Theories of Human Behaviour and the Social Environment (MSWK531)

Chapter Three
The Psychological Person: Cognition, Emotion, and the Self
Chapter Objectives
At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:
- Understand concepts of cognition, emotion and the self.
- Explain the theories of cognition and emotion.
- Describe the major elements of the self
- Analyze the implication of theories of cognition, emotion and the self in social work
practice.

Cognition and Emotion

Cognition can be defined as a person's conscious thinking processes - the mental activities of
which the individual is fully aware. Cognition includes taking in relevant information from the
environment, synthesizing that information, and formulating a plan of action based on that
synthesis. Beliefs are ideas that we hold to be true and are key elements of our cognition. Our
assessment of any idea as true or false is based on the synthesis of information.
Erroneous beliefs, which may result from misinterpretations of perceptions or from conclusions
based on insufficient evidence, are frequently behind social dysfunction.

Emotion can be understood as a feeling state characterized by the person's appraisal of a

stimulus, by changes in bodily sensations, and by displays of expressive gestures. The term
emotion is often used interchangeably with the term affect, but the latter term refers only to the
physiological manifestations of feelings. Affect may be the result of drives (innate compulsions
to gratify basic needs). It generates both conscious and unconscious feelings (those of which we
are not aware but which influence our behaviour). In contrast, emotion is always consciously
experienced. Nor is emotion the same as mood, a feeling disposition that is more chronic than
emotion, less intense, and less tied to a specific situation.

The evolution of psychological thought in this century has consisted largely of a debate about the
origins of cognition and emotion, the nature of their influence on behaviour, and their influence

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on each other. The only point of agreement seems to be that cognition and emotion are complex
and interactive.

3.1. Theories of Cognition

Theories of cognition, which emerged in the 1950s, assume that conscious thinking is the basis
for almost all behaviour and emotions. Emotions are defined within these theories as the
physiological responses that follow our cognitive evaluations of input-that is, thoughts produce
emotions.

3.1.1. Cognitive Theory

Jean Piaget's cognitive theory is the most influential theory of cognition in social work and
psychology (Maier, 1978). In his system, our capacity for reasoning develops in stages, from
infancy through adolescence and early adulthood. Piaget sees the four stages as sequential and
interdependent, evolving from activity without thought to thought with less emphasis on activity-
from doing to doing knowingly and finally to conceptualizing. He sees physical and neurological
development as necessary for cognitive development.

A central concept in Piaget's theory is schema (plural, schemata) defined as an internalized

representation of the world or a systematic pattern of thought, action, and problem solving. Our
schemata develop through social learning (watching and absorbing the experiences of others) or
direct learning (our own experiences). Both of these processes may involve assimilation
(responding to experiences based on existing schemata) or accommodation (changing schemata
when new situations cannot be incorporated within an existing one). Any experience that we
cannot assimilate creates anxiety, but if our schemata are adjusted to accommodate the new
experience, the desired state of equilibrium will be restored.

Another of Piaget's central idea is that cognitive development unfolds sequentially. Infants are
unable to differentiate between "self" and the external world; the primary task in early cognitive
development is the gradual reduction of such egocentricity, or self-centeredness. The child

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gradually learns to perform cognitive operations-to use abstract thoughts and ideas that are not
tied to sensory and motor information.

Stages (TEST) Description

Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years) The infant is egocentric; he or she gradually learns to
coordinate sensory and motor activities and develops a
beginning sense of objects existing apart from the self.

Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years) The child remains primarily egocentric but discovers
rules (regularities) that can be applied to new incoming
information. The child tends to over generalize rules,
however, and thus makes many cognitive errors.

Concrete operations stage (7 to 11 years) The child can solve concrete problems through the
application of logical problem solving strategies.

Formal operations stage (11 to adulthood) The person becomes able to solve real and hypothetical
problems using abstract concepts.

Table 1: Piaget's four stages of normal cognitive development

3.1.2. Information Processing Theory

Cognitive theory has been very influential but, as you might guess, leaves many aspects of
cognitive functioning unexplained. Whereas Piaget sought to explain how cognition develops,
information processing theory offers details about how our cognitive processes are organized
(Granvold, 1994).

This theory maintains that there is a clear distinction between the thinker and the external
environment; each is an independent, objective entity in the processing of inputs and outputs. We
receive stimulation from the outside and code it with sensory receptors in the nervous system.
The information is first represented in some set of brain activities and then integrated (by
accommodation or assimilation) and stored for purposes of present and future adaptation to the
environment. All of us develop increasingly sophisticated problem-solving processes through the

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evolution of our cognitive patterns, which enable us to draw attention to particular inputs as
significant.

Information processing is a sensory theory in that it depicts information as flowing passively

from the external world inward through the senses to the mind. It views the mind as having
distinct parts-including the sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory-that
make unique contributions to thinking in a specific sequence. In contrast, a motor theory such as
Piaget's sees the mind as playing an active role in processing-not mere recording but actually
constructing the nature of the input it receives.

