============================================== CHAPTER 2- METHODS AND PROCEDURES

========================================================== I. INTRODUCTION TO WRITING

OF CHAPTER 2 The chapter 2 (research design and methodology) contains the following parts: 1.
Research design- It is the part, which the researcher will provide the specific method and approach that
will be used in the study. 2. Population and locale of the study-This is the part where the sampling
method is introduced, the population that will be the focus of the study will be presented as well as the
place where the research particularly the gathering of data will be conducted. 3. Data gathering
procedure-It is where the step by step process of how the data were gathered by the participants will be
proposed. It should be presented in a detailed manner. 4. Data gathering tool/s-This part includes the
instruments that will be utilized during the actual gathering of data such as the used of interview guides,
survey questionnaires, notes, recorders, camera and others. 5. Treatment of data-This is the last part of
the chapter 2 on the research design and methodology that should contain the detailed description on
how the data will be process after it was gathered by the researcher/s. The treatment of the data would
be totally different for each design and method used in a study such as the qualitative and the
quantitative research design. A. WRITING THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 1. RESEARCH
DESIGN In writing the research design, the researcher may use a design that would be appropriate for
the study. Research design refers to the strategy that will be applied in the conduct of a research
particularly on how the data will be gathered, analyze, interpreted and will be treated. Specifically, it is
the layout that gives shapes to the research in its overall sense, based on the techniques or methods,
which was chosen by the researcher. Research design is the integration of the techniques of research to
make the study organize, systematized, chronological, scientific and coherent. Research Design is a
varied technique or strategy depending on the taste of the researcher. The research design has three
types and these are the following: a. Qualitative research design- Qualitative research generates non-
numerical data. It focuses on verbal data than measurements so it centers on verbal data and captures
life as participants experience it. Additionally, qualitative information is being analyze in an
interpretative manner, is subjective, impressionistic or even diagnostic. Qualitative research provides a
complete, detailed description of the research topic so is more exploratory in nature. Therefore, this
design is ideal for earlier phases of research. The term to address the population in this research design
is participant. b. Quantitative research design- Quantitative research generates numerical
data/information converted into numbers. Therefore, only measurable data are gathered and analyzed
(it measures a specific field of study’s reality). Also, it focuses in counting and classifying features and
constructing statistical models and figures to explain what is observed. This design is recommended for
latter part of the research. This is so since it provides a clearer picture of what to expect in research. The
term to address the population in this research design is respondent. The pros and cons of a qualitative
research design Qualitative and Quantitative research design has both in its own term the advantages
and disadvantages when used in a research. Actually, the advantages of these designs are the beauty of
the study in the general sense when presented, read and explored as the data are gathered and
presented in the systematized and appropriate manner. On the other hand, the disadvantages become
the limitation which provides now a boundary in the conduct of the study. However, ironically, some of
these limitations serve as the rulings or the guidelines so that the researcher will stick to it resulting now
to a systematized, organized, methodical and a scientific study. Sallatic, D. L., & Hoyanok, C. B Cons of a
qualitative research design. In the use of a qualitative research design, there are lots of disadvantages
that were observed based from the numerous studies conducted using it. However, there are most
commonly known errors or cons. One of the most observed disadvantages of this design is that, it is
highly subjective, therefore the percentage of error is greater particularly in the collection and analysis
of data. In addition, it is more on open-ended method in the gathering of data in which there is no
specified limit as to how deep or superficial should be the focused of the study. Since qualitative
research design is not rigid as compared to the quantitative, possibility of interjections of the
researcher’s opinion or point of view of the matter being investigated or even the participants
themselves in which their statements/ testimonies are being mixed with their feelings or personal view.
This results now to distortion of the actual results or findings of the study to which sometimes defeats
the principle of a research which is a scientific or reality based facts study. Another, qualitative design
requires only a smaller number of participants therefore a less conclusive finding so it will be ruled that
it is not a correct statistical representation in order to generalize the result. The small number of the
participants will not satisfy and qualify the data as a whole particularly if the study is focused on the
narration of a participant that focuses on their life histories, experiences or related matters which will
not jive the findings since life histories or experiences are different for each individual. Moreover,
qualitative research design is a longer process therefore it takes time before finishing the study. This is
encountered as one of the difficulty due to the painstaking effort specifically in the gathering of data
that sometimes required a repeated process in order to complete it or provide a sufficient data, also the
analysis is an additional process that requires a long period of time. In the case that a research is a part
of an academic requirement, using this design might impede or delay the completion of a certain degree
therefore it compromised the study plan. Lastly, a study that uses qualitative research design is difficult
to evaluate since the data are more likely descriptive in nature rather than measurable, therefore there
could be no specific means of providing the exactness of the findings or data. In other words, it is
difficult to verify the data because each participant has a different view, opinion, perspectives on a
certain matter to which do not a provide somehow a basis or standard for the researcher. Pros of a
qualitative research design. The qualitative research is appreciated by others in terms of its uniqueness
when it comes to the data presentation because it is not a time restricted or it has no set parameters or
measurements. This is one of the advantage of this research design because it could provide a deeper
explanation or details on a certain problem or phenomena as compared when the researcher is given a
certain amount of time to finish the study, in which the data gathered may not be polished and detailed
when analyzed and presented. One of the example is the case study or the longitudinal study in which
the study could even forego for how many years resulting to a refined study. Moreover, qualitative
research design is not restricted to a certain amount or measurement wherefore, details of the data are
acquired naturally by the researcher resulting into a greater chance of evaluating or analyzing it
properly. Also, it does not restrict the means of gathering the data such as interview to which the
researcher could innovate anytime if he sees that there are pieces of information that are necessary to
be added in the study but not touched by the prepared set of questions. Additionally, in the gathered
data, utilizing this method, often times, all of the data are most likely accepted and less are rejected or
left out, the researcher only needs to dedicate the time in analyzing it. Qualitative research design is
useful sometimes in the sense that it could provide an explanation for a cause of a certain phenomenon
in which numbers could not define. The example of this are the researches or studies in social sciences
such as criminology. The study of causes of crime is a complicated issue that needs a careful scrutiny,
investigation and analysis. If a researcher will venture on the different causations of crime, there are lot
of factors that contributes to it, however, sometimes, these factors are somewhat dependent on the
Sallatic, D. L., & Hoyanok, C. B individual’s point of view particularly the person who experience it. The
researcher has to dig deeper on the matter for him to be able explore, understand, explain or describe
it. Wherefore, in doing the study, he needs a suitable design, methods and analysis in order to come up
with the good result. This is where qualitative analysis goes in because the crime rate, the crimes
committed, the factors could be enumerated and could be pointed exactly by using the quantitative
research design but not the exact explanation and details of the causation of criminality, not the reason
behind those criminal behaviors which is now the role of this qualitative to explore, explain, understand
and describe. Practically speaking, using a qualitative research design is applicable when the funding
(budget) of a researcher/s is limited. Utilizing this design in the conduct of the study can help the
researcher to save money through limitation of expenses since it requires only a small size of population
to be the participant of the research therefore less expenses on the part of the person conducting the
study such as the paper, transportation, food, allowance and others. On the other hand, the
researcher/s could develop his circle of contacts as well as improve his socialization and communication
skills through this method since he has to meet personally the participants of the study, talk face to face
with them. Sometimes, a harmonious relationship with others may lead to a favorable environment,
therefore, it provides a better and comfortable means of eliciting information from a certain participant.
The pros and cons of a quantitative research design The same with the case of the qualitative research
design, the quantitative has the pros and cons when used in research and that both of these two designs
are being criticized in some of their aspect. Regardless of the known disadvantages of the quantitative
design, it is still appreciated in terms of the accuracy and the time-consumed in the conduct of a certain
study. The cons of a quantitative research design. One of the most commonly known cons of using a
quantitative research design is that it is a close ended process in terms of gathering the data. This means
that the researcher need to stick to the rules or guidelines like for example the use of a questionnaire.
The researcher is limited only to ask the questions as written therefore he cannot conduct a follow-up
since the questions are structured and that the answer of the respondents is then limited. Another, in
the use of a survey questionnaire particularly the use of a checklist. On this method, the answers or
response are elicited based only on the given options to which the respondents have to choose or agree
therefore details are lacking especially in terms of the answers to the who, when and most likely the
why question. In other words, this design provides only the description in quantity but not the reason
underlying the numbers to which it is difficult to crosscheck the reliability and credibility of all the
answers. Another disadvantage of this quantitative research design is that it is costly especially on the
part of the researcher. One of the reason for this is the large number size of the population that will
participate in the study, in which the budget has to cover (the expenses on the allowances, foods,
papers, transportations and other additional expenses). The digits of numbers could also described
exactly the expenses in the conduct of a research using this design. Another disadvantage of this
research design is that the accuracy could be the weakness of this study. Others claim that quantitative
research is accurate since it presents the exact number as to findings, but the possibility of the presence
of loophole in this claim is not excluded in the sense that variables could be manipulated. This is for the
reason that the process of gathering the data is not supervise directly by the researcher. For example,
the questionnaires are floated through connections and emails or even left at a certain office and will be
retrieve only after it was answered and collected by another individual aside from the researcher who
may have the access of the data. Moreover, in the case that the researcher used a survey or
questionnaires, if some of the documents were not answered or leave blank by the respondents, some
researchers could answer it just to suffice the missing data. This results now to biases and inaccuracy of
the actual findings. Sallatic, D. L., & Hoyanok, C. B In the quantitative research design, the larger the
number of the population as respondents in a study, the lesser is the chance of developing a direct
contact with them and the lesser chance of establishing the circles of contact, also the lesser chance of
developing and improving the socialization and the communication skill of the researcher. Practically
speaking, conducting a research is like using a single stone aimed at two birds. Research may aid in the
improvement of self-confidence, socialization and communication skills as well as the creativity, and
capability of the researcher to innovate. The pros of a quantitative research. In the case that a research
used the quantitative research design and that the data were gathered following all the guidelines in the
process, during the floating, retrieval and analysis and presentation of the data, it is said that the result
is accurate, credible and reliable. This design uses a rigid scale of measurements of the data such as the
use of mathematical analysis therefore, the margin of error of the findings could be pointed out exactly
so the depth of the study could be known since computations are incorporated in the process, that the
shaft can easily be separated from the grain. The margin of error is always expected in the conduct of
the study using the quantitative research design and it is acceptable, it is for this reason that the
mathematical process allows a percentage of error in the data. However, as long as the percentage do
not exceed the expected margin of error, the data could still be generalized based form the facts that
this design lies on the data from a larger population. The result could still be considered as conclusive
and could be applied in the broader sense. Additionally, a research using a quantitative research design
could be accomplish in a shorter period. Since this design is a close-ended process, the manner of
gathering the data is easy because the answers of the respondents are limited only. Unlike the
qualitative design, this design may be finished within the short time after the data were gathered and
analyzed. In the gathering of data using this research design, the information of the respondents most
likely are not compromise. There is a greater possibility that the confidentiality of the identity is intact
because the personal information sometimes is only optional particularly the names of the individual,
which may not be the focused of the study. This in return, is favorable to the respondents in which they
could answer the questions comfortably without thinking of the possibility that their identity will be
known particularly when the study is something sensitive and personal. Lastly, using the quantitative
research design in a research offers the advantage of verifying the results through the conduct of
another research using the same design and method, which focused on the same subject matter. If the
numbers remained the same, it increases or decreases or only a certain percentage changed, then the
greater possibility of giving a more conclusive finding. Since the research is a number based, it is easy to
clarify, verify, correct the finding of the study, as others say, “numbers don’t lie.” c. Mixed method
(Qualitative and quantitative research design)-This method utilizes the combination of the two stated
research design however; it is dependent upon the necessity and appropriateness of it for the study.
Methods in Criminological Research The method of research is to be specified after the research design
was identified whether it is qualitative, quantitative or the combination of both. The following are the
different research methods, which will be chosen by the researcher, as they deem appropriate for the
study. 1. Descriptive method  To describe systematically a situation or area of interest factually and
accurately  This includes all studies that purports to present facts concerning the nature and status of
anything – a group of persons, a number of objects, a set of conditions, a class of events, a system of
thought of any kind of phenomena which one may wish to study. Sallatic, D. L., & Hoyanok, C. B  It
describes and interprets “What is.” It is concerned with conditions of relationships that exist, practices
that prevail, beliefs and processes that are going on, effects that are being felt, or trends that are
developing.  Survey: involves gathering information from a relatively large number of cases. It is
employed to determine or measure existing phenomenon without inquiring why it exists. The common
methods of gathering information in survey are interview, questionnaire, standardized test, and
document analysis. Survey has two scopes: a) Census: covers the entire population b) Sample: covers a
portion of the population 2. Historical method  To reconstruct the past objectively and accurately,
often in relation to the tenability of a hypothesis  History originally meant, “The search for knowledge
and the truth – a searching to find out  It is defined as “any integrated narrative or description of past
events or facts written in a spirit of critical inquiry for the whole truth.” 3. Case and Field method  To
study intensively the background, current status, and environmental interactions of a given social unit 
Case Method: Involves a comprehensive and extensive examination of a particular individual, group, or
situation over a period of time. It is also define as a comprehensive study of a social unit – be that unit a
person, a group, a social institution, a district or a community.  Case Work: Refers especially to
developmental adjustment, remedial, or corrective procedures that appropriately follow the diagnosis
of the causes of maladjustment of unfavorable development. For example, social case work consists of
the processes and procedures necessary in rendering service, financial assistance, or personal advice to
individuals by representatives of social agencies with due considerations of established policies and
individual needs.  Case History: A biography obtained for scientific purposes. The material is
sometimes supplied with interviews, at times collected over the years. The aim is to understand the
individual’s problems and suggest ways of solving them. Psychological test data, personal documents,
and transcripts of psychotherapy 4. Correlational method  To investigate the extent to which variations
in one factor correlate with variations in one or more other factors based on correlation coefficient 5.
Causal-comparative or “Ex post facto” method  To investigate possible cause-and- effect relationships
by observing some existing consequences and looking back through the data for plausible causal factors
6. Experimental method  To investigate possible cause-and-effect relationship between two or more
treatment conditions and comparing the results to a control group(s) not receiving the treatment;
“What will happen”  The technique of discovering information by means of experimentation. In a
broader sense of the term, to experiment means simply to try – try something in order to see what
happens.  In educational psychology, the technique most frequently employed is the equivalent or
parallel group method. In this technique, two groups of subjects are studied and compared. One group
is termed as experimental group, the other the control group. The control group does not participate in
or even know the special training given to the experimental group. It serves as a standard of
comparison. The experimental group is given special training in the method, materials, or techniques
being investigated. At the Sallatic, D. L., & Hoyanok, C. B end of a definite training period, both groups
are given the same final test and conclusions are drawn on the basis of the results obtained. 2.
POPULATION AND LOCALE OF THE STUDY This presents a narrative description of the population (the
participants or respondents subjected for the study). The population must be specifically stated, their
qualifications. Also, it must contain the processed on how the participants/respondents were chosen as
well as the sampling technique used. This should also contain the place of the study and the reason for
choosing the area for your study. It is written after the research design and has a subheading. SAMPLING
 After stating a research question and developing an appropriate research design, we must select one
or more persons, objects, or events on whose properties or characteristics our research will focus. This
group of persons is called the research population, and each individual person is referred to as an
element of the population.  A sample consists of selected elements from a population that will be
observed in order to learn something about the entire population. Sampling Strategies a. Probability
Sampling  This is a process of drawing a sample in such a way that the probability of each member of
the population being selected can be specified. In probability sampling, all the members of the
population have an equal chance of being included in the sample through random procedure.  Simple
Random: A technique in which individual respondents are chosen in such a way that each has equal
chance of being selected, and each choice is independent of any other choice. Simple random is usually
done through the lottery or fish bowl technique or by using the table with random numbers. 
Systematic Sampling: A method whereby every member of the population is selected as part of the
sample. If a population can be listed or finite, a type of systematic selection will provide what
approximates a random sample.  Cluster Sampling: A variation of the simple random sample that is
particularly appropriate when the population of interest is infinite, when the list of the members of the
population does not exist, or when the geographic distribution of the individuals is widely scattered. In
cluster sampling, the group is the basis of sampling and not the individual.  Stratified Random
Sampling: This method entails subdividing the population into smaller homogenous groups to get more
accurate representation. The specific subgroups (strata) should have a sufficient number of
representatives within the sample for sub-analysis of the members of these subgroups. b. Non-
Probability Sampling  Purposive Sampling: technique whereby respondent are chosen based on the
discretion or judgment of the researcher,  Accidental or Incidental Sampling: also called Convenience
Sampling as respondents are chosen based on their availability.  Quota Sampling: this method requires
identification of a set of important characteristics of the population and then select your desired sample
in a non-random way.  Snowball Sampling: a method of sampling whereby selected respondents
become informants as to the whereabouts of other individuals who can become part of the sample.
Snowball sampling is used when it is difficult to find or locate participants or respondent of the research.
3. DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE The researcher should provide a discussion on the procedures on how
the study was done starting from the very first process before actually gathering the data. This includes
the Sallatic, D. L., & Hoyanok, C. B act of seeking approval from the adviser to gather the data, use of
communication letters, until the data were actually obtain form the participants or respondents. In
other words, it summarizes the detailed execution of the data gathering procedure. 4. DATA GATHERING
TOOL/S It describes the instruments or materials used and their function in the study. Discuss how it was
constructed and validated. If the data gathering is through a structured paper and pencil tool, discussion
of the (psychometric) characteristics, if any, should be presented. For example for the quantitative
design, the instrument used probably are the survey questionnaires meanwhile for the qualitative
design, the instrument used would be the memos or notes used (interview) and may include recording
tools for the conversation with the permission of the participants or the respondents. In writing the data
gathering tools, researchers should specify the instrument used in the study or if the research is in the
proposal stage, the instrument that will be utilized in the study. Specifically, data gathering tool/s
includes:  questionnaires  survey However, when questionnaires are used in the study, there is a need
to discuss how the researcher such as letting it validated it be checked by someone such as the advisers,
or any form of instrument to measure it reliability. If qualitative strategies are used in gathering data
such as individual in-depth interviews, structured and non-structured interviews, focus groups,
narratives, content or documentary analysis, participant observation and archival research, discuss how
they are done. ATTRIBUTES OF A GOOD INSTRUMENT 1. Reliability: the degree of consistency, accuracy
or precision that the measuring instrument demonstrates. 2. Validity: degree to which a test measures
what it tends to measure. 3. Objectivity: degree to which the measure is independent of the personal
opinions, subjective judgments, biases, and beliefs of the researcher. 4. Feasibility: concerned with the
aspects of skills, cost and time. A. RESEARCH INTERVIEW Involves the collection of data through direct
verbal interaction between the interviewer (researcher) and the interviewee (respondent). It refers to a
variety of face-to-face situations to which the researcher orally solicits responses. Types of Interview: 1.
Structured Interview: a type of interview whereby the researcher (interviewer) uses a set of standard
question and questioning procedure. The questions are asked in a sequential manner. The questions
may either solicit a response that is factual in nature or it may generate response that will easily fit into
an expected pattern. Example: Compared to the last year, what do you feel about how the police are
performing in crime prevention in your barangay? _______ much better _________ about the same
_______ somewhat better _________ somewhat worse _______ much worse 2. Unstructured Interview:
this type of interview is more flexible and open. The interviewer can repeat or modify the questions. The
questions also provide for open- Sallatic, D. L., & Hoyanok, C. B ended response to questions. That is
there is no predetermined response categories are provided. Example: Do you think the police are
better or worse in preventing the occurrence of crime in the city compared to last year? Why do you say
so?  The Interview Schedule: also called the interview guide. This consist of a list of question prepared
by the researcher considering the general and specific objectives of the research for which the questions
are intended for obtaining data. Questions can be open-ended or in closed form depending on the type
of the interview used by the researcher.  General Procedures in Interview: a. Training and Orientation
Session b. Arranging the Interview c. Demeanor of the Interviewer  Establishing Rapport: 1. Dress
appropriately and in manner that will be comfortable to the respondents. 2. Introduce yourself properly
and your purpose. Explain what the study is all about. 3. Show a pleasant disposition. Be friendly. 4. Be
attentive and shoe genuine interest to whatever responses given by the interviewee, 5. Administration
to the Interview. This involves the process of eliciting responses from the interviewees.  Recording
Responses: 1. Write down the exact words of the interviewee after each question. 2. Write down the
summary of the responses after the interview. 3. Use tape recorder or video tape the interview. 4. The
exit.  Concluding the Interview 1. Thank the respondent or interviewee. 2. Tell the respondent when
you expect to send results. 3. Do not be hasty in leaving the interviewee. Carry on a light conversation as
well be alert for any additional comments that the interviewee may offer that were not mentioned
during the actual interview. 4. Immediately after leaving, write down notes on how the interview went
through. B. OBSERVATION This is a means of data gathering usually used in field studies involving a
systematic recording of information that are perceived through the senses. It is considered as the most
direct means of observing behavior as it provides a detailed description of life as it actually is lived-in the
streets of a notorious neighborhood, in prisons, red light districts, and other settings. Types: 1.
Naturalistic Observation: This requires the researcher to covertly observe people or the subjects of the
study in a natural setting. 2. Participant Observation: This requires an active participation of the
researcher in the activities of the people he or she is observing. This type is very demanding with respect
to time and personal involvement of the researcher. C. DOCUMENTARY ANALYSIS This method involves
gathering of data by examining records and documents. This method is used in qualitative research and
entails a systematic classification and analysis of the content of the document memoirs, diaries,
autobiographies, precinct and court records, crime Sallatic, D. L., & Hoyanok, C. B statistics and other
archival records may present an overview of problems and issues in criminology that are under study. 1.
Physical Trace Analysis-This involves the study of deposits, accretion of matter, and other indirect
substances produced by previous human interaction. Physical trace analysis is usually used in the fields
of criminalities and crime scene investigations as a means of searching for clues and evidences that
would shed light on the circumstances and substance of the phenomenon under investigation. 2.
Questionnaire-A data gathering tool that requires respondents to answer questions or respond to
statements in writing. A questionnaire is composed of a set of questions or items designed to gather
factual information, perceptions or opinions. If opinions rather than fact are desired, a questionnaire in
the form of an attitude scale is used. Types: 1. Open Form: Allow respondents to answer in their own
words. This can mean greater detail and a broader range of responses. 2. Fixed-alternative/ Closed
Form: require the respondent to choose from a printed list of choices. Such questions may include a
simple yes/no or true/false response. It has the following types: a. Checklist Type: requires the
respondents to check which among the response alternatives to the item or question is appropriate or
applicable for him. Example: What offenses are commonly reported to the police? ____ Theft ____
Homicide ____ Murder ____ Rape ____ Adultery ____ others (specify) b. Rank-Order Type: requires the
respondents to rank the predetermined responses according to some criteria like degree of importance,
seriousness, effectiveness of influence, frequency of occurrence and the like. Example: Rank the
following crime prevention programs or activities of the community according to perceived degree of
effectiveness. RANK ACTIVITY/ PROGRAM _____ Organizing sports activities _____ Increasing police
visibility _____ Conducting seminars on crime prevention _____ Massive information campaign _____
Creating assistance groups in the barangay _____ others (specify) c. Scale Type: requires the respondent
to select a response alternative with a numerical value or symbol for the characteristics or item being
measured along a continuum. An arbitrary scale is developed by the researcher based upon face validity
and professional judgment. Example: EDUCATION ABILITY SCALE VALUE Post Graduate 6 College
Graduate 5 College Level 4 High School Graduate 3 High School Level 2 Elementary Graduate 1 Sallatic,
D. L., & Hoyanok, C. B d. Thurstone Scale: composed of statements on some issues, events, or people
that are collected and rated by a group or judges usually from a scale rating from 1-11.The judges
assigned each statement a numerical value indicating the degree to which they think the statement
reflects a certain attitude. Example: SCALE VALUE STATEMENTS 1.3 1. A country cannot amount too
much without national honor and war is the only means of preserving it. 2.5 2. When war is declared,
we must enlist. 5.2 3. Wars are justifiable only when waged in defense of weaker nations. 8.4 5. The
disrespect for human life and rights involved in a war is a cause of crime waves. 10.6 6. All nations
should disarm immediately. e. Likert Scale: commonly used instrument in attitudinal research. The
respondents are required to answer as to whether they “strongly disagree (SD)”, “disagree (D)”,
“undecided/ neutral (U)”, “agree (A)”, or “strongly agree (SA)” to the statements in the attitudinal scale.
Example: STATEMENT SD D U S SA 1. The best way to __ _ _ _ __ flatter people is to tell them what they
want to hear. Etc. 5. TREATMENT OF DATA This is the basis for the evaluation of the appropriateness of
the procedure for the analysis of the data. For the quantitative research, all statistical tools have to be
presented inclusive of how these were used and their formulas. This treatment of data is very different
for the common types of research design, which is the qualitative, and the quantitative design. For the
qualitative research, the researcher must state what analysis method would be used such as for the
phenomenological method, thematic analysis would be appropriate, it could be narrative analysis,
descriptive, etc.. Qualitative alternative analysis could be the evaluation of the data in research using
different available methods to achieve a particular objective. There are five alternative analysis
discussed in this research paper-the ethnography, the ethnomethodology, the conversational analysis,
the qualitative comparative analysis and the narrative analysis. Each of this are provided with the
definition, the goal and when used as a method in order to provide a clearer explanation including some
examples. TYPES OF DATA ANALYSIS FOR THE QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DESIGN 1. Case
Oriented Understanding  A case oriented research strategy examines cases as wholes: combinations of
experiences to produce generalizations about relationships.  Studies particular phenomena in depth to
understand how and why specific processes generate particular outcomes in particular circumstances. 
Is rich but journalistic. Cases have clear identities and are usually chosen specifically because of their
substantive significance or theoretical relevance. Flexibility is maintained throughout the investigation
because the core may be revised as the researcher learns more about relevant instances.  Under this
understanding many cases are examined to understand a small number of variable. Sallatic, D. L., &
Hoyanok, C. B  This applicable for case studies thus it focuses on the background, past events
concerning a certain phenomenon. 2. Grounded Theory  The grounded theory approach, particularly
the way Strauss develops it, consists of a set of steps whose careful execution is thought to "guarantee"
a good theory as the outcome. Strauss would say that the quality of a theory can be evaluated by the
process by which a theory is constructed.  Grounded theory is an inductive analytic process because we
derive the explanation/theory/hypothesis from the data. In other words, we gather first the data and
then give our statement.  Grounded theory also involves reflective reading wherein we read, gather
datum, apply codes and to understand data from that data gathered. Core Elements of the Grounded
Theory  Inquiry is shaped by the aim to discover social and social psychological processes.  Data
collection and data analysis are done simultaneously.  Analytic process employed prompts theory
discovery and development rather than verification of pre-existing theories  Theoritical sampling is
employed. This refines, elaborate and exhausts conceptual categories. Stages of Coding for the
Grounded Theory (Strauss And Corbin) a. Open Coding-procedure for developing categories of
information b. Axial Coding- interconnecting the categories c. Selective Coding-a procedure for building
a story that connects the categories producing a discursive set of theoretical propositions. Methods of
Grounded Theory  Research question formulation  Recruitment of participants  Data Gathering 
Data Analysis  Discriminant sampling Limitations of Grounded Theory  Hard to recruit participants 
Takes a lot of time to gather data  Difficult to analyse  There might be a researcher bias  Small sample
is not enough 3. Textual Analysis  Textual analysis is the method communication researchers use to
describe and interpret the characteristics of a recorded or visual message  To describe the content,
structure, and functions of the messages contained in texts.  It include selecting the types of texts to be
studied, acquiring appropriate texts, and determining which particular approach to employ in analyzing
them. Two General Categories of Texts a. Transcripts of communication (verbatim recordings) b.
Outputs of communication (messages produced by communicators) In terms of acquiring texts, outputs
of communication are more readily available than transcripts.  Archival communication research
involves examining the communication embedded in existing records of human behavior kept in
archives. Sallatic, D. L., & Hoyanok, C. B  Acquisition of texts is important as is the representativeness of
the texts selected since sampling is typically used.  Another issue is determining how complete and
accurate the texts are in order to conduct a sound analysis. Approaches to Textual Analysis a. Rhetoric
Criticism- is a systematic method for describing, analyzing, interpreting, and evaluating the persuasive
force of messages embedded within texts b. Content Analysis- It is a research technique used to make
replicable and valid inferences by interpreting and coding textual material. By systematically evaluating
texts (e.g., documents, oral communication, and graphics), qualitative data can be converted into
quantitative data. c. Interactional Analysis- is a set of approaches that focus on language-in-use to
understand how people jointly construct the meanings of their interactions. These approaches seek to
identify and explain the structures and processes that enable people to produce meaningful
interactions. The approaches share a preference for analyzing naturally occurring interaction, and the
analyses they produce are situated. However, the approaches differ in the extent to which the analysis
considers contextual factors outside the interaction. This entry examines three approaches to qualitative
interaction analysis—conversation analysis, discourse analysis, and critical discourse analysis. d.
Performance Studies- is an interdisciplinary field that studies performance and uses performance as a
lens to study the world. 4. Thematic Analysis  It is one of a cluster of methods that focus on identifying
patterned meaning across a dataset.  It is best thought of as an umbrella term for a set of approaches
for analysing qualitative data that share a focus on identifying themes (patterns of meaning) within data.
 The purpose is to identify patterns of meaning across a dataset that provide an answer to the research
question being addressed. Patterns are identified through a rigorous process of data familiarization, data
coding, and theme development and revision. Different Orientations (University Of Auckland) a.
Inductive way –coding and theme development are directed by the content of the data; b. Deductive
way –coding and theme development are directed by existing concepts or ideas c. Semantic way –
coding and theme development reflect the explicit content of the data; d. Latent way –coding and
theme development report concepts and assumptions underpinning the data; e. (Critical) realist or
essentialist way –focuses on reporting an assumed reality evident in the data; f. Constructionist way –
focuses on looking at how a certain reality is created by the data. Phases of Doing Thematic Analysis
(University Of Auckland) a. Familiarization with the data- This phase involves reading and re-reading the
data, to become immersed and intimately familiar with its content. b. Coding-This phase involves
generating succinct labels (codes!) that identify important features of the data that might be relevant to
answering the research question. It involves coding the entire dataset, and after that, collating all the
codes and all relevant data extracts, together for later stages of analysis. c. Generating initial themes-
This phase involves examining the codes and collated data to identify significant broader patterns of
meaning (potential themes). It then involves collating data relevant to each candidate theme, so that
you can work with the data and review the viability of each candidate theme. d. Reviewing themes-This
phase involves checking the candidate themes against the dataset, to determine that they tell a
convincing story of the data, and one that answers the research question. In this phase, themes are
typically refined, which sometimes involves them being split, combined, or discarded. In our TA
approach, themes are defined as pattern of shared meaning underpinned by a central concept or idea.
Sallatic, D. L., & Hoyanok, C. B e. Defining and naming themes-This phase involves developing a detailed
analysis of each theme, working out the scope and focus of each theme, determining the ‘story’ of each.
It also involves deciding on an informative name for each theme. f. Writing up-This final phase involves
weaving together the analytic narrative and data extracts, and contextualizing the analysis in relation to
existing literature. 5. Ethnography  This is the study of a culture or cultures that some group of people
share. It emphasizes the observation of details of everyday life as they naturally unfold in the real world.
 This is sometimes called naturalistic research.  Ethnography is when you are primarily concerned with
issues related to culture, cultural practices, cultural beliefs and beliefs systems. In focusing to a
community or instance, crime trend or crime rate could be possible studies.  As a method, it usually is
meat to refer to the process of participant observation by a single investigator who immerses him or
herself in the group for a long period of time (often 1 or more years). The analytic process relies on the
thoroughness and insight of the researcher to "tell us like it is" in the sitting as he or she experienced it.
This is primarily used in anthropological research.  The goal is to to understand and describe what a
group of people believe and why they believe what they believe, their cultural practices. To describe the
culture and social interactions of a particular group or subgroup (Lichtman (2013). 6. Ethnomethodology
 An approach within sociology that focuses on the way people, as rational actors, make sense of their
everyday world by employing practical reasoning rather than formal logic.  It is the study of how people
use social interaction to maintain an ongoing sense of reality in a situation.  Ethnomethodologists
examine the ways people apply abstract rules and commonsense understandings in situations in order
to make actions appear routine, explicable and ambiguous. To gather data, ethnomethodologists rely on
conversation analysis and a rigorous set of techniques for systematically observing and recording what
happens when people interact in natural settings.  It is an attempt to classify the actions people take
when they are acting in groups.  Ethnomethodology also has tended to use ‘experiments’ to establish
its premises. Such ‘experiments’ have been designed to challenge people’s taken-for-granted views. 
The study of Juvenile Delinquency is an example where he traces the way in which young people come
to be categorized as juvenile delinquents by the police, probationary officers and courts so on. 7.
Conversation analysis  It is a social process that requires certain things in order for participants to
identify it as a conversation and keep it going such as when people look at each other, nod their heads in
agreement, ask and respond to questions, etc.  It is a research approach that analyses social
interaction. It focuses on naturally occurring data and not on conversations that are manipulated in a
laboratory.  This approach studies how oral language is used during a natural interaction. It tries to
explain how people act as they do in a conversation.  The whole conversation is viewed as a single
event.  Conversation analysis grew out of ethnomethodology and thus shares its focus on the
construction of reality as opposed to the discovery of reality.  To determine how participants in a
natural conversation understand and respond to one another when it’s their turn to talk. The focus is on
how these sequences of action are generated.  It does not study the structure of language that is used,
but rather focuses on how language is used in the form of requests, complaints, proposals or
accusations. Two types. In the first type, the institution of interaction is viewed as an entity by itself. In
the second type, the research focuses on studying how social institutions are managed in an interaction.
Sallatic, D. L., & Hoyanok, C. B 8. Qualitative comparative analysis  A methodology that enables the
analysis of multiple cases in complex situations.  It is designed for use with an intermediate number of
cases, typically between 10 and 50.  It can be used in situations where there are too few cases to apply
conventional statistical analysis.  The study focused on numbers of case-oriented researches, after the
gathering of the data, it will now be compared with the previous findings or other researches in order to
find out the strength, weaknesses, the issues or problems in the study.  It can help explain why change
happens in some cases but not others. 9. Narrative analysis  It focuses on "the story itself" and seeks to
preserve the integrity of personal biographies or series of events that cannot adequately be understood
in terms of their discrete elements.  It occurs when one or more speakers engage in sharing and
recounting an experience or event.  Narrative analysis takes the story as the investigative focus.
Narratives or stories may be oral or written, be elicited, for example during an interview, or naturally-
occurring, be very short or long, be told as a way to share one's biography (life stories), focus on events
and the meaning of those events for those experiencing them (e.g. oral histories; auto-ethnographies)
and/or focus on the ordinary stories people tell as a way to share everyday experiences  Narrative
attempt to explain or normalize what has occurred; they lay out why things are the way they are or have
become the way they are.  Narrative, can be said to provide a portal into two realms. First is the realm
of experience, where speakers lay out how they as individuals experience certain events and confer
their subjective meaning onto these experiences; and the realm of narrative means (or devices) that are
put to use to make (this) sense. Coding for Narrative Analysis a. The coding for a narrative analysis is
typical of the narratives as a whole, rather than of the different elements within them. b. It revolves
around reading the stories and classifying them into general patterns. c. Narrative analysis is a genre of
analytic frames whereby researchers interpret stories that are told within the context of research
and/or are shared in everyday life. d. Scholars who conduct this type of analysis make diverse—yet
equally substantial and meaningful—interpretations and conclusions by focusing on different elements.
d. These elements include, but are not limited to, how the story is structured, what functions the story
serves, what is the substance of the story, and how the story is performed. Two Forms of Narrative
Analysis a. Content of stories- It can be viewed as a window onto a knowable reality and analyzed using
concepts derived from theory e.g. thematic analysis, or concepts derived from the data e.g. grounded
theory. b. Meaning- It is the analysis of narratives or stories that can be viewed as socially situated
knowledge constructions in their own right that values messiness. However, it depends on philosophical
position. Notwithstanding the two forms, both could be use in the analysis of data utilizing narrative
analysis.

