Research Article

Transportation Research Record

2021, Vol. 2675(7) 208–221
Ó National Academy of Sciences:
Critical State Model of Sand-Tire Transportation Research Board 2021

Derived Aggregate Mixtures Article reuse guidelines:

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Based on Triaxial Tests DOI: 10.1177/0361198121997837
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Adolfo Foriero1 and Nima Ghafari1

Abstract
This study is part of an environmental experimental program on the use of scrap automobile tires for geotechnical applica-
tions. Different types of laboratory tests were conducted to determine the elastic, plastic, and creep parameters of tire
derived aggregate (TDA)-sand granulated mixtures. However, this paper emphasizes the plasticity parameters via the devel-
opment of a critical state model based on the results of triaxial tests. This was attained by considering loose sand specimens,
at a predetermined TDA volumetric content, subject to three different confining pressures under a constant axial displace-
ment rate. The calculated deviatoric stress versus axial strain curves, obtained via the modified Cam Clay model, captured
the non-linear elastoplastic response obtained in the tests. Results indicated that the level of the shear strength is highly
dependent on critical state friction angle which in turn depends on the TDA content. For the loose TDA-sand mixtures used
in the present study, the effect of the TDA content demonstrates a reinforcement of the sand matrix. However this reinfor-
cement diminishes as the TDA content increases.

Environmental as well as economic conditions have A review of related past studies exposes a lack of
given rise to the use of recycled tires as construction experimental as well as numerical investigations on long-
materials. There are various reasons for this. One of term time-dependent constitutive behavior of sand-TDA
them is that stockpiles of discarded tires are on the rise mixtures. A recent study on sand-TDA mixtures clearly
and constitute a real fire hazard, not to mention a breed- indicates a primary creep phase that rapidly transitioned
ing ground for rodents. Another reason is that natural into a secondary stationary creep phase, never attaining
resources like sand, clay, gravel, and other mineral the tertiary phase (8). The magnitude of the creep strain
aggregates are being depleted throughout the world was strongly affected by the TDA volume fraction con-
because of the opening of new quarries. Finally, when tent (21). This observation conduced the adoption of the
shredded, tire derived aggregate (TDA) could be mixed Norton-Bailey law as a possible constitutive model for
with traditional construction aggregate materials. The creep of TDA-sand mixtures. Other studies such as
basic characteristics of such mixtures are that they are Wartman et al. examined the immediate and time-
lightweight and frictionally resistant precisely as a result dependent compression of tire chips and shreds (22). The
of the TDA. Another important property of sand-TDA time-dependent deformation of the mixture was also
mixtures is their low thermal conductivity. This constitu- shown to be inversely proportional to the sand content.
tes an economic and engineering advantage over tradi- In another study, the one-dimensional compression of
tional materials. specimens, composed of sand and granulated tire rubber,
Granular material mixed with TDA is increasingly was investigated (16). There again, results indicated that
used in geotechnical applications. In many of these oper- the time-dependent deformation is significant. However,
ations, sand is mixed with TDA, at various volumetric a complete constitutive model must consider, in addition
ratios, in areas of applications such as highway embank-
ments and bridge abutments (3–5). In northern regions, 1
TDA-granular soil mixtures are also employed in pave- Département de génie civil et de génie des eaux, Pavillon Adrien-Pouliot,
Université Laval, Québec, Canada
ment design. They primarily serve as an insulating layer
to prevent frost heave and therefore degradation of the Corresponding Author:
road surface (12). Adolfo Foriero, [email protected]
Foriero and Ghafari 209