3.1.3. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI Theory)

The theory of multiple intelligences, developed by psychologist Howard Gardner in the late
1970s and early 1980s, posits that individuals possess eight or more relatively autonomous
intelligences. Individuals draw on these intelligences, individually and corporately, to create
products and solve problems that are relevant to the societies in which they live. The eight
intelligences include linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, spatial
intelligence, musical intelligence, bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence, naturalistic intelligence,
interpersonal intelligence, and intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner, 1999).

According to Gardner’s analysis, only two intelligences – linguistic and logical mathematical –
have been valued and tested for in modern secular schools; it is useful to think of that language-
logic combination as “academic” or “scholarly intelligence.” In conceiving of intelligence as
multiple rather than unitary in nature, the theory of multiple intelligences represents a departure
from traditional conceptions of intelligence first formulated in the early 20th century, measured
today by IQ tests and studied in great detail by Piaget (1950, 1952) and other cognitively
oriented psychologists.

Gardner’s conception of intelligence as pluralistic grew out of his observation that individuals
who demonstrated substantial talent in domains as diverse as chess, music, athletics, politics, and
entrepreneurship possessed capacities in these domains that should be accounted for in
conceptualizing intelligence. Accordingly, in developing MI theory and its broader

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characterization of intelligence, Gardner did not focus on the creation and interpretation of
psychometric instruments. Rather, he drew up on research findings from evolutionary biology,
neuroscience, anthropology, psychometrics, and psychological studies of prodigies and savants.
Through synthesis of relevant research across these fields, Gardner established several criteria
for identification of a unique intelligence.

Initially, Gardner identified seven intelligences. However, in the mid-1990s, he concluded that an
eighth intelligence, naturalistic intelligence, met the criteria for identification as intelligence as
well. Naturalistic intelligence allows individuals to identify and distinguish among products of
the natural world such as animals, plants, types of rocks, and weather patterns (Gardner, 1999).
Meteorology, botany, and zoology are all professions in which one would likely find individuals
who demonstrate high levels of naturalistic intelligence. In a world where this particular skill is
less important for survival than it was in earlier times, naturalistic capacities are brought to bear
in making consequential distinctions with respect to man-made objects displayed in a consumer
society.

These descriptions of the eight intelligences that comprise MI theory relied upon the domains or
disciplines in which one typically finds individuals who demonstrate high levels of each
intelligence. This is because we do not yet have psychometric or neuroimaging techniques that
directly assess an individual’s capacity for a particular intelligence. For example, no test has
been devised to assess directly whether an individual possesses a profile of intelligences high in
spatial intelligence; however, one might reasonably infer that an individual who demonstrates
excellent performance in the domain of architecture or sculpture or geometry possesses high
spatial intelligence. Likewise, excellence in the domains of ballet or orthopaedic surgery
suggests the possession of high bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence. It is possible that in the future
more direct methods of measuring intelligences may be devised – for example, through evidence
about neural structures or even through genetic markers.

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Intelligence ( TEST) Description

Linguistic An ability to analyze information and create products involving
oral and written language such as speeches, books, and memos.
Logical-Mathematical An ability to develop equations and proofs, make calculations,
and solve abstract problems.
Spatial An ability to recognize and manipulate large-scale and fine-
grained spatial images.
Musical An ability to produce, remember, and make meaning of different
patterns of sound.
Naturalist An ability to identify and distinguish among different types of
plants, animals, and weather formations that are found in the
natural world.
Bodily-Kinaesthetic An ability to use one’s own body to create products or solve
problems.
Interpersonal An ability to recognize and understand other people’s moods,
desires, motivations, and intentions.
Intrapersonal An ability to recognize and understand one’s own moods,
desires, motivations, and intentions.

Table 2 Gardner’s Eight Intelligences

3.1.4. Theories of Moral Reasoning

Morality is our sensitivity to, and knowledge of, what is right and wrong. It develops from our
acquired principles of justice and ways of caring for others. Theories of moral reasoning are
similar to those of cognitive development in that a sequential process is involved. Familiarity
with these theories can help social workers understand how clients make decisions and develop
preferences for action in various situations. Both of these issues are important in our efforts to
develop goals with clients. The best-known theories of moral reasoning are those of Kohlberg’s
and Gilligan’s.

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Kohlberg (1969) formulated six stages of moral development, beginning in childhood and
unfolding through adolescence and young adulthood. The first two stages represent pre-
conventional morality, in which the child's primary motivation is to avoid immediate
punishment and receive immediate rewards. Conventional morality emphasizes adherence to
social rules. A person at this level of morality might be very troubled by circumstances that make
her/him different from other people. Many people never move beyond this level to post
conventional morality, which is characterized by a concern with moral principles transcending
those of their own society.

