological measures of negative valence, and affect (in particular, clinical status and beliefs).
arousal, and anger/aggression (though this last association was
entirely driven by sleep deprivation or restriction studies). Fourth,
we found no support for granular bidirectionality from affect to Author contributions
sleep and sleep to affect.
As the supplementary tables make clear, cells are unevenly MtB conceptualized the paper, created framework and guide-
populated by empirical studies. We view the sparseness as gaps lines for coding papers, completed an initial review based on
that call for future exploration. We believe that such exploration known papers, independently coded one quarter of papers for the
can benefit from the conceptual framework we have laid out here final systematic review, helped resolve discrepancies coding papers
and from collaboration between sleep and affective scientists. We for the systematic review, created tables and figures, and wrote the
recognize that our granular dimensional framework is likely to manuscript. JD oversaw the systematic review process, pre-
evolve over time and hope this review serves as a jumping-off registered the systematic review, wrote the systematic review
point. methods and descriptive results, created the PRISMA diagram and
checklist, and provided edits to the manuscript. JD and JT screened,
Practice points assessed, and coded papers for the systematic review using MtB's
guidelines and framework and conducted risk of bias assessment.
1. The empirical evidence for a bidirectional link between sleep JG helped with conceptualization of the paper, provided extensive
and affect in non-clinical adult samples is not as strong as might edits, and helped resolve discrepancies coding papers for the
12
systematic review. SS helped conduct risk of bias assessment and [20] Harvey AG, Stinson K, Whitaker KL, Moskovitz D, Virk H. The subjective
meaning of sleep quality: a comparison of individuals with and without
provided edits. RM conceptualized the systematic review, helped
insomnia. Sleep 2008;31:383e93. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/31.3.383.
with conceptualizing sleep domains, provided extensive edits, [21] Mauss IB, Robinson MD. Measures of emotion: a review. Cognit Emot 2009;23:
helped resolve discrepancies in coding papers for the systematic 209e37. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930802204677.
review, and conducted risk of bias assessment. [22] Gross JJ, Jazaieri H. Emotion, emotion regulation, and psychopathology: an
affective science perspective. Clin Psychol Sci 2014;2:387e401. https://doi.org/
10.1177/2167702614536164.
[23] Mauss IB, Levenson RW, McCarter L, Wilhelm FH, Gross JJ. The tie that binds?
Acknowledgements Coherence among emotion experience, behavior, and physiology. Emotion
2005;5:175e90. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.5.2.175.
MtB is funded by a National Science Foundation Graduate [24] Borbe ly AA. A two process model of sleep regulation. Hum Neurobiol 1982;1:
195e204.
Research Fellowship. The authors have no conflicts of interest to
[25] Hollenstein T, Lichtwarck-Aschoff A, Potworowski G. A model of socioemo-
report. Enormous thanks to Annabelle T. Wang for help with the tional flexibility at three time scales. Emot Rev 2013;5:397e405. https://
initial stages of literature review. Thank you to Taqwa Ramadan for doi.org/10.1177/1754073913484181.
help organizing citations and Pilleriin Sikka for comments on [26] Canese K, Jentsch J, Myers C. PubMed: the bibliographic database. NCBI Handb
2003;2:1e12.
drafts. [27] Ouzzani M, Hammady H, Fedorowicz Z, Elmagarmid A. Rayyanda web and
mobile app for systematic reviews. Syst Rev 2016;5:210. https://doi.org/
10.1186/s13643-016-0384-4.
Appendix A. Supplementary data [28] Robinson MD, Clore GL. Belief and feeling: evidence for an accessibility model
of emotional self-report. Psychol Bull 2002;128:934. https://doi.org/10.1037/
0033-2909.128.6.934.
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at
[29] Lindquist KA, Gendron M, Barrett LF, Dickerson BC. Emotion perception, but
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2022.101670. not affect perception, is impaired with semantic memory loss. Emotion
2014;14:375e87. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035293.