to time-dependent deformations, the shear strength of

the sand-TDA mixtures.
In the past decades, most of the laboratory research
with regard to shear strength was conducted on sand
reinforced with tire chips (generally from 10 to 300 mm in
size) (1, 5, 6, 9, 11). The direct shear box test and the
triaxial test were the apparatuses mostly used to test these
mixtures. The overall research emphasized that the shear
strength of sand is increased by the tire chips.
Direct shear box tests by Bosscher et al. and Foose
et al. show an increase in shear strength with a rubber
content of up to 50% (4, 9). Foose et al. also reported
that the failure envelope of sand-rubber mixtures con-
taining dense sand is non-linear (9). Yang et al. also
observed a non-linear failure envelope of the shear stress,
but in the cases of granulated rubber and not tire chips
(23). However, most studies of sand mixed with granu-
lated rubber, using the direct shear box, show inconsis-
tencies in the results. For example, Anbazhagan et al. Figure 1. Grain-size distribution curves of materials used in the
determined an increase of the shear strength when granu- present study.
lated rubber is mixed with uniform sand (2). However, Note: TDA = tire derived aggregate.
the shear strength decreased when the granulated rubber
was mixed with poorly graded sand. Ghazavi reported
an insignificant increases in shear strength of the mix
with an increase in granulated rubber (10).
Experimental studies on the shear strength measured
in the triaxial apparatus also show considerable inconsis-
tencies in the test results. A study by Noorzad and
Raveshi, in which tire crumbs act as reinforcement of a
sand-tire mixture, found that the shear strength
decreases with increase in the amount of tire crumbs. A
similar conclusion was obtained for mixtures of sand
and granulated rubber by Youwai and Bergrado and
Madhusudhan et al. (14, 24). On the other hand, a study
by Venkatappa and Dutta determined some improve-
ment in strength on additions of rubber inclusions (20).
Figure 2. Phase diagram of tire derived aggregate (TDA)-sand
Tire chips with an aspect ratio of 2 showed the best mixture.
improvement for low confining pressures and chip
content.
Numerous laboratory investigations have considered Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada, with calculated val-
sand reinforced with tire chips, whereas few have consid- ues of Cu = 1.69 and Cc = 1.03. This rubber granular
ered sand-TDA granular mixtures. None have considered material would also be considered as poorly graded if
a critical state model for interpretation of the test results. classified according to the Unified Soil Classification
This will be attempted in the following. System. A granulometric curve for this material is also
shown in Figure 1.
For the purpose of the tests these two materials were
Sand-TDA Mixtures of the Triaxial Tests
combined at three different volumetric ratios:
For the triaxial tests in this study, the specimens con- up = 0:50, 0:75, 1:0 where up represents the volume
sisted of mixtures of two granular materials. One of these fraction of TDA per total volume of the mixture. In
materials is Ottawa sand whose granulometric curve is Figure 2, a phase diagram for the sand-TDA mixture
shown in Figure 1. From the shape of this curve and was used to determine the initial void ratios that corre-
with calculated values of Cu = 2.1 and Cc = 1.26, this spond to the three volumetric ratios mentioned previ-
sand is defined as a poorly graded sand (SP). The other ously. This was possible because both the weights of the
material is TDA obtained at Shercom Industries Inc. in TDA and sand phases, as well as the total volume they
210 Transportation Research Record 2675(7)

Table 1. Initial Void Ratio and Unit Weight of Ottawa Sand-Tire

Derived Aggregate (TDA) Mixture
kN
TDA (%) Void ratio, eo Unit weight, g, m 3

50 0.78 11.02
75 0.91 8.25
100 1.05 5.5

Figure 4. Test results of deviatoric stress versus axial strain at

50% tire derived aggregate (TDA).

specimen measured 35.1 mm in diameter and 67.5 mm in

height. A consistent procedure for preparing and testing
dry samples of sand-TDA mixtures at a loose state was
established. The required percentages of TDA were uni-
formly mixed with Ottawa sand in a dry condition. The
sand was then poured into a rubber membrane inside a
split mold former under vacuum. The sand-TDA speci-
mens when sheared were subjected to confining cell pres-
sures of 50, 100, and 150 kPa for each volumetric ratio
up = 0:50, 0:75, 1:0. A conventional drained triaxial test
displacement rate of 0.0061 mm/min was maintained
throughout the tests.