Stages Description
Pre-Conventional Morality 1. Heteronomous morality Accepting what the world says is right
2. Instrumental purpose Defining the good as whatever is
agreeable to the self and those in the
immediate environment
Conventional Morality 3. Interpersonal experiences Seeking conformity and consistency in
moral action with significant others
4. The societal point of view Seeking conformity and consistency
with what one perceives to be the
opinions of the larger community
Post-Conventional 5. Ethics Observing individual and group
Morality (societal) rights

6. Conscience and logic Seeking to apply universal principles of

right and wrong

Table 3 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

One limitation of Kohlberg's theory is that it does not take into account gender differences (his
subjects were all male). In fact, he claims that women do not advance through all six stages as
often as men. Addressing this issue, Gilligan (1982) notes that boys tend to emphasize
independence, autonomy, and the rights of others in their moral thinking, whereas girls develop

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an ethic of care that grows out of a concern for the needs of others rather than the value of
independence. Research indicates that boys do tend to emphasize ethical principles while girls
emphasize caring, but these differences are not great (Papalia &OIds, 1995). Such small
differences may be due not so much to gender as to the typical dilemmas men and women face in
their lives. The care orientation may reflect women's lack of power, and thus their desire to carry
favour with those who are more powerful, or their assignment to the care giving role.

Both Kohlberg's and Gilligan's stages of moral reasoning, like Piaget's cognitive theory, are
characterized by an increasing ability to think abstractly as the person progresses through
adolescence. But Gilligan articulates three stages of moral development, listed in table 4 that
place greater emphasis than Kohlberg does on the ethic of care.

Stages Description

Survival orientation Egocentric concerns of emotional and

physical survival are primary.

Conventional care The person defines as right those actions that

please significant others.

Integrated care A person's right actions take into account the

needs of others as well as the self.

Table 4 Gilligan’s Three Stages of Moral Development

 Theories of Cognition in Social Work Practice

When theories of cognition first emerged, they were mainly reactions against psychodynamic
theories, which focused on the influence of unconscious thought. Many practitioners had come to
believe that although some mental processes may be categorized as unconscious, they have only
a minor influence on behaviour. Rather, conscious thinking is the basis for almost all behaviour
and emotions.

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Piaget's cognitive theory postulates that we develop mental schemata, or general information-
processing rules that become enduring concepts, from past experiences. Schemata are the basis
for the way individuals screen, discriminate, and code stimuli; categorize and evaluate
experiences; and make judgments. Cognition is viewed as active: our minds do not merely
receive and process external stimuli but are active in constructing the reality they seek to
apprehend. We are "rational" to the extent that our schemata, the basis for our perceptions,
accommodate available environmental evidence and our decisions do not rely solely on
preconceived notions of the external world.

So long as a person's cognitive style helps to achieve his or her goals, it is considered healthy.
However, a person's thinking patterns can become distorted, featuring patterns of bias that
dismiss relevant environmental information from judgment, which can lead in turn to the
maladaptive emotional responses. These cognitive errors are habits of thought that lead people to
distort input from the environment and experience psychological distress (Granvold, 1994). As a
social worker, you could use cognitive theory to surmise that individuals feel depressed because
they subjectively assess their life situations in a distorted manner.

Cognitive theory is a highly rational approach to human behaviour. Even though the theory
assumes that many of a person’s beliefs are irrational and distorted, it also assumes that human
beings have great potential to correct these beliefs in light of contradictory evidence. In clinical
assessment, the social worker must assess the client's schemata, identify any faulty thinking
patterns, and consider the evidence supporting a client's beliefs. During intervention, the social
worker helps the client adjust his or her cognitive process to better facilitate goal attainment. As
a result, the client will also experience more positive emotions.

2.2. Theories of Emotion

Emotion is physiologically programmed into the human brain. It involves a cognitive labelling of
these programmed feelings, which is at least partially a learned process. That is, some emotional
experience is an interpretation, and not merely given by our physiological state. For example,
two students might feel anxious walking into the classroom on the first day of a semester. The
anxiety would be a normal reaction to entering a new and unfamiliar situation. However, one

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student might interpret the anxiety as a heightened alertness that will serve him/her well in
adjusting to the new students and teacher, whereas the other student might interpret the same
emotion as evidence that he/she is not prepared to manage the course material. The first student
may become excited, while the second student becomes distressed.

Many theorists distinguish between primary (Natural) and secondary (social) emotions. The
primary emotions may have evolved as specific reactions with survival value for the human
species. They mobilize us, focus our attention, and signal our state of mind to others. There is no
consensus on what the primary emotions are, but they are usually limited to anger, fear, sadness,
joy, and anticipation. The secondary emotions are more variable among people and are socially
acquired. They evolved as humans developed more sophisticated means of learning, controlling,
and managing emotions to promote flexible cohesion in social groups. The secondary emotions
may result from combinations of the primary emotions and their greater numbers also imply that
our cognitive processes are significant in labelling them. These emotions include (but are not
limited to) envy, jealousy, anxiety, guilt, shame, relief, hope, depression, pride, love, gratitude,
and compassion.