[30] Bortoletto TG, Silva TV, Borovac-Pinheiro A, Pereira CM, Silva AD, França MS,
References et al. Cervical length varies considering different populations and gestational
outcomes: results from a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One
* key citations 2021;16:e0245746. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245746.
[1] * Konjarski M, Murray G, Lee VV, Jackson ML. Reciprocal relationships between [31] Rehman A, Gumley A, Biello S. Sleep quality and paranoia: the role of alex-
daily sleep and mood: a systematic review of naturalistic prospective studies. ithymia, negative emotions and perceptual anomalies. Psychiatr Res 2018;259:
Sleep Med Rev 2018;42:47e58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2018.05.005. 216e22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.09.066.
[2] * Kahn M, Sheppes G, Sadeh A. Sleep and emotions: bidirectional links and [32] Benham G, Charak R. Stress and sleep remain significant predictors of health
underlying mechanisms. Int J Psychophysiol 2013;89:218e28. https://doi.org/ after controlling for negative affect. Stress Health 2019;35:59e68. https://
10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2013.05.010. doi.org/10.1002/smi.2840.
[3] Ong AD, Kim S, Young S, Steptoe A. Positive affect and sleep: a systematic re- [33] Machado L, Souza CTN de, Nunes R de O, de Santana CN, Araujo CF de,
view. Sleep Med Rev 2016. Cantilino A. Subjective well-being, religiosity and anxiety: a cross-sectional
[4] * Tempesta D, Socci V, De Gennaro L, Ferrara M. Sleep and emotional pro- study applied to a sample of Brazilian medical students. Trends Psychiatry
cessing. Sleep Med Rev 2018;40:183e95. https://doi.org/10.1016/ Psychother 2018;40:185e92. https://doi.org/10.1590/2237-6089-2017-0070.
j.smrv.2017.12.005. [34] Lemola S, Ledermann T, Friedman EM. Variability of sleep duration is related
[5] * Fairholme CP, Manber R. Sleep, emotions, and emotion regulation. Sleep to subjective sleep quality and subjective well-being: an actigraphy study.
affect. Elsevier; 2015. p. 45e61. PLoS One 2013;8:e71292. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071292.
[6] Deliens G, Gilson M, Peigneux P. Sleep and the processing of emotions. Exp [35] Kurina LM, Knutson KL, Hawkley LC, Cacioppo JT, Lauderdale DS, Ober C.
Brain Res 2014;232:1403e14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-014-3832-1. Loneliness is associated with sleep fragmentation in a communal society.
[7] Baglioni C, Spiegelhalder K, Lombardo C, Riemann D. Sleep and emotions: a Sleep 2011;34:1519e26. https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.1390.
focus on insomnia. Sleep Med Rev 2010;14:227e38. https://doi.org/10.1016/ [36] Wassing R, Benjamins JS, Dekker K, Moens S, Spiegelhalder K, Feige B, et al.
j.smrv.2009.10.007. Slow dissolving of emotional distress contributes to hyperarousal. Proc Natl
[8] Ong AD, Bastarache ED, Steptoe A. Positive affect as resilience and vulnerability Acad Sci USA 2016;113:2538e43. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1522520113.
in sleep. Elsevier; 2015. p. 275e91. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-417188- [37] Simor P, Zavecz Z, Pa losi V, To
€ro€k C, Ko
€teles F. The influence of sleep com-
6.00013-X. Sleep Affect. plaints on the association between chronotype and negative emotionality in
[9] * Katulka EK, Berube FR, D’Agata MN. Dreaming of better health: quantifying young adults. Chronobiol Int 2015;32:1e10. https://doi.org/10.3109/
the many dimensions of sleep. Sleep 2020;43:zsz275. https://doi.org/10.1093/ 07420528.2014.935786.
sleep/zsz275. [38] Pilcher JJ, Ginter DR, Sadowsky B. Sleep quality versus sleep quantity: re-
[10] * Gross JJ. Emotion regulation: current status and future prospects. Psychol Inq lationships between sleep and measures of health, well-being and sleepiness
2015;26:1e26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781. in college students. J Psychosom Res 1997;42:583e96. https://doi.org/10.1016/
[11] * Buysse DJ. Sleep health: can we define it? Does it matter?. Sleep 2014;37: S0022-3999(97)00004-4.