Test Results and Observations

Figure 3. Triaxial test configuration. A total of nine triaxial tests on sand-TDA dry granular
mixtures (at the three volumetric ratios and three confin-
ing pressures) were completed in the present study.
occupied were measured beforehand. For the calcula- Typical stress-strain curves for the cases pertaining to
tions the specific gravity of the TDA (GTDA = 1:15) and up = 0:50 and 0:75 are exhibited in Figures 4 and 5.
Ottawa sand (GSand = 2:65) were necessary. The phase Results show, as would be expected, that for a constant
volumes of the TDA and sand were obtained, respectively, TDA volumetric ratio, the deviatoric stress increases
as VTDA = GWTDATDAg and VSand = GWSand gw . Consequently, the ini-
Sand with the confining stress. However, from these two fig-
w
tial void ratio, e, and initial unit weight g of the TDA-sand ures, an increase in the TDA volumetric content tends to
mixture were known at the start of all tests (Table 1). lower the shear strength of the sand-TDA mixture.
Moreover, both Figures 4 and 5 depict a strain harden-
ing behavior. This was confirmed by the barrel shape of
Test Equipment and Experimental the specimen at the end of the test (Figure 6) which
occurred at an axial strain of approximately 23%.
Procedure
An interesting result for the triaxial tests with pure
A standard triaxial apparatus, generally used for soils, TDA particles up = 1:0 is given in Figure 7. Here again,
was chosen for this study (Figure 3). The sand-TDA the deviatoric stress increases with the confining stress
Foriero and Ghafari 211

Figure 5. Test results of deviatoric stress versus axial strain at

75% tire derived aggregate (TDA).

but for the lower confining stresses this increase is mini-

mal. The stress-strain behavior in this instance and for
practical purposes appears to be linear.
In all of these tests, the value of the failure strain must
be defined. At approximately 23% of the axial strain, the
sand-TDA specimen is severely distorted, as previously
Figure 6. Sand-tire derived aggregate (TDA) mixture at the end
mentioned (Figure 6). Therefore, the critical state, which is
of the triaxial test.
reached when no further changes in shear stress and vol-
ume occur under continuous shearing, cannot be attained.
Several studies on triaxial testing have defined failure
based on a predetermined strain in the range of 10%–20%
(17, 23). Thus, in this study, four different values of the
axial strain (ea = 10%, 15%, 20%, 23%) were considered
(Figures 8–10) to examine the effect of the TDA content
on the presumable deviatoric stress at failure. As seen in
these figures, for a constant confining pressure, an increase
in the TDA content lowers the deviatoric stress. Again,
the deviatoric stress increases with the confining cell pres-
sure at one particular TDA volumetric ratio.
The previous stress-strain curves (Figures 4, 5, and 7)
showed a reduction in the stiffness of the sand-TDA mix-
tures as the TDA content increased. An average represen-
tation of stiffness for non-linear behavior is through the
secant modulus. Figures 11–13 exhibit the secant modu-
lus at the vertical failure strains previously cited. As con-
firmed by the previous results, the trend is analogous.
The secant moduli decrease with an increase in TDA and Figure 7. Test results of deviatoric stress versus axial strain at
a decrease of the confining pressure. 100% tire derived aggregate (TDA).
It is clear from the previous experimental results that
the TDA volumetric ratio plays an important role as far
as the behavior of the mixture is concerned. A constitu- to the development of a simple framework capable of
tive equation is therefore needed that accounts for this. describing, interpreting, and anticipating the sand-TDA
Consequently, the next section of this paper is devoted mixture response to loading.
212 Transportation Research Record 2675(7)

Figure 8. Deviatoric stress versus axial strain at failure for s3 = Figure 10. Deviatoric stress versus axial strain at failure for s3 =
50 kPa. 150 kPa.

The fundamental concept of a unique failure surface

is adopted in the present approach. Moreover, the terms
failure and critical state are taken as synonymous. From
hereon, the failure line will be referred to the critical state
line (CSL) (19). The yield surface is an ellipse whose
equation in (p0 , q, e) space is

q2
(p0 )2  p0 p0 + =0 ð1Þ
M(u)2
and is a function of the TDA volumetric content through
the friction constant M. The other variables p0 , p0c , q are,
respectively, the effective mean stress, the maximum past
effective mean stress, and the deviatoric stress. In geo-
technical engineering this surface is better known as the
modified Cam Clay (MCC) yield surface (18).
The Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion is written in rela-
Figure 9. Deviatoric stress versus axial strain at failure for s3 = tion to the previously mentioned stress invariants as
100 kPa.
qf = M(u)p0f ð2Þ