The autonomic nervous system is central to our processing of emotion. This system consists of
nerve tracts running from the base of the brain, through the spinal cord, and into the internal
organs of the body. It is concerned with maintaining the body's physical homeostasis. Tracts
from one branch of this system, the sympathetic division, produce physiological changes that
help make us more alert and active. These changes are sustained by the release of hormones from
the endocrine glands into the bloodstream. As part of the feedback control mechanism,
parasympathetic system nerve tracts produce opposite, or calming, effects in the body. The two
systems work together to maintain an appropriate level of physical arousal. Still, psychologists
have debated for more than a century about the sources of emotion. Theories range from those
that emphasize physiology to those that emphasize the purely social context, and they give
variable weight to the role of cognition.

- Physiological Theories of Emotion

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The James/Lange theory (James, 1890), developed a century ago, speculated that our bodies
produce automatic physiological reactions to any stimulus. We notice these reactions after the
fact and then attempt through cognition to make sense of them. This "making sense" involves
labelling the emotion. Thus, emotion follows cognition, which itself follows the physiological
reaction to a stimulus. James believed that a distinct emotion arises from each physiological
reaction.

A few decades later, Cannon (1924) argued that physiological arousal and the experience of
emotion are unrelated. He stated (unlike James) that our physiological responses to a stimulus
are nonspecific and only prepare us for a general fight-or- flight response (to confront or avoid
the stimulus). This response in itself has nothing to do with the experience of emotion, because
any particular physiological activity may give rise to different emotional states, and may not
even involve our emotions at all. Thus, a separate cognitive process produces our feeling of
emotion. Emotion derives from the associations we make based on prior attempts to understand
the sensation of arousal.

Physiology-based theories of emotion lost favour in the mid-20th century, but recent brain
research is once again suggesting a strong link between physiological processes and emotion.
Magai (1996) asserts that emotions originate in our neurophysiology and that our personalities
are organized around 'affective biases:' All of us possess five primary human emotions:
happiness, sadness, fear, anger, and interest/excitement. These emotions are instinctual, "hard-
wired" into our brains, and are the source' of our motivations. When our emotions are activated,
they have a pervasive influence on our cognition and behaviour. A key theme in this theory is
that ' emotions influence cognition’, a principle opposite to that stressed in cognitive theory.

For example, an affective bias toward sadness may be activated by a personal or material loss.
The sadness has a temporary physical response: a slowing down and a decrease in general effort.
It also leads us to withdraw in situations where our efforts to recover the loss would likely be
ineffective. The sadness thus allows us time to re-evaluate our needs and regain energy for more
focused attempts to reach more achievable goals. It is also a signal within our social networks for
others to provide us with support. The sadness of others promotes our own empathic responses.

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In contrast, anger tends to increase our energy and motivate behaviour that is intended to
overcome frustration. Further, it is a signal to others to respond to us with avoidance,
compliance, or submission so that we may resolve the problem confronting us.

- Psychological Theories of Emotion

Perhaps the most contentious debates about the role of cognition in emotion have taken place
among psychological theorists. Some have considered cognition as primary, and others have
considered emotion as primary. Theories in the social behavioural perspective, somewhat like
physiology-based theories, assume an automatic, programmed response that is then interpreted as
emotion.

3.2.1. Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud's landmark work The Interpretation of Dreams, first published in 1899, signalled the
arrival of psychoanalytic theory. Freud's theories became prominent in the United States by the
early 1900s, immediately influencing the young profession of social work, and were a dominant
force through the 1950s. Psychoanalytic thinking continues to be influential in social work today,
through the theories of ego psychology and self psychology.

At the basis of psychoanalytic theory is the primacy of internal drives and unconscious mental
activity in human behaviour. Sexual and aggressive drives are not "feelings" in themselves, but
they motivate behaviour that will presumably gratify our impulses. We experience positive
emotions when our drives are gratified and negative emotions when they are frustrated.

Our conscious mental functioning takes place within the ego, that part of the personality
responsible for negotiating between internal drives and the outside world. It is here that cognition
occurs, but it is driven by those unconscious thoughts that are focused on drive satisfaction. In
psycho-analytic thought, then, conscious thinking is a product of the drives, from which our
emotions also spring. By nature, we are pleasure seekers and "feelers;' not thinkers.