9e17. https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.3298. [39] Mathur A, Graham-Engeland JE, Slavish DC, Smyth JM, Lipton RB, Katz MJ,
[12] Buysse DJ, Reynolds III CF, Monk TH, Berman SR, Kupfer DJ. The Pittsburgh et al. Recalled early life adversity and pain: the role of mood, sleep, optimism,
sleep quality index: a new instrument for psychiatric practice and research. and control. J Behav Med 2018;41:504e15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-
Psychiatr Res 1989;28:193e213. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-1781(89)90047- 018-9917-8.
4. [40] Prather AA, Bogdan R, Hariri AR. Impact of sleep quality on amygdala reac-
[13] Bastien C. Validation of the Insomnia Severity Index as an outcome measure tivity, negative affect, and perceived stress. Psychosom Med 2013;75:350e8.
for insomnia research. Sleep Med 2001;2:297e307. https://doi.org/10.1016/ https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e31828ef15b.
S1389-9457(00)00065-4. [41] Smith SS, Kozak N, Sullivan KA. An investigation of the relationship between
[14] * Russell JA. Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion. Psychol subjective sleep quality, loneliness and mood in an Australian sample: can
Rev 2003;110:145e72. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.110.1.145. daily routine explain the links? Int J Soc Psychiatr 2012;58:166e71. https://
[15] Kron A, Goldstein A, Lee DH-J, Gardhouse K, Anderson AK. How are you doi.org/10.1177/0020764010387551.
feeling? Revisiting the quantification of emotional qualia. Psychol Sci 2013;24: [42] Wang Z, Chen B, Li W, Xie F, Loke AY, Shu Q. Sleep quality and its impacts on
1503e11. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613475456. quality of life among military personnel in remote frontier areas and extreme
[16] Kreibig SD, Gross JJ. Understanding mixed emotions: paradigms and measures. cold environments. Health Qual Life Outcome 2020;18:227. https://doi.org/
Curr Opin Behav Sci 2017;15:62e71. https://doi.org/10.1016/ 10.1186/s12955-020-01460-7.
j.cobeha.2017.05.016. [43] Carciofo R, Du F, Song N, Zhang K. Mind wandering, sleep quality, affect and
[17] Keenan SA, Hirshkowitz M. Monitoring and staging human sleep. In: chronotype: an exploratory study. PLoS One 2014;9:e91285.
Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC, editors. Princ. Pract. Sleep med. fifth ed. St. [44] Cellini N, Duggan KA, Sarlo M. Perceived sleep quality: the interplay of
Louis: Elsevier Saunders; 2011. p. 1602e9. neuroticism, affect, and hyperarousal. Sleep Health 2017;3:184e9. https://
[18] Ancoli-Israel S, Martin JL, Blackwell T, Buenaver L, Liu L, Meltzer LJ, et al. The doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2017.03.001.
SBSM guide to actigraphy monitoring: clinical and research applications. [45] Lund HG, Reider BD, Whiting AB, Prichard JR. Sleep patterns and predictors of
Behav Sleep Med 2015;13:S4e38. https://doi.org/10.1080/ disturbed sleep in a large population of college students. J Adolesc Health
15402002.2015.1046356. 2010;46:124e32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.06.016.