A Critical State Model to Interpret where p0f , qf are, respectively, the effective mean stress
TDA-Sand Mixtures and the deviatoric stress at failure. Since the triaxial test-
ing program in the present study dealt with axisymmetric
As a preliminary attempt in understanding TDA-sand compression only, the expression for the friction para-
mixtures, it is tacitly assumed that such mixtures are meter is specialized to
quasi-single phased. This means that deformation causes
0
no change, or negligible change, in the phase ratio per 6 sin(fcs (u))
unit volume. In this particular case, it refers to the sand- M(u) = Mc (u) = 0 ð3Þ
3  sin(fcs (u))
TDA phase ratio, implying that the TDA does not flow
0
out of the sand matrix. Consequently, the term effective where the critical state friction angle fcs is back-
stress shall be indiscriminately used from hereon. calculated from the present triaxial tests with
Foriero and Ghafari 213

Figure 11. Secant elastic modulus versus axial strain at failure Figure 13. Secant elastic modulus versus axial strain at failure
for s3 = 50 kPa. for s3 = 150 kPa.

 0
p
eG = eo + (l  k) ln c + k ln(p0o ) ð6Þ
2

where k is the unloading/reloading index or the recom-

pression index.
To calculate the elastic response, the elastic modulus
E0 is required. This modulus is obtained from the triaxial
tests. This modulus can be approximated by a secant
modulus (Figures 11–13) over the stress increment of
interest. However, an estimate of this modulus is also
possible using the critical state model through the bulk
modulus. The bulk modulus is calculated with

p0 (1 + eo )
K0 = ð7Þ
k
0 0 0
And, since E = 3K (1  2m ), it is obtained that

3p0 (1 + eo )(1  2m0 )

Figure 12. Secant elastic modulus versus axial strain at failure E0 = : ð8Þ
k
for s3 = 100 kPa.
Consequently, the elastic shear modulus, G, is also esti-
0 3Mc (u) mated as
sin(fcs (u)) = : ð4Þ
6  Mc (u)
3p0 (1 + eo )(1  2m0 )
The equation for the CSL in (e  p0 ) space is represented G= : ð9Þ
2k(1 + m0 )
by
ef = eG  l ln(p0f ) ð5Þ Equations 7 and 8 indicate a non-linear elastic behavior
because both are functionally dependent on the mean
where ef , eG , l, p0f are, respectively, the void ratio at fail- effective stress. Consequently, calculations must be car-
ure, the void ratio on the CSL when ln(p0 ) = 1, the slope ried out incrementally.
of the CSL, and effective mean stress at failure. Then, eG The total volumetric strain is the sum of the elastic
is determined from the initial state of the soil with and plastic volumetric strain and is written as
214 Transportation Research Record 2675(7)

Dev = Deev + Depv ð10Þ Calculation Procedure for the Stress-Strain

Response of the Sand-TDA Mixture
where the superscripts e and p indicate the elastic and
plastic components. If the soil yields at a void ratio of e1 From the equations of the last section, it is possible to
and a small increment of stress causes the yield surface determine the stress-strain response and the volume
to expand to a void ratio of e2 , then the corresponding changes from the initial stress state. The required para-
total change in volumetric strain is given by meters are p0o , eo , p0c , l, k, u, f0cs (u)), and m0 .
 0 The procedure used in this study to simulate the
De je2  e1 j l p stress-strain response of the present triaxial tests results is
Dev = = = ln 20 ð11Þ
1 + eo 1 + eo 1 + eo p1 as follows: (a) determine the TDA volumetric content u
of the sand-TDA mixture; (b) determine the mean effec-
where p01 , p02 are the applied mean effective stresses pro- tive stress and the deviatoric stress at initial yield by find-
ducing the overall stress increment. For the same stress ing the coordinates of the initial yield surface with the
increment the volumetric elastic strain increment is calcu- effective stress path: this is achieved numerically by find-
lated with (7) as ing the root of the resulting coupled Equation 1 and
p0 = p0o + q3 of the particular test; (c) determine the mean
p02  p01 effective stress and deviatoric stress at failure with
Deev = ð12Þ
K0 3p0o
p0f = 3M(u)
3M(u)p0
and q0f = 3M(u)o ; (d) calculate the non-linear
or via elastic modulus G using (9); (e) calculate the initial elastic
 0 volumetric strain with (13) and initial elastic deviatoric
k p strain using (16); (f) discretize the stress path from the ini-
Deev = ln 20 ð13Þ
1 + eo p1 tial stress point to the failure point into several equal suf-
ficiently small stress increments; (g) determine the major
by considering the unloading/reloading line associated axis of the ellipse, using the current mean effective stress,
with the maximum mean effective stress for the yield sur- for each stress increment via (1) with p0c = p0 + q2
;
face on which unloading initiates. The change in volu- (M(u))2 p0