1. MEANING AND NATURE OF RESEARCH

ü  The word “research” is composed of two syllables, re and search.  Dictionary define the

former syllable as a prefix meaning again, anew, or over again, and the latter as a verb
meaning to examine closely and carefully.

ü  There are two basic complementary research approaches – quantitative and

qualitative.

ü  There are two main goals of social (criminological) research – pure (to develop theory
and expand the knowledge base) and applied (to develop solutions for problems and
relevant application for criminological practice).

ü There are three possible reasons for conducting criminological research:

-Exploration (conducted when there is a little prior knowledge);

-Description (yield to additional information only when some knowledge has been

obtained) and ;

-Explanation (when substantial knowledge is available, it attempts to explain the facts

already gathered).

ü  Research  is simply a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation or refined

technique of thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments, and procedures in order to
obtain a more adequate solution of a problem than would possible under ordinary means.

ü  Research process  starts with (a) Identifying the  problem (SMART), (b) Formulation of
hypothesis, (c) collects data or facts, (d) analyzes these critically, and (e) reaches decisions
based on actual evidence.

ü  Research involves original work (literature, studies, and readings) instead of a mere
exercise of opinion.
ü  Research evolves from a genuine desire to know (probe) rather than a desire to prove
something.

2. NATURE AND SCOPE OF CRIMINOLOGY RESEARCH

1. Division of Science

a.    Physical Sciences

b.    Biological Sciences

c.     Social Sciences

-History

-Ethics

-Ethnography

-Economics

-Political Science

-Criminology

3. IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

Ø  Research is a vehicle for mobility

It is because of research that society does not remain stagnant. It is a major contributor
towards the attainment of national development goals. Research assumes the role of
shaping the nation’s future. Research has brought about progress and a much better life for
all.

 Ø  Purpose of Research:

In psychology, one learns that one of the prime movers of man is his need to satisfy his
curiosity. If we should think of the natural motive, which promotes a scientist to pursue his
professional labors, we would perhaps conclude that he engages in research because of his
love for exploration. The research scientist loves to wrestle with anything difficult to
perceive. In other fields, a researcher or investigator conducts research for a specific
purpose – to answer a specific question, to solve a particular controversy or issue.
 Objectives of Research

1.    To seek for new knowledge

2.    To provide useful information in the form of verifiable data

4. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESEARCHER

1.    Intellectual Curiosity

A researcher undertakes reflective thinking and inquiry of the things, situations and
problems around him. He is eager to get information and these often due to novelty and
unusualness. He raises questions to seek answer, continues to read the related literature,
makes use of his experiences, and exercises his creativeness and inventiveness. When the
problem he confronts becomes clear, he formulates and tests hypotheses on them.

 2.    Prudence

Once the investigator has chosen wisely his research problem, his intellectual curiosity ends.
The researcher is prudent if he conducts his research study at the right time and at the right
place wisely, efficiently and economically. In other words, he does the right thing at the right
time.

 3.    Healthy Criticism

The investigator is always doubtful as to the veracity of the results. Normally, the researcher
always doubts the truthfulness of his findings even if the data are gathered honestly.

 4.    Intellectual Honesty

An intelligent researcher is honest in collecting or gathering the data or facts in order to

arrive at honest results. Honesty is the best policy for an intelligent investigator because the
success or failure of his research lies on his hand.

5. QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCHER

 R -       Research Oriented

 E -       Efficient

 S -       Scientific

 E -       Effective
 A -       Active

 R -       Resourceful

 C -       Creative

 H -       Honest

 E -       Economical

R -       Religious

6. VALUES OF RESEARCH TO MAN

1.    Research improves the quality of life- Research has led man to search for ways in
improving his life. It has led him to focus on improving processes and means by which he
must love. E.g. the higher the educational qualifications and achievements, the higher also
will be the socio-economic status of persons (research conducted).

 2.    Research improves instruction-Research has no beginning and no end. It is a nerve

ending task. Educators, policy makers, and educational researchers continue to conduct
research to improve instruction. Several innovations have been introduced to improve
instruction. Conventional teaching is no longer practiced and only modern one is applied.
The modern teacher is expected to possess the 3 E’s (effective, efficient, and economical).

 3.    Research improves student’s achievement-The student’s achievement could be

improved through research if the modern teacher studies and understands the student’s
characteristics, problems, and needs on the basis of which he fits his methods accordingly.

 4.    Research satisfies man’s needs-In the 19th, the needs of man were not fully satisfied
as they are today. Man suffered from the conventional ways of living. For instance, no
electrification, no vehicle, no communication facilities, no movie houses etc. Due to advance
science and technology, man’s conventional ways of living has become modern.
Electrification, communication facilities, vehicles, movie houses, etc. are now available.

 5.    Research reduces the burden of work-Modern devices such as calculators,

computers, copier machines, fax machines, washing machines, gas range, refrigerators,
freezers, etc. are some of the products of research which lessen man’s burden of work.

 6.    Research has deep-seated psychological aspects-Research stimulates and enables

the human spirit. It challenges man to remove the threat of stagnation. It is an open door to
a better future and it guides him in his efforts to obtain good results which contribute to his
satisfaction and self-fulfillment.
 7.    Research improves the exportation of food products-Through research, the
exportation of food products has improved. The products being exported to other countries
are bananas, pineapples, rice, mangoes, frozen yellow-fin tuna, etc. Since rice and fish are
staple food for Filipinos, modern biotechnology is being introduced continually in both
agriculture and aquaculture in order to meet the demands for food in the year 2000 and
beyond.

7. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

1.    Empirical- Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher. The

collection of data relies on practical experience without benefit of the scientific knowledge
or theory.

2.    Logical- Research is base on valid procedures and principles. Scientific investigation is

done in an orderly manner so that the researcher has confidence on the results. Logical
examination of the procedures used in the research enables the researcher to draw valid
conclusions.

3.    Cyclical- Research is a cyclical process. It starts with a problem and ends with a

problem. For instances, a researcher who completes his study states his findings and draws
up his conclusions and recommendations. In his recommendations, many problems may
crop up as other subjects for study hence, the cycle is repeated.