[19] Kaplan KA, Hirshman J, Hernandez B, Stefanick ML, Hoffman AR, Redline S, [46] Howell AJ, Digdon NL, Buro K, Sheptycki AR. Relations among mindfulness,
et al. When a gold standard isn't so golden: lack of prediction of subjective well-being, and sleep. Pers Indiv Differ 2008;45:773e7. https://doi.org/
sleep quality from sleep polysomnography. Biol Psychol 2017;123:37e46. 10.1016/j.paid.2008.08.005.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.11.010.
13
[47] Allen MS, Magee CA, Vella SA. Personality, hedonic balance and the quality and [71] Vandekerckhove M, Kestemont J, Weiss R, Schotte C, Exadaktylos V, Haex B,
quantity of sleep in adulthood. Psychol Health 2016;31:1091e107. https:// et al. Experiential versus analytical emotion regulation and sleep: breaking the
doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2016.1178745. link between negative events and sleep disturbance. Emotion 2012;12:
[48] Pilcher JJ, Ott ES. The relationships between sleep and measures of health and 1415e21. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028501.
weil-being in college students: a repeated measures approach. Behav Med [72] Talamini LM, Bringmann LF, de Boer M, Hofman WF. Sleeping worries away or
1998;23:170e8. https://doi.org/10.1080/08964289809596373. worrying away sleep? Physiological evidence on sleep-emotion interactions.
[49] Morin CM, Rodrigue S, Ivers H. Role of stress, arousal, and coping skills in PLoS One 2013;8:e62480. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062480.
primary insomnia. Psychosom Med 2003;65:259e67. https://doi.org/10.1097/ [73] Talbot LS, Hairston IS, Eidelman P, Gruber J, Harvey AG. The effect of mood on
01.PSY.0000030391.09558.A3. sleep onset latency and REM sleep in interepisode bipolar disorder. J Abnorm
[50] Pressman SD, Jenkins BN, Kraft-Feil TL, Rasmussen H, Scheier MF. The whole is Psychol 2009;118:448e58. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016605.
not the sum of its parts: specific types of positive affect influence sleep [74] Minkel JD, Banks S, Htaik O, Moreta MC, Jones CW, McGlinchey EL, et al. Sleep
differentially. Emotion 2017;17:778. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000256. deprivation and stressors: evidence for elevated negative affect in response to
0213. mild stressors when sleep deprived. Emotion 2012;12:1015e20. https://
[51] Brand S, Beck J, Hatzinger M, Harbaugh A, Ruch W, Holsboer-Trachsler E. As- doi.org/10.1037/a0026871.
sociations between satisfaction with life, burnout-related emotional and [75] Finan PH, Quartana PJ, Smith MT. The effects of sleep continuity disruption on
physical exhaustion, and sleep complaints. World J Biol Psychiatr 2010;11: positive mood and sleep architecture in healthy adults. Sleep 2015;38:
744e54. https://doi.org/10.3109/15622971003624205. 1735e42. https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.5154.
[52] Sonnentag S, Binnewies C, Mojza EJ. Did you have a nice evening?” A day-level [76] Franzen PL, Buysse DJ, Dahl RE, Thompson W, Siegle GJ. Sleep deprivation
study on recovery experiences, sleep, and affect. J Appl Psychol 2008;93: alters pupillary reactivity to emotional stimuli in healthy young adults. Biol
674e84. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.3.674. Psychol 2009;80:300e5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2008.10.010.
[53] Flueckiger L, Lieb R, Meyer AH, Mata J. How health behaviors relate to aca- [77] Franzen PL, Siegle GJ, Buysse DJ. Relationships between affect, vigilance, and
demic performance via affect: an intensive longitudinal study. PLoS One sleepiness following sleep deprivation. J Sleep Res 2008;17:34e41. https://
2014;9:e111080. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0111080. doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2869.2008.00635.x.