metric plastic strain is now calculated as Depv = Dev  Deev (h) calculate the volumetric strain increment for each
and is expressed as stress increment using (11); (i) calculate the plastic volu-
metric strain for each stress increment using (14); (j) cal-
   0 culate the plastic deviatoric strain increment for each
kl p
Depv = ln 20 : ð14Þ stress increment using (15); (k) calculate the elastic devia-
1 + eo p1
toric strain increment for each stress increment using
The shear strains are calculated from the representation (16); (l) sum the elastic and plastic deviatoric strains
of the yield surface. Furthermore, for the purposes of the increments to give the total deviatoric strain increment;
present study, these strains are calculated by assuming (m) sum the total volumetric strain increments; (n) calcu-
that the plastic potential function and the yield function late ea = es + e3v , s0a = 2q 0 0 0 q
3 + p , and s3 = p  3.
are the same. In other words, a normality condition is This procedure was coded and carried out numerically
assumed. The resulting plastic deformation produces a with the MATLAB software (7).
volumetric and a deviatoric plastic strain component.
The volumetric plastic deformation was given in (14), the
deviatoric component of the volumetric plastic strain is Comparison of the Critical State Model
obtained as with the Triaxial Test Results
q The TDA-sand mixture parameters p0o , eo , p0c , u, and
deps = depv p0c
ð15Þ 0
fcs (u) were known for all of the triaxial tests carried out
(M(u))2 (p0  )
2 in this study. The parameters l, k, and m0 were estimated.
by considering the normal to the yield surface. Finally,
1
In general, for soils 10 ł kl ł 15 and 0:1 ł m0 ł 0:4 (19).
the elastic deviatoric strains are obtained with For the simulations, a ratio of kl = 0.15 and a value of
m0 = 0:3 were taken. Numerous simulations showed that
Dq the level-value of the shear strength at the critical state
Dees = : ð16Þ was insensitive to the values of these parameters. It was
3G
also observed that these values affect mostly the initial
All the above strains (Equations 10–16) must be used in portion of the stress-strain curve; the reason being that
incremental calculations, because they are only valid for the critical state shear strength, obtained with the MCC
small changes in stress. model, is strongly affected by the critical state friction
Foriero and Ghafari 215

Figure 14. Determination of the frictional constant M at a tire Figure 16. Determination of the frictional constant M at a tire
derived aggregate (TDA) of 50% and ea = 20%. derived aggregate (TDA) of 75% and ea = 20%.

