BASIC CALCULUS

Senior High School

 Calculus is one of those subjects considered by
students as difficult ,that they usually avoid, if not skip it.
Most students undergo struggle , perhaps due to the
sudden shift in terminologies used (e.g., delta , the limit
of) as well as the introduction of concepts which are
foreign to the students (e.g., derivative, integral).
Calculus is one of the most important inventions of
modern mathematics. As a theory it possesses the rigor
and aesthetics of a typical mathematical discourse.
However unlike most mathematic al theories, it is directly
in the center of various practical and real-world
applications .
Basic Calculus is specifically designed for senior high
school students who need to take calculus in their chosen
track.
 SOME FEW REMINDERS OR TIPS TO PASS CALCULUS
• Calculus necessitates a scaffolding of topics taken up in
algebra, trigonometry, and geometry. You may not be
able to remember all that you have previously learned
,but brushing your former notes, whenever needed, is
highly suggested.
• Calculus can be learned through the repetitive
practice. Start working on very simple numbers and
progress through the complicated and complex ones.
The gratification that you get from answering an easy
example can give you that much needed confidence to
work on the next, and more challenging ones with
success.
 SOME FEW REMINDERS OR TIPS TO PASS CALCULUS

• Calculus necessitates a scaffolding of topics taken up in

algebra, trigonometry, and geometry. You may not be
able to remember all that you have previously learned
,but brushing your former notes, whenever needed, is
highly suggested.
This course requires a good grasp of the basics.
To fully understand and appreciate the subject,
students must have a good command of General
Mathematics and Precalculus. They must be able
to perform operations on algebraic and
transcendental expressions. This includes but is
not limited to the basic operations , polynomial
factorization, exponentiation, and taking of
logarithms, evaluation of trigonometric and
circular functions and their inverses, and solving
equations involving polynomial, rational, radical,
exponential, logarithmic, absolute value, circular
functions.
1. Master the operations
on fractions
2. Laws of exponents
3. Factoring Techniques
4. Conic Sections
5. Proving Identities
UNIT 1

LIMITS AND
CONTINUITY
 The study of limits is an essential requirement to
the understanding of calculus . This unit defines
the limit of a function, gives approaches and laws
that need to be applied to evaluate the limits of
algebraic and some transcendental functions , and
discusses the concept of continuity and types of
discontinuity . All of these topics provide the
necessary foundation that explains most concepts
in differential and integral calculus. In particular
the concept of limits is important in studying rates
of change in differential calculus and area of a
bounded region in integral calculus.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit , you should be able to:
■ Illustrate the limit of a function using a table of values and the graph of a function;
■ Distinguish between lim f (x) and 𝑓 𝑐 ;
x→c
■ Illustrate the limit laws;
■ Apply the limits of exponential, logarithmic , and trigonometric functions using table of values and
graphs of functions;
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 1 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑒 𝑡 −1
■ Evaluate limits involving the expressions , , and using table of values;
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡

■ Illustrate continuity of a function on an interval

■ Determine whether a function is continues on an interval or not;
■ Illustrate different types of discontinuity (hole/removable, jump/essential, asymptotic/infinite);
■ Illustrate the intermediate value and extreme value theorems;
■ Solve problems involving continuity of a function
LIMITS
Limits are the backbone of calculus, and calculus is called the Mathematics of Change. The study
of limits is necessary in studying change in great detail. The evaluation of a particular limit is
what underlies the formulation of the derivative and the integral of a function.

For starters, imagine that you are going to watch a basketball game. When you choose seats, you
would want to be as close to the action as possible. You would want to be as close to the players
as possible and have the best view of the game, as if you were in the basketball court yourself.
Take note that you cannot actually be in the court and join the players, but you will be close
enough to describe clearly what is happening in the game.

This is how it is with limits of functions. We will consider functions of a single variable and study
the behavior of the function as its variable approaches a particular value (a constant). The variable
can only take values very, very close to the constant, but it cannot equal the constant itself.
However, the limit will be able to describe clearly what is happening to the function near that
constant.
HISTORICAL NOTE
The modern notion of limits dates back to Bernard
Bolzano in 1817. He introduced the basics of epsilon- delta
technique to define continuity of functions. However, his
works were not became popular during his time. In 1821, in
his Cours d'analyse, Augustin Cauchy gave the modern
definition of limits but it was not often recognized because he
only gave a verbal definition. The first to introduced the
epsilon- delta definition as it was written today is Karl
Weierstrass . he is the one who introduced the notations lim
and lim .
x→ 𝑋0
Definition of Limit of a Function
Consider a function f of a single variable x. Consider a constant c which the
variable x will approach (c may or may not be in the domain of f ). The limit,
to be denoted by L, is the unique real value that 𝑓 𝑥 will approach as x
approaches c. In symbols, we write this process as

lim f (x)= L
x→c

This is read, ‘ ‘The limit of f (x) as x approaches c is L.”