[54] Leger KA, Charles ST. Affective recovery from stress and its associations with [78] Holding BC, Laukka P, Fischer H, Ba €nziger T, Axelsson J, Sundelin T. Multimodal
sleep. Stress Health 2020;36:693e9. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2966. emotion recognition is resilient to insufficient sleep: results from cross-
[55] Hartmann JA, Wichers M, van Bemmel AL, Derom C, Thiery E, Jacobs N, et al. sectional and experimental studies. Sleep 2017;40. https://doi.org/10.1093/
The serotonin transporter 5-HTTLPR polymorphism in the association be- sleep/zsx145.
tween sleep quality and affect. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2014;24:1086e90. [79] Krizan Z, Hisler G. Sleepy anger: restricted sleep amplifies angry feelings. J Exp
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2014.01.015. Psychol Gen 2018. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000522.
[56] Seixas AA, Auguste E, Butler M, James C, Newsome V, Auguste E, et al. Dif- [80] Tempesta D, Alessandro C, Curcio G, Moroni F, Cristina M, De Gennaro L, et al.
ferences in short and long sleep durations between blacks and whites Lack of sleep affects the evaluation of emotional stimuli. Brain Res Bull
attributed to emotional distress: analysis of the National Health Interview 2010;82:104e8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2010.01.014.
Survey in the United States. Sleep Health 2017;3:28e34. https://doi.org/ [81] Selvi Y, Gulec M, Agargun MY, Besiroglu L. Mood changes after sleep depri-
10.1016/j.sleh.2016.11.003. vation in morningnesseeveningness chronotypes in healthy individuals.
[57] Ong JC, Carde NB, Gross JJ, Manber R. A two-dimensional approach to J Sleep Res 2007;16:241e4.
assessing affective states in good and poor sleepers: two-dimensional [82] Schwarz J, Axelsson J, Gerhardsson A, Tamm S, Fischer H, Kecklund G, et al.
approach to measuring affect. J Sleep Res 2011;20:606e10. https://doi.org/ Mood impairment is stronger in young than in older adults after sleep
10.1111/j.1365-2869.2011.00907.x. deprivation. J Sleep Res 2019;28:e12801. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.12801.
[58] Jackowska M, Ronaldson A, Brown J, Steptoe A. Biological and psychological [83] Schwarz JFA, Popp R, Haas J, Zulley J, Geisler P, Alpers GW, et al. Shortened
correlates of self-reported and objective sleep measures. J Psychosom Res night sleep impairs facial responsiveness to emotional stimuli. Biol Psychol
2016;84:52e5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2016.03.017. 2013;93:41e4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.01.008.
[59] Tinajero R, Williams PG, Cribbet MR, Rau HK, Bride DL, Suchy Y. Nonrestorative [84] Haack M, Mullington JM. Sustained sleep restriction reduces emotional and
sleep in healthy, young adults without insomnia: associations with executive physical well-being. Pain 2005;119:56e64. https://doi.org/10.1016/
functioning, fatigue, and pre-sleep arousal. Sleep Health 2018;4:284e91. j.pain.2005.09.011.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2018.02.006. [85] Dickinson DL, Drummond SPA, McElroy T. The viability of an ecologically valid
[60] Jackowska M, Dockray S, Hendrickx H, Steptoe A. Psychosocial factors and chronic sleep restriction and circadian timing protocol: an examination of
sleep efficiency: discrepancies between subjective and objective evaluations sample attrition, compliance, and effectiveness at impacting sleepiness and
of sleep. Psychosom Med 2011;73:810e6. https://doi.org/10.1097/ mood. PLoS One 2017;12:e0174367. https://doi.org/10.1371/
PSY.0b013e3182359e77. journal.pone.0174367.
[61] Amaral AP, Soares MJ, Pinto AM, Pereira AT, Madeira N, Bos SC, et al. Sleep [86] Cote KA, Milner CE, Smith BA, Aubin AJ, Greason TA, Cuthbert BP, et al. CNS
difficulties in college students: the role of stress, affect and cognitive pro- arousal and neurobehavioral performance in a short-term sleep restriction
cesses. Psychiatr Res 2018;260:331e7. https://doi.org/10.1016/ paradigm. J Sleep Res 2009;18:291e303. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-
j.psychres.2017.11.072. 2869.2008.00733.x.