reiterated that establishment of the failure state of a

sand-TDA mixture depends on a chosen strain criterion
(17, 23). To determine a value for the critical state fric-
tion angle, four different values of the axial strain
(ea = 10%, 15%, 20%, 23%) were considered at three
different TDA contents. Figures 14–17 show typical
determinations of the value of a mobilized friction angle
0
fmob (u) based on the triaxial test curves of Figures 5 and
6. These values were obtained, for a particular TDA con-
tent, by linear regression based on the picked-off (pf , qf )
pair at the four previously stated axial strains.
The critical state friction angle is determined from a
plot of the mobilized friction angles versus the axial
strains at which these mobilized values were obtained
(Figures 18 and 19). As previously mentioned, the critical
state was difficult to attain because of the excessive defor-
mations achieved during the tests (Figure 6). The critical
state friction angle is unique and generally obtained when
Figure 15. Determination of the frictional constant M at a tire the stress-strain curve attains a limiting value of the shear
derived aggregate (TDA) of 50% and ea = 23%. stress. Figures 18 and 19 show that a critical state friction
angle is asymptotically approached at very high axial
strains, where the value of the mobilized friction angles
0
angle fcs (u) through the Mohr–Coulomb relation begin to level off. This leveling off of the mobilized fric-
qf = M(u)p0f . On the other hand, the yield surface, repre- tion angle depends on the TDA content. For a TDA
sented by the elliptic locus, is responsible for the elastic volumetric ratio of u = 50% (Figure 18) a critical state
wall at a particular void ratio thus affecting the stress- friction angle greater than 38° is realistic since this value
strain curve mostly before failure. Consequently, empha- continues to grow. On the other hand, Figure 19, for the
sis will be placed from hereon on the shear strength of case u = 75%, shows that a value of 34° could be taken
sand-TDA mixtures. as a lower bound. Consequently, in the simulations that
As previously mentioned, in this study the failure state follow, the critical state friction angle is bracketed to cap-
is synonymous with the critical state. Moreover, it is ture the measured shear strength of the triaxial tests.
216 Transportation Research Record 2675(7)

Figure 17. Determination of the frictional constant M at a tire

Figure 19. Mobilized friction angle versus axial strain at tire
derived aggregate (TDA) of 75% and ea = 23%.
derived aggregate (TDA) = 75%.

effective stress path until the sand-TDA mixture fails.

Figures 21–24 show the results of four triaxial test simu-
lations using the MCC. These simulations were con-
ducted at confining cell pressures of 100 and 150 kPa and
TDA contents of 50% and 75%.
Figures 21–24 depict, for each of the four tests, the cal-
culated deviatoric stress versus axial strain, the void ratio
versus axial strain, and the deviatoric strain vesus the
volumetric strain in comparison with the test results. The
initial yield surface expands and the stress-strain response
is a curved path because the sand-TDA mixture behaves
elastoplastically. As previously stated, the level of the
shear strength is highly dependent on critical state fric-
tion angle which in turn depends on the TDA content. In
all of these cases, the deviatoric stresses obtained in the
tests are bracketed by the theoretical curves generated
with the MCC.
In all simulations, the curves of the void ratio versus
Figure 18. Mobilized friction angle versus axial strain at tire
axial strain (Figures 21–24) show an overall compression
derived aggregate (TDA) = 50%.
of the specimen, the initial void ratio attenuating toward
a critical void ratio. Again, this behavior conforms with
The MCC yield surface, as well as the CSL, for that of loose granular materials (15). The resulting
Ottawa sand and a typical Ottawa sand-TDA mixture at barrel-shaped specimen (Figure 6) at the end of the test
u = 50%, are shown in Figure 20. It is clear from this is a manifestation of this type of behavior.
figure that the TDA reinforces the sand matrix because Finally, the curves of the deviatoric strain versus volu-
the yield surface is expanded and the CSL assumes a metric strain confirm that distortion increases with the
greater inclination. volumetric strain, the curve assuming a non-linear shape
In all of the following simulations a sand-TDA sam- with no peaks. In other words, no dilation is predicted
ple is sheared at its current mean effective stress, p0o , by by the MCC because all of the sand-TDA mixtures were
increasing the axial stress, while keeping the cell pressure in a loose state at the start of the test.
s3 constant. The imposed effective stress path has a Overall, the critical state model is satisfactory if it is
slope of pq0 = 3. The load is incremented along the wished to predict the overall magnitude of the shear
Foriero and Ghafari 217

content. For the loose TDA-sand mixtures used in the

present study, the effect of the TDA content demon-
strates a reinforcement of the sand matrix. However, this
reinforcement diminishes as the TDA content increases.
Finally, triaxial tests on dense sand-TDA specimens
are warranted because such samples will sustain higher
stresses than loose samples. Moreover, it is expected that
there will be a peak value of the deviatoric stress at low
axial strains followed by a decrease with increasing
strain, attaining a critical devatoric stress. The determina-
tion of the critical friction angle in such tests will be evi-
dent provided the critical state is attainable. Moreover,
since it is well known in the literature that the MCC
model performs less well when dilation is present, a new
constitutive model capable of capturing this effect will be
required (13).

