Topic 1 - Lifestyle and Health

Cells of all living organisms need a constant supply of reactants for metabolism, e.g. Oxygen and glucose

Single-celled organisms can gain oxygen and glucose directly from their surroundings, and the molecules
can diffuse to all parts of the cell quickly due to short diffusion distances.

The needs of small organisms can be served through diffusion (alone) due to the large surface area to
volume ratio of the body.

However, as the size of the organism increases:

• Surface area to volume ratio decreases

• Diffusion distance increases
• Metabolic rate (hence input and output requirements) increases

Diffusion becomes insufficient. As a result of that, larger organisms have a mass transport system,
consisting of the heart and circulation which moves the substances around the body and allows exchange
of substances to take place.

Mass transport is the bulk movement of gases or liquids in one direction, usually via a system of vessels
and tubes

Mass transport systems help to

• Bring substances quickly from one exchange site to another

• Maintain diffusion gradients at exchange sites and between cells and their fluid surroundings
• Ensure effective cell activity by supplying reactants and removing waste products

Features of a mass transport system:

1. A network to move through (e.g. vessels)

2. A medium for movement (a fluid e.g. blood)
3. Controlled direction - to move substances to / from where they are needed (eg. blood is moved
along a pressure gradient created by the heart, the direction of flow controlled by valves)
4. Maintenance of speed - (eg. contraction of the heart + elastic recoil of arteries helps to maintain
the pressure gradient, thus speed)
 Mammals have a circulatory system known as a
double circulatory system; the blood travels
around the body in two separate circuits known
as the pulmonary and systemic circulation

Water is the medium in which all metabolic reactions take place in cells and in which all substances are
transported around the body

Water is composed of atoms of hydrogen and oxygen

• One atom of oxygen combines with two atoms of hydrogen by sharing electrons; this is covalent
bonding
• The sharing of electrons is uneven between the oxygen (1) and hydrogen (2) atoms
• The oxygen atom attracts the electrons more strongly than the hydrogen atoms, resulting in a
weak negatively charged region on the oxygen atom (δ-) and a weak positively charged region on
the hydrogen atoms (δ+)

Separation of charge due to electrons in covalent bonds being unevenly shared is called a dipole

Water is a polar molecule - a molecule that has one end that is negatively charged and one end that is
positively charged
Hydrogen bonds form between the positive and negatively charged regions of water molecules due to the
polar nature of water which creates cohesion and adhesion, which enables effective transport of water
and dissolved substances through xylem vessels.

• Hydrogen bonds are weak when they are few in number, so are constantly breaking and
reforming; this means that water molecules flow past each other in a liquid state,
• But when hydrogen bonds increase in number it is a relatively strong type of bonding, thus
causing water to have a high specific heat capacity meaning that a lot of energy is required to
change the temperature of water, therefore minimizing temperature fluctuations in living things
(an important part of homeostasis).

Water's dipole nature makes it good at

transporting substances
The polar nature of water gives water
properties that make it good at transporting
substances

• Water is cohesive
• Water is a solvent

Cohesion and adhesion

Hydrogen bonds between water molecules
allow for strong cohesion between water
molecules

• Cohesion is the attraction of water molecules to each other

Water is also able to hydrogen bond to other molecules; this is known as adhesion

The forces of cohesion and adhesion within a body of water and between water and its surroundings
means that water flows easily

• Water molecules pull other water molecules along due to cohesion

• Water adheres to the sides of a vessel due to adhesion

Solvent
As water is a polar molecule many ions, e.g. sodium and chloride ions, and covalently bonded polar
substances, e.g. glucose, will dissolve in it

• Water molecules surround charged particles; the positive parts of water are attracted to
negatively charged particles and the negative parts of water are attracted to positively charged
particles
• The surrounding molecules break apart e.g. sodium chloride molecules break into sodium ions
and chloride ions
• The ions surrounded by water molecules have dissolved
This allows chemical reactions to occur within cells as the dissolved solutes are more chemically reactive
when they are free to move about. Metabolites can be transported efficiently in a dissolved state.

Circulatory systems transport fluids containing materials needed by the organism as well as waste
materials that need to be removed.