[62] Jean-Louis G, Von Gizycki H, Zizi F, Nunes J. Mood states and sleepiness in [87] de Wild-Hartmann JA, Wichers M, van Bemmel AL, Derom C, Thiery E,
college students: influences of age, sex, habitual sleep, and substance use. Jacobs N, et al. Day-to-day associations between subjective sleep and affect in
Percept Mot Skills 1998;87:507e12. https://doi.org/10.2466/ regard to future depressionin a female population-based sample. Br J Psy-
pms.1998.87.2.507. chiatry 2013;202:407e12. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.112.123794.
[63] Kane HS, Slatcher RB, Reynolds BM, Repetti RL, Robles TF. Daily self-disclosure [88] Totterdell P, Reynolds S, Parkinson B, Briner RB. Associations of sleep with
and sleep in couples. Health Psychol 2014;33:813. https://doi.org/10.1037/ everyday mood, minor symptoms and social interaction experience. Sleep
hea0000077. 0728. 1994;17:466e75. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/17.5.466.
[64] Ong AD, Exner-Cortens D, Riffin C, Steptoe A, Zautra A, Almeida DM. Linking [89] Jones BJ, Schultz KS, Adams S, Baran B, Spencer RMC. Emotional bias of sleep-
stable and dynamic features of positive affect to sleep. Ann Behav Med dependent processing shifts from negative to positive with aging. Neurobiol
2013;46:52e61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-013-9484-8. Aging 2016;45:178e89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.05.019.
[65] Kalmbach DA, Pillai V, Roth T, Drake CL. The interplay between daily affect and [90] Cunningham TJ, Crowell CR, Alger SE, Kensinger EA, Villano MA, Mattingly SM,
sleep: a 2-week study of young women. J Sleep Res 2014;23:636e45. https:// et al. Psychophysiological arousal at encoding leads to reduced reactivity but
doi.org/10.1111/jsr.12190. enhanced emotional memory following sleep. Neurobiol Learn Mem
[66] Sin NL, Almeida DM, Crain TL, Kossek EE, Berkman LF, Buxton OM. Bidirec- 2014;114:155e64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2014.06.002.
tional, temporal associations of sleep with positive events, affect, and [91] Gujar N, McDonald SA, Nishida M, Walker MP. A role for REM sleep in reca-
stressors in daily life across a week. Ann Behav Med 2017;51:402e15. https:// librating the sensitivity of the human brain to specific emotions. Cerebr Cortex
doi.org/10.1007/s12160-016-9864-y. 2011;21:115e23. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhq064.
[67] de Wild-Hartmann JA, Wichers M, van Bemmel AL, Derom C, Thiery E, [92] Bolinger E, Cunningham TJ, Payne JD, Bowman MA, Bulca E, Born J, et al.
Jacobs N, et al. Day-to-day associations between subjective sleep and affect in Sleep's benefits to emotional processing emerge in the long term. Cortex
regard to future depression in a female population-based sample. Br J Psy- 2019;120:457e70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2019.07.008.
chiatry 2013;202:407e12. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.112.123794. [93] van der Helm E, Yao J, Dutt S, Rao V, Saletin JM, Walker MP. REM sleep
[68] Kalmbach DA, Arnedt JT, Swanson LM, Rapier JL, Ciesla JA. Reciprocal dynamics depotentiates amygdala activity to previous emotional experiences. Curr Biol
between self-rated sleep and symptoms of depression and anxiety in young 2011;21:2029e32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2011.10.052.
adult women: a 14-day diary study. Sleep Med 2017;33:6e12. https://doi.org/ [94] Studer RK, Nielsen C, Klumb PL, Hildebrandt H, Nater UM, Wild P, et al. The
10.1016/j.sleep.2016.03.014. mediating role of mood in the relationship between perseverative cognition,
[69] Park Y, Kim S. Customer mistreatment harms nightly sleep and next-morning sleep and subjective health complaints in music students. Psychol Health
recovery: job control and recovery self-efficacy as cross-level moderators. 2019;34:754e70. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2019.1574014.