4.    Analytical- Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data,

whether historical, descriptive, experimental, or case study. In historical research, the data
gathered focus on the past; in descriptive research, the study focuses on the present
situation; experimental, future; and in case study, past, present, and future.

5.    Replicability- The research designs and procedures are replicated to enable the

researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results. Similarities and differences of replicated
researches can be compared. The more replications of researches, the more valid and
conclusive the results would be.

6.    Critical- Research exhibits careful and precise judgment. A higher level of confidence

must be established, i.e., at 1.0 percent or 5.0 percent level or confidence.

8. TYPES OF RESEARCH

1. Pure Research- This is also called, “basic research” or “fundamental research.” It aims to

discover basic truths or principles.
E.g. Newton’s Law – “A body at rest remains at rest remains at rest and a body in motion will
continue to move with the same velocity in a straight line unless acted upon by an external
force.

2. Applied Research- This type of research involves seeking new applications of scientific

knowledge to the solution of a problem, such as the development of a new system or
procedure, new device, or new method in order to solve the problem. In this type of
research, the problem is identified and new system or new method is applied in order to
solve the problem. For instance, to solve problem of rice shortage, research on using new
varieties of rice has been conducted for the purpose of producing more rice.

 3. Action Research-This is a decision-oriented research involving the application of the

steps of the scientific method in response to an immediate need to improve existing
practices.

9. CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

1. Library Research: This is done in the library where answers to specific questions or

problems of the study are available.
2. Field Research: Research is conducted in a natural setting.
3. Laboratory Research: The research is conducted in artificial or controlled conditions
by isolating the study in a rigorously specified and operationalized area.

10. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH

1. Veracity/Accurate Analysis and Reporting- It refers to the obligation to tell the truth
and not to lie or deceive others.

2. Privacy- It is the obligation to maintain the state or condition of limited access to a

person subjected for research-participants/respondents.

3. Anonymity and Confidentiality- It is the obligation not to divulge information

discovered without the permission of the subject or the participants/respondents. .

5. Fidelity- It is the obligation to remain faithful to one’s commitments, which includes

keeping promises and maintaining confidentiality of the information of the
participants/respondents including all information obtained from them.

6. Informed consent- This pertains to the seeking of permission to the person/guardian of

the concerned participants or respondents.
7. No Harm- This is the obligation not to inflict harm in any form or endanger the
participants/respondents either physical or psychological or socially.

8. Voluntary Participation- This refers to the willingness of the participants/respondents

on his own volition to participate in the study without any force or threat of his person. An
experimenter who force people to participate in the experiment would be criticized.

9. Avoiding Deception- This refers to the obligation not to lie to the

participants/respondents about the real purpose of the research.

1. CONTENTS OF THE CHAPTER 1

ü  Background of the study. This contains the related studies, researches, findings conducted
previously and by different researchers who embarked on the study under the same theme.

ü  Rationale or motivation of the researchers in conducting the study. This answers the question
“Why did you conducted this study? Why did you proposed this research? What motivated you
to conduct this research?

ü  Objectives of the study. This focused on the aim of the study on what are the things that
needed to be achieve at the end of the study.

ü  Significance of the study. This covers the contribution of the research, after it was
successfully done. Under the criminological research, the importance of the study includes the
five pillars of the criminal justice system including the criminology profession, the students and
the future researchers.

ü  Operational definition of terms. This particularly refers to the main words or the key words
of the study, how it was use in the study. The definition of terms do not depend on how it was
defined in the Webster dictionary, legal, general or any provided definitions but rather how it
was technically utilized in the study.

ü  Introduction of the title of the study. The last part of the background of the study before the
conceptual/theoretical framework is the introduction of the main problem, which is the
introduction of the title of the study.

ü  Theoretical/Conceptual framework. This contains the theories, laws and concepts or ideas

that supports the study. These may help in providing a wider explanation or insight on the
variable of the study.

ü  Paradigm of the study. This contains the diagrammatical representation of the flow of the
study. In other words, it serves as a guide for the researchers.

ü  Statement of the problem. This refers to the sub-problem arising from the main problem of
the study. It contains the questions, which are to be answered during the data collection.
ü  Hypotheses. The hypotheses is to be included with the statement of the problem. However,
hypotheses is not standard for all methods, because it will be depending on the types used such
as in quantitative researches, sub problems should be stated in an inferential manner and for the
qualitative researches, specific problems should answer a phenomena (As-il, 2018).

◄ P-QUIZ 1

2. WRITING THE CHAPTER 1-THE PROBLEM

1. THE RESEARCH PROBLEM-The research problem should not be answerable by yes or no

as it does not require a research by digging deeper on a certain problem.

Ø  Research Problem-  An investigator knows that a problem is really researchable when:

a.    There is not known solution to the problem

b. The solution can be answered by using statistical methods and techniques

c. There are probable solutions but they are not yet tested
d. The occurrence of phenomena require scientific investigation to arrive at precise
solution

 ü  A good research problem should be SMART:

      Specific- The problem should be specifically stated.

      Measurable-  It is easy to measure by using instruments

      Achievable- The data are achievable using correct statistical techniques to arrive at

precise results.

      Realistic- Real results are not manipulated.

      Time-bound- Time frame is required in every activity because the shorter completion

of the activity, the better.

◄ P-QUIZ 1
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2. WRITING THE CHAPTER 1-THE PROBLEM

2.1. Criteria of a Good Research Problem

a. Interesting
Ø  An interesting research problem attracts the attention of the investigator to study the
problem further. It also makes him determined to work on it until its completion.

b. Relevant to the needs of the people

Ø  Researchers must keep in mind that they work not for themselves but for the people.

c. Innovative

Ø  A good research problem may not be necessarily new. It may be a restatement and
restructuring of an old problem to make it new. In this manner, results will be more relevant
and useful to a greater number of people.

d. Cost effective

Ø  The 4M’s (Man, Money, Materials and Machinery) are needed in conducting research.

A research problem should be economical and effective in solving the problems of the
society; it should also augment social, economic and health conditions of the people and
many others.

e. Measurable and Time-bound

Ø  A good research problem is measurable by using research instruments, like tests,
questionnaires, rating scales, observation schedules or interviews, and statistical treatment
to arrive at scientific and meaningful results. A good research can be completed within a
time-frame stated.

3. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The background of the study is designed based from the main problem and the sub-
problem and it should be presented from the general to specific ideas. The background
should have an introductory paragraph that will serve as an opening paragraph for the
succeeding content and focus of the research. However, the opening paragraph must not be
definition of terms.

  Additionally, the flow of ideas becomes smoother in the addition of transitionary words
(Moreover, Finally, In addition, Additionally, Similarly, Consequently, Subsequently, On the
other hand, Likewise, etc.). In writing the background, the ideas must be phrase in the
researcher’s own words. The used of copy and paste from any sources does not only fall
other plagiarism but also lack professional ethics on the part of the researcher who do not
acknowledge and respect other authors. Consequently, in writing the background of the
study, one must not forget to mentioned the author (proper citation) under their borrowed
ideas.
 The background of the study must be written as a subheading on top at the left corner
before the opening paragraph.

 There are no given limits on the background of the study as well as the other parts of the
thesis writing except for the abstract.

◄ P-QUIZ 1

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Jump to...

3. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

3.1. Kinds of Related Literature

a. Related Readings

ü  The major sources are laws and department directives such as letters, orders,
memoranda, and others which are related to the present study. Department directives serve
as legal bases for the paradigm of the study. This presents the study as having direct or
indirect implications to the government thrusts.

 Related Literature

ü  Literature may be defined as written works collectively especially, those of reading

importance, exhibiting creative imagination and artistic skill which are written at a particular
period, language, and subject. In other words, any written material such as journal,
magazine, novel, poetry, yearbook, and encyclopedia.

 Related Studies

ü  Published and unpublished research studies are sources of materials that are included in
this section. The research studies which have direct bearing to the present studies are
segregated into foreign and local studies.

4. MOTIVATION/RATIONALE

After writing the related studies and researches, here comes the motivation or rationale, but
it should not have a subheading but rather written directly in another paragraph. The
researchers simply provides an explanation as to why the research has come into existence.

5. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
This is a statement of purpose for which the investigation or research is to be conducted.
The research objectives are stated specifically in simple language in order that the
researcher finds them easy to measure by using research instruments in collecting data.
These data are achieved when correct statistical techniques are used to arrive
at real results, but for every activity to be done, time frame is required because the shorter
the completion of the activity, the better.

 The research objectives is to be written after the motivation/ rationale and it does not have
a subheading but written in another paragraph. The researcher must be able to provide the
aims of the study, which will be achieve at the end. The objectives are dependent upon what
the researcher would want to know or discover in the study.

6. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of the study in a research paper is a must. For research project seeking for
financial assistance by other agencies, significance of the study should be presented
comprehensively in order to convince the screening committee of the importance of the study.

The investigator should prove that the study has important contributions in relation to:

1.    Solving the problem and need

2.    Bridging a knowledge gap

3.    Improving social, economic and health conditions

4.    Enriching research instruments and methods

5.    Supporting government thrusts

 To put it simply, the significance of the study specifies who are those persons, organizations or
entities who will benefit from result of the study. It is written after the objectives of the study, in
separate paragraph and it does not contained a subheading.

◄ P-QUIZ 1

7. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

The key terms must be define on this part according to how it was used in the study. It may
be define generally, legally or defined itself by the researchers. The operational definition
provides a clear idea on how to perceive the terms and relate them on the overall content of
the research.
           It is to be written in a separate paragraph after the significance of the study and it
does not have a subheading.

8. INTRODUCTION OF THE TITLE OF THE STUDY

The last paragraph before the theoretical or conceptual framework contains the
introduction of the main problem or the title of the study.

Example:

           This study is titled “Implementation of Bicycle Patrol in the Central Business

District of La Trinidad, Benguet.”

9. THEORETICAL/CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

a.    Theoretical Framework

It shapes the justification of the research problem/ research objectives in order to provide
the legal basis for defining its parameters. It is desirable for an investigator to identify key
concepts that are used in the study for better understanding of the role of theory in
research.

 It is a symbolic construction that uses abstract concepts, facts or laws, variables and their
relations that explains and predicts how an observed phenomenon exists and operates. An
investigator is required to formulate existing theories which link his study because theories
are useful devise for interpreting, criticizing, and unifying established scientific laws or facts
that guide in discovering new generalizations.

 b.    Conceptual Framework

It presents specific and well-defined concepts which are called “constructs”. Its function is
similar with theoretical framework because the constructs used are derived from abstract
concepts of the theoretical framework.

10. PARADIGM OF THE STUDY

This is the diagrammatical representation of a conceptual framework. It differs on the

methods used in the study such as in quantitative and qualitative research design. Though
in the paradigm of the study, the researcher must be able to show the concept, for both of
the method, there is no standard paradigm format to be used but rather the researcher
could make their own.
Before the diagrammatical representation, there should be first the descriptive explanation
of the contents of the paradigm. Meanwhile, the flowchart should be provided in a separate
page. The paradigm of the study is to be written in another paragraph after the theoretical
or conceptual framework and does not have a subheading.

10. PARADIGM OF THE STUDY

10.1. Variables (Under the Paradigm)

THE VARIABLE

ü  A variable is a characteristics that has two or more mutually exclusive values, properties,
or categories. Variables are operationalized concepts that classifies the subjects of the
research.

Examples:

a. Crime rate can be categorized as low average or high.

b. Crimes committed can be categorized as murder, homicide or theft.

c. Age can be classified as young, middle age or old.

d. Intelligence can be classified as below average, average or above average.

 Type of Variable

1.    Independent Variable: one that influences or affects another variable. In a cause-effect

relationship, the independent variables is assumed to be the cause. It is usually symbolized
as the X-variable and also the predictor variable.

 2.    Dependent Variable: one that is influenced or affected by the independent variable. In

a cause-effect relationship, it is assumed to be the effect. It is also called the criterion
variable and is usually symbolized as the Y-variable.

11. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESIS

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

            The statement of the problem have a subheading and is written after the paradigm
of the study. Before writing the sub-problems, the main problem (title of the study) comes
first and in a declarative form. On the other hand, the specific problems are to be written in
interrogative form.
 HYPOTHESIS

          For the research that have a hypothesis, the specific problem will be followed
immediately by its hypothesis. The hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as possible
explanations for a certain occurrence or phenomena.

           The hypothesis serves as a guide for the researcher however, at the end of the study;
the intelligent guessed maybe proven correct or incorrect.

 ü  A hypothesis is defined as a wise guess that is formulated and temporarily adopted to
explain the observed facts covered by the study. A hypothesis guides the investigator in that
is describes the procedure to follow in conducting the study. Hypothesis is important for it
tells the investigator “what to do” and “how to go about” in solving a research problem.

11. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESIS

11.1. Types of Hypothesis

1. Null Hypothesis: is the denial of an existence of an attribute, a relationship or a

difference of an effect. It is always stated in a negative form.
2. Alternative Hypothesis: the opposite of the null hypothesis because it is always
stated in a positive form. It is an affirmation of the existence of an observed
phenomenon.

1. INSTITUTIONAL FORMAT (KCP FORMAT)

1.    All entries starting from the TITLE PAGE until the last entry of REFERENCES should be in
double space.

2.    Font type is courier new; font size is 12.

3.    Typing of entries should be left-aligned, except for the Abstract (Full Block).

4.    Spell out and define first acronyms and abbreviations at the beginning of the discussion
before using them in their short forms.

5.    In encoding numbers, spell them out if they begin a sentence. If at the middle of the
sentence, zero to 9 are spelled out and 10 onwards are written in numerals.

6.    Pagination using Arabic numbers starts from the title page until the last entry in
appendices. Do not type the page number of the following: title page, approval sheet,
abstract, acknowledgment, dedication, first page of the table of contents, and all first pages
of every chapter. Page numbers are written at the upper right-hand portion of the page.

7.    Provide the running head in italics one tab before the page number. Again, running
heads should appear only on pages where there are paginations.

8.    In parenthetical citations, write first the family name of the author, put a comma, then
type the year of publication. If the author’s family name is typed as part of the sentence,
then only the year is parenthetically entered. If the cited paragraph is too long, use this
format: family name of author incorporated as part of the sentence, year is parenthetically
cited; succeeding sentence/s, use only the family name of the author; last sentence,
parenthetical citation includes both family name and year, separated by a comma. The
parenthetical citation is a part of the sentence; hence, the period of the sentence should be
found after the citation, not before it.

9.    In highlighting any word in the text, use these suggested means only once and with
consistency: italics, underscore, and quotation marks. Do not alternately use them. If you
started using italics, finish your research using italics in highlighting. The same goes through
with the other means of highlighting.

10.  For direct quotations longer than 40 words, the encoding process is free-standing
block. This is applied by aligning all entries on the left side one tab from the left margin and
not aligning the right portion of the quotation. Do not forget to write the page number of
the quotation in parentheses at the end, introduced by the letter p.

11.  If an entry ends in a quoted statement, the punctuation mark is a part of the quotation,
thus the quotation mark should be placed after the period, question mark, or exclamation
point.

2. ADDITIONAL GENERAL GUIDELINES (PART 1)

1. TYPING

Ø  Use short bond paper (height: 11”; width: 8.5”)

Ø  The manuscript must be double-spaced throughout.

Ø  Use one inch margins on the right, top and bottom of the page, and 1 ½ “on the left
side.

Ø  Use normal paragraphs with the first line indented using the DEFAULT TAB. This is
applied EXCPET for the Abstract, block quotes, titles and headings, references, table titles,
notes and figure captions.
Ø  The font to be used is Courier New (12 point).

Ø  Leave two character spaces after terminators (?,.,!)

Ø  Make sure that the text is left aligned and not justified except for the ABSTRACT which is
in full-block format.

2. STYLE DETAILS IN GENERAL

Ø  Always use the third person point of view in referring to one’s self in the write-up.

Ø  Use the PAST TENSE in the Abstract, Design and Methodology, and in the Presentation,
Analysis and Interpretation of Data; and INDICATIVE MOOD in the first chapter and in the
Conclusions and Recommendations.

Ø  Use the simple present tense for citations or quotes from books, journals, website, etc.

Ø  When using direct quotations, use the present tense followed by the passage enclosed in
quotation marks.

For example:

Bugtong and Moyano (2004) state “gender does not affect academic performance.”

 Ø  When paraphrasing a quote, use the conjunction THAT.

For example:

Mamaat (2000) asserts that jealousy is prevalent in work areas where…

3. ACRONYMS

Ø  When stating an acronym, spell them out the first time it is introduced. Enclose the
acronym in parentheses.

 For example: 

The Local Councils for the Protection of Children (LCPC) shall be established in all locals of
government. Membership in the LCPC shall be chosen…

 Ø  When the acronym has been spelled out earlier, use the acronym of the word/s in your
subsequent paragraphs.
 4. NUMBERS

Ø  Spell out the numbers if it begins a sentence.

Ø  All measurement reporting is done in Metric units (meters, centimeters, etc.).

Ø  The numbers zero to nine are spelled out except when it is in a table, figure number, or a
metric measurement.

Ø  The numbers 10 and above are written as numerals except when they are situated at the
beginning of the sentence.

Ø  In the Abstract, use digits for all numerals except when they begin a sentence. Be
consistent with number formats. For descriptive statistical presentations, use two (2) decimal
places. But for inferential statistical presentations, use four (4) decimal places.

 5. CITATIONS IN THE TEXT/BODY

Ø  The first time the reference is cited in the text, spell out all of the authors’ last names.

For example:

Agoncillo, Constantino, and Tendero (1990) suggest…

 Ø  With articles that have three or more authors, cite all the authors the first time the
reference occurs. In subsequent citations of the same authors, use first author’s surname
followed by “et.al.”

For example:

Agoncillo, Constantino, and Tendero (1990) suggest……some fact (Agoncillo et al., 1990).

 Ø  If the references is in a parenthetical format, use the ampersand (&). However, if the
reference is in the body of the manuscript, use the conjunction “and”.

For example:

Behaviorism is… (Pavlov & Skinner, 1943)

Pavlov and Skinner (1943) state that Behaviorism…

 Ø  Multiple references in parentheses are laced alphabetically, and are separated by a

semicolon and a single character space.
For example:

The research culture in the University is… (de Guzman, 2004; Llanes, 2004; Orduna, 1999).

3. ADDITIONAL GENERAL GUIDELINES (PART 2)

6. QUOTATIONS

Ø Cite the page numbers for direct quotes.

For example:

Wayway (2002) asserts “genuine appreciation of the beauty and majesty of Sunnyside would not
be possible without one…” (92)

Ø Each citation should always be preceded and succeeded by an interpretation to avoid

succession of unexplained quotations.

Ø Display an excerpt of more than 40 words as set-off quotation in a single-spaced full block
section, and indented (DEFAULT TAB) from the left margin. Omit the quotation marks and
include the page number in parentheses after the last period.

7. PAGE NUMBERS

Ø  There are variations with regard to the placing of page numbers. In most cases, page numbers
are placed on the UPPER RIGHT corner of the page.

Ø  The page number must be situated 0.5 inch from the top of the page.

Ø  The font for the pagination is Courier New point 12.

Ø  The title page and approval sheet carry a page number but it is not indicated on the page itself.

Ø  The displayed pagination for the preliminary pages of the paper will start in the Abstract to
the List of Tables and Figures. The pagination for these should be in small Roman numerals (e.g.
I, ii, and iii) situated at the bottom-center of the page. The Bibliography, Appendices portion, and
Curriculum Vitae have no page numbers.

Ø  The first page of each chapter carries a page number but it is not indicated on the page itself.

 8. TABLES

Ø  Introduce the table prior to its presentation.

Ø  Tables should not be situated within a paragraph.

Ø  The APA style tables do not contain any vertical lines.

Ø  The table caption must be placed above the table. Type the table number followed by a
period. Leave two (2) character spaces, and type the table heading/caption, with the second line
left aligned.

Ø  When using columns with numbers, align them according to place value.

Ø  When using columns with decimal numbers, align the decimal points.

 For example:

Table 1.  Population of the Study According to Gender and Socio-economic Status

SES MALE FEMALE TOTAL

Upper Class 1 0 1
Upper Middle 4 7 11
Middle Class 6 15 21
Lower Middle 4 9 13
Lower Class 0 0 0
TOTAL 15 31 46
 9. FIGURES

Ø  Figures should not be situated within a paragraph.

Ø  Center each figure on the page vertically as well as horizontally.

Ø  If the figure is a chart or graph, verbally label the axes (do not use “X” and “Y”).

Ø  Figure captions must be located at the bottom center of the figure.

Ø  Type the figure number followed by a period. Leave two (2) character spaces and type the
figure heading/ caption.

 10. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ø  The bibliographic entries must be organized and written according to category.

Ø  Center the categories of the bibliographic entries. The categories must be bold and in title
case.

Ø  After typing the categories, type the specific reference material employing APA format.
Ø  Main titles of books, magazines, etc. are italicized.

Ø  Sources are listed in alphabetical order by the author’s last name.

Ø  Leave one (1) character space after each period.

