Program : B.

Tech
Subject Name: Computer Graphics & Multimedia
Subject Code: IT-601
Semester: 6th
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Subject Name:Computer Graphics and Multimedia Subject Code:IT-601

Subject Notes
Unit II
Scan conversion techniques, image representation, line drawing, simple DDA, Bresenham’s Algorithm, Circle
drawing, general method, symmetric DDA, Bresenham’s Algorithm, curves, parametric function, Bezier
Method, B-spline Method.

Scan conversion techniques:

The process of determining which pixels provide best approximation to the desired line is known as
rasterization. When combined with the process of generating the picture in scan line order it is known as scan
conversion.
Scan conversion involves changing the picture information data rate and wrapping the new picture in
appropriate synchronization signals. There are two distinct methods for changing a picture's data rate:

a) Analog Methods (Non retentive, memory-less or real time method)

This conversion is done using large numbers of delay cells and is appropriate for analog video. It may also be
performed using a specialized scan converter vacuum tube. In this case polar coordinates (angle and distance)
data from a source such as a radar receiver, so that it can be displayed on a raster scan (TV type) display.

b) Digital methods (Retentive or buffered method)

In this method, a picture is stored in a line or frame buffer with n1 speed (data rate) and is read with n2 speed,
several picture processing techniques are applicable when the picture is stored in buffer memory including
kinds of interpolation from simple to smart high order comparisons, motion detection and … to improve the
picture quality and prevent the conversion artefacts
.
Image representation:
Point is the fundamental element of the image representation. It is nothing but the position in a plane defined
as either pairs or triplets of numbers depending on whether the data are two or three dimensional. Thus, (x1,
Y1) or (x1, y1, z1) would represent a point in either two- or three-dimensional space. Two points would
represent a line or edge, and a collection of three or more points a polygon. The representation of curved lines
is usually accomplished by approximating them by short straight-line segments.

Line drawing
The process of 'turning on' the pixels for a line segment is called vector generation. In this section, we study
the vector generation algorithm, Bresenham's line algorithm and circle drawing algorithms. Before discussing
specific line drawing algorithms, it is useful to note the general requirements for such algorithms. These
requirements specify the desired characteristics of line.
Characteristics of a line:
 The line should be appearing as a straight line and it should start and end accurately.
 The line should be displayed with constant brightness along its length independent of its length and
orientation.
 The line should be drawn rapidly.

The basic concept behind all drawing algorithms is to reduce the computations and provide the result rapidly,
so most of the line drawing algorithms use incremental methods. In these methods line starts with starting
point and then a fix increment is added to get the next point on the line. This is continued till the end of line.

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Simple DDA (Digital Differential Analyzer) Algorithm:
The Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) is a Scan-Conversion line algorithm-based calculating either ∆y or ∆x.

Consider first a line with positive slope, less than or equal to 1, we sample at unit intervals (∆x=1) and
compute each successive y value as yk+1 = yk + m, subscript k takes integer values starting from 1, for the first
point, and increases by 1 until the final endpoints is reached. Since m can be any real number between 0 & 1,
the calculated y values must be rounded to the nearest integer. For lines with a positive slope greater than 1,
we reserve the roles of x & y. That is, we sample at unit y intervals (∆y=1) and calculate each succeeding x
value as xk+1 = xk + (1/m).

13

12

11

10

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Figure 2.1(a) Representation of line with DDA algorithm

Procedure DDA (X1, Y1, X2, Y2: Integer);
Var Length, I: Integer;
X,Y,Xinc,Yinc:Real;
Begin
Length: = ABS(X2 - X1);
If ABS (Y2 - Y1) > Length Then
Length: = ABS (Y2-Y1);
Xinc: = (X2 - X1)/Length;
Yinc: = (Y2 - Y1)/Length;
X: = X1+0.5*SIGN(Xinc);
Y: = Y1+0.5*SIGN(Yinc);
For I: = 0 To Length Do
Begin
Plot (Round(X), Round(Y));
X: = X + Xinc;
Y: = Y + Yinc
End {For}
End; {DDA}