J Occup Health Psychol 2018;24:256. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000128. [95] Strahler J, Nater UM, Skoluda N. Associations between health behaviors and
0628. factors on markers of healthy psychological and physiological functioning: a
[70] Takano K, Sakamoto S, Tanno Y. Repetitive thought impairs sleep quality: an daily diary study. Ann Behav Med 2020;54:22e35. https://doi.org/10.1093/
experience sampling study. Behav Ther 2014;45:67e82. https://doi.org/ abm/kaz018.
10.1016/j.beth.2013.09.004.
14
[96] Flueckiger L, Lieb R, Meyer AH, Witthauer C, Mata J. Day-to-day variations in [109] Buckley TM, Schatzberg AF. On the interactions of the hypothalamic-
health behaviors and daily functioning: two intensive longitudinal studies. pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and sleep: normal HPA axis activity and circa-
J Behav Med 2017;40:307e19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-016-9787-x. dian rhythm, exemplary sleep disorders. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90:
[97] Bouwmans MEJ, Bos EH, Hoenders HJR, Oldehinkel AJ, de Jonge P. Sleep quality 3106e14. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2004-1056.
predicts positive and negative affect but not vice versa. An electronic diary [110] Altena E, Micoulaud-Franchi J-A, Geoffroy P-A, Sanz-Arigita E, Bioulac S,
study in depressed and healthy individuals. J Affect Disord 2017;207:260e7. Philip P. The bidirectional relation between emotional reactivity and sleep:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.09.046. from disruption to recovery. Behav Neurosci 2016;130:336e50. https://
[98] Finan PH, Whitton AE, Letzen JE, Remeniuk B, Robinson ML, Irwin MR, et al. doi.org/10.1037/bne0000128.
Experimental sleep disruption and reward learning: moderating role of pos- [111] Vandekerckhove M, Cluydts R. The emotional brain and sleep: an intimate
itive affect responses. Sleep 2019;42:zsz026. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/ relationship. Sleep Med Rev 2010;14:219e26. https://doi.org/10.1016/
zsz026. j.smrv.2010.01.002.
[99] Finan PH, Quartana PJ, Remeniuk B, Garland EL, Rhudy JL, Hand M, et al. Partial [112] Watling J, Pawlik B, Scott K, Booth S, Short MA. Sleep loss and affective
sleep deprivation attenuates the positive affective system: effects across functioning: more than just mood. Behav Sleep Med 2017;15:394e409.
multiple measurement modalities. Sleep 2017;40. https://doi.org/10.1093/ https://doi.org/10.1080/15402002.2016.1141770.
sleep/zsw017. [113] Sadeh A, Keinan G, Daon K. Effects of stress on sleep: the moderating role of
[100] * Pires GN, Bezerra AG, Tufik S, Andersen ML. Effects of acute sleep depri- coping style. Health Psychol 2004;23:542e5. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-
vation on state anxiety levels: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep 6133.23.5.542.
Med 2016;24:109e18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2016.07.019. [114] Adan ANA, Fabbri M, Natale V, Prat G. Sleep beliefs scale (SBS) and circadian
[101] Babson KA. The interrelations between sleep and fear/anxiety. Sleep affect. typology. J Sleep Res 2006;15:125e32.