Psychological views of the source of emotion

Emotion as Primary

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Stimulus ------------> Emotion ------------> Interpretation

Cognition as Primary
Stimulus ------------> Interpretation ----------> Emotion
Behaviour as Primary
Stimulus -------------> Behaviour ------------> Interpretation --------> Emotion

Thoughts are our means of deciding how to gratify our drives. Defence mechanisms result from
our need to indirectly manage drives when we become frustrated, as we frequently do in the
social world, where we must negotiate acceptable behaviours with others. The need to manage
drives also contributes to the development of our unconscious mental processes. According to
psychoanalytic theory, personal growth cannot be achieved by attending only to conscious
processes. We need to explore all of our thoughts and feelings to understand our essential drives.
Change requires that we uncover unconscious material and the accompanying feelings that are
repressed, or kept out of consciousness.

3.2.2. Ego Psychology

Ego psychology, which emerged in the 1930s, shifted to a more balanced perspective on the
influences of cognition and emotion in social functioning. As an adaptation of psychoanalytic
theory, it signalled a reaction against Freud's heavy emphasis on drives and highlighted the ego's
role in promoting healthy social functioning. Ego psychology represents an effort to build a
holistic psychology of normal development.

In ego psychology, the ego is conceived of as present from birth, and not as derived from the
need to reconcile drives within the constraints of social living, as psychoanalytic theory would
say. The ego is the source of our attention, concentration, learning, memory, will, and
perception. Both past and present experiences are relevant in influencing social functioning. The
influence in emotions and thoughts is not dismissed, but the autonomy of the ego, and thus
conscious thought processes, receives greater emphasis than in psychoanalytic theory. The ego
moderates internal conflicts, which may relate to drive frustration, but it also mediates the
interactions of a healthy person with stressful environmental conditions. If we experience
sadness, then, it is possible that we are having conflicts related to drive frustration that are

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internal in origin. However, it is also possible that we are experiencing person/environment

conflicts in which our coping efforts are not effective; the negative emotion may result from a
frustration of our ability to manage an environmental stressor and thus arise from cognitive
activities.

3.2.3. Attribution Theory

Attribution theory was the first of the psychological theories of emotion to give clear primacy to
cognition as a ‘Producer of emotions’. Attribution theory holds that our experience of emotion is
based on conscious evaluations we make about physiological sensations in particular social
settings. We respond to situations as we understand them cognitively, which leads directly to our
experience of a particular emotion. Attribution theory also notes that the social setting
determines the type of emotion experienced; the physiological response determines the strength
of the reaction. In other words, the nature of the social setting is the key to the process of
emotional experience.

Weiner (1985) has further refined attribution theory, stating that our initial reactions to any
stimulus are limited to the sense of whether it will have positive or negative consequences for us.
Afterward, we consider what has caused the event, which leads to modification of the emotion
we feel. The less we understand about the physiological nature of a sensation, the less likely we
are to perceive it as physiological, and the more likely it is that we will be influenced by external
cues in determining its cause and labelling the emotion. Thus, our perceptions of internal versus
external cause determine in part the type of emotion that we experience. For example, if we
experience frustration, the emotion of shame may emerge if we decide that it is due to our own
behaviour. However, we may experience anger if we decide that the frustration is due to the
actions of someone else.

Lazarus (1980) has proposed a three-part psychological theory of emotion based on appraisals of
situations. He suggests that emotion develops when we assess a situation as somehow relevant to
a personal value or life concern. First, we make an unconscious appraisal of whether a situation
constitutes a threat. This appraisal is followed by coping responses, which may be cognitive,
physiological, or both, and may be conscious or unconscious. Once these coping mechanisms are

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in place, we reappraise the situation and label our associated emotion. This process implies that
our feelings originate with an automatic evaluative judgment. We decide whether there is a
threat, take immediate coping action to deal with it, and then take a closer look to see exactly
what was involved in the situation. At the end of this process, we experience a specific emotion.

- Social Theories of Emotion (Social Constructionist Perspective)

Social theories of emotion also take the view that cognition precedes emotion. But they
emphasize the purpose of emotion, which is to sustain shared interpersonal norms and social
cohesion. Two social theories are considered here.

Averill's theory (1980) states that emotions can be understood as socially constructed and
transitory roles. They can be considered socially constructed because they originate in our
appraisals of situations. They are transitory in that they are time limited. Finally, emotions are
roles because they include a range of socially acceptable actions that may be performed in a
certain social context. We organize and interpret our physiological reactions to stimuli with
regard to the social norms involved in the particular situations where these reactions occur.
Emotions permit us, in response to these stimuli, to step out of the conventional social roles to
which people not experiencing the emotion are held. For example, in our culture, we generally
would not say that we wish to harm someone unless we were feeling anger. We would generally
not lash out verbally at a friend or spouse unless we felt frustrated. We would generally not
withdraw from certain personal responsibilities and ask others for comfort unless we felt sad.
Because of the social function of emotions, we often experience them as passions, or feelings not
under our control. Experiencing passion permits unconventional behaviour because we assume
that we are somehow not "ourselves;' not able to control what we do at that moment. Our society
has adopted this mode of thinking about emotions because it allows us to distance ourselves from
some of our actions. Emotions are thus legitimized social roles or permissible behaviours for
persons when in particular emotional states.