DDA (digital differential analyzer) creates good lines but it is too time consuming due to the round function
and long operations on real values.
Key points:
 DDA works with floating point arithmetic
 Rounding to integers necessary
 It takes lot of computation time because at each and every step it has to round off.
Advantages of DDA Algorithm
1. It is the simplest algorithm

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2. It is a is a faster method for calculating pixel positions
Disadvantages of DDA Algorithm
1. Floating point arithmetic in DDA algorithm is still time-consuming
2. End point accuracy is poor

Symmetrical DDA:

The Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) generates lines from their differential equations. The equation of a
straight line is

The DDA works on the principle that we simultaneously increment x and y by small steps proportional to the
first derivatives of x and y. In this case of a straight line, the first derivatives are constant and are proportional
to ∆x and ∆y. Therefore, we could generate a line by incrementing x and y by ϵ ∆x and ϵ ∆y, where ϵ is some
small quantity. There are two ways to generate points

1. By rounding to the nearest integer after each incremental step, after rounding we display dots at the
resultant x and y.

2. An alternative to rounding the use of arithmetic overflow: x and y are kept in registers that have two parts,
integer and fractional. The incrementing values, which are both less than unity, are repeatedly added to the
fractional parts and whenever the results overflows, the corresponding integer part is incremented. The
integer parts of the x and y registers are used in plotting the line. In the case of the symmetrical DDA, we
choose ε=2-n, where 2n-1≤max (|∆x|, |∆y|) <2π

A line drawn with the symmetrical DDA is shown in fig 2.1(b):

Figure 2.1(b)Symmetric DDA

Example: If a line is drawn from (0, 0) to (10, 5) with a symmetrical DDA

1. How many iterations are performed?
2. How many different points will be generated?

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1 2
Solutions: Given: P (0,0) P (10,5)
x1=0
y1=0
x2=10
y2=5
dx = 10 - 0 = 10
dy = 5 - 0 = 0

P1 (0,0) will be considered starting points

P3 (1,0.5) point not plotted
P4 (2, 1) point plotted
P5 (3, 1.5) point not plotted
P6 (4,2) point plotted
P7 (5,2.5) point not plotted
P8 (6,3) point plotted
P9 (7,3.5) point not plotted
P10 (8, 4) point plotted
P11 (9,4.5) point not plotted
P12 (10,5) point plotted

Following Figure show line plotted using these points.

Figure 2.1(c) Line using Symmetric DDA

Bresenham's Line Algorithm:

An accurate and efficient raster line-generating algorithm, developed by Bresenham’s, scans converts lines
using only incremental integer calculations that can be adapted to display circles and other curves.

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We first consider the scan-conversion process for lines with positive slope less than 1. Pixel positions along a
line path are then determined by sampling at unit x intervals. Starting from the left endpoint (x0, y0) of a line,
we step to each successive column (x position) and plot the pixel whose scan-line y value is closest to the line
path.

Figure 2.2 Concept of Bresenham’s Line Drawing

The above figure demonstrates the kth step in this process. Assuming we have determined that the pixel at
(xk, yk) is to be displayed, we next need to decide which pixel to plot in column x k+1. Our choices are the pixels
at positions (xk+1, yk) and (xk+1, yk+1). At sampling position xk+1, we label vertical pixel separations from the
mathematical line path as d1 and d2 shown in the diagram. The y coordinate on the mathematical line at pixel
column position xk+1 is calculated as
Step 1. Input Two endpoints, store left endpoint in (x0, y0).
Step 2. Load (x0, y0) into frame buffer, i.e. plot the first point.
Step 3. Calculate constants ∆x, ∆y, 2∆y, 2∆y – 2 ∆x, and initial value of decision parameter:
P0 = 2∆y -∆x
Step 4. At each xk along the line, start at k=0, test: if Pk< 0, plot (xk+1, yk) and Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y
ELSE
Plot (xk+1, yk+1) and Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y - 2∆x
Step 5. Repeat step (4) ∆x times.
A) Bresenham's line algorithm for m<1
F0R (X1, Y1) =1, 2 AND (X2, Y2) =8, 5
K PK XK+1 YK+1
0 -1 2 2
1 5 3 3
2 -3 4 3
3 3 5 4
4 -5 6 4
5 1 7 5
6 -7 8 5

input line endpoints, (x0,y0) and (xn, yn)

calculate x = xn - x0 andy = yn - y0
calculate parameter p0 = 2 y - x
set pixel at position (x0,y0)

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repeat the following steps until (xn, yn) is reached:
if pi< 0
set the next pixel at position (xi +1, yi )
calculate new pi+1 = pi + 2 y

if pi ≥ 0
set the next pixel at position (xi +1, yi + 1 )
calculate new pi+1 = pi + 2y - 2x
Repeat steps until dx-1 times.