Elsevier; 2015. p. 143e62. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-417188- [115] Tamir M, John OP, Srivastava S, Gross JJ. Implicit theories of emotion: affective
6.00007-4. and social outcomes across a major life transition. J Pers Soc Psychol 2007;92:
[102] Baglioni C, Battagliese G, Feige B, Spiegelhalder K, Nissen C, Voderholzer U, 731e44. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.4.731.
et al. Insomnia as a predictor of depression: a meta-analytic evaluation of [116] Gilam G, Gross James J, Wager Tor D, Keefe Francis J, Mackey SC. What is the
longitudinal epidemiological studies. J Affect Disord 2011;135:10e9. https:// relationship between pain and emotion? Bridging constructs and commu-
doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2011.01.011. nities. Neuron 2020;107:17e21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2020.05.024.
[103] O’Callaghan VS, Couvy-Duchesne B, Strike LT, McMahon KL, Byrne EM, [117] Epel ES, Crosswell AD, Mayer SE, Prather AA, Slavich GM, Puterman E, et al.
Wright MJ. A meta-analysis of the relationship between subjective sleep and More than a feeling: a unified view of stress measurement for population
depressive symptoms in adolescence. Sleep Med 2021;79:134e44. https:// science. Front Neuroendocrinol 2018;49:146e69. https://doi.org/10.1016/
doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2021.01.011. j.yfrne.2018.03.001.
[104] Clancy F, Prestwich A, Caperon L, Tsipa A, O’Connor DB. The association be- [118] Kelly GA, Blake C, Power CK, O’Keeffe D, Fullen BM. The association between
tween worry and rumination with sleep in non-clinical populations: a sys- chronic low back pain and sleep: a systematic review. Clin J Pain 2011;27:
tematic review and meta-analysis. Health Psychol Rev 2020;14:427e48. 169e81. https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0b013e3181f3bdd5.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2019.1700819. [119] Stroemel-Scheder C, Kundermann B, Lautenbacher S. The effects of recovery
[105] Palmer CA, Alfano CA. Sleep and emotion regulation: an organizing, inte- sleep on pain perception: a systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev
grative review. Sleep Med Rev 2017;31:6e16. https://doi.org/10.1016/ 2020;113:408e25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.03.028.
j.smrv.2015.12.006. [120] Kim E-J, Dimsdale JE. The effect of psychosocial stress on sleep: a review of
[106] Reynolds AC, Banks S. Total sleep deprivation, chronic sleep restriction and polysomnographic evidence. Behav Sleep Med 2007;5:256e78. https://
sleep disruption. Prog Brain Res 2010;185:91e103. https://doi.org/10.1016/ doi.org/10.1080/15402000701557383.
B978-0-444-53702-7.00006-3. Elsevier. [121] Van Reeth O, Weibel L, Spiegel K, Leproult R, Dugovic C, Maccari S. In-
[107] Goldstein AN, Walker MP. The role of sleep in emotional brain function. Annu teractions between stress and sleep: from basic research to clinical situa-
Rev Clin Psychol 2014;10:679e708. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy- tions. Sleep Med Rev 2000;4:201e19. https://doi.org/10.1053/
032813-153716. smrv.1999.0097.
[108] O’Connor PJ. Evaluation of four highly cited energy and fatigue mood mea-
sures. J Psychosom Res 2004;57:435e41. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jpsychores.2003.12.006.
15

Brink 2022 - Sleep and Affect - A Conceptual Review

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Brink 2022 - Sleep and Affect - A Conceptual Review

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Brink 2022 - Sleep and Affect - A Conceptual Review

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sleep Medicine Reviews 65 (2022) 101670

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sleep Medicine Reviews

Sleep and affect: A conceptual review

1. Introduction In this article, we describe a framework for organizing the

2. Our granular dimensional framework

Sleep scientists and affective scientists each make distinctions

frequency during sleep, and b) autonomic activity, encompassing

We distinguish two broad methods of assessment (depicted in

Fig. 2. Organizing framework concept and execution.

Where studies’ conclusions diverged, we designated conﬁdence

You might also like