Unit 4 - Learning (+Intelligence)

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Summary
● There are different ways in which humans learn, and this can be because of social or
cognitive factors. For example, some may be visual learners and others, hands-on
learners. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two ways in which
psychologists such as Sigmund Freud learned about learning.

Intelligence
● IQ tests are meant for biological intelligence
● Definitions of Intelligence
○ Score on IQ Test
○ Ability to learn from experiences, problem solve, and use knowledge to adapt to
new situations
● Alfred Binet developed the first IQ test to know who needs help in schools
● Processing speed is how fast you can receive and process information, and then respond
to it.

Intelligence Theories
● Spearman = g = general intelligences
○ Used g for factor analysis as a tool for correlation
● Thurstone = 7 linked ability clusters
● Gardner = 8 intelligences
○ Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic
○ Intrapersonal
○ Interpersonal
○ Musical
○ Logical-Mathematical
○ Linguistic
○ Naturalistic

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 ● Sternberg = 3 intelligences
○ Practical (street smarts)
○ Analytical (book smarts)
○ Creative (art smarts)
● Emotional Intelligence
○ Perceiving emotions
○ Understanding emotions
○ Managing emotions
○ Using emotions

IQ Tests
● IQ = intelligence quotient = (mental age/chronological age) *100
○ If you have 100 IQ that is normal; it means that your mental and chronological
age are the same
○ 100 IQ is the 50th percentile
● Wechsler’s Tests
○ Verbal comprehension (Wernicke’s area)
○ Processing
○ Perceptual organization
○ Working memory
○ WAIS for adults
○ WISC for children

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● The tests can be valid (measure what they are supposed to) and/or reliable (same average
scores multiple times with same testing conditions and similar questions)
○ Test Reliability
■ Test-retest: will the same result be obtained if given again?
■ Split-half: do both halves elicit similar scores from the people taking it?
○ Test Validity
■ Content: is the content relevant?
■ Predictive: is it able to predict future scores?
● Aptitude test: tests for SKILLS FOR READINESS (ex: SAT)
● Achievement test: tests for WHAT YOU KNOW (ex: unit tests in school)
● Terman of Stanford University used Binet’s ideas
○ Tested many California residents for finding a norm score
○ Thought intelligence is UNCHANGING
○ Terman = “Kill the weak ones so the population will be smarter!”
■ While Binet said: “Studying will help!”
● The Flynn Effect = we need to re-standardize the tests or else average scores will get
higher because of the increasing knowledge becoming available to everyone and other
factors
○ Evidence of Change = Cross-Sectional Studies (study different groups at once)
○ Evidence of Stability = Longitudinal Studies (follow a group and track progress)
● Fluid intelligence: think quickly, abstractly, and creatively
● Crystallized intelligence: solid wisdom, knowledge, and facts

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Learning
● Classical Conditioning (Associative Learning 1+2)
○ Link 2 stimuli to anticipate an event with a reaction
● Cognitive Learning
○ Mentally observe, use language to get information
● Operant Conditioning
○ Changing behavior choice because of consequences (whether it be a good or bad
consequence)
● Associative Learning 1
○ Learn to associate 1 stimulus with another
■ Ex: see lightning, cover ear to avoid thunder sound
○ WHEN THIS OCCURS IN A SEQUENCE, REPETITION HELPS
● Associative Learning 2
○ Response paired with a consequence
■ Ex: if a seal catches ball, it will get a fish, which will encourage it to do
the action again
■ Ex: if kids are rewarded for saying please, they will do it more often