Mead, the originator of symbolic interaction theory, took a somewhat different view. He
suggested that emotions develop as symbols for communication (Franks, 1991). He also believed
that humans are by nature more sensitive to visual than to verbal cues. Emotional expressions are

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thus particularly powerful in that they are apprehended visually rather than verbally. Our
emotional expression is a signal about how we are inclined to act in a situation, and others can
adjust their own behaviour in response to our perceived inclinations.

 Theories of Emotion in Social Work Practice

The preceding theories are useful in assessment and intervention with clients because they
enhance the social worker's understanding of the origins of emotional experiences and how
negative emotional states may emerge and influence behaviour. The social worker can help the
client develop more positive emotional response sets by providing insight or corrective
experiences. What follows, however, is a theory that is even more precise in identifying the
processes of emotional experience.

Greenberg (1996) has offered an emotion- focused practice theory, similar to psychoanalytic
theory, which promises to help in social work interventions. Greenberg asserts that all primary
emotions-those that originate as biologically based rapid responses-are adaptive. Every primary
emotion we experience has the purpose of helping us adjust our relationship with an
environmental situation to enhance coping. Secondary emotions emerge from these primary
emotions as a result of cognitive mediation.

From this perspective, it is the preconscious (mental activity that is out of awareness but can be
brought into awareness with prompting) appraisal of situations in relation to our needs that
creates emotions. Further, as Mead (1934) pointed out, we experience our emotions as images,
not as verbal thoughts. Emotions are difficult to apprehend cognitively, and in our attempts to do
so we may mistake their essence. The bad feelings that trouble us come not from those primary
emotional responses, which, if experienced directly, would tend to dissipate, but from cognitive
distortions of those responses. We tend to appraise situations accurately with our primary
emotions, but our frustration in achieving affective goals can produce cognitive distortions.
Thus, in contrast to the assumptions of cognitive theory, distortions of thought may be the result
of emotional phenomena rather than their cause.

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3.3. Cognitive/Emotional "Disorders"

As social workers, we are reluctant to label people as having cognitive or emotional "disorders:'
instead, we conceptualize problems in social functioning as mismatches in the fit between person
and environment. Still, in our study of the psychological person, we can consider how problems
are manifested in the client's cognitive and emotional patterns. Many social workers are
employed in mental health agencies and use the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM) (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) to make diagnoses as part of a
comprehensive client assessment. Four examples of disorders selected from the DSM can
illustrate how either cognitive or emotional characteristics may predominate in a client's
symptom profile, even though both aspects of the psychological person are always present.

Two disorders that feature cognitive symptom are obsessive-compulsive disorder and anorexia
nervosa. Obsessive-compulsive disorder is an anxiety disorder that, when featuring obsessions, is
characterized by persistent thoughts that are experienced as intrusive, inappropriate, unwelcome,
and distressful. The thoughts are more than excessive worries about real problems, and the
person is unable to ignore or suppress them. In anorexia nervosa, an eating disorder, the person
becomes obsessional about food, thinking about it almost constantly. The person refuses to
maintain a reasonable body weight because of distorted beliefs about physical appearance and
the effects of food on the body.

Two disorders that feature emotional symptoms are dysthymia and agoraphobia. Dysthymia, a
mood disorder, is characterized by a lengthy period of depression. It features the emotion of
sadness, which persists regardless of external events. Agoraphobia is an anxiety disorder
characterized by fear. The person is afraid to be in situations (such as crowds) or places (such as
large open areas) from which escape might be difficult or embarrassing. The person must restrict
his or her range of social mobility out of fear of having a panic attack (being overwhelmed by
anxiety) for reasons that are not consciously clear.

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3.4. The Self

The Self-Concept is an internalized set of perceptions each of us has about ourselves that is
relatively stable over time, consistent across situations, resistant to change and of central
importance to us (Caproni, 2000). It is composed of our beliefs, interests, skills, strengths,
weaknesses and what makes us similar to others. It influences our fundamental beliefs about who
we are, who we should be and who we can become. It is socially constructed throughout life and
influences how we think.

Self-concept (also called self-identity, self-perspective or self-structure) is a collection of

beliefs about oneself that includes elements such as gender identity, sexual identity, and racial
identity. Self-concept is made up of one's self-schemas, and interacts with self-esteem, self-
knowledge, and the social self to form the self as a whole. It includes the past, present, and future
selves, where future selves (or possible selves) represent individuals' ideas of what they might
become, what they would like to become, or what they are afraid of becoming. Possible selves
may function as incentives for certain behavior. Generally, self-concept embodies the answer to
“Who am I?”