◄ P-3 (ASSIGNMENT 1)

1. GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE PARENTHETICAL CITATIONS 1

1.    A typical citation of an entire work consists of the author’s name and year of
publication.

Example:

          Education as an investment is true only if it is used as a potent tool to eradicate
poverty, and it is for sustainable and equitable development (Segnaben, 1999).

  2.    If the author is named in the text, only the year is cited.

Example:

According to Wi (1996), infection with Hepatitis B virus is a widespread problem.

  3.    If the name of the author and the date are used in the text, parenthetical
reference is not necessary.

Example:

In a 2004 study, Galangco states that the College has obtained its objectives despite some
shortcomings in several co-curricular...

  4.    Specific reference to the page of a particular resource material:

ü  No break in the citation of specific author/s. In this case, type only the specific page
where the excerpt is taken from.

      Example:

               Apropos the sex/gender, males are more inclined with the exhibition of negative
attitudes and coping mechanisms (de Guzman, 2004). Xxxxxxx xxxx xx x xxx…

                On the contrary, females are predominantly emotional, and are more expressive of
their feelings and thoughts (69).
 ü  A break in the citation of a specific author’s work

Example:

Dangatan (2005) focused on the variables year level course, and the scope of work as
factors influencing the overall performance of student assistants in the University. Xxxx xxx
xxx…

 Further, student assistants manifested a satisfactory level in carrying out their duties and
responsibilities in their respective departments (Azarcon Jr., 1999). Xxxxxxx xxxx x xxxxxx
xxx…

 The findings implied that the aforementioned variables had no influence in their job as
student assistants xxxxx xx xxxx xxx (Dangatan, 2005: 26).

 5. For quotations with less than forty (40) words and at the same time not exceeding
four (4) lines, use quotation marks.

Example:

Albeit establishing this mode of acceptance reduces student failure, rejection of students
who were unable to make the cut- off mark is high on being deprived of pursuing further
studies hence increase illiteracy and unemployment pervading the country.
Notwithstanding, “the option of administering entrance tests still rests on the institution’s
discretion, dependent on their precedence and the risks they are willing to assume” (Llanes,
2004: 13).

◄ P-QUIZ 4

Jump to...

2. GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE PARENTHETICAL CITATIONS 2

6. Citing a quotation in case any material is left out

ü  If any material is left out, use three ellipsis points (…) within the sentence.

Example:

According to Cantor and Bungaoen (2004), “a treatment and preventive program should be
formulated... to address the moderate level of caries of the children” (15).

 ü  Use four ellipsis points (….) when material is left out between two sentences.

Example:
The research also raised the “intriguing questions about how political values are linked.... in
pooling resources and rationing by queues” (69).

 ü  If inserting explanations in direct quotation, use brackets, not parenthesis. If any
incorrect spelling, grammar, or punctuation in the source might confuse readers, insert the
word sic, in brackets and underlined (i.e., [sic]), immediately after the error in the
quotation (APA, 1994, pp 95-96).

Example:

Walitang (2004) states that the schlastc [sic] status of students, especially those who fail their
subjects, should be monitored by respective colleges.

7. Paraphrasing someone else’s work

ü  When paraphrasing a passage, you need to cite the source of material.

Example:

Yago (1996) posits that graft and corruption is an indispensable activity in Philippine
bureaucracy for it is already ingrained in the culture of the people. Further, he asserts that this
political issue can be resolved through the process of enculturation xxx xxxxx xx xx xxxxxx.

 8. For quotations which exceed four lines, type the excerpt in a single-spaced full block
section.

Example:

The measure calls for the curtailment xx xxxxx xxxxxx xxx. As a political analyst asserts:

Terrorism is a major concern that needs to be addressed by the most direct, effective, or
innovative measures possible in order to protect the citizenry from despicable acts of terrorists
which threaten their lives, security, and freedom. After all, these ideals are the very same things
which are engraved in the constitution. (Calinao, 2005:7)

9. When the reference is a work of two (2) authors, cite both names each time the reference
appears.

Example:

Sri Lanka and Thailand are about to launch international advertising campaigns that highlight the
many attractions that were untouched or have already reopened, in hopes of dispelling the
gruesome images of paradise lost (Adiga & Estulin, 2004).
  10. When the reference is a work of 3-5 authors, cite all the authors the first time the
reference appears. In a subsequent reference, use the first author’s last name followed by et
al.

Example:

Neither the north nor south sees the rapprochement as a speedy road to reunifying the peninsula
sundered for half a century (Calabresi et al., 2001).

◄ P-QUIZ 4

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Jump to...

WRITING THE REFERENCE/BIBLIOGRAPHIES ►

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Table of contents

 1. GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE PARENTHETICAL CITATIONS 1

 2. GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE PARENTHETICAL CITATIONS 2
 3. GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE PARENTHETICAL C

3. GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE PARENTHETICAL CITATIONS 3

11. When the reference is to a work by six or more authors, use only the first author’s
name followed et al. in the first and all subsequent reference. The only exception to
this rule is when confusion might arise because of similar names or the same author
being cited. In that case, cite enough authors so that the distinction is clear.

12. When the reference is to a work by a corporate author, use the name of the
organization as the author.

Example:

To establish a diverse cross-cultural understanding at the regional level is a natural

extension of Fukouka’s long held traditional role as a historic focal point for exchange in
Asia (Kyushu University, 2003: 7).

13. Personal letters, telephone calls and other materials that cannot be retrieved are
not listed in the Bibliography but are cited in the text.
Example:

Ashley Lauren (telephone conversation, November 7, 1983) confirmed that the

propositions…

14. Parenthetical references may mention more than one work, particularly when the
ideas have been summarized after drawing from several sources. Multiple citations
should be arranged as follows:

ü  List of two or more works by the same author in order of the date of publication

Example:

(Gomez, 1995, 2000)

ü  Differentiate works by the same author and with the same publication date by
adding an identifying letter to each date

Example:

(Bautista, 1999a, 1999b)

ü  List works by different authors in alphabetical order by the last name, and use a
semicolon to separate the references

Example:

(Bennett, 1998; Prill, 1994; Smith, 2002)

1. REFERENCES (PART 1)

1. Books with one Author

Example:

Purificacion, S. (1990). Historical perspectives on tribal wars.  Phils: Omegan Publishing House.

 2. Books by Two Authors

Example:

Duckitt, J. & Renchon, S. (2000). Political psychology: cultural and crosscultural

foundations. USA: New York University Press.
 3. Books by Three or More Authors

Example:

Montoya, J., Oliveros, J., & Torres, J. (1997). Philosophical foundations of behavior

modification. Phils: Rex Bookstore.

 4. Chapter from a Book

Example:

Musolini, F. (1993). Repeated measures designs.  In a Field (Ed.), Discovering Statistics Using

SPSS for Windows (pp. 323 – 3374). Great Britain: The Cromwell Press, Ltd.

 5. Books with Edition other than the First (Republished Book)

Example:

Nolledo, J. (2000). The revised administrative code of 1987 with related laws and
administrative issuances.  Phils: Philippine Graphic Arts, Inc. (Original work published 1996).

 6. An Edited Book

Example:

Espino, E. R. (Ed.). (1991). Fundamentals of structural engineering. Cambodia: Angkor Wat,

Inc.

 7. Book by a Corporate Author

Example:

Committee of Recreations and Development. (1993). Human behavior in

organizations.  Philippines: Rex Bookstore.

8. Reference Book Article (encyclopedia)

Example:

Machiavelli, N. (1993). The prince. In the World book encyclopedia  (Vol 15, pp. 421-436).
USA: World Book.

 9.  Dictionary
Example:

The American heritage dictionary of the English language (4th ed.). (2000). USA: Houghton
Mifflin Company.

  10. Weekly Magazine Article

Example:

Poniewezik, J. (2005, February 21). The tragic kingdom. Time,  165, 33-34.

2. REFERENCES (PART 2)

11. Monthly Magazine Article

Example:

Quinones, D. (1994, November). Natural vs. human resources. Nation’s business,  88, 12-14.

12. Journal Article

Example:

Esguerra, J. S. (2003). Poetry and verse in the college classroom: some insights and teaching
tips. UB research journal,  26, 62-68.

 13. Newspaper Article

Example:

Calinao, N. P. (2005, April 17). An AFP recipe for dictatorship. Zigzag weekly.  P. 7.

 14. Thesis or Dissertation

Example:

Danguilan, Z. C. (1987). Music reading made easy.  Unpublished doctorate dissertation,

University of Baguio, Philippines.
 15. Newsprint Reference (i.e. film, recording, video, television, or radio program)

 a. Film:

Moore, M. (Director). (1980). Fahrenheit 9/11 (Film). Hollywood: Miramax Films.

 b. Film with Limited Circulation:

Spielberg, S. (Director). (1993). Schindler’s List  [Film]. (Available from Paramount Pictures,

USA).

 c.  Cassette:

Maicle, E. M. (Author and speaker). (1995). Successful living, successful life.  [cassette]. Phils:
Inspirations, Inc.

d. Television Program:

Petersen, W. (Actor). (2004). Crime scene investigation [Television program]. NV: BBC.

 e. Musical Recording:

Groban, J. (2002). The prayer. Josh Groban [CD]. USA: Warner Brothers.

 16.     Personal Interview, Phone Conversation, Letter, Non-archived E-mail, Lecture

Because these materials are not recoverable, it should NOT be listed in the list of references.
It can, however, be cited parenthetically within the text. It is extremely important that what is
cited in this way be legitimate and have scholarly integrity.

 a. Interview:

Bowles finds herself appalled by the claims of gender insensitivity by her contemporaries
(Personal letter, March 28, 1977).

b. Phone Conversation:

According to Dan Brown, the sources for his novel Da Vinci Code  were reputable art
connoisseurs (Personal phone conversation, July 22, 2003).

 17. Hand-outs given in a Lecture

Orduna, L. (2004, December). A step towards change: introduction of the APA format.
Outline presented in a lecture at the University of Baguio, Philippines.

 18. Governmental Documents

Ministry of Transportation and Communications. (1983). Baguio city transportation

project  (Publication No. 82-1195). Phils: Baguio City Local Government.

 19. Computer Software

SPSS. USA. (2004). Statistical packages for social sciences [Computer Software]. USA:
Conduit.

 20. Worldwide Website

Darling, L. (No date). Parenting style and its correlates [Online]. Available
at http://www.atheath.com?practitioner/ceduc.parentingstyles.htm [2004, November 3].

 21. Material from an Online Information Service

Batar, H. & Leano, J. (1992). Cultural nationalism and beyond: crosscultural political
psychology in Indonesia [Online]. Political culture,  20, 715-726, Abstract from: dialog File:
POLSCIINFO Item: 96-2004.