LOOKING AT A TABLE OF VALUES
To illustrate, let us consider lim (1 + 3x) Now we consider approaching 2 from its right or through
x→ 2 values greater than but close to 2.
Here, f(x)= 1 + 3x and the constant c, which x will
x f(x)
approach, is 2. To evaluate the given toward 2 will
3 10
have on f (x). Of course, on the number line, x may
approach 2 in two ways: limit, we will make use of a 2.5 8.5
table to help us keep track of the effect that the 2.2 7.6
approach of x through values on its left and through 2.1 7.3
values on its right. We first consider approaching 2 2.03 7.09
from its left or through values less than 2. Remember 2.009 7.027
that the values to be chosen should be close to 2. 2.0005 7.0015
2.0000001 7.0000003
x f(x)
1 4 Observe that as the values of x get closer and closer
1.4 5.2 to 2, the values of f (x) get closer and closer to 7.
1.7 6.1 This behavior can be shown no matter what set of
1.9 6.7 values, or what direction, is taken in approaching 2.
1.95 6.85 In symbols,
1.997 6.991 lim (1 + 3x)= 7
1.9999 6.9997 x→ 2
1.9999999 6.9999997
Example 1: Investigate Example 2: Investigate lim
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4
x→ 1 𝑥 −1
lim (𝑥 2 +1 ) 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+4
x→ −1 by constructing tables of values. Here, c = 1 and f(x)= 𝑥 −1
by constructing tables of values. Here, c = —1 Take note that 1 is not in the domain of f , but this not a
problem. In evaluating a limit, remember that we only need to
and f (x)= x2 + 1. go very close to 1; we will go to 1 itself.
x f(x) We now approach 1 from the right.
—1.5 3.25 x f(x)
—1.2 2.44
—1.01 2.0201 1.5 —2.5
1.17 —2.83
—1.0001 2.00020001 —2.997
1.003
1.0001 —2.9999
We start again by approaching —1 from the left.
f(x)
Approach 1 from the left
x
x f(x)
—0.5 1.25
—0.8 1.64 0.5 —3.5
—0.99 1.9801 0.88 —3.12
—0.9999 1.99980001 0.996 —3.004
0.9999 —3.0001
The tables show that as x approaches —1, f (x)
approaches 2. In symbols, The tables show that as x approaches 1, f (x) approaches —3.
In symbols, 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+4
lim (𝑥 2 +1 )= 2 lim 𝑥 −1
=-3
x→ −1 x→ 1
Example 3: Investigate through a table of values. On the other hand, when x approaches 4 from the
lim f(x) right, the values taken should be sub- situated in
x→ 4
f (x)= (x — 4)2 + 3. So,
𝑥 + 1, 𝑥<4
𝑓 𝑥 =ቊ 2
𝑥−4 + 3, 𝑥≥0 x f(x)
4.3 3.09
This looks a bit different, but the logic and
4.1 3.01
procedure are exactly the same. We still approach
4.001 3.000001
the constant 4 from the left and from the right, but
4.00001 3.0000000001
note that we should evaluate the the appropriate
corresponding functional expression. In this case,
when x approaches 4 from the left, the values Observe that the values that f (x) approaches are not
taken should be substituted in f (x) = x + 1. Indeed, equal, namely, f (x) approaches 5 from the left while it
this is the part of the function which accepts values approaches 3 from the right. In such a case, we say that
less than 4. So, the limit of the given function does not exist (DNE). In
x f(x) symbols,
3.7 4.7
3.85 4.85
lim f(x) DNE
x→ 4
3.995 4.995
3.99999 4.99999
Remark 1:we need to emphasize an important fact. We do not say that lim f(x)
“equals DNE”, nor do we writex→ lim4 f(x) = DNE”, because DNE is not a value. In the
previous example , “DNE” indicated that the function moves in different directions
as its variable approaches c from the left and from the right. In other cases, the
1
limit fails to exist because it is undefined, such as for 𝒍𝒊𝒎 which leads to division of 1
x→ 0 𝑥
by zero.
Remark 2: Have you noticed a pattern in the way we have been investigating a limit? We
have been specifying whether x will approach a value c from the left, through values less than
c, or from the right, through values greater than c. This direction may be specified
in the limit notation, lim f (x) by adding certain symbols.
x→ 𝑐

• If x approaches c from the left, or through values less than c, then we write lim − f(x)
•
x→ 𝑐
• If x approaches c from the right, or through values greater than c, then we write lim f(x)
x→ 𝑐 +
Furthermore, we say lim f(x)=L If and only if lim− f(x)=L and lim f(x)=L
+
x→ 𝑐 x→ 𝑐 x→ 𝑐

In other words, for a limit L to exist, the limits from the left and from the right must both exist and be equal to L.
Therefore, lim f(x) DNEwhenever lim f(x)≠ lim 𝑓 𝑥 .
x→ 𝑐 − +
x→ 𝑐 x→ 𝑐

These limits, lim− f(x) and lim+ f(x) are also referred as one-sided limits, since you only
x→ 𝑐 x→ 𝑐
consider values on one side of c,.

Thus, we may say:

• In our very first illustration that lim 1 + 3𝑥 = 7 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 lim 1 + 3𝑥 = 7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 1 + 3𝑥 = 7.
x→ 2− x→ 2+
• In Example 1, lim (𝑥 2 +1 )=2 since lim (𝑥 2 +1 )=2 and lim (𝑥 2 +1 )=2
x→ −1 x→ −1− x→ −1+

• In Example 2, lim 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+4 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+4 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+4

= -3 because lim 𝑥 −1 = -3 and lim + 𝑥 −1 = -3
x→ 1 𝑥 −1 x→ 1− x→ 1

• In Example 3, lim f(x) DNE because lim f(x) ≠ lim f(x)

x→ 4 x→ 4− x→ 4+
LOOKING AT THE GRAPH OF y = f (x)
If one knows the graph of f (x), it will be easier to determine its limits as x
approaches given values of c.
Consider again f (x) = 1 + 3x. Its y

graph is the straight line with slope 3 8

y = 1 +3x

and intercepts (0, 1) and (—1/3, 0).

7
Look at the graph in the vicinity of (2,7)

x =2. 6

You can easily see the points (from 5

the table of values in previous 4

example) (1, 4), (1.4, 5.2), (1.7, 6.1), 3

and so on, approaching the level
2
where y = 7. The same can be seen
from the right(from the table of 1

values in previous example). Hence,

—1 0 1 2 3 4
the graph clearly confirms that
lim(1 + 3x)= 7.
x→ 2