B) Bresenham's line algorithm for m>1

input line endpoints, (x0,y0) and (xn, yn)
calculate x = xn - x0 andy = yn - y0
calculate parameter p0 = 2 x - y
set pixel at position (x0,y0)
repeat the following steps until (xn, yn) is reached:
if pi< 0
set the next pixel at position (xi ,yi +1)
calculate new pi+1 = pi + 2 x
if pi ≥ 0
set the next pixel at position (xi +1, yi + 1 )
calculate new pi+1 = pi + 2x - 2y
Repeat steps until dy-1 times.
F0R (X1, Y1) =1, 3 AND (X2, Y2) =8, 12
K PK XK+1 YK+1
0 5 2 4
1 1 3 5
2 -3 3 6
3 11 4 7
4 7 5 8
5 3 6 9
6 -1 6 10
7 13 7 11
8 9 8 12
Key points
 Bresenham’s algorithm uses integer arithmetic
 Constants need to be computed only once
 Bresenham’s algorithm generally faster than DDA
Circle Drawing:
In this section we are going to discuss three efficient circle drawing algorithms:
1. General Method
2. Symmetric DDA algorithm
3. Bresenham’s circle algorithm

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1. General Method:
Using circle equation:

We could solve for y in terms of x

,
and use this equation to compute the pixels of the circle.

C program to rasterize the circle:-

public void circleSimple(int xCenter, int yCenter, int radius, Color c)

{
int x, y, r2;
r2 = radius * radius;
for (x = -radius; x <= radius; x++) {
y = (int) (Math.sqrt(r2 - x*x) + 0.5);
putpixel(xCenter + x, yCenter + y, WHITE);
putpixel(xCenter + x, yCenter – y, WHITE);
}
}
Using Polar Co-ordinates Method:
Defining a circle using Polar Co-ordinates:
The second method of defining a circle makes use of polar coordinates as shown in fig 2.3:
x=r cos θ
y = r sin θ
Where θ=current angle
r = circle radius
x = x coordinate
y = y coordinate
By this method, θ is stepped from 0 to π/4 & each value of x & y is calculated.

Figure 2.3 Polar Co-ordinates Method

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Algorithm:
Step1: Set the initial variables:
r = circle radius
(h, k) = coordinates of the circle center
i = step size
θ_end=(22/7)/4
θ=0
Step2: If θ>θendthen stop.
Step3: Compute
x = r * cos θ y=r*sin?θ
Step4: Plot the eight points, found by symmetry i.e., the center (h, k), at the current (x, y) coordinates.
Plot (x + h, y +k) Plot (-x + h, -y + k)
Plot (y + h, x + k) Plot (-y + h, -x + k)
Plot (-y + h, x + k) Plot (y + h, -x + k)
Plot (-x + h, y + k) Plot (x + h, -y + k)
Step5: Increment θ=θ+i
Step6: Go to step (ii).

2. DDA Circle Drawing Algorithm We know that, the equation of circle, with origin as the center of the circle is
given as x2 + y2 = r2The digital differential analyser algorithm can be used to draw the circle by defining circle
as a differential equation. It is as given below,

Algorithm
1. Read the radius (R), of the circle and calculate value of epsilon
2. start_x = 0
start_y = R
3. X1 = start_x
Y1= start_y
4. do {
X2=X1 + epsilon*Y1
Y2 = Y1 + epsilon*X2
Plot (int ( X2 ), int ( Y2 ))
X1 = X2 ;
Y1 = Y2 ;
} while ( Y1— start_y ) < epsilon OR (start_x — X1 ) > epsilon)
[check if the current point is the starting point or not if current point is not starting point repeat step 4
; otherwise stop]
5. Stop.