 22. References without Authors

________. (1996) Animal instinct.  France: Le louvre, Ltd.

COURSE DESCRIPTION: This course focuses on how writing research paper/thesis is done, and the
applicable statistical tools, understanding the different parts of the thesis, their interplay, and the
governing rules in writing a technical paper, the development of a research problem, the instrument,
the data gathering methods and the treatment of the data collected.  The value and importance of
research  Foundation of criminological research, e.g. terms, parts of thesis, different types of research
methods, etc.  Guide in writing research paper following APA Rules 6th or 7th edition.  Developing a
problem, collect and gather primary data, secondary sources, journal articles, and other sources.  How
to write your thesis introduction, framework, statement of the problem, significance and limitation,
definition of terms, related literature/studies, research design, instrument or data gathering tools,
sampling and population, instrument floating and data collection and the statistical tools needed.  The
importance of statistics  Percentage, mean, median, mode, and standard deviation and other tests. 
Proposed Research title presentation and defense.  Commence writing the thesis paper. A. MEANING
AND NATURE OF RESEARCH  The word “research” is composed of two syllables, re and search.
Dictionary define the former syllable as a prefix meaning again, anew, or over again, and the latter as a
verb meaning to examine closely and carefully.  There are two basic complementary research
approaches – quantitative and qualitative.  There are two main goals of social (criminological) research
– pure (to develop theory and expand the knowledge base) and applied (to develop solutions for
problems and relevant application for criminological practice).  There are three possible reasons for
conducting criminological research:  Exploration (conducted when there is a little prior knowledge); 
Description (yield to additional information only when some knowledge has been obtained) and ; 
Explanation (when substantial knowledge is available, it attempts to explain the facts already gathered).
 Research is simply a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation or refined technique of
thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments, and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate
solution of a problem than would possible under ordinary means.  Research process starts with (a)
Identifying the problem (SMART), (b) Formulation of hypothesis, (c) collects data or facts, (d) analyzes
these critically, and (e) reaches decisions based on actual evidence.  Research involves original work
(literature, studies, and readings) instead of a mere exercise of opinion.  Research evolves from a
genuine desire to know (probe) rather than a desire to prove something. B. NATURE AND SCOPE OF
CRIMINOLOGY RESEARCH 1. Division of Science a. Physical Sciences b. Biological Sciences c. Social
Sciences I. INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH Sallatic, D. & Hoyanok, C.  History  Ethics  Ethnography 
Economics  Political Science  Criminology C. IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH  Research is a vehicle for
mobility It is because of research that society does not remain stagnant. It is a major contributor
towards the attainment of national development goals. Research assumes the role of shaping the
nation’s future. Research has brought about progress and a much better life for all.  Purpose of
Research: In psychology, one learns that one of the prime movers of man is his need to satisfy his
curiosity. If we should think of the natural motive, which promotes a scientist to pursue his professional
labors, we would perhaps conclude that he engages in research because of his love for exploration. The
research scientist loves to wrestle with anything difficult to perceive. In other fields, a researcher or
investigator conducts research for a specific purpose – to answer a specific question, to solve a
particular controversy or issue. Objectives of Research 1. To seek for new knowledge 2. To provide
useful information in the form of verifiable data D. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESEARCHER 1. Intellectual
Curiosity A researcher undertakes reflective thinking and inquiry of the things, situations and problems
around him. He is eager to get information and these often due to novelty and unusualness. He raises
questions to seek answer, continues to read the related literature, makes use of his experiences, and
exercises his creativeness and inventiveness. When the problem he confronts becomes clear, he
formulates and tests hypotheses on them. 2. Prudence Once the investigator has chosen wisely his
research problem, his intellectual curiosity ends. The researcher is prudent if he conducts his research
study at the right time and at the right place wisely, efficiently and economically. In other words, he
does the right thing at the right time. 3. Healthy Criticism The investigator is always doubtful as to the
veracity of the results. Normally, the researcher always doubts the truthfulness of his findings even if
the data are gathered honestly. 4. Intellectual Honesty An intelligent researcher is honest in collecting or
gathering the data or facts in order to arrive at honest results. Honesty is the best policy for an
intelligent investigator because the success or failure of his research lies on his hand. E. QUALITIES OF A
GOOD RESEARCHER  R - Research Oriented  E - Efficient  S - Scientific  E - Effective  A - Active  R -
Resourceful  C - Creative  H - Honest  E - Economical  R - Religious Sallatic, D. & Hoyanok, C. F.
VALUES OF RESEARCH TO MAN 1. Research improves the quality of life Research has led man to search
for ways in improving his life. It has led him to focus on improving processes and means by which he
must love. E.g. the higher the educational qualifications and achievements, the higher also will be the
socio-economic status of persons (research conducted). 2. Research improves instruction Research has
no beginning and no end. It is a nerve ending task. Educators, policy makers, and educational
researchers continue to conduct research to improve instruction. Several innovations have been
introduced to improve instruction. Conventional teaching is no longer practiced and only modern one is
applied. The modern teacher is expected to possess the 3 E’s (effective, efficient, and economical). 3.
Research improves student’s achievement The student’s achievement could be improved through
research if the modern teacher studies and understands the student’s characteristics, problems, and
needs on the basis of which he fits his methods accordingly. 4. Research satisfies man’s needs In the
19th, the needs of man were not fully satisfied as they are today. Man suffered from the conventional
ways of living. For instance, no electrification, no vehicle, no communication facilities, no movie houses
etc. Due to advance science and technology, man’s conventional ways of living has become modern.
Electrification, communication facilities, vehicles, movie houses, etc. are now available. 5. Research
reduces the burden of work Modern devices such as calculators, computers, copier machines, fax
machines, washing machines, gas range, refrigerators, freezers, etc. are some of the products of
research which lessen man’s burden of work. 6. Research has deep-seated psychological aspects
Research stimulates and enables the human spirit. It challenges man to remove the threat of stagnation.
It is an open door to a better future and it guides him in his efforts to obtain good results which
contribute to his satisfaction and self-fulfillment. 7. Research improves the exportation of food products
Through research, the exportation of food products has improved. The products being exported to other
countries are bananas, pineapples, rice, mangoes, frozen yellow-fin tuna, etc. Since rice and fish are
staple food for Filipinos, modern biotechnology is being introduced continually in both agriculture and
aquaculture in order to meet the demands for food in the year 2000 and beyond. G. CHARACTERISTICS
OF RESEARCH 1. Empirical- Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher. The
collection of data relies on practical experience without benefit of the scientific knowledge or theory. 2.
Logical- Research is base on valid procedures and principles. Scientific investigation is done in an orderly
manner so that the researcher has confidence on the results. Logical examination of the procedures
used in the research enables the researcher to draw valid conclusions. 3. Cyclical- Research is a cyclical
process. It starts with a problem and ends with a problem. For instances, a researcher who completes
his study states his findings and draws up his conclusions and recommendations. In his
recommendations, many problems may crop up as other subjects for study hence, the cycle is repeated.
4. Analytical- Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data, whether historical,
descriptive, experimental, or case study. In historical research, the data gathered focus on the past; in
descriptive research, the study focuses on the present situation; experimental, future; and in case study,
past, present, and future. Sallatic, D. & Hoyanok, C. 5. Replicability- The research designs and procedures
are replicated to enable the researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results. Similarities and
differences of replicated researches can be compared. The more replications of researches, the more
valid and conclusive the results would be. 6. Critical- Research exhibits careful and precise judgment. A
higher level of confidence must be established, i.e., at 1.0 percent or 5.0 percent level or confidence. H.
TYPES OF RESEARCH 1. Pure Research- This is also called, “basic research” or “fundamental research.” It
aims to discover basic truths or principles. E.g. Newton’s Law – “A body at rest remains at rest remains
at rest and a body in motion will continue to move with the same velocity in a straight line unless acted
upon by an external force.” 2. Applied Research- This type of research involves seeking new applications
of scientific knowledge to the solution of a problem, such as the development of a new system or
procedure, new device, or new method in order to solve the problem. In this type of research, the
problem is identified and new system or new method is applied in order to solve the problem. For
instance, to solve problem of rice shortage, research on using new varieties of rice has been conducted
for the purpose of producing more rice. 3. Action Research-This is a decision-oriented research involving
the application of the steps of the scientific method in response to an immediate need to improve
existing practices. I. CLASSIFICATIONS OF RESEARCH 1. Library Research: This is done in the library where
answers to specific questions or problems of the study are available. 2. Field Research: Research is
conducted in a natural setting. 3. Laboratory Research: The research is conducted in artificial or
controlled conditions by isolating the study in a rigorously specified and operationalized area. J. ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH  Veracity/Accurate Analysis and Reporting- It refers to the obligation to
tell the truth and not to lie or deceive others.  Privacy- It is the obligation to maintain the state or
condition of limited access to a person subjected for research-participants/respondents.  Anonymity
and Confidentiality- It is the obligation not to divulge information discovered without the permission of
the subject or the participants/respondents. .  Fidelity- It is the obligation to remain faithful to one’s
commitments, which includes keeping promises and maintaining confidentiality of the information of
the participants/respondents including all information obtained from them.  Informed consent- This
pertains to the seeking of permission to the person/guardian of the concerned participants or
respondents.  No Harm- This is the obligation not to inflict harm in any form or endanger the
participants/respondents either physical or psychological or socially.  Voluntary Participation- This
refers to the willingness of the participants/respondents on his own volition to participate in the study
without any force or threat of his person. An experimenter who force people to participate in the
experiment would be criticized.  Avoiding Deception- This refers to the obligation not to lie to the
participants/respondents about the real purpose of the research. Sallatic, D. & Hoyanok, C. II. THESIS
WRITING 1-RESEARCH PROPOSAL
========================================================== CHAPTER 1-THE PROBLEM NOTE:
REMINDER BEFORE YOU ATTEMPT TO START WRITING YOUR THESIS PROPOSAL 1. In writing your thesis
proposal, all of the sentences must be in the form of future tense of verbs as your study is yet to be
approved however, upon approval, the statements must be changed to past tense. 2. You must cite all
concepts and ideas borrowed from other authors. Avoid directly cutting and pasting information from
online sources as this can lead to plagiarism, not to mention the risk on the credibility of your study. 3.
The first chapter of your thesis must contain the background of the study, which includes the studies,
researches, review of related literatures conducted globally, and locally, from the general to specific
aspects. The background of the study are to be pattern from the main and specific problem of your
study. A. CONTENTS OF THE CHAPTER 1:  Background of the study. This contains the related studies,
researches, findings conducted previously and by different researchers who embarked on the study
under the same theme.  Rationale or motivation of the researchers in conducting the study. This
answers the question “Why did you conducted this study? Why did you proposed this research? What
motivated you to conduct this research?  Objectives of the study. This focused on the aim of the study
on what are the things that needed to be achieve at the end of the study.  Significance of the study.
This covers the contribution of the research, after it was successfully done. Under the criminological
research, the importance of the study includes the five pillars of the criminal justice system including the
criminology profession, the students and the future researchers.  Operational definition of terms. This
particularly refers to the main words or the key words of the study, how it was use in the study. The
definition of terms do not depend on how it was defined in the Webster dictionary, legal, general or any
provided definitions but rather how it was technically utilized in the study.  Introduction of the title of
the study. The last part of the background of the study before the conceptual/theoretical framework is
the introduction of the main problem, which is the introduction of the title of the study. 
Theoretical/Conceptual framework. This contains the theories, laws and concepts or ideas that supports
the study. These may help in providing a wider explanation or insight on the variable of the study. 
Paradigm of the study. This contains the diagrammatical representation of the flow of the study. In
other words, it serves as a guide for the researchers.  Statement of the problem. This refers to the sub-
problem arising from the main problem of the study. It contains the questions, which are to be
answered during the data collection.  Hypotheses. The hypotheses is to be included with the statement
of the problem. However, hypotheses is not standard for all methods, because it will be depending on
the types used such as in quantitative researches, sub problems should be stated in an inferential
manner and for the qualitative researches, specific problems should answer a phenomena (As-il, 2018).
Sallatic, D. & Hoyanok, C. B. WRITING THE CHAPTER 1-THE PROBLEM 1. THE RESEARCH PROBLEM-The
research problem should not be answerable by yes or no as it does not require a research by digging
deeper on a certain problem.  Research Problem- An investigator knows that a problem is really
researchable when: a. There is not known solution to the problem b. The solution can be answered by
using statistical methods and techniques c. There are probable solutions but they are not yet tested d.
The occurrence of phenomena require scientific investigation to arrive at precise solution  A good
research problem should be SMART: Specific- The problem should be specifically stated. Measurable- It
is easy to measure by using instruments Achievable- The data are achievable using correct statistical
techniques to arrive at precise results. Realistic- Real results are not manipulated. Time-bound- Time
frame is required in every activity because the shorter completion of the activity, the better. Criteria of a
Good Research Problem a. Interesting  An interesting research problem attracts the attention of the
investigator to study the problem further. It also makes him determined to work on it until its
completion. b. Relevant to the needs of the people  Researchers must keep in mind that they work not
for themselves but for the people. c. Innovative  A good research problem may not be necessarily new.
It may be a restatement and restructuring of an old problem to make it new. In this manner, results will
be more relevant and useful to a greater number of people. d. Cost effective  The 4M’s (Man, Money,
Materials and Machinery) are needed in conducting research. A research problem should be economical
and effective in solving the problems of the society; it should also augment social, economic and health
conditions of the people and many others. e. Measurable and Time-bound  A good research problem is
measurable by using research instruments, like tests, questionnaires, rating scales, observation
schedules or interviews, and statistical treatment to arrive at scientific and meaningful results. A good
research can be completed within a time-frame stated. 2. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY The background
of the study is designed based from the main problem and the subproblem and it should be presented
from the general to specific ideas. The background should have an introductory paragraph that will
serve as an opening paragraph for the succeeding content and focus of the research. However, the
opening paragraph must not be definition of terms. Additionally, the flow of ideas becomes smoother in
the addition of transitionary words (Moreover, Finally, In addition, Additionally, Similarly, Consequently,
Subsequently, On the other hand, Likewise, etc.). In writing the background, the ideas must be phrase in
the researcher’s own words. The used of copy and paste from any sources does not only fall other
plagiarism but also lack professional ethics on the part of the researcher who do not acknowledge and
respect other authors. Consequently, in writing the background of the study, one must not forget to
mentioned the author (proper citation) under their borrowed ideas. Sallatic, D. & Hoyanok, C. The
background of the study must be written as a subheading on top at the left corner before the opening
paragraph. There are no given limits on the background of the study as well as the other parts of the
thesis writing except for the abstract. Kinds of Related Literature a. Related Readings  The major
sources are laws and department directives such as letters, orders, memoranda, and others which are
related to the present study. Department directives serve as legal bases for the paradigm of the study.
This presents the study as having direct or indirect implications to the government thrusts. b. Related
Literature  Literature may be defined as written works collectively especially, those of reading
importance, exhibiting creative imagination and artistic skill which are written at a particular period,
language, and subject. In other words, any written material such as journal, magazine, novel, poetry,
yearbook, and encyclopedia. c. Related Studies  Published and unpublished research studies are
sources of materials that are included in this section. The research studies which have direct bearing to
the present studies are segregated into foreign and local studies. 3. MOTIVATION/RATIONALE After
writing the related studies and researches, here comes the motivation or rationale, but it should not
have a subheading but rather written directly in another paragraph. The researchers simply provides an
explanation as to why the research has come into existence. 4. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES This is a
statement of purpose for which the investigation or research is to be conducted. The research objectives
are stated specifically in simple language in order that the researcher finds them easy to measure by
using research instruments in collecting data. These data are achieved when correct statistical
techniques are used to arrive at real results, but for every activity to be done, time frame is required
because the shorter the completion of the activity, the better. The research objectives is to be written
after the motivation/ rationale and it does not have a subheading but written in another paragraph. The
researcher must be able to provide the aims of the study, which will be achieve at the end. The
objectives are dependent upon what the researcher would want to know or discover in the study. 5.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The significance of the study in a research paper is a must. For research
project seeking for financial assistance by other agencies, significance of the study should be presented
comprehensively in order to convince the screening committee of the importance of the study. The
investigator should prove that the study has important contributions in relation to: 1. Solving the
problem and need 2. Bridging a knowledge gap 3. Improving social, economic and health conditions 4.
Enriching research instruments and methods 5. Supporting government thrusts To put it simply, the
significance of the study specifies who are those persons, organizations or entities who will benefit from
the study. It is written after the significance of the study and in separate paragraph and it does not
contained a subheading. Sallatic, D. & Hoyanok, C. 6. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS The key
terms must be define on this part according to how it was used in the study. It may be define generally,
legally or defined itself by the researchers. The operational definition provides a clear idea on how to
perceive the terms and relate them on the overall content of the research. It is to be written in a
separate paragraph after the significance of the study and it does not have a subheading. 7.
INTRODUCTION OF THE TITLE OF THE STUDY The last paragraph before the theoretical or conceptual
framework contains the introduction of the main problem or the title of the study. Example: This study
is titled “Implementation of Bicycle Patrol in the Central Business District of La Trinidad, Benguet.” 8.
THEORETICAL/CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK a. Theoretical Framework It shapes the justification of the
research problem/ research objectives in order to provide the legal basis for defining its parameters. It is
desirable for an investigator to identify key concepts that are used in the study for better understanding
of the role of theory in research. It is a symbolic construction that uses abstract concepts, facts or laws,
variables and their relations that explains and predicts how an observed phenomenon exists and
operates. An investigator is required to formulate existing theories which link his study because theories
are useful devise for interpreting, criticizing, and unifying established scientific laws or facts that guide in
discovering new generalizations. b. Conceptual Framework It presents specific and well-defined
concepts which are called “constructs”. Its function is similar with theoretical framework because the
constructs used are derived from abstract concepts of the theoretical framework. 9. PARADIGM OF THE
STUDY This is the diagrammatical representation of a conceptual framework. It differs on the methods
used in the study such as in quantitative and qualitative research design. Though in the paradigm of the
study, the researcher must be able to show the concept, for both of the method, there is no standard
paradigm format to be used but rather the researcher could make their own. Before the diagrammatical
representation, there should be first the descriptive explanation of the contents of the paradigm.
Meanwhile, the flowchart should be provided in a separate page. The paradigm of the study is to be
written in another paragraph after the theoretical or conceptual framework and does not have a
subheading. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES Level of Performance… DEPENDENT VARIABLE Teaching
Performance… MODERATOR VARIABLES  Gender  Education Sallatic, D. & Hoyanok, C. Figure 1.
Paradigm of the Study THE VARIABLE  A variable is a characteristics that has two or more mutually
exclusive values, properties, or categories. Variables are operationalized concepts that classifies the
subjects of the research. Examples: a. Crime rate can be categorized as low average or high. b. Crimes
committed can be categorized as murder, homicide or theft. c. Age can be classified as young, middle
age or old. d. Intelligence can be classified as below average, average or above average. Type of
Variables 1. Independent Variable: one that influences or affects another variable. In a cause-effect
relationship, the independent variables is assumed to be the cause. It is usually symbolized as the X-
variable and also the predictor variable. 2. Dependent Variable: one that is influenced or affected by the
independent variable. In a cause-effect relationship, it is assumed to be the effect. It is also called the
criterion variable and is usually symbolized as the Y-variable. 10. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND
HYPOTHESIS STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The statement of the problem have a subheading and is
written after the paradigm of the study. Before writing the sub-problems, the main problem (title of the
study) comes first and in a declarative form. On the other hand, the specific problems are to be written
in interrogative form. HYPOTHESIS For the research that have a hypothesis, the specific problem will be
followed immediately by its hypothesis. The hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as possible
explanations for a certain occurrence or phenomena. The hypothesis serves as a guide for the
researcher however, at the end of the study; the intelligent guessed maybe proven correct or incorrect.
 A hypothesis is defined as a wise guess that is formulated and temporarily adopted to explain the
observed facts covered by the study. A hypothesis guides the investigator in that is describes the
procedure to follow in conducting the study. Hypothesis is important for it tells the investigator “what to
do” and “how to go about” in solving a research problem. Types of Hypothesis 1. Null Hypothesis: is the
denial of an existence of an attribute, a relationship or a difference of an effect. It is always stated in a
negative form. 2. Alternative Hypothesis: the opposite of the null hypothesis because it is always stated
in a positive form. It is an affirmation of the existence of an observed phenomenon. Sallatic, D. &
Hoyanok, C. =================================================== SOME TECHNICALITIES IN
RESEARCH WRITING USING APA FORMAT A. INSTITUTIONAL FORMAT (KCP FORMAT) 1. All entries
starting from the TITLE PAGE until the last entry of REFERENCES should be in double space. 2. Font type
is courier new; font size is 12. 3. Typing of entries should be left-aligned, except for the Abstract (Full
Block). 4. Spell out and define first acronyms and abbreviations at the beginning of the discussion before
using them in their short forms. 5. In encoding numbers, spell them out if they begin a sentence. If at
the middle of the sentence, zero to 9 are spelled out and 10 onwards are written in numerals. 6.
Pagination using Arabic numbers starts from the title page until the last entry in appendices. Do not type
the page number of the following: title page, approval sheet, abstract, acknowledgment, dedication,
first page of the table of contents, and all first pages of every chapter. Page numbers are written at the
upper right-hand portion of the page. 7. Provide the running head in italics one tab before the page
number. Again, running heads should appear only on pages where there are paginations. 8. In
parenthetical citations, write first the family name of the author, put a comma, then type the year of
publication. If the author’s family name is typed as part of the sentence, then only the year is
parenthetically entered. If the cited paragraph is too long, use this format: family name of author
incorporated as part of the sentence, year is parenthetically cited; succeeding sentence/s, use only the
family name of the author; last sentence, parenthetical citation includes both family name and year,
separated by a comma. The parenthetical citation is a part of the sentence; hence, the period of the
sentence should be found after the citation, not before it. 9. In highlighting any word in the text, use
these suggested means only once and with consistency: italics, underscore, and quotation marks. Do not
alternately use them. If you started using italics, finish your research using italics in highlighting. The
same goes through with the other means of highlighting. 10. For direct quotations longer than 40 words,
the encoding process is free-standing block. This is applied by aligning all entries on the left side one tab
from the left margin and not aligning the right portion of the quotation. Do not forget to write the page
number of the quotation in parentheses at the end, introduced by the letter p. 11. If an entry ends in a
quoted statement, the punctuation mark is a part of the quotation, thus the quotation mark should be
placed after the period, question mark, or exclamation point. B. ADDITIONAL GENERAL GUIDELINES 1.
TYPING  Use short bond paper (height: 11”; width: 8.5”)  The manuscript must be double-spaced
throughout.  Use one inch margins on the right, top and bottom of the page, and 1 ½ “on the left side.
 Use normal paragraphs with the first line indented using the DEFAULT TAB. This is applied EXCPET for
the Abstract, block quotes, titles and headings, references, table titles, notes and figure captions.  The
font to be used is Courier New (12 point).  Leave two character spaces after terminators (?,.,!)  Make
sure that the text is left aligned and not justified except for the ABSTRACT which is in full-block format.
2. STYLE DETAILS IN GENERAL  Always use the third person point of view in referring to one’s self in the
write-up.  Use the PAST TENSE in the Abstract, Design and Methodology, and in the Presentation,
Analysis and Interpretation of Data; and INDICATIVE MOOD in the first chapter and in the Conclusions
and Recommendations. Sallatic, D. & Hoyanok, C.  Use the simple present tense for citations or quotes
from books, journals, website, etc.  When using direct quotations, use the present tense followed by
the passage enclosed in quotation marks. For example: Bugtong and Moyano (2004) state “gender does
not affect academic performance.”  When paraphrasing a quote, use the conjunction THAT. For
example: Mamaat (2000) asserts that jealousy is prevalent in work areas where… 3. ACRONYMS  When
stating an acronym, spell them out the first time it is introduced. Enclose the acronym in parentheses.
For example: The Local Councils for the Protection of Children (LCPC) shall be established in all locals of
government. Membership in the LCPC shall be chosen…  When the acronym has been spelled out
earlier, use the acronym of the word/s in your subsequent paragraphs. 4. NUMBERS  Spell out the
numbers if it begins a sentence.  All measurement reporting is done in Metric units (meters,
centimeters, etc.).  The numbers zero to nine are spelled out except when it is in a table, figure
number, or a metric measurement.  The numbers 10 and above are written as numerals except when
they are situated at the beginning of the sentence.  In the Abstract, use digits for all numerals except
when they begin a sentence. Be consistent with number formats. For descriptive statistical
presentations, use two (2) decimal places. But for inferential statistical presentations, use four (4)
decimal places. 5. CITATIONS IN THE TEXT/BODY  The first time the reference is cited in the text, spell
out all of the authors’ last names. For example: Agoncillo, Constantino, and Tendero (1990) suggest… 
With articles that have three or more authors, cite all the authors the first time the reference occurs. In
subsequent citations of the same authors, use first author’s surname followed by “et.al.” For example:
Agoncillo, Constantino, and Tendero (1990) suggest……some fact (Agoncillo et al., 1990).  If the
references is in a parenthetical format, use the ampersand (&). However, if the reference is in the body
of the manuscript, use the conjunction “and”. For example: Behaviorism is… (Pavlov & Skinner, 1943)
Pavlov and Skinner (1943) state that Behaviorism…  Multiple references in parentheses are laced
alphabetically, and are separated by a semicolon and a single character space. For example: The
research culture in the University is… (de Guzman, 2004; Llanes, 2004; Orduna, 1999). 6. QUOTATIONS 
Cite the page numbers for direct quotes. For example: Sallatic, D. & Hoyanok, C. Wayway (2002) asserts
“genuine appreciation of the beauty and majesty of Sunnyside would not be possible without one…”
(92)  Each citation should always be preceded and succeeded by an interpretation to avoid succession
of unexplained quotations.  Display an excerpt of more than 40 words as set-off quotation in a single-
spaced full block section, and indented (DEFAULT TAB) from the left margin. Omit the quotation marks
and include the page number in parentheses after the last period. 7. PAGE NUMBERS  There are
variations with regard to the placing of page numbers. In most cases, page numbers are placed on the
UPPER RIGHT corner of the page.  The page number must be situated 0.5 inch from the top of the
page.  The font for the pagination is Courier New point 12.  The title page and approval sheet carry a
page number but it is not indicated on the page itself.  The displayed pagination for the preliminary
pages of the paper will start in the Abstract to the List of Tables and Figures. The pagination for these
should be in small Roman numerals (e.g. I, ii, and iii) situated at the bottom-center of the page. The
Bibliography, Appendices portion, and Curriculum Vitae have no page numbers.  The first page of each
chapter carries a page number but it is not indicated on the page itself. 8. TABLES  Introduce the table
prior to its presentation.  Tables should not be situated within a paragraph.  The APA style tables do
not contain any vertical lines.  The table caption must be placed above the table. Type the table
number followed by a period. Leave two (2) character spaces, and type the table heading/caption, with
the second line left aligned.  When using columns with numbers, align them according to place value.
 When using columns with decimal numbers, align the decimal points. For example: Table 1.
Population of the Study According to Gender and Socio-economic Status SES MALE FEMALE TOTAL
Upper Class 1 0 1 Upper Middle 4 7 11 Middle Class 6 15 21 Lower Middle 4 9 13 Lower Class 0 0 0
TOTAL 15 31 46 9. FIGURES  Figures should not be situated within a paragraph.  Center each figure
on the page vertically as well as horizontally.  If the figure is a chart or graph, verbally label the axes
(do not use “X” and “Y”).  Figure captions must be located at the bottom center of the figure.  Type
the figure number followed by a period. Leave two (2) character spaces and type the figure heading/
caption. 10. BIBLIOGRAPHY  The bibliographic entries must be organized and written according to
category.  Center the categories of the bibliographic entries. The categories must be bold and in title
case.  After typing the categories, type the specific reference material employing APA format.  Main
titles of books, magazines, etc. are italicized.  Sources are listed in alphabetical order by the author’s
last name.  Leave one (1) character space after each period. Sallatic, D. & Hoyanok, C.
========================================================== PARENTHETICAL CITATION
WRITING THE PARENTHETICAL CITATIONS 1. A typical citation of an entire work consists of the author’s
name and year of publication. Example: Education as an investment is true only if it is used as a potent
tool to eradicate poverty, and it is for sustainable and equitable development (Segnaben, 1999). 2. If the
author is named in the text, only the year is cited. Example: According to Wi (1996), infection with
Hepatitis B virus is a widespread problem. 3. If the name of the author and the date are used in the text,
parenthetical reference is not necessary. Example: In a 2004 study, Galangco states that the College has
obtained its objectives despite some shortcomings in several co-curricular... 4. Specific reference to the
page of a particular resource material:  No break in the citation of specific author/s. In this case, type
only the specific page where the excerpt is taken from. Example: Apropos the sex/gender, males are
more inclined with the exhibition of negative attitudes and coping mechanisms (de Guzman, 2004).
Xxxxxxx xxxx xx x xxx… On the contrary, females are predominantly emotional, and are more expressive
of their feelings and thoughts (69).  A break in the citation of a specific author’s work Example:
Dangatan (2005) focused on the variables year level course, and the scope of work as factors influencing
the overall performance of student assistants in the University. Xxxx xxx xxx… Further, student assistants
manifested a satisfactory level in carrying out their duties and responsibilities in their respective
departments (Azarcon Jr., 1999). Xxxxxxx xxxx x xxxxxx xxx… The findings implied that the
aforementioned variables had no influence in their job as student assistants xxxxx xx xxxx xxx (Dangatan,
2005: 26). 5. For quotations with less than forty (40) words and at the same time not exceeding four (4)
lines, use quotation marks. Example: Albeit establishing this mode of acceptance reduces student
failure, rejection of students who were unable to make the cut- off mark is high on being deprived of
pursuing further studies hence increase illiteracy and unemployment pervading the country.
Notwithstanding, “the option of administering entrance tests still rests on the institution’s discretion,
dependent on their precedence and the risks they are willing to assume” (Llanes, 2004: 13). 6. Citing a
quotation in case any material is left out  If any material is left out, use three ellipsis points (…) within
the sentence. Sallatic, D. & Hoyanok, C. Example: According to Cantor and Bungaoe (2004), “a treatment
and preventive program should be formulated... to address the moderate level of caries of the children”
(15).  Use four ellipsis points (….) when material is left out between two sentences. Example: The
research also raised the “intriguing questions about how political values are linked.... in pooling
resources and rationing by queues” (69).  If inserting explanations in direct quotation, use brackets, not
parenthesis. If any incorrect spelling, grammar, or punctuation in the source might confuse readers,
insert the word sic, in brackets and underlined (i.e., [sic]), immediately after the error in the quotation
(APA, 1994, pp 95-96). Example: Walitang (2004) states that the schlastc [sic] status of students,
especially those who fail their subjects, should be monitored by respective colleges. 7. Paraphrasing
someone else’s work  When paraphrasing a passage, you need to cite the source of material. Example:
Yago (1996) posits that graft and corruption is an indispensable activity in Philippine bureaucracy for it is
already ingrained in the culture of the people. Further, he asserts that this political issue can be resolved
through the process of enculturation xxx xxxxx xx xx xxxxxx. 8. For quotations which exceed four lines,
type the excerpt in a single-spaced full block section. Example: The measure calls for the curtailment xx
xxxxx xxxxxx xxx. As a political analyst asserts: Terrorism is a major concern that needs to be addressed
by the most direct, effective, or innovative measures possible in order to protect the citizenry from
despicable acts of terrorists which threaten their lives, security, and freedom. After all, these ideals are
the very same things which are engraved in the constitution. (Calinao, 2005:7) 9. When the reference is
a work of two (2) authors, cite both names each time the reference appears. Example: Sri Lanka and
Thailand are about to launch international advertising campaigns that highlight the many attractions
that were untouched or have already reopened, in hopes of dispelling the gruesome images of paradise
lost (Adiga & Estulin, 2004). 10. When the reference is a work of 3-5 authors, cite all the authors the first
time the reference appears. In a subsequent reference, use the first author’s last name followed by et al.
Example: Neither the north nor south sees the rapprochement as a speedy road to reunifying the
peninsula sundered for half a century (Calabresi et al., 2001) 11. When the reference is to a work by six
or more authors, use only the first author’s name followed et al. in the first and all subsequent
reference. The only exception to this rule is when confusion might arise because of similar names or the
same author being cited. In that case, cite enough authors so that the distinction is clear. 12. When the
reference is to a work by a corporate author, use the name of the organization as the author. Sallatic, D.
& Hoyanok, C. Example: To establish a diverse cross-cultural understanding at the regional level is a
natural extension of Fukouka’s long held traditional role as a historic focal point for exchange in Asia
(Kyushu University, 2003: 7). 13. Personal letters, telephone calls and other materials that cannot be
retrieved are not listed in the Bibliography but are cited in the text. Example: Ashley Lauren (telephone
conversation, November 7, 1983) confirmed that the propositions… 14. Parenthetical references may
mention more than one work, particularly when the ideas have been summarized after drawing from
several sources. Multiple citations should be arranged as follows:  List of two or more works by the
same author in order of the date of publication Example: (Gomez, 1995, 2000)  Differentiate works by
the same author and with the same publication date by adding an identifying letter to each date
Example: (Bautista, 1999a, 1999b)  List works by different authors in alphabetical order by the last
name, and use a semicolon to separate the references Example: (Bennett, 1998; Prill, 1994; Smith, 2002)
WRITING THE REFERENCE/ BIBLIOGRAPHIES 1. Books with One Author Example: Purificacion, S. (1990).
Historical perspectives on tribal wars. Phils: Omegan Publishing House. 2. Books by Two Authors
Example: Duckitt, J. & Renchon, S. (2000). Political psychology: cultural and crosscultural foundations.
USA: New York University Press. 3. Books by Three or More Authors Example: Montoya, J., Oliveros, J., &
Torres, J. (1997). Philosophical foundations of behavior modification. Phils: Rex Bookstore. 4. Chapter
from a Book Example: Musolini, F. (1993). Repeated measures designs. In a Field (Ed.), Discovering
Statistics Using SPSS for Windows (pp. 323 – 3374). Great Britain: The Cromwell Press, Ltd. 5. Books with
Edition other than the First (Republished Book) Example: Nolledo, J. (2000). The revised administrative
code of 1987 with related laws and administrative issuances. Phils: Philippine Graphic Arts, Inc. (Original
work published 1996). 6. An Edited Book Example: Espino, E. R. (Ed.). (1991). Fundamentals of structural
engineering. Cambodia: Angkor Wat, Inc. Sallatic, D. & Hoyanok, C. 7. Book by a Corporate Author
Example: Committee of Recreations and Development. (1993). Human behavior in organizations.
Philippines: Rex Bookstore. 8. Reference Book Article (encyclopedia) Example: Machiavelli, N. (1993).
The prince. In the World book encyclopedia (Vol 15, pp. 421-436). USA: World Book. 9. Dictionary
Example: The American heritage dictionary of the English language (4th ed.). (2000). USA: Houghton
Mifflin Company. 10. Weekly Magazine Article Example: Poniewezik, J. (2005, February 21). The tragic
kingdom. Time, 165, 33-34. 11. Monthly Magazine Article Example: Quinones, D. (1994, November).
Natural vs. human resources. Nation’s business, 88, 12-14. 12. Journal Article Example: Esguerra, J. S.
(2003). Poetry and verse in the college classroom: some insights and teaching tips. UB research journal,
26, 62-68. 13. Newspaper Article Example: Calinao, N. P. (2005, April 17). An AFP recipe for dictatorship.
Zigzag weekly. P. 7. 14. Thesis or Dissertation Example: Danguilan, Z. C. (1987). Music reading made
easy. Unpublished doctorate dissertation, University of Baguio, Philippines. 15. Newsprint Reference (i.e.
film, recording, video, television, or radio program) a. Film: Moore, M. (Director). (1980). Fahrenheit
9/11 (Film). Hollywood: Miramax Films. b. Film with Limited Circulation: Spielberg, S. (Director). (1993).
Schindler’s List [Film]. (Available from Paramount Pictures, USA). c. Cassette: Maicle, E. M. (Author and
speaker). (1995). Successful living, successful life. [cassette]. Phils: Inspirations, Inc. d. Television
Program: Petersen, W. (Actor). (2004). Crime scene investigation [Television program]. NV: BBC. e.
Musical Recording: Groban, J. (2002). The prayer. Josh Groban [CD]. USA: Warner Brothers. 16. Personal
Interview, Phone Conversation, Letter, Non-archived E-mail, Lecture Because these materials are not
recoverable, it should NOT be listed in the list of references. It can, however, be cited parenthetically
within the text. It is extremely important that what is cited in this way be legitimate and have scholarly
integrity. Sallatic, D. & Hoyanok, C. a. Interview: Bowles finds herself appalled by the claims of gender
insensitivity by her contemporaries (Personal letter, March 28, 1977). b. Phone Conversation: According
to Dan Brown, the sources for his novel Da Vinci Code were reputable art connoisseurs (Personal phone
conversation, July 22, 2003). 17. Hand-outs given in a Lecture Orduna, L. (2004, December). A step
towards change: introduction of the APA format. Outline presented in a lecture at the University of
Baguio, Philippines. 18. Governmental Documents Ministry of Transportation and Communications.
(1983). Baguio city transportation project (Publication No. 82-1195). Phils: Baguio City Local
Government. 19. Computer Software SPSS. USA. (2004). Statistical packages for social sciences
[Computer Software]. USA: Conduit. 20. Worldwide Website Darling, L. (No date). Parenting style and its
correlates [Online]. Available at http://www.atheath.com?practitioner/ceduc.parentingstyles.htm
[2004, November 3]. 21. Material from an Online Information Service Batar, H. & Leano, J. (1992).
Cultural nationalism and beyond: crosscultural political psychology in Indonesia [Online]. Political
culture, 20, 715-726, Abstract from: dialog File: POLSCIINFO Item: 96-2004. 22. References without
Authors ________. (1996) Animal instinct. France: Le louvre, Ltd. Sallatic, D. & Hoyanok, C. Based from
the content of the new APA format, the following are the content of a fullblown thesis. Table of
Contents TITLE PAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPROVAL SHEET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Abstract
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dedication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . List of
Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER 1 THE PROBLEM
Background of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . Theoretical/Conceptual Framework . . . . . . . . __ Statement of
the Problem And Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __ 2 DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Research Design . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . __ Population and Locale of the Study . . . . . . . __ Data Gathering Tool/s . . . . . . . . . . . . .
__ Data Gathering Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . __ Treatment of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __ 3
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA The General Problem 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __
The Statistical Problem 1 of the Study . . . . . . __ The General Problem 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __ 4
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __ REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __ APPENDICES A
Letter of Request to Conduct the Study . . . . . . __ B Letter to Float the Questionnaire . . . . . . . . __ C
Interview Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __ D The Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __ E Computations . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . __ F Other Pertinent Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . __ CURRICULUM VITAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . __ NOTE: For your thesis writing for proposal, you are required first to start writing the CHAPTER
1-that starts with your research problem, the background of your study as well your CHAPTER 2 that
includes research design, population and locale of the study, data gathering procedure, data gathering
tools and the treatment of data. You should always include your references and the title page every
submission of your proposed thesis. The other contents of the research such as the acknowledgement,
approval, dedication, abstract, table of contents, appendices and the curriculum vitae will follow only
after the completion of the four chapters.