Figure 20. Modified Cam Clay (MCC) model in p-q space for
Ottawa sand.
Conclusions
Note: CSL = critical state line; TDA = tire derived aggregate. Based on the triaxial test results obtained in this study,
the following conclusions with regard to granular TDA
arose. In general, TDA content reinforces a sand matrix
when compared with the original sand. For loose sand-
strength of initially loose sand-TDA mixtures. The model TDA mixtures, results show that, for a constant TDA
is highly dependent on the critical state friction angle, volumetric ratio, the deviatoric stress increases with the
0
fcs (u), which in turn depends on the TDA volumetric confining stress. However, an increase in the TDA

Figure 21. Deviatoric stress versus axial strain, void ratio versus axial strain, and deviatoric strain versus volumetric strain at 50% tire
derived aggregate (TDA) and s3 = 100 kPa.
Note: MCC = modified Cam Clay.
218 Transportation Research Record 2675(7)

Figure 22. Deviatoric stress versus axial strain, void ratio versus axial strain, and deviatoric strain versus volumetric strain at 50% tire
derived aggregate (TDA) and s3 = 150 kPa.
Note: MCC = modified Cam Clay.

Figure 23. Deviatoric stress versus axial strain, void ratio versus axial strain, and deviatoric strain versus volumetric strain at 75% tire
derived aggregate (TDA) and s3 = 100 kPa.
Note: MCC = modified Cam Clay.
Foriero and Ghafari 219

Figure 24. Deviatoric stress versus axial strain, void ratio versus axial strain, and deviatoric strain versus volumetric strain at 75% tire
derived aggregate (TDA) and s3 = 150 kPa.
Note: MCC = modified Cam Clay.

volumetric content tends to lower the shear strength of ratio. Again, this behavior conforms with that of loose
the sand-TDA mixture. A strain hardening behavior was granular materials.
confirmed by the stress-strain curves, and by the barrel Finally, the curves of the deviatoric strain versus volu-
shape of the specimen at the end of the test which metric strain confirm that distortion increases with the
occurred at an axial strain of approximately 23%. volumetric strain. The curves assume a non-linear shape
Consequently, the critical state is difficult to attain in with no peaks. In other words, no dilation is predicted
such cases. by the MCC because all of the sand-TDA mixtures were
Test results also showed a reduction in the stiffness of in a loose state at the start of the test.
the sand-TDA mixtures as the TDA content increased. In
particular, the secant moduli decreased with an increase
in TDA and a decrease of the confining pressure.
List of Symbols
It is clear from the previous experimental results that  eo = Initial void ratio
the TDA volumetric ratio plays an important role as far  ef = Void ratio at failure
as the behavior of a mixture is concerned. A constitutive  eG = Void ratio on the CSL when ln(pf ) = 1
equation based on a critical state model—MCC—is  ea = Total axial strain
satisfactory in predicting the level of the shear strength  es = Total deviatoric strain
offered by a sand-TDA mixture. The calculated deviato-  es e = Elastic deviatoric strain
ric stress versus axial strain curves, obtained via the  es p = Plastic deviatoric strain
model, captured the non-linear elastoplastic response  ev = Total volumetric strain
obtained in the tests. The level of the shear strength is  ev e = Elastic volumetric strain
highly dependent on critical state friction angle which in  ev p = Plastic volumetric strain
0
turn depends on the TDA content. In all of these cases,  fcs = Friction angle at the critical state
the deviatoric stresses obtained in the tests are bracketed  g = Unit weight having units kN m3
by the theoretical curves generated with the MCC.  k = Unloading/reloading index
In all simulations, the curves of the void ratio versus  p0 = Mean effective stress in (kPa)
axial strain show an overall compression of the specimen,  p0o = Initial mean effective stress in (kPa)
the initial void ratio attenuating toward a critical void  p0y = The mean effective stress at yield in (kPa)
220 Transportation Research Record 2675(7)