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Behaviorism (Watson Classical Conditioning and Skinner Operant Conditioning)
● Mental life is less important than BEHAVIOR as psychological foundation
● Ivan Pavlov’s Experiment - even neutral stimuli (ex: bell) can trigger saliva in dog
○ Here are the different variables needed for classical conditioning (using Pavlov’s
experiment)
1. US- unconditioned stimulus = triggers natural response
a. Food triggers salivation (US = food)
2. NS- neutral stimulus = shouldn’t trigger response
a. Bell doesn’t make a dog salivate (NS = bell)
3. UR- unconditioned response = natural response
a. Salivate to food (UR = salivation)
4. CS- conditioned stimulus = the neutral stimulus which gets a response
a. Bell triggering salivation later in the experiment (CS = bell)
5. CR- conditioned response = response to neutral stimuli (CR = salivation)
a. Salivate later in the experiment to bell
○ The NS comes before US
○ CS and CR come after conditioning
○ UR/CR are same response
○ NS/CS are same stimulus
● Higher Order Conditioning: conditioned response to multiple things
● Classical conditioning is even used in therapy
○ Psychologists connect a relaxed state with a phobia object (which is exposed
slowly)
○ They can even connect a nauseous feeling to alcohol by using a pill
○ The environment of the conditioning matters
● Acquisition: NS is associated with US (they have to be one after the other)
● Extinction: this is after conditioning and happens when only the CS is there (ex: bell
rings, but no food comes)
● Spontaneous recovery: when there is a time gap and then you feel aroused again with
the stimulus (ex: you have a favorite song, you get bored of it and don’t listen to it for a
while, and then you hear it again later and you love it again)

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 ● Generalization: when you have a CR with all similar things (ex: fear from not only a
dog, but all creatures that have fur)
● Discrimination: when you have a CR for only that particular thing (ex: you don’t get
disgusted at all pizza, just the pizza from a certain restaurant)
● The Little Albert Experiment: this was unethical because a baby was taught to fear
white rats, and then that was generalized to all small creatures; they did this through
classical conditioning (whenever the baby saw a rat, they would make a loud noise)

Operant Conditioning
● Change in behavior because of rewards/punishments
● This behavior is a conscious choice (in classical conditioning, the behavior would
become an unconscious sort of reflex)
● Skinner thought about how rewarding behavior makes it more likely to repeat (this is
based on Law of Effect by Thorndike)
○ He did an experiment with an operational chamber (he used shaping to guide
behavior)
● Positive Reinforcement: adding something desirable
● Negative Reinforcement: taking away something bad
● Primary Reinforcer: adding a biological need
○ Ex: food
● Secondary Reinforcer: adding something related to a primary reinforcer
○ Ex: money to buy food
● Immediate Reinforcer: instantly after behavior
○ Ex: get a candy for every right answer
● Delayed Reinforcer: effects come later
○ Ex: get a good job if you go to school
● Continuous Reinforcement: reward every time the behavior happens

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● Partial Reinforcement: rewards come once in a while
○ There are 4 types:
■ Fixed Ratio Schedule: reward every certain number of times the behavior
occurs
● Ex: Every 10 times you say sorry, you get a candy
■ Variable Ratio Schedule: (this is the most effective reinforcement)
random rewards for when you do it
● Ex: Slot machine
■ Fixed Interval Schedule: reward every certain time periods
● Ex: Monthly salary
■ Variable Interval Schedule: reward after a random amount of time
● Ex: Shooting star
● Positive Punishment: add something bad
● Negative Punishment: take away something good
○ These punishments work well in a natural setting (ex: if you touch something hot,
you won’t do it again because of the added burning sensation). It doesn’t matter
how severe the punishment is, it matters if it is immediate.
○ Punishing is sometimes flawed since it focuses on the bad behavior, but doesn’t
exactly change it to good behavior.
● More rewards → more extrinsic motivation → less inner passion

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Observational Learning
● Learn from what others do
○ Ex: Albert Bandura’s bobo doll experiment
● Mirror neurons: fire only to reflect the actions and feelings of others (this is important
in order for humans to empathize with others, and understand/mimic others)
○ People with autism are less likely to “mirror” others
● Prosocial behavior: conform, be good
● Antisocial behavior: violence, bad stuff, can be learned from media
● Violence-viewing effect: people become desensitized to violence if they watch it happen
a lot (it becomes “normal”)

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