1. Introduction to Content of Chapter 2

The chapter 2 (research design and methodology) contains the following parts:

1. Research design- It is the part, which the researcher will provide the specific method and
approach that will be used in the study.

2. Population and locale of the study-This is the part where the sampling method is
introduced, the population that will be the focus of the study will be presented as well as
the place where the research particularly the gathering of data will be conducted.

3. Data gathering procedure-It is where the step by step process of how the data were
gathered by the participants will be proposed. It should be presented in a detailed manner.

4. Data gathering tool/s-This part includes the instruments that will be utilized during the
actual gathering of data such as the used of interview guides, survey questionnaires, notes,
recorders, camera and others.

5. Treatment of data-This is the last part of the chapter 2 on the research design and
methodology that should contain the detailed description on how the data will be process
after it was gathered by the researcher/s. The treatment of the data would be totally
different for each design and method used in a study such as the qualitative and the
quantitative research design.

2. Writing the Research Design and Methodology

1. RESEARCH DESIGN

          In writing the research design, the researcher may use a design that would be
appropriate for the study. Research design refers to the strategy that will be applied in the
conduct of a research particularly on how the data will be gathered, analyze, interpreted and
will be treated. Specifically, it is the layout that gives shapes to the research in its overall
sense, based on the techniques or methods, which was chosen by the researcher. Research
design is the integration of the techniques of research to make the study organize,
systematized, chronological, scientific and coherent.

           Research Design is a varied technique or strategy depending on the taste of the

researcher. The research design has three types and these are the following:

a.    Qualitative research design- Qualitative research generates non-numerical data. It

focuses on verbal data than measurements so it centers on verbal data and captures life as
participants experience it. Additionally, qualitative information is being analyze in an
interpretative manner, is subjective, impressionistic or even diagnostic. Qualitative research
provides a complete, detailed description of the research topic so is more exploratory in
nature. Therefore, this design is ideal for earlier phases of research. The term to address the
population in this research design is participant.

 b.    Quantitative research design- Quantitative research generates numerical

data/information converted into numbers. Therefore, only measurable data are gathered
and analyzed (it measures a specific field of study’s reality). Also, it focuses in counting and
classifying features and constructing statistical models and figures to explain what is
observed. This design is recommended for latter part of the research. This is so since it
provides a clearer picture of what to expect in research. The term to address the population
in this research design is respondent.

2. Writing the Research Design and Methodology

2.1. The pros and cons of a qualitative research design

            Qualitative and Quantitative research design has both in its own term the
advantages and disadvantages when used in a research. Actually, the advantages of these
designs are the beauty of the study in the general sense when presented, read and explored
as the data are gathered and presented in the systematized and appropriate manner. On
the other hand, the disadvantages become the limitation which provides now a boundary in
the conduct of the study. However, ironically, some of these limitations serve as the rulings
or the guidelines so that the researcher will stick to it resulting now to a systematized,
organized, methodical and a scientific study.

           Cons of a qualitative research design. In the use of a qualitative research design,

there are lots of disadvantages that were observed based from the numerous studies
conducted using it. However, there are most commonly known errors or cons. One of the
most observed disadvantages of this design is that, it is highly subjective, therefore the
percentage of error is greater particularly in the collection and analysis of data. In addition,
it is more on open-ended method in the gathering of data in which there is no specified
limit as to how deep or superficial should be the focused of the study. Since qualitative
research design is not rigid as compared to the quantitative, possibility of interjections of
the researcher’s opinion or point of view of the matter being investigated or even the
participants themselves in which their statements/ testimonies are being mixed with their
feelings or personal view. This results now to distortion of the actual results or findings of
the study to which sometimes defeats the principle of a research which is a scientific or
reality based facts study.

         Another, qualitative design requires only a smaller number of participants therefore a

less conclusive finding so it will be ruled that it is not a correct statistical representation in
order to generalize the result. The small number of the participants will not satisfy and
qualify the data as a whole particularly if the study is focused on the narration of a
participant that focuses on their life histories, experiences or related matters which will not
jive the findings since life histories or experiences are different for each individual.

            Moreover, qualitative research design is a longer process therefore it takes time

before finishing the study. This is encountered as one of the difficulty due to the painstaking
effort specifically in the gathering of data that sometimes required a repeated process in
order to complete it or provide a sufficient data, also the analysis is an additional process
that requires a long period of time. In the case that a research is a part of an academic
requirement, using this design might impede or delay the completion of a certain degree
therefore it compromised the study plan.

           Lastly, a study that uses qualitative research design is difficult to evaluate since the
data are more likely descriptive in nature rather than measurable, therefore there could be
no specific means of providing the exactness of the findings or data. In other words, it is
difficult to verify the data because each participant has a different view, opinion,
perspectives on a certain matter to which do not a provide somehow a basis or standard for
the researcher.

 Pros of a qualitative research design. The qualitative research is appreciated by others in

terms of its uniqueness when it comes to the data presentation because it is not a time
restricted or it has no set parameters or measurements. This is one of the advantage of this
research design because it could provide a deeper explanation or details on a certain
problem or phenomena as compared when the researcher is given a certain amount of time
to finish the study, in which the data gathered may not be polished and detailed when
analyzed and presented. One of the example is the case study or the longitudinal study in
which the study could even forego for how many years resulting to a refined study.

           Moreover, qualitative research design is not restricted to a certain amount or

measurement wherefore, details of the data are acquired naturally by the researcher
resulting into a greater chance of evaluating or analyzing it properly. Also, it does not
restrict the means of gathering the data such as interview to which the researcher could
innovate anytime if he sees that there are pieces of information that are necessary to be
added in the study but not touched by the prepared set of questions. Additionally, in the
gathered data, utilizing this method, often times, all of the data are most likely accepted and
less are rejected or left out, the researcher only needs to dedicate the time in analyzing it.

          Qualitative research design is useful sometimes in the sense that it could provide an
explanation for a cause of a certain phenomenon in which numbers could not define. The
example of this are the researches or studies in social sciences such as criminology. The
study of causes of crime is a complicated issue that needs a careful scrutiny, investigation
and analysis. If a researcher will venture on the different causations of crime, there are lot of
factors that contributes to it, however, sometimes, these factors are somewhat dependent
on the individual’s point of view particularly the person who experience it. The researcher
has to dig deeper on the matter for him to be able explore, understand, explain or describe
it. Wherefore, in doing the study, he needs a suitable design, methods and analysis in order
to come up with the good result. This is where qualitative analysis goes in because the crime
rate, the crimes committed, the factors could be enumerated and could be pointed exactly
by using the quantitative research design but not the exact explanation and details of the
causation of criminality, not the reason behind those criminal behaviors which is now the
role of this qualitative to explore, explain, understand and describe.

           Practically speaking, using a qualitative research design is applicable when the

funding (budget) of a researcher/s is limited. Utilizing this design in the conduct of the
study can help the researcher to save money through limitation of expenses since it requires
only a small size of population to be the participant of the research therefore less expenses
on the part of the person conducting the study such as the paper, transportation, food,
allowance and others.

         

          On the other hand, the researcher/s could develop his circle of contacts as well as
improve his socialization and communication skills through this method since he has to
meet personally the participants of the study, talk face to face with them. Sometimes, a
harmonious relationship with others may lead to a favorable environment, therefore, it
provides a better and comfortable means of eliciting information from a certain participant.

2. Writing the Research Design and Methodology

2.2. The pros and cons of a quantitative research design

            The same with the case of the qualitative research design, the quantitative has the
pros and cons when used in research and that both of these two designs are being criticized in
some of their aspect. Regardless of the known disadvantages of the quantitative design, it is still
appreciated in terms of the accuracy and the time-consumed in the conduct of a certain study.

The cons of a quantitative research design. One of the most commonly known cons of using a
quantitative research design is that it is a close ended process in terms of gathering the data. This
means that the researcher need to stick to the rules or guidelines like for example the use of a
questionnaire. The researcher is limited only to ask the questions as written therefore he cannot
conduct a follow-up since the questions are structured and that the answer of the respondents is
then limited. Another, in the use of a survey questionnaire particularly the use of a checklist. On
this method, the answers or response are elicited based only on the given options to which the
respondents have to choose or agree therefore details are lacking especially in terms of the
answers to the who, when and most likely the why question. In other words, this design provides
only the description in quantity but not the reason underlying the numbers to which it is difficult
to crosscheck the reliability and credibility of all the answers.

          Another disadvantage of this quantitative research design is that it is costly especially on
the part of the researcher. One of the reason for this is the large number size of the population
that will participate in the study, in which the budget has to cover (the expenses on the
allowances, foods, papers, transportations and other additional expenses). The digits of numbers
could also described exactly the expenses in the conduct of a research using this design.

          Another disadvantage of this research design is that the accuracy could be the weakness of
this study. Others claim that quantitative research is accurate since it presents the exact number
as to findings, but the possibility of the presence of loophole in this claim is not excluded in the
sense that variables could be manipulated. This is for the reason that the process of gathering the
data is not supervise directly by the researcher. For example, the questionnaires are floated
through connections and emails or even left at a certain office and will be retrieve only after it
was answered and collected by another individual aside from the researcher who may have the
access of the data. Moreover, in the case that the researcher used a survey or questionnaires, if
some of the documents were not answered or leave blank by the respondents, some researchers
could answer it just to suffice the missing data. This results now to biases and inaccuracy of the
actual findings.

          In the quantitative research design, the larger the number of the population as respondents in a
study, the lesser is the chance of developing a direct contact with them and the lesser chance of
establishing the circles of contact, also the lesser chance of developing and improving the socialization
and the communication skill of the researcher. Practically speaking, conducting a research is like using a
single stone aimed at two birds. Research may aid in the improvement of self-confidence, socialization
and communication skills as well as the creativity, and capability of the researcher to innovate.

 The pros of a quantitative research. In the case that a research used the quantitative research design
and that the data were gathered following all the guidelines in the process, during the floating, retrieval
and analysis and presentation of the data, it is said that the result is accurate, credible and reliable. This
design uses a rigid scale of measurements of the data such as the use of mathematical analysis
therefore, the margin of error of the findings could be pointed out exactly so the depth of the study
could be known since computations are incorporated in the process, that the shaft can easily be
separated from the grain.
         The margin of error is always expected in the conduct of the study using the quantitative research
design and it is acceptable, it is for this reason that the mathematical process allows a percentage of
error in the data. However, as long as the percentage do not exceed the expected margin of error, the
data could still be generalized based form the facts that this design lies on the data from a larger
population. The result could still be considered as conclusive and could be applied in the broader
sense.     
  

         Additionally, a research using a quantitative research design could be accomplish in a

shorter period. Since this design is a close-ended process, the manner of gathering the data is
easy because the answers of the respondents are limited only. Unlike the qualitative design, this
design may be finished within the short time after the data were gathered and analyzed.

           In the gathering of data using this research design, the information of the respondents
most likely are not compromise. There is a greater possibility that the confidentiality of the
identity is intact because the personal information sometimes is only optional particularly the
names of the individual, which may not be the focused of the study. This in return, is favorable
to the respondents in which they could answer the questions comfortably without thinking of the
possibility that their identity will be known particularly when the study is something sensitive
and personal.

           Lastly, using the quantitative research design in a research offers the advantage of
verifying the results through the conduct of another research using the same design and method,
which focused on the same subject matter. If the numbers remained the same, it increases or
decreases or only a certain percentage changed, then the greater possibility of giving a more
conclusive finding. Since the research is a number based, it is easy to clarify, verify, correct the
finding of the study, as others say, “numbers don’t lie.”

◄ Announcements

2. Writing the Research Design and Methodology

2.3. Mixed method

This method utilizes the combination of the two previously stated research design-Qualitative
and quantitative research design. However; it is dependent upon the necessity and
appropriateness of it for the study.

◄ Announcements

1. Writing the data gathering tool/s

          In writing the the data gathering tools, researchers should specify the instrument used
in the study or if the research is in the proposal stage, the instrument that will be utilized in
the study.

Specifically, data gathering tool/s includes:

 questionnaires
 survey

       However, when questionnaires are used in the study, there is a need to discuss how the
researcher such as letting it validated it be checked by someone such as the advisers, or any
form of instrument to measure it reliability.
        If qualitative strategies are used in gathering data such as individual in-depth
interviews, structured and non-structured interviews, focus groups, narratives, content or
documentary analysis, participant observation and archival research, discuss how they are
done.

◄ M-QUIZ 3-TEST YOUR ANALYSIS SKILL

Jump to...
2. Attributes of good instrument

1.    Reliability: the degree of consistency, accuracy or precision that the measuring

instrument demonstrates.

2.    Validity: degree to which a test measures what it tends to measure.

3.    Objectivity: degree to which the measure is independent of the personal opinions,

subjective judgments, biases, and beliefs of the researcher.

4.    Feasibility: concerned with the aspects of skills, cost and time.

◄ M-QUIZ 3-TEST YOUR ANALYSIS SKILL

Jump to...

3. Research interview

Involves the collection of data through direct verbal interaction between the interviewer
(researcher) and the interviewee (respondent). It refers to a variety of face-to-face situations to
which the researcher orally solicits responses.
Types of Interview:
1.     Structured Interview: a type of interview whereby the researcher (interviewer) uses a set of
standard question and questioning procedure. The questions are asked in a sequential manner.
The questions may either solicit a response that is factual in nature or it may generate response
that will easily fit into an expected pattern.
Example:
    Compared to the last year, what do you feel about how the police are performing in crime
prevention in your barangay?
_____much better         _____about the same
_____somewhat better  ____ somewhat worse
____much worse
 2.   Unstructured Interview: this type of interview is more flexible and open. The interviewer
can repeat or modify the questions. The questions also provide for open-ended response to
questions. That is there is no predetermined response categories are provided.
Example:
Do you think the police are better or worse in preventing the occurrence of crime in the city
compared to last year? Why do you say so?