3. Bresenham’s Circle Algorithm:

Bresenham’s circle drawing algorithm is used to determine the next pixel of screen to be illuminated while
drawing a circle by determining the closest nearby pixel.
Let us first take a look how a circle is drawn on a pixel screen

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Figure2.4: pixel graph

As Circles are symmetrical so the values of y-intercept and x-intercept are same if circle's Center coordinates
are at Origin (0,0).

Figure 2.5 Circle Geometry

Here,
Radius = OA = r
Due to symmetrical property of Circle we don't need to calculate all the pixels of all the octets and quadrants.
We need to find the pixels of only one octet, rest we can conclude through this.

Figure 2.6 Eight-way Symmetry of circle

Lets take the Octet 2 which is in quadrant 1, here both x and y are positive and here the initial pixel would be
(0,y) coordinate.

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Figure 2.7: Octet 2

At point R both the value of both x and y coordinates would be same as R is at same distance of Both X
and Y axis.
Derivation of Bresenham’s circle algorithm:

Figure 2.8: Bresenham’s circle algorithm concept

Let's say our circle is at some random pixel P whose coordinates are (xk, yk).
Now we need to find out our next pixel.
Note- This is octet 2 so here x can never be decremented as per properties of a circle but y either needs to
decremented or to be kept same. y is needed to be decided.Here it needs to decide whether go with N or S.
For this Bresenham’s circle drawing algorithm will help us to decide by calculating the difference
between radius and the coordinates of the next pixels.
The shortest of d1 and d2 will help us Decide our next pixel.
note- xk+1 = xk +1
As xk+1 is the next consecutive pixel of xk
similarly
yk-1 = yk -1
Equation of Circle with Radius r
(x– h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2
When coordinates of Centre are at Origin i.e., (h=0, k=0)
x2 + y2 = r2 (Pythagoras theorem)
Function of Circle Equation
F(C) = x2 + y2 - r2

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Function of Circle at N
F(N) = (xk+1)2 + (yk)2 – r2 (Positive)
Here the value of F(N) will be positive because N is out-side the circle that makes (xk+1)2 + (yk)2 Greater
than r2
Function of Circle at S
F(S) = (xk+1)2 + (yk-1)2 – r2 (Negative)
Here the value of F(S) will be Negative because S is in-side the circle that makes (xk+1)2 + (yk-1)2 Less than r2
Now we need a decision parameter which help us decide the next pixel
Say Dk
And, Dk = F(N)+F(S)
Here either we will get the positive or negative value of Dk
So, if Dk < 0that means the negative F(S) is bigger than the positive F(N), that implies Point N is closer to the
circle than point S. So we will select pixel N as our next pixel.
and if Dk > 0that means positive F(N) is bigger and S is closer as F(S) is smaller. So, we will Select S as our next
pixel.
Now let’sfind Dk
Dk = (xk+1)2 + (yk)2 – r2 + (xk+1)2 + (yk-1)2 – r2
(replacing xk+1 with xk + 1 and yk-1 with yk -1)
= (xk + 1) + (yk)2 – r2 + (xk + 1)2 + (yk -1)2 – r2
2

= 2(xk + 1)2 + (yk)2 + (yk -1)2 – 2r2 ----- (i)

Now let’s find Dk+1
(Replacing every k with k+1)
Dk+1 = 2(xk+1 + 1)2 +(yk+1)2 + (yk+1 -1)2 – 2r2
= 2(xk+1 + 1)2 + (yk+1)2 + (yk+1 -1)2 – 2r2
(Replacing xk+1 with xk + 1 but now we can’t replace yk+1 because we don’t know the exact value of yk )
= 2(xk+1+ 1)2 + (yk+1)2 + (yk+1 -1)2 – 2r2
= 2(xk+2)2 + (yk+1)2 + (yk+1 -1)2 – 2r2 ----- (ii)
Now to find out the decision parameter of next pixel i.e. Dk+1
We need to find
Dk+1 - Dk = (ii) - (i)
= 2(xk+2)2 + (yk+1)2 + (yk+1 -1)2 – 2r2
- [ 2(xk + 1)2 + (yk)2 + (yk -1)2 – 2r2]
= 2(xk) + 8xk + 8 + (yk+1)2 + (yk+1)2 - 2yk+1 + 1 - 2r2
2