The perception people have about their past or future selves is related to the perception of their
current selves. The temporal self-appraisal theory argues that people have a tendency to
maintain a positive self-evaluation by distancing themselves from their negative self and paying
more attention to their positive one. In addition, people have a tendency to perceive the past self
less favorably (e.g. "I'm better than I used to be") and the future self more positively (e.g. "I will
be better than I am now").

Psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow heavily influences in popularizing the idea of

self-concept in the West. According to Rogers, everyone strives to reach an "ideal self". He also
hypothesized that psychologically healthy people actively move away from roles created by
others' expectations, and instead look within themselves for validation. On the other

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hand, neurotic people have “self-concepts that do not match their experiences. They are afraid to
accept their own experiences as valid, so they distort them, either to protect themselves or to win
approval from others.”

Parts of the Self

One's self-concept is defined by one’s self-perception, self-knowledge, self-esteem, and social

self. The self is an automatic part of every human being which enables people to relate to others.
The self is made up of three main parts that, incorporated, allow for the self to maintain its
function. The parts of the self include: Self-knowledge, interpersonal self, and the agent self.

A. Self-knowledge

Self-knowledge is sometimes referred to as self-concept. This feature allows for people to gather
information and beliefs about themselves. A person's self-awareness, self-esteem, and self-
deception all fall under the self-knowledge part of self. We learn about ourselves through our
looking-glass selves, introspection, social comparisons, and self-perception.

- The looking glass self is a term to describe a theory that people learn about themselves
through other people. In the looking-glass self proposal, a person visualizes how they
appear to others, the person imagines how other people will judge them, and they then
develop a response to the judgment they receive from other people. The response will
likely be something viewed as pride or shame about themselves. The looking-glass self
has proved to be partially accurate and inaccurate. A person's self-concept does not solely
depend on how others view them. A person can view themselves as friendly; however
they may appear to be quiet and uptight to another person that may not know them very
well.
- Introspection refers to the manner in which a person gathers information about oneself
through mental functions and emotions. Although a person might not know why they are
thinking or feeling in such a way, they are able to know what it is they are feeling.
However, developmental stages in life might affect introspection. In a Rosenburg study,
children up to a certain stage in development showed that they knew that their parents
actually knew them better than they knew themselves. Also, studies done
by Nisbett and Wilson uncovered the fact that people might not actually know what they

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are thinking all of the time. In one particular study, they discovered that many people
bought the first stockings that they saw and gave the reasoning behind their choice for
buying being based on the color or softness. So, in conclusion, introspection is a way of
gaining knowledge about yourself through your inner emotions and thinking, however it
is a conscious part of the brain. The automatic part of the brain can make us do a lot of
unconscious acts that people have no reasoning for.
- Social comparison is regarded as the way in which we compare ourselves to other
people around us. By looking to other people, we can rate our work and behaviors as
good, neutral, or bad. The most beneficial or useful comparisons are those of people that
are in the same category as ourselves. For example, a high school football player would
be more appropriate in comparing himself to an all-star high school football player, rather
than a Super Bowl-winning football player with over 10 years of experience. An upward
social comparison refers to a person comparing themselves to a person that is perceived
as better than them in a particular area. This can be either motivational or discouraging to
the person comparing themselves. A downward social comparison refers to a person
comparing themselves to a person that is perceived as worse than them, which can make
that person feel better about him/her self.
- The self-perception refers a situation when individuals infer about themselves through
their behavior. Their behavior can give them insight as to how their feelings and
emotions truly are. If individuals regard their self as being smart, however they
continuously receive bad grades over the years, that person might rearrange their thinking
that they are not as smart as they previously thought. This helps readjust a person's
thoughts in order to match their behavior better.

Self-knowledge is a desire for the majority of human beings. In knowing about ourselves, we are
more capable of knowing how to be socially acceptable and desirable. We seek out self-
knowledge due to the appraisal motive, self-enhancement motive, and consistency motive. The
appraisal motive describes the desire to learn the truth about oneself in general. The self-
enhancement motive is the desire to learn about one's good qualities only. The consistency
motive is the desire to receive reinforcement of those preconceived notions that a person has
about their self. This feedback will verify the thoughts and beliefs they already had relating to
their self.

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Self-awareness can be divided into two categories: private self-awareness and public self-
awareness. Private self-awareness is defined as the self looking inward at oneself, including
emotions, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings. All of these cannot be discovered by anyone else.
Public self-awareness is defined by gathering information about yourself through the perceptions
of others. The actions and behaviors that others show towards a person will help that person
establish a sense of how others perceive them. For example, if a person likes to sing, however
many other people discourage their singing, that person can conclude that they might not be the
best at singing. Therefore, in this situation, they are gaining public self-awareness about an
aspect of themselves.