 The Interview Schedule: also called the interview guide. This consist of a list of question
prepared by the researcher considering the general and specific objectives of the research for
which the questions are intended for obtaining data. Questions can be open-ended or in closed
form depending on the type of the interview used by the researcher.
General Procedures in Interview:
a.    Training and Orientation Session
b.    Arranging the Interview
c.     Demeanor of the Interviewer

Establishing Rapport:
1.    Dress appropriately and in manner that will be comfortable to the respondents.
2.    Introduce yourself properly and your purpose. Explain what the study is all about.
3.    Show a pleasant disposition. Be friendly.
4.    Be attentive and shoe genuine interest to whatever responses given by the interviewee,
5.    Administration to the Interview. This involves the process of eliciting responses from the
interviewees.

 Recording Responses:

1.    Write down the exact words of the interviewee after each question.
2.    Write down the summary of the responses after the interview.
3.    Use tape recorder or video tape the interview.
4.    The exit.

 Concluding the Interview

1.  Thank the respondent or interviewee.
2.  Tell the respondent when you expect to send results.
3.  Do not be hasty in leaving the interviewee. Carry on a light conversation as well be alert for
any additional comments that the interviewee may offer that were not mentioned during the
actual interview.
4.  Immediately after leaving, write down notes on how the interview went through.

◄ M-QUIZ 3-TEST YOUR ANALYSIS SKILL

4. Observation

This is a means of data gathering usually used in field studies involving a systematic
recording of information that are perceived through the senses. It is considered as the most
direct means of observing behavior as it provides a detailed description of life as it actually
is lived-in the streets of a notorious neighborhood, in prisons, red light districts, and other
settings.

 Types:

1.    Naturalistic Observation: This requires the researcher to covertly observe people or

the subjects of the study in a natural setting.

2.    Participant Observation: This requires an active participation of the researcher in the

activities of the people he or she is observing. This type is very demanding with respect to
time and personal involvement of the researcher.

. Documentary analysis

This method involves gathering of data by examining records and documents. This method is
used in qualitative research and entails a systematic classification and analysis of the content of
the document memoirs, diaries, autobiographies, precinct and court records, crime statistics and
other archival records may present an overview of problems and issues in criminology that are
under study.

 1. Physical Trace Analysis-This involves the study of deposits, accretion of matter, and other
indirect substances produced by previous human interaction. Physical trace analysis is usually
used in the fields of criminalities and crime scene investigations as a means of searching for
clues and evidences that would shed light on the circumstances and substance of the
phenomenon under investigation.

 2. Questionnaire-A data gathering tool that requires respondents to answer questions or respond
to statements in writing. A questionnaire is composed of a set of questions or items designed to
gather factual information, perceptions or opinions. If opinions rather than fact are desired, a
questionnaire in the form of an attitude scale is used.
◄ M-QUIZ 3-TEST YOUR ANALYSIS SKILL

5. Documentary analysis

5.1. Types of questionnaires

Types:

1.        Open Form: Allow respondents to answer in their own words. This can mean greater
detail and a broader range of responses.

 2.        Fixed-alternative/ Closed Form: require the respondent to choose from a printed list
of choices. Such questions may include a simple yes/no or true/false response. It has the
following types:

a.    Checklist Type: requires the respondents to check which among the response

alternatives to the item or question is appropriate or applicable for him.

  Example: What offenses are commonly reported to the police?

  ____ Theft            ____ Homicide

  ____ Murder          ____ Rape

  ____ Adultery        ____ others (specify)

 b.    Rank-Order Type: requires the respondents to rank the predetermined responses

according to some criteria like degree of importance, seriousness, effectiveness of influence,
frequency of occurrence and the like.

  Example: Rank the following crime prevention programs or activities of the community
according to perceived degree of effectiveness.

 RANK      ACTIVITY/ PROGRAM

____Organizing sports activities

____Increasing police visibility

____Conducting seminars on crime prevention

____Massive information campaign

____Creating assistance groups in the barangay

____others (specify)

 c.    Scale Type: requires the respondent to select a response alternative with a numerical

value or symbol for the characteristics or item being measured along a continuum. An
arbitrary scale is developed by the researcher based upon face validity and professional
judgment.

  Example:

 EDUCATION                  ABILITY SCALE VALUE

Post Graduate                       6

College Graduate                  5

College Level                        4

High School Graduate          3

High School Level                 2

Elementary Graduate            1

 d.    Thurstone Scale:  composed of statements on some issues, events, or people that are
collected and rated by a group or judges usually from a scale rating from 1-11.The judges
assigned each statement a numerical value indicating the degree to which they think the
statement reflects a certain attitude.

  Example:

 SCALE VALUE                                   STATEMENTS

1.3         1. A country cannot amount too much without national honor and war is the only
means of preserving it.

2.5         2. When war is declared, we must enlist.

5.2         3. Wars are justifiable only when waged in defense of weaker nations.

8.4         5. The disrespect for human life and rights involved in a war is a cause of crime
waves.

10.6        6. All nations should disarm immediately.

 e.    Likert Scale: commonly used instrument in attitudinal research. The respondents are
required to answer as to whether they “strongly disagree (SD)”, “disagree (D)”, “undecided/
neutral (U)”, “agree (A)”, or “strongly agree (SA)” to the statements in the attitudinal scale.

  Example:

 STATEMENT                       

1. The best way to         SD  D  U  S  SA           

flatter people is to
tell them what they
want to hear.  Etc.

1. Writing the data gathering procedure

 The researcher should provide a discussion on the procedures on how the study was
done starting from the very first process before actually gathering the data. This
includes the act of seeking approval from the adviser to gather the data, use of
communication letters until its approval, researchers have to include how did they
actually gather the data -is it through interview, semi-structured or informal? 
 In quantitative research design using survey questionnaires, how were they floated
and retrieved?
 Additionally, under this part, the researchers should include the ethical
considerations such as the use of inform consent read and signed by the participants
or respondents or how was the confidentiality of information was ensured.
 In other words, it summarizes the detailed execution of the data gathering procedure
in a chronological manner.

1. Writing the treatment of data

           This is the basis for the evaluation of the appropriateness of the procedure for the
analysis of the data. For the quantitative research, all statistical tools have to be presented
inclusive of how these were used and their formulas.

           This treatment of data is very different for the common types of research design,
which is the qualitative, and the quantitative design. For the qualitative research, the
researcher must state what analysis method would be used such as for the
phenomenological method, thematic analysis would be appropriate, it could be narrative
analysis, descriptive, etc..
           Qualitative alternative analysis could be the evaluation of the data in research using
different available methods to achieve a particular objective. There are five alternative
analysis discussed in this research paper-the ethnography, the ethnomethodology, the
conversational analysis, the qualitative comparative analysis and the narrative analysis. Each
of this are provided with the definition, the goal and when used as a method in order to
provide a clearer explanation including some examples.

2. Types of data analysis for the quantitative and qualitative design

Analysis of data requires the specific, detailed process of how the data would be evaluated
before it will be presented. the succeeding discussions presents the different analysis.

3. Case Oriented Understanding

 A case oriented research strategy examines cases as wholes: combinations of

experiences to produce generalizations about relationships.
 Studies particular phenomena in depth to understand how and why specific
processes generate particular outcomes in particular circumstances.
 Is rich but journalistic. Cases have clear identities and are usually chosen specifically
because of their substantive significance or theoretical relevance. Flexibility is
maintained throughout the investigation because the core may be revised as the
researcher learns more about relevant instances.
 Under this understanding many cases are examined to understand a small number of
variable.
 This applicable for case studies thus it focuses on the background, past events
concerning a certain phenomenon.

4. Grounded Theory

 The grounded theory approach, particularly the way Strauss develops it, consists of a
set of steps whose careful execution is thought to "guarantee" a good theory as the
outcome. Strauss would say that the quality of a theory can be evaluated by the
process by which a theory is constructed.
 Grounded theory is an inductive analytic process because we derive the
explanation/theory/hypothesis from the data. In other words, we gather first the data
and then give our statement.
 Grounded theory also involves reflective reading wherein we read, gather datum,
apply codes and to understand data from that data gathered.
4. Grounded Theory

4.1. Core Elements of the Grounded Theory

 Inquiry is shaped by the aim to discover social and social psychological processes.
 Data collection and data analysis are done simultaneously.
 Analytic process employed prompts theory discovery and development rather than
verification of pre-existing theories
 Theoretical sampling is employed. This refines, elaborate and exhausts conceptual
categories.

◄ M-QUIZ 4-TEST YOUR MEMORIZATION SKILLS

Jump to...

4. Grounded Theory

4.2. Stages of Coding for the Grounded Theory (Strauss And Corbin)
a. Open Coding-procedure for developing categories of information

b. Axial Coding- interconnecting the categories

c. Selective Coding-a procedure for building a story that connects the categories
producing a discursive set of theoretical propositions.

4. Grounded Theory

4.3. Methods of Grounded Theory

 Research question formulation

 Recruitment of participants
 Data Gathering
 Data Analysis
 Discriminant sampling

4. Grounded Theory

4.4. Limitations of Grounded Theory

 Hard to recruit participants

  Takes a lot of time to gather data
 Difficult to analyze
 There might be a researcher bias
 Small sample is not enough

5. Textual Analysis

 Textual analysis is the method communication researchers use to describe and

interpret the characteristics of a recorded or visual message
 To describe the content, structure, and functions of the messages contained in texts.
 It include selecting the types of texts to be studied, acquiring appropriate texts, and
determining which particular approach to employ in analyzing them.

5. Textual Analysis

5.1. Two General Categories of Texts

a. Transcripts of communication (verbatim recordings)

b. Outputs of communication (messages produced by communicators)

 In terms of acquiring texts, outputs of communication are more readily available than
transcripts.

 Archival communication research involves examining the communication embedded

in existing records of human behavior kept in archives.
 Acquisition of texts is important as is the representativeness of the texts selected
since sampling is typically used.
 Another issue is determining how complete and accurate the texts are in order to
conduct a sound analysis.

5. Textual Analysis

5.2. Approaches to Textual Analysis

a. Rhetoric Criticism- is a systematic method for describing, analyzing,

interpreting, and evaluating the persuasive force of messages embedded within texts
b. Content Analysis- It is a research technique used to make replicable and valid inferences
by interpreting and coding textual material. By systematically evaluating texts (e.g.,
documents, oral communication, and graphics), qualitative data can be converted into
quantitative data.

c. Interactional Analysis-  is a set of approaches that focus on language-in-use to

understand how people jointly construct the meanings of their interactions. These
approaches seek to identify and explain the structures and processes that enable people to
produce meaningful interactions. The approaches share a preference for analyzing naturally
occurring interaction, and the analyses they produce are situated. However, the approaches
differ in the extent to which the analysis considers contextual factors outside the interaction.
This entry examines three approaches to qualitative interaction analysis—conversation
analysis, discourse analysis, and critical discourse analysis.

d. Performance Studies- is an interdisciplinary field that studies performance and uses

performance as a lens to study the world.

6. Thematic Analysis

 It is one of a cluster of methods that focus on identifying patterned meaning across a

dataset.
 It is best thought of as an umbrella term for a set of approaches for analysing
qualitative data that share a focus on identifying themes (patterns of meaning) within
data.
 The purpose is to identify patterns of meaning across a dataset that provide an
answer to the research question being addressed. Patterns are identified through a
rigorous process of data familiarization, data coding, and theme development and
revision.

6. Thematic Analysis

6.1. Different Orientations (University Of Auckland)

a.    Inductive way –coding and theme development are directed by the content of the
data;

b.    Deductive way –coding and theme development are directed by existing concepts or

ideas

c.    Semantic way – coding and theme development reflect the explicit content of the data;
d.    Latent way –coding and theme development report concepts and assumptions
underpinning the data;

e.    (Critical) realist or essentialist way –focuses on reporting an assumed reality evident

in the data;

f.     Constructionist way –focuses on looking at how a certain reality is created by the

data.

6. Thematic Analysis

6.2. Phases of Doing Thematic Analysis (University Of Auckland)

a. Familiarization with the data- This phase involves reading and re-reading the data, to
become immersed and intimately familiar with its content.

b. Coding-This phase involves generating succinct labels (codes!) that identify important
features of the data that might be relevant to answering the research question. It involves coding
the entire dataset, and after that, collating all the codes and all relevant data extracts, together for
later stages of analysis.

c. Generating initial themes-This phase involves examining the codes and collated data to
identify significant broader patterns of meaning (potential themes). It then involves collating data
relevant to each candidate theme, so that you can work with the data and review the viability of
each candidate theme.

d. Reviewing themes-This phase involves checking the candidate themes against the dataset, to
determine that they tell a convincing story of the data, and one that answers the research
question. In this phase, themes are typically refined, which sometimes involves them being split,
combined, or discarded. In our TA approach, themes are defined as pattern of shared meaning
underpinned by a central concept or idea.

e. Defining and naming themes-This phase involves developing a detailed analysis of each
theme, working out the scope and focus of each theme, determining the ‘story’ of each. It also
involves deciding on an informative name for each theme.

f. Writing up-This final phase involves weaving together the analytic narrative and data
extracts, and contextualizing the analysis in relation to existing literature.

◄ M-QUIZ 4-TEST YOUR MEMORIZATION SKILLS

7. Ethnography
  This is the study of a culture or cultures that some group of people share. It
emphasizes the observation of details of everyday life as they naturally unfold in the
real world.
 This is sometimes called naturalistic research.
 Ethnography is when you are primarily concerned with issues related to culture,
cultural practices, cultural beliefs and beliefs systems. In focusing to a community or
instance, crime trend or crime rate could be possible studies.
 As a method, it usually is meat to refer to the process of participant observation by a
single investigator who immerses him or herself in the group for a long period of
time (often 1 or more years). The analytic process relies on the thoroughness and
insight of the researcher to "tell us like it is" in the sitting as he or she experienced
it. This is primarily used in anthropological research.
 The goal is to to understand and describe what a group of people believe and why
they believe what they believe, their cultural practices. To describe the culture and
social interactions of a particular group or subgroup (Lichtman (2013).

8. Ethnomethodology

 An approach within sociology that focuses on the way people, as rational actors,
make sense of their everyday world by employing practical reasoning rather than
formal logic.
 It is the study of how people use social interaction to maintain an ongoing sense of
reality in a situation.
 Ethnomethodologists examine the ways people apply abstract rules and
commonsense understandings in situations in order to make actions appear routine,
explicable and ambiguous. To gather data, ethnomethodologists rely on
conversation analysis and a rigorous set of techniques for systematically observing
and recording what happens when people interact in natural settings.
 It is an attempt to classify the actions people take when they are acting in groups. 
 Ethnomethodology also has tended to use ‘experiments’ to establish its premises.
Such ‘experiments’ have been designed to challenge people’s taken-for-granted
views.
 The study of Juvenile Delinquency is an example where he traces the way in which
young people come to be categorized as juvenile delinquents by the police,
probationary officers and courts so on.

9. Conversation analysis

 It is a social process that requires certain things in order for participants to identify it as a
conversation and keep it going such as when people look at each other, nod their heads in
agreement, ask and respond to questions, etc.
  It is a research approach that analyses social interaction. It focuses on naturally occurring
data and not on conversations that are manipulated in a laboratory.
 This approach studies how oral language is used during a natural interaction. It tries to
explain how people act as they do in a conversation.
 The whole conversation is viewed as a single event.
 Conversation analysis grew out of ethnomethodology and thus shares its focus on
the construction of reality as opposed to the discovery of reality.
 To determine how participants in a natural conversation understand and respond to one
another when it’s their turn to talk. The focus is on how these sequences of action are
generated.
 It does not study the structure of language that is used, but rather focuses on how
language is used in the form of requests, complaints, proposals or accusations.

 Two types. In the first type, the institution of interaction is viewed as an entity by itself. In the
second type, the research focuses on studying how social institutions are managed in an
interaction.
◄ M-QUIZ 4-TEST YOUR MEMORIZATION SKILLS
10. Qualitative comparative analysis

 A methodology that enables the analysis of multiple cases in complex situations.

 It is designed for use with an intermediate number of cases, typically between 10 and
50.
 It can be used in situations where there are too few cases to apply conventional
statistical analysis.
 The study focused on numbers of case-oriented researches, after the gathering of
the data, it will now be compared with the previous findings or other researches in
order to find out the strength, weaknesses, the issues or problems in the study.
 It can help explain why change happens in some cases but not others.

11. Narrative analysis

ü  It focuses on "the story itself" and seeks to preserve the integrity of personal biographies
or series of events that cannot adequately be understood in terms of their discrete
elements. 

ü  It occurs when one or more speakers engage in sharing and recounting an experience or
event. 

ü  Narrative analysis takes the story as the investigative focus. Narratives or stories may be
oral or written, be elicited, for example during an interview, or naturally-occurring, be very
short or long, be told as a way to share one's biography (life stories), focus on events and
the meaning of those events for those experiencing them (e.g. oral histories; auto-
ethnographies) and/or focus on the ordinary stories people tell as a way to share everyday
experiences

ü  Narrative attempt to explain or normalize what has occurred; they lay out why things are
the way they are or have become the way they are.

ü  Narrative, can be said to provide a portal into two realms. First is the realm of experience,
where speakers lay out how they as individuals experience certain events and confer their
subjective meaning onto these experiences; and the realm of narrative means (or devices)
that are put to use to make (this) sense.

11. Narrative analysis

11.1. Coding for Narrative Analysis

a. The coding for a narrative analysis is typical of the narratives as a whole, rather than of
the different elements within them.

b. It revolves around reading the stories and classifying them into general patterns.

c. Narrative analysis is a genre of analytic frames whereby researchers interpret stories that
are told within the context of research and/or are shared in everyday life.

d. Scholars who conduct this type of analysis make diverse—yet equally substantial and
meaningful—interpretations and conclusions by focusing on different elements.

d. These elements include, but are not limited to, how the story is structured, what functions
the story serves, what is the substance of the story, and how the story is performed.

11. Narrative analysis

11.2. Two Forms of Narrative Analysis

a. Content of stories- It can be viewed as a window onto a knowable reality and analyzed
using concepts derived from theory e.g. thematic analysis, or concepts derived from the
data e.g. grounded theory.
b. Meaning- It is the analysis of narratives or stories that can be viewed as socially situated
knowledge constructions in their own right that values messiness. However, it depends on
philosophical position.

          Notwithstanding the two forms, both could be use in the analysis of data utilizing
narrative analysis.