- 2xk - 4xk – 2 - (yk)2 - (yk)2 + 2yk - 1 + 2r2

= 4xk + 2(yk+1)2 - 2yk+1 - 2(yk)2 - 2yk + 6
Dk+1 = Dk + 4xk + 2(yk+1)2 - 2yk+1 - 2(yk)2 - 2yk + 6 ----- (iii)
If (Dk < 0) then we will choose N point as discussed.i.e. (xk+1, yk)that means our next x coordinate
is xk+1 and next y coordinate is yk i.e. yk+1 = yk, putting yk in (iii) in replace of yk+1
now,
Dk+1 = Dk + 4xk + 2(yk)2 - 2yk - 2(yk)2 - 2yk + 6
= Dk + 4xk + 6
If (Dk > 0) then we will choose S point.
i.e. (xk+1, yk-1)that means our next x coordinate is xk+1 and next y coordinate is yk i.e. yk+1 = yk-1 putting yk-
1 in (iii) in replace of yk+1
now,
Dk+1 = Dk + 4xk + 2(yk-1)2 - 2yk-1 - 2(yk)2 - 2yk + 6
Now we know
yk-1 = yk – 1

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therefore,
Dk+1 = Dk + 4xk + 2(yk -1)2 - 2(yk -1) - 2(yk)2 - 2yk + 6
= Dk + 4xk + 2(yk) 2 + 2 - 4yk - 2yk +2 - 2(yk)2 - 2yk + 6
= Dk + 4xk - 4yk + 10
= Dk + 4(xk - yk) + 10
Now to find initial decision parameter means starting point that is (0,r) ,value of y is r
Putting (0,r) in (i)
Dk = 2(xk + 1)2 + (yk)2 + (yk -1)2 – 2r2
D0 = 2(0 + 1)2 + r2 + (r -1)2 – 2r2
= 2 + r2 +r2 + 1 – 2r – 2r2
= 3-2r
Hence, we have derived the Bresenham’s Circle drawing technique.
Algorithm pseudocode:
x0 = 0.
y0 = r
p0 = 3 – 2r
if pi< 0 then
yi+1 = yi
pi+1 = pi + 4xi+ 6
else if pi ≥ 0 then
yi+1 = yi– 1
pi+1 = pi + 4(xi – yi)+ 10
Stop when xi ≥ yiand determine symmetry points in the other octants
For radius=6
So your first point is (0, r) = (0, 6)
K PI XK+1 YK+1
0 -9 1 6
1 1 2 5
2 -1 3 5
3 17 4 4

Bresenham’s Circle Algorithm:

For radius=6 suppose center is(xc,yc)=3
K PI XK+1 YK+1 PLOTTED POINTS
X=xc+x y=yc+y
0 -9 1 6
X=3+1=4,y=3+6=9
X=xc+x y=yc+y
1 1 2 5
X=3+2=5,y=3+5=8
X=xc+x y=yc+y
2 -1 3 5
X=3+3=6,y=3+5=8
X=xc+x y=yc+y
3 17 4 4
X=3+4=7,y=3+4=7

Curves:
In mathematics, a curve is an object similar to a line which does not have to be straight.
Parametric function:

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Parameters for curve attributes are the same as those for line segments. We can display curves with varying
colours, widths, dot dash patterns, and available pen or brush options. Raster curves of various widths can be
displayed using the method of horizontal or vertical pixel spans. Where the magnitude of the curve slope is
less than 1, we plot vertical spans; where the slope magnitude is greater than 1, we plot horizontal spans.
Another method for displaying thick curves is to fill in the area between two parallel curve paths, whose
separation distance is equal to the desired width.

We could do this using the specified curve path as one boundary and setting up the second boundary either
inside or outside the original curve path. This approach shifts the original curve path either inward or outward,
depending on which direction we choose for the second boundary. We can maintain the original curve
position by setting the two boundary curves at a distance of one-half the width on either side of the specified
curve path. Although this method is accurate for generating thick circles, it provides only an approximation to
the true area of other thick curves. Curves drawn with pen and brush shapes can be displayed in different sizes
and with superimposed patterns or simulated brush strokes.