Self-esteem describes how persons evaluate their selves positively or negatively. Four factors
that contribute to self-esteem are the reactions we get from other people, how we compare people
to ourselves, social roles, and our identification. Our social roles can sometimes be conceived as
higher intelligence or ability, such as an Olympic athlete or biotechnologist. Other social roles
might be stigmatized as being negative, such as a criminal or homeless person. People with high
self-esteem view their selves as containing positive traits. They are more willing to take more
risks and aim for success. People with high self-esteem tend to be confident, gain self-
acceptance, do not worry as much about what others think about them, and think more
optimistically. In contrast, people with low self-esteem view their selves as containing few or no
positive traits, rather than viewing their selves as containing negative traits. It is rare for
individuals to rate their overall selves as being terrible. 

Our self-concept entails the thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that each of us uniquely foster.
However, many psychologists have questioned whether our self-concept is more realistic or
filled with illusions about ourselves and the world around us. Clinical psychologists have studied
depressed people with perceived low self-esteem in order to observe if their perceptions were
fabricated or not. Contrary to their hypothesis, they found that depressed people have a more
realistic view of the world, the qualities they obtain, and the control they have over situations in
their life. It was proposed by psychologists Shelley Taylor and Jonathon Brown that the majority
of people in normal-functioning mental states display and are instilled with positive
illusions including:

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 overestimating their own good qualities

 their control over happenings in their life
 an unrealistic portrayal of optimism
Positive illusions remain constant for the majority of one's life due to self-deception. Self-
deception strategies are mental tricks of a person's mind that hide the truth and constitute false
beliefs. Due to self-deception, people are able to obtain resiliency upon negative events that
might occur throughout life. This also can reinforce different ideas or thoughts that the person
wishes and hopes for. The self-serving bias is a strategy in which a person titles acknowledgment
for success and rejects blame for failure. For example, a person who wins a track meet would
glorify their ability as an athlete. However, if that person were to come in last in the meet, the
person would most likely put blame on constituting factors such as a muscle cramp or previous
injury preventing a good performance. Another strategy that people use is greater criticism
involving bad feedback rather than good. A person would judge a situation more harshly when
they did worse, while the opposite would occur for a situation that entailed good feedback.

B. Interpersonal self

Interpersonal self can also be referred to as your public self. This feature allows for social
connection to others. With the interpersonal self, a person is able to display themselves to the
others around them. Interpersonal self is apparent in situations of self-presentation, being a group
member or partner in a relationship, a person's social roles, and their reputation. For example, a
person might show confidence and determination in their work atmosphere, whereas they show
more of their emotional and nurturing side in their romantic relationship.

Social roles are defined as the parts that a person plays in different situations and with other
people. Our roles change in order to fit the "expected" behaviors in various scenarios. For
example, a person may be a mother, a doctor, a wife, and daughter. Her behavior would most
likely change in her transition from being a doctor to coming home to her daughter.

Social norms constitute the "unwritten rules" that we have about how to act in certain scenarios
and with various people in our lives. For example, when a person is in a classroom, they are
more likely to be quiet and attentive; whereas at a party, they are more likely to be socially
engaged and standing. Norms act as guidelines that shape our behavior. Without them, there
would not be any order, as well as lack of understanding in situations in society.

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C. Agent self

The agent self is known as the executive function that allows for actions. This is how we, as
individuals, make choices and utilize our control in situations and actions. The agent self resides
over everything that involves decision making, self-control, taking charge in situations, and
actively responding. A person might desire to eat unhealthy foods, however it is their agent self
that allows that person to choose to avoid eating them and make a healthier food choice.

The self-categorization theory developed by John Turner states that self-concept consists of at

least two "levels": a personal identity and a social one. In other words, one's self-evaluation
relies on self-perceptions and how others perceive them. Self-concept can alternate rapidly
between the personal and social identity. Children and adolescents begin integrating social
identity into their own self-concept in elementary school by assessing their position among
peers. By age 5, acceptance from peers has a significant impact on children's self-concept,
affecting their behavior and academic success. A person's self-concept may change with time as
reassessment occurs, which in extreme cases can lead to identity crises.

The self-concept is important because it influences the following:

- Attention: the self-concept acts like a filter by allowing and disallowing information to
enter our mind; we tend to notice things that are important to our self-concept.
- Interpretation and Decision Making: our self-concept provides us with a frame of
reference for making sense of what we notice.
- Social Relations: our self-concept influences who we see as different or as similar to us,
who we trust and the networks of people we create; assumptions we have of others.
- Moral Decision Making: our self-concept influences our ideas about right and wrong,
ethical and unethical.
- Ability to Cope with Stress: our self-concept helps us deal with the challenges of daily
stress; a healthy self-concept provides us with psychological resources to work through
the stress in life, give us confidence during times of change.

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