 p0c = Maximum past mean effective stress in (kPa) 5. Foriero, A., and N. Ghafari. Laboratory Creep Parameter
 p0f = Mean effective stress at failure in (kPa) Determination of Sand-TDA Mixtures and Subsequent
 l = Compression index FEM Validation. Indian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 50,
 M = Friction constant 2020, pp. 710–725.
 q = Deviatoric stress in (kPa) 6. Ward, J. I., and J. Sweeney. An Introduction to the
 qf = Deviatoric stress at failure in (kPa) Mechanical Properties of Solid Polymers. 2nd ed. John
 Wiley and Sons, New York, NY, 2004.
qy = Deviatoric stress at yield in (kPa)
7. Wartman, J., M. Natale, and P. Strenk. Immediate and
 sa = The total axial stress in (kPa) Time-Dependent Compression of Tire Derived Aggregate.
 s3 = The total lateral stress in (kPa) Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
 up = TDA percentage volume ratio. Vol. 133, No. 3, 2007, pp. 245–256.
8. Ngo, A., and J. Valdez. Creep of Sand-Rubber Mixtures.
Acknowledgments Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol. 19, No. 12,
2007, pp. 1101–1105.
The authors acknowledge and thank Shercom Industries Inc. in 9. AbdelRazek, A., R. M. El-Sherbiny, and H. A. Lofti.
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada, for their provision of the Mechanical Properties and Time-Dependent Behaviour of
TDA used in the laboratory tests. Finally the authors also Sand-Granulated Rubber Mixtures. Geomechanics and
acknowledge the technical support of Christian Juneault Geoengineering: An International Journal, Vol. 13, No. 4,
(Technicien en travaux d’enseignement et de recherche) of 2018, pp. 1–13.
Département de génie civil et de génie des eaux, Laval 10. Edil, T. B., and P. J. Bosscher. Engineering Properties of
University. Tire Chips and Soil Mixtures. Geotechnical Testing Journal,
Vol. 14, No. 4, 1994, pp. 453–464.
Author Contributions 11. Foose, G. J., C. H. Benson, and P. J. Bosscher. Sand Rein-
forced with Shredded Waste Tires. Journal of Geotechnical
The authors confirm contribution to the paper as follows: study
Engineering, Vol. 122, No. 9, 1996, pp. 760–767.
conception and design: A. Foriero, N. Ghafari; data collection:
12. Ghasavi, M., and M. AmelSakhi. Influence of Optimized
N. Ghafari, A. Foriero; analysis and interpretation of results:
Tire Shreds on Shear Strength Parameters of Sand. Inter-
A. Foriero, N. Ghafari; draft manuscript preparation: A.
national Journal of Geomechanics, Vol. 5, 2005, pp. 58–65.
Foriero, N. Ghafari. All authors reviewed the results and
13. Yang, S., R. A. Lohnes, and B. H. Kjartanson. Mechanical
approved the final version of the manuscript.
Properties of Shredded Tires. Geotechnical Testing Journal,
Vol. 25, No. 1, 2002, pp. 44–52.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests 14. Anbazhagan, P., D. R. Monobar, and D. Rohit. Influence
of Size of Granulated Rubber and Tyre Chips on the Shear
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
Strength Characteristics of Sand-Rubber Mix. Geomecha-
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article. nics and Geoengineering, Vol. 12, No. 4, 2017, pp. 266–278.
15. Ghasavi, M. Shear Strength Characteristics of Sand Mixed
With Granular Rubber. Journal of Geotechnical and Geolo-
Funding gical Engineering, Vol. 22, 2004, pp. 401–416.
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, 16. Madhusudhan, B. R., A. Boominathan, and S. Banerjee.
authorship, and/or publication of this article. Static and Large-Strain Dynamic Properties of Sand-Rub-
ber Tire Shred Mixtures. Journal of Materials in Civil Engi-
neering, Vol. 29, No. 10, 2017, p. 04017165.
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