 It is used to calculate the sample size (n) given the population size (N) and a margin of error (e).  It is a
random sampling technique formula to estimate sampling size -It is computed as n = N / (1+Ne2).
whereas: n = no. of samples N = total population e = error margin / margin of error  Statistics is a way
of looking at a population’s behavior by taking a sample. It’s usually impossible to survey every member
of a population because of money or time. For example, let’s say you wanted to know how many people
in the Cordillera were vegetarians. Think about how long it would take you to call over 30 thousand
people; Assuming they all had phones and could speak!. The problems with surveying entire populations
are why researchers survey just a fraction of the population: a sample. The problem with taking a
sample of the population is sample size. Obviously, if you asked just one person in the population if they
were vegetarian then their answer wouldn’t be representative of everyone. But would 100 people be
sufficient? 1000? Ten thousand? How you figure out a big enough sample size involves applying a
formula. While there are many formulas to calculate sample sizes, most of them require you to know
something about the population, like the mean. But what if you knew nothing about your population?
That’s where Slovin’s formula comes in. When to use slovin's formula? - If a sample is taken from a
population, a formula must be used to take into account confidence levels and margins of error. When
taking statistical samples, sometimes a lot is known about a population, sometimes a little and
sometimes nothing at all. For example, we may know that a population is normally distributed (e.g., for
heights, weights or IQs), we may know that there is a bimodal distribution (as often happens with class
grades in mathematics classes) or we may have no idea about how a population is going to behave (such
as polling college students to get their opinions about quality of student life). Slovin's formula is used
when nothing about the behavior of a population is known at at all. How to use slovin's formula?
(Examples) - To use the formula, first figure out what you want your error of tolerance to be. For
example, you may be happy with a confidence level of 95 percent (giving a margin error of 0.05), or you
may require a tighter accuracy of a 98 percent confidence level (a margin of error of 0.02). Plug your
population size and required margin of error into the formula. The result will be the number of samples
you need to take. In research methodology, for example N=1000 and e=0.05 n = 1000 / (1 + 1000 * 0.5²)
n = 1000 / (1 + 250) n = 3.984063745 = 4 samplings A researcher plans to conduct a survey. If the
population on High City is 1,000,000 , find the sample size if the margin of error is 25% First : Convert the
Margin Error 25% by dividing it to 100 Given: N = 1,000,000 e = 25% = 0.025 n = 1,000,000/(1 +
1,000,000 ·0.025² ) n = 1,000,000/(1 + 1,000,000 · 0.000625 ) n = 1,000,000/(1 + 625 ) n = 1,000,000/626
n = 1597.44 or approx. 1597  Suppose that you have a group of 1,000 city government employees and
you want to survey them to find out which tools are best suited to their jobs. You decide that you are
happy with a margin of error of 0.05. Using Slovin's formula, you would be required to survey n = N / (1
+ Ne^2) people: 1,000 / (1 + 1000 * 0.05 * 0.05) = 286
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Statistics A
branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of masses
of numerical data. Collection involves the gathering of data for study. Analysis could either be a careful
study and explanation of data and their interrelationship, or a mathematical stratagem presupposing the
result of the computation and inferring a valid assertion using a step-by-step process (Webster
Dictionary). According to the American Statistical Association, it involves the asking of questions about
the world and finding answers scientifically. Others define statistics as a numerical value that describes
some property of a data set. Simply put, statistics is a collection of quantitative data. Why do we need
statistics? We need statistics for researchers: 1. to ensure that data are interpreted correctly. 2. to see if
relationships are meaningful (or “significant”), not simply chance occurrences. 3. to provide some of the
most useful techniques for evaluating ideas, testing theory, and discovering the truth (San Jose State
University, San Jose, CA 95192). 4. to understand large and complex sets of data. OVERVIEW ON
CENTRAL TENDENCIES, CRIME RATE, PERCENTAGE AND PERCENTAGE CHANGE Mean, Median, Mode,
and Range (Purplemath, 2017) The mean, median, and mode are examples of "averages". Commonly,
average refers to a set of numbers that are added and then dividing the sum by the number of
quantities. There are many "averages" in statistics, but these are the three most commonly used. Mean
 is the "average", where all the numbers are added up and then divided by the number of numbers 
usually a number that is located within a series of numbers and is calculated either by arithmetic mean
or expected value Median  is the "middle" value in the list of numbers  to compute for the median,
the enumerated numbers must be written down first in numerical order from smallest to largest, then
list before finding the median  which appears at the middle of the series of arranged numbers. Mode 
the value that occurs most often  the most frequent number of a set of data such that if no number in
the list is repeated, then there is no mode for the list. Range  a list of numbers is computed by
subtracting the smallest number in the set of numbers from that of the largest number  it is the
resulting difference SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS 1. Find the mean, median, mode, and range for the
following list of values: 13, 18, 13, 14, 13, 16, 14, 21, 13 The mean is the average: In this case, add all the
given set of numbers and then divide by the number of values. In this example, there are nine numbers
in the list, thus: (13 + 18 + 13 + 14 + 13 + 16 + 14 + 21 + 13) ÷ 9 = 15 mean The median is the middle
value: To Get the middle value, rewrite first the list in numerical order, that is, from lowest to highest,
thus: 13, 13, 13, 13, 14, 14, 16, 18, 21 There are nine numbers in the list, the middle one will be the
median, hence (9 + 1=10), 10 ÷ 2 = 5. 13, 13, 13, 13, 14, 14, 16, 18, 21 The 5th number which is 14 is the
median: *Case in point: What happens if there is an even list of numbers, say 10, instead of the example
above which is 9? 10, 13, 13, 13, 13, 14, 14, 16, 18, 21 In this case, add the two middle numbers, 13 and
14, then divided by 2. The resulting answer, which is 13.5, is the median. The mode is the number that is
repeated most often than any other in the list. In this case, that number is 13; hence, the mode is 13.
The range is computed by subtracting the smallest value from the largest, hence 21 – 13 = 8. In
summary, the succeeding values are the answers to the problems previously presented: Mean: 15
Median: 14 Mode: 13 Range: 8 Summary of when to use the mean, median and mode Type of Variable
Best measure of central tendency to be used Nominal (highest value, most frequently occurring
variable) Mode Ordinal Median Interval/Ratio (not skewed) Mean Interval/Ratio (skewed) Median 2.
Crime Rate Computation per 100,000 or 200,000 population: For crime rate computation, the constant
multiplier could be per 100,000 or 200,000 population. In countries where population is huge, the
200,000 thousand multiplier is commonly used. In any case, the multiplier is usually a part of the given
problem. There should be no problem in identifying which multiplier to use. In the computation then,
crimes committed is divided by the total population of the place studied, then multiplied by the given
multiplier, thus: Crimes Committed X 100,000 Population of the place For instance, in a certain
municipality, there were 345 crimes listed in the records of the PNP in a given span of time. The total
population of the municipality is 150,000. Using the formula, the crime rate per 100,000 populations is
computed as: __345__ X 100,000 = 230 150, 000 What does this result imply? It implies that there are
230 crimes committed per 100,000 populations. 3. Simple Percentage Conversion: Assuming you are
asked to calculate for the percentage of the computed crime rate, as in, “230 is what percent of
150,000?” This is computed using simple logic and a little of Algebra. The linking verb is will be
symbolized by the equal sign, while the percent being looked for will be symbolized by X, Thus: 230 = X%
(150,000) Applying basic Algebra, manipulate the given data by dividing both numbers located left and
right of the equal sign by the total population. This will cross out the identical values in the right side of
the equal sign. This is referred to as the process of elimination, as in: __230_ = X% (150,000) X =
___230___ 150,000 150,000 150,000 Simplified, the result is: 230 = 0.001533 x 100% = 0.15% of 150,000
Interpretation: 230 is .15% of 150,000 4. Percentages: Here is an example of data gathered: Year Crimes
Committed Rape Robbery Burglary Total 2015 24 (3.7%) 462 (72%) 159 (25%) 645 2016 25 (5%) 366
(67%) 158 (29%) 549 In computing for percentages considering crimes committed, the following steps
are recommended: 1. First, to express the data in percentages, divide the total crime committed per
year with the specific crime total: 24 for rape, 462 for robbery, and 159 for burglary. The result is then
multiplied by 100%, thus: 2015 Data: 24 ÷ 645 = .037 x 100% = 3.7% 462 ÷ 645 = .72 or 72% 159 ÷ 645
= .25 or 25% 2016 Data: 25 ÷ 549 = .05 or 5% 366 ÷ 549 = .67 or 67% 158 ÷ 549 = .29 or 29% (Note: For
conversion of decimal numbers to percentages, just move the decimal point two places to the right of
the decimal and substitute the decimal point with the percentage sign. For percentage to decimal
number, move the decimal point twice to the left, remove the percentage sign and provide the decimal
point.) 2. Second, for Percentage Change, subtract the given data per crime in a specified year from the
data on the other year. Let’s take the case on robbery because it is the highest in occurrence. Robbery
for the year 2015 is 462, while for 2016 is 366. In this case, subtract 366 from 462, thus: 462 – 366 = 96
The answer which is 96 is then divided by the total case per crime committed that is higher. In this case,
the higher number is 462. In mathematics this is the minuend, the smaller being the subtrahend (In the
given subtraction operation above, the minuend is 462, while the subtrahend is 366). Thus: 96 ÷ 462
= .21 or 21% (21% is taken from multiplying .21 by 100%, or by just simply moving the decimal point two
places to the right and substituting the decimal point with percentage sign.) 3. Third, interpretation: the
result can now be interpreted as: There was a decrease of 21% in the number of robbery cases in 2016.
(Note: You can continue on solving for percentage change in the other data given on rape, burglary,
then the total per year as an exercise, or as a form of a practical quiz.)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- THE LIKERT SCALE  This is
applicable for the quantitative researches.  The Likert-type or frequency scales used fixed choice
responses formats and are designed to measure attitudes or opinions (Bowling 1997, Burns & Groove
1997 as cited by McLeod, 2008).  These ordinal scales are used to measure levels and strength of
agreement/disagreement with a clear statement.  Likert scale is the most widely used rating scale to
measure attitudes directly.  The following are examples of Likert scale choices, which can be adapted
for the thesis/dissertation for the undergraduate and postgraduate studies. AGREEMENT  Strongly
Agree  Completely Agree  Agree  Agree  Disagree  Disagree  Strongly Disagree  Completely
Disagree FREQUENCY  Very Frequently  Always  Frequently  Sometimes  Rarely  Rarely  Never 
Never COMPETENCE QUALITY  Very Competent  Very Good  Moderately Competent  Good  Fairly
Competent  Fair  Not Competent  Poor IMPORTANCE LIKELIHOOD  Very Important  Always True 
Important  True  Of little Importance  Rarely True  Unimportant  Never The interpretation of
results depends on the limits where the computed value lands. Thus, the following scale is used.
WEIGHT SCALE DESCRIPTION 4 3.26-4.00 3 2.51-3.25 2 1.76-2.50 1 1.00-1.75

THE LIKERT SCALE

The topic in here are applicable for the quantitative researches.

1. THE LIKERT SCALE

THE LIKERT SCALE 

 This is applicable for the quantitative researches.

 The Likert-type or frequency scales used fixed choice responses formats and are
designed to measure attitudes or opinions (Bowling 1997, Burns & Groove 1997 as
cited by McLeod, 2008).
 These ordinal scales are used to measure levels and strength of
agreement/disagreement with a clear statement.
 Likert scale is the most widely used rating scale to measure attitudes directly.
 The following are examples of Likert scale choices, which can be adapted for the
thesis/dissertation for the undergraduate and postgraduate studies.

AGREEMENT
 Strongly Agree  Completely Agree

 Agree  Agree

 Disagree  Disagree

 Strongly Disagree  Completely Disagree

          

FREQUENCY
 Very Frequently  Always

 Frequently  Sometimes

 Rarely  Rarely

 Never  Never

 
 COMPETENCE QUALITY
 Very Competent  Very Good

 Moderately Competent  Good

 Fairly Competent  Fair

 Not Competent  Poor

IMPORTANCE LIKELIHOOD
 Very Important  Always True

 Important  True

 Of little Importance  Rarely True

 Unimportant  Never

           The interpretation of results depends on the limits where the computed value lands.
Thus, the following scale is used.

WEIGHT SCALE DESCRIPTION

4 3.26-4.00  
3 2.51-3.25  
2 1.76-2.50  
1 1.00-1.75  
 

◄ BASIC CRIMINOLOGICAL STATISTICS

Jump to...

BASIC CRIMINOLOGICAL STATISTICS

The topics provided in here are the basic statistics necessary particularly for the quantitative
researches.

1. DEFINITION OF STATISTICS
            A branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and
presentation of masses of numerical data. Collection involves the gathering of data for
study. Analysis could either be a careful study and explanation of data and their
interrelationship, or a mathematical stratagem presupposing the result of the computation
and inferring a valid assertion using a step-by-step process (Webster Dictionary).

            According to the American Statistical Association, it involves the asking of questions

about the world and finding answers scientifically. Others define statistics as a numerical
value that describes some property of a data set. Simply put, statistics is a collection of
quantitative data.

1. DEFINITION OF STATISTICS

1.1. Why do we need statistics?

We need statistics for researchers:

 1.  to ensure that data are interpreted correctly

2. to see if relationships are meaningful (or “significant”), not simply chance occurrences

3. to provide some of the most useful techniques for evaluating ideas, testing theory, and
discovering the truth (San Jose State University,  San Jose, CA 95192)

4. to understand large and complex sets of data.

2. OVERVIEW ON CENTRAL TENDENCIES, CRIME RATE, PERCENTAGE AND

PERCENTAGE CHANGE

Mean, Median, Mode, and Range (Purplemath, 2017)

The mean, median, and mode are examples of "averages". Commonly, average refers to a
set of numbers that are added and then dividing the sum by the number of quantities.
There are many "averages" in statistics, but these are the three most commonly used.

 Mean

  is the "average", where all the numbers are added up and then divided by the
number of numbers
 usually a number that is located within a series of numbers and is calculated either
by arithmetic mean or expected value

 Median
   is the "middle" value in the list of numbers
 to compute for the median, the enumerated numbers must be written down first in
numerical order from smallest to largest, then list before finding the median
 which appears at the middle of the series of arranged numbers.

 Mode

 the value that occurs most often

 the most frequent number of a set of data such that if no number in the list is
repeated, then there is no mode for the list.

 Range

 a list of numbers is computed by subtracting the smallest number in the set of

numbers from that of the largest number
 it is the resulting difference

2. OVERVIEW ON CENTRAL TENDENCIES, CRIME RATE, PERCENTAGE

AND PERCENTAGE CHANGE

2.1. Sample Computations

1. Find the mean, median, mode, and range for the following list of values:

13, 18, 13, 14, 13, 16, 14, 21, 13

The mean is the average: In this case, add all the given set of numbers and then divide by the
number of values. In this example, there are nine numbers in the list, thus:

  (13 + 18 + 13 + 14 + 13 + 16 + 14 + 21 + 13) ÷ 9 = 15   mean

 The median is the middle value: To Get the middle value, rewrite first the list in numerical
order, that is, from lowest to highest, thus:

 13, 13, 13, 13, 14, 14, 16, 18, 21

 There are nine numbers in the list, the middle one will be the median, hence (9 + 1=10), 10 ÷ 2
= 5.

 13, 13, 13, 13, 14, 14, 16, 18, 21

 The 5th number which is 14 is the median:

*Case in point: What happens if there is an even list of numbers, say 10, instead of the example
above which is 9?

 10, 13, 13, 13, 13, 14, 14, 16, 18, 21

 In this case, add the two middle numbers, 13 and 14, then divided by 2. The resulting answer,
which is 13.5, is the median.

 The mode is the number that is repeated most often than any other in the list. In this case, that
number is 13; hence, the mode is 13.

 The range is computed by subtracting the smallest value from the largest, hence 21 – 13 = 8.

 In summary, the succeeding values are the answers to the problems previously presented:

  Mean:             15
 Median:          14
 Mode:             13
 Range:             8

Summary of when to use the mean, median and mode

Best measure of central

Type of Variable
tendency to be used
 Nominal (highest value, most  frequently
Mode
occurring variable)
 Ordinal Median
 Interval/Ratio (not skewed) Mean
 Interval/Ratio (skewed) Median

◄ F-3 (FINAL QUIZ 1-APPLICATION)

2. OVERVIEW ON CENTRAL TENDENCIES, CRIME RATE, PERCENTAGE AND

PERCENTAGE CHANGE

2.2. Crime Rate Computation

2. Crime Rate Computation per 100,000 or 200,000 population:

          For crime rate computation, the constant multiplier could be per 100,000 or 200,000
population. In countries where population is huge, the 200,000 thousand multiplier is
commonly used. In any case, the multiplier is usually a part of the given problem. There
should be no problem in identifying which multiplier to use. In the computation then, crimes
committed is divided by the total population of the place studied, then multiplied by the
given multiplier, thus:

 Crimes Committed        X 100,000

Population of the place

           For instance, in a certain municipality, there were 345 crimes listed in the records of
the PNP in a given span of time. The total population of the municipality is 150,000. Using
the formula, the crime rate per 100,000 populations is computed as:

__345__      X 100,000 = 230

 150, 000

           What does this result imply? It implies that there are 230 crimes committed per
100,000 populations.

◄ F-3 (FINAL QUIZ 1-APPLICATION)

Jump to...

2. OVERVIEW ON CENTRAL TENDENCIES, CRIME RATE, PERCENTAGE AND

PERCENTAGE CHANGE

2.3. Simple Percentage Conversion

3. Simple Percentage Conversion:

 Assuming you are asked to calculate for the percentage of the computed crime rate, as in,
“230 is what percent of 150,000?” This is computed using simple logic and a little of Algebra.
The linking verb is will be symbolized by the equal sign, while the percent being looked for
will be symbolized by X, Thus:

 230 = X% (150, 000)

           Applying basic Algebra, manipulate the given data by dividing both numbers located
left and right of the equal sign by the total population. This will cross out the identical
values in the right side of the equal sign. This is referred to as the process of elimination, as
in:

     _230_                = X% (150,000)  

 150, 000                    150, 000
X =     ___230___
           150, 000

 Simplified, the result is:

 230 = 0.001533 x 100% = 0.15% of 150,000

 Interpretation: 230 is .15% of 150,000

2. OVERVIEW ON CENTRAL TENDENCIES, CRIME RATE, PERCENTAGE

AND PERCENTAGE CHANGE

2.4. Percentages
4. Percentages:

 Here is an example of data gathered:

Year Crimes Committed

Rape Robbery Burglary Total
2015 24 (3.7%) 462 (72%) 159 (25%) 645
2016 25 (5%) 366 (67%) 158 (29%) 549
 

In computing for percentages considering crimes committed, the following steps are
recommended:

 1.    First, to express the data in percentages, divide the total crime committed per year with
the specific crime total: 24 for rape, 462 for robbery, and 159 for burglary. The result is then
multiplied by 100%, thus:

 2015 Data:

24 ÷ 645 = .037 x 100% = 3.7%

462 ÷ 645 = .72 or 72%

159 ÷ 645 = .25 or 25%

 2016 Data:

25 ÷ 549 = .05 or 5%
366 ÷ 549 = .67 or 67%

158 ÷ 549 = .29 or 29%

 (Note: For conversion of decimal numbers to percentages, just move the decimal point two
places to the right of the decimal and substitute the decimal point with the percentage sign. For
percentage to decimal number, move the decimal point twice to the left, remove the percentage
sign and provide the decimal point.)

 2.    Second, for Percentage Change, subtract the given data per crime in a specified year from
the data on the other year.   Let’s take the case on robbery because it is the highest in
occurrence. Robbery for the year 2015 is 462, while for 2016 is 366. In this case, subtract 366
from 462, thus:

 462 – 366 = 96

          The answer which is 96 is then divided by the total case per crime committed that is
higher. In this case, the higher number is 462. In mathematics this is the minuend, the smaller
being the subtrahend (In the given subtraction operation above, the minuend is 462, while the
subtrahend is 366). Thus:

 96 ÷ 462 = .21 or 21%

 (21% is taken from multiplying .21 by 100%, or by just simply moving the decimal point two
places to the right and substituting the decimal point with percentage sign.)

 3.    Third, interpretation: the result can now be interpreted as:

 There was a decrease of 21% in the number of robbery cases in 2016.

 (Note: You can continue on solving for percentage change in the other data given on rape,
burglary, then the total per year as an exercise, or as a form of a practical quiz.)

◄ F-3 (FINAL QUIZ 1-APPLICATION)

1. THE SLOVIN’S FORMULA

It is used to calculate the sample size given the population size (N) and a margin of error
(e). 

It is a random sampling technique formula to estimate sampling size 

n = N/(1+Ne2).
whereas: 
n = no. of samples
N = total population
e = error margin / margin of error

Example for the margin of error

 -0.05%
 -0.10%

         The margin of error is the amount (usually small) that is allowed for in case of

miscalculation or change of circumstances

 Statistics is a way of looking at a population’s behavior by taking a sample. It’s

usually impossible to survey every member of a population because of money or
time. For example, let’s say you wanted to know how many people in the Cordillera
were vegetarians. Think about how long it would take you to call over 30 thousand
people; Assuming they all had phones and could speak!. The problems with
surveying entire populations are why researchers survey just a fraction of the
population: a sample.
 The problem with taking a sample of the population is the sample size. For example,
if you asked just one person in the population if they were vegetarian, their answer
wouldn’t represent everyone. But would 100 people be sufficient? 1000? Ten
thousand? How you figure out a big enough sample size involves applying a formula.
While there are many formulas to calculate sample sizes, most of them require you
to know something about the population, like the mean. But what if you knew
nothing about your population? That’s where Slovin’s formula comes in.

1. THE SLOVIN’S FORMULA

1.1. When to use slovin's formula?

   If a sample is taken from a population, a formula must be used to take into account
confidence levels and margins of error.
 When taking statistical samples, sometimes a lot is known about a population,
sometimes a little and sometimes nothing at all. 
  Slovin's formula is used when nothing about the behavior of a population is known
at at all (such as polling college students to get their opinions about quality of
student life).

1. THE SLOVIN’S FORMULA

1.2. How to use slovin's formula?

 To use the formula, first figure out what you want your error of tolerance to be. 
 Plug your population size and required margin of error into the formula. The result
will be the number of samples you need to take.

1. THE SLOVIN’S FORMULA

1.3. Examples (Application)

 In research methodology, for example N=1000 and e=0.05

n = 1000 / (1 + 1000 * 0.5²)

n = 1000 / (1 + 250)
n = 3.984063745 = 4 samplings

A researcher plans to conduct a survey. If the population on High City  is 1,000,000 , find the
sample size if the margin of error is 25%
      
First : Convert the Margin Error 25% by dividing it to 100             
Given:
N = 1,000,000
e = 25% = 0.025

n = 1,000,000/(1 + 1,000,000 ·0.025² )
n = 1,000,000/(1 + 1,000,000 · 0.000625 )
n = 1,000,000/(1 + 625 )
n = 1,000,000/626
n = 1597.44 or approx. 1597  

 Suppose that you have a group of 1,000 city government employees and you want
to survey them to find out which tools are best suited to their jobs. You decide that
you are happy with a margin of error of 0.05. Using Slovin's formula, you would be
required to survey n = N / (1 + Ne^2) people:

1,000 / (1 + 1000 * 0.05 * 0.05) = 286