Parametric equations can be used to generate curves that are more general than explicit equations of the
form y=f(x). A quadratic parametric spline may be written as
P=a2t2+a1t+a0
where P is a point on the curve, a0, a1 and a2 are three vectors defining the curve and t is the parameter. The
curve passes through three points labelled P 0, P1 and P2. By convention the curve starts from point P 0 with
parameter value t=0, goes through point P1 when t=t1 (0<t1<1) and finishes at P2 when t=1. Using these
conventions, we can solve for the three a vector as follows:

and rearranging these equations we get:

Bezier Method:
Bezier curve is discovered by the French engineer Pierre Bezier. These curves can be generated under the
control of other points. Approximate tangents by using control points are used to generate curve. The Bezier
curve can be represented mathematically as –

Suppose we are given n+1 control point position:Pk = (Xk, Yk,Zk), with k = o to n. These coordinate points are
blended to produce the position vector P(u), which describes the path of an approximating Bezier Polynomial
Function between Po and Pn.
𝑛
𝑃(𝑢) = ∑𝑘=0 Pk BEZk, n(u) 0<=u<=1
The Bezier blending functions BEZk,n(u) are the Bernstein polynomials.
BEZk,n(u) = C(n,k)uk(1-u)n-k
Where,
C(n,k) are the binomial coefficients.

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C(n,k) = n! / k!(n-k)!

The simplest Bézier curve is the straight line from the point P0P0 to P1P1. A quadratic Bezier curve is
determined by three control points. A cubic Bezier curve is determined by four control points.

Figure 3.27 Representation of Bezier Curve

Properties of Bezier Curves
Bezier curves have the following properties −
 They generally follow the shape of the control polygon, which consists of the segments joining the control
points.
 They always pass through the first and last control points.
 They are contained in the convex hull of their defining control points.
 The degree of the polynomial defining the curve segment is one less that the number of defining polygon
point. Therefore, for 4 control points, the degree of the polynomial is 3, i.e. cubic polynomial.
 A Bezier curve generally follows the shape of the defining polygon.
 The direction of the tangent vector at the end points is same as that of the vector determined by first and
last segments.
 The convex hull property for a Bezier curve ensures that the polynomial smoothly follows the control
points.
 No straight line intersects a Bezier curve more times than it intersects its control polygon.
 They are invariant under an affine transformation.
 Bezier curves exhibit global control means moving a control point alters the shape of the whole curve.
 A given Bezier curve can be subdivided at a point t=t0 into two Bezier segments which join together at the
point corresponding to the parameter value t=t0.

B-Spline Curves Method:

The Bezier-curve produced by the Bernstein basis function has limited flexibility.
 First, the number of specified polygon vertices fixes the order of the resulting polynomialwhich
defines the curve.
 The second limiting characteristic is that the value of the blending function is nonzero for
allparameter values over the entire curve.
The B-spline basis contains the Bernstein basis as the special case. The B-spline basis is non global.
A B-spline curve is defined as a linear combination of control points Pi and B-spline basis function Ni, k t given
by

Where,
 {pi: i=0, 1, 2….n} are the control points

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 k is the order of the polynomial segments of the B-spline curve. Order k means that the curve is made
up of piecewise polynomial segments of degree k - 1,
 the Ni, k(t) are the “normalized B-spline blending functions”. They are described by the order k and by
a non-decreasing sequence of real numbers normally called the “knot sequence”.

ti: i = 0, . . . n + K

The Ni, k functions are described as follows –

and if k > 1,

And

Properties of B-spline Curve

 B-spline curves have the following properties −
 The sum of the B-spline basis functions for any parameter value is 1.
 Each basis function is positive or zero for all parameter values.
 Each basis function has precisely one maximum value, except for k=1.
 The maximum order of the curve is equal to the number of vertices of defining polygon.
 The degree of B-spline polynomial is independent on the number of vertices of defining polygon.
 B-spline allows the local control over the curve surface because each vertex affects the shape of a curve
only over a range of parameter values where its associated basis function is nonzero.
 The curve exhibits the variation diminishing property.
 The curve generally follows the shape of defining polygon.
 Any affine transformation can be applied to the curve by applying it to the vertices of defining polygon.
 The curve line within the convex hull of its defining polygon.

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