Circulatory systems are either open or closed

• In a closed circulatory system blood is pumped around the body and is contained within a
network of blood vessels
• In an open circulatory system, the blood is inside the body cavity and bathes the organ

Circulatory systems can also be either double or single

• Double circulatory systems have 2 loops, one that goes to the lungs and one that goes to the
body
• Single circulatory systems have one loop that includes the lungs and the body

Humans have a closed, double circulatory system; in one complete circuit of the body, blood passes
through the heart twice

• The right side of the heart pumps blood deoxygenated blood to the lungs for gas exchange; this is
the pulmonary circulatory system
• Blood then returns to the left side of the heart, so that oxygenated blood can be pumped at high
pressure around the body; this is the systemic circulatory system

Human heart:
Mass of around 300g

Hollow, muscular organ located in chest cavity.

Protected in the chest cavity by the pericardium, a tough and fibrous sac

Divided into four chambers.

o The two top chambers are atria.

o The bottom two chambers are ventricles

Left and right sides of the heart are separated by a wall of muscular tissue called the septum

o Septum ensures blood doesn’t mix between the left and right sides of the heart
Valves in the heart
Valves keep the blood flowing forward in the RIGHT direction and to maintain the correct pressure in the
chambers of the heart

• The right atrium and right ventricle are separated by an atrioventricular valve known as the
tricuspid valve
• The left atrium and left ventricle are separated by another AV valve called the bicuspid valve
• The right ventricle and the pulmonary artery are separated by a semilunar valve called the
pulmonary valve
• The left ventricle and aorta are separated by another SL valve known as the aortic valve

Valves in the heart

• Open when pressure of blood behind them is greater than the pressure in front of them
• Close when pressure of blood in front of them is greater than the pressure behind them

Valves are attached to the heart walls by valve tendons or cords these prevent the valves from
flipping inside out under high pressure

Adaptions of the structures of the Function

heart
Left ventricle Thicker muscle than right ventricle for strong contraction to pump
blood around the body; the right ventricle only has to pump blood
to the lungs
Ventricles Thicker walls than atria to pump blood out of the heart; the atria
in comparison only pump blood into the ventricles
Atrioventricular valves Prevent backflow of blood from ventricles into atria
Semilunar valves Prevent backflow of blood from the aorta or pulmonary artery
into the ventricles
Blood vessels and the heart
The vena cava and pulmonary vein are blood vessels bringing blood into the heart

• The vena cava brings blood from the body

• The pulmonary vein brings blood from the lungs

The pulmonary artery and aorta are blood vessels taking blood away from the heart

• The pulmonary artery takes blood to the lungs

• The aorta takes blood to the body

The muscle of the heart is supplied with blood by a series of blood vessels known as the coronary arteries
which can be seen running across the surface of the heart

• Arteries – transport blood away from the heart at high pressure to the tissues
• Arterioles – arteries branch into narrower blood vessels called arterioles which transport blood
into capillaries
• Veins – transport blood to the heart at low pressure
• Venules – narrower blood vessels transport blood from the capillaries to the veins
• Capillaries – microscopic blood vessels that carry blood to the cells

Blood flows through the lumen of a blood vessel (size of lumen varies depending on what type of blood
vessel it is)

• Arteries have a narrow lumen and the veins a wider lumen

• Walls of each type of blood vessel have a structure which relates to the function of the vessel
Arteries

Artery walls consist of three layers:

Endothelium (tunica intima):

• One cell thick and lines the lumen of all blood vessels.
• Very smooth and reduces friction for free blood flow.
• In arteries endothelium is highly folded, enabling it to expand under high pressure

Smooth muscle and elastic tissue (tunica media):

• Thick in arteries
• The layer of muscle cells strengthens the arteries so they can withstand high pressure which
enables them to constrict and narrow the lumen for reduced blood flow.
• Contraction of the muscle causes constriction of the lumen which is useful for diverting blood
flow away from certain locations e.g., Away from the digestive system during exercise.
• Elastic tissue helps to maintain blood pressure in the arteries it stretches and recoils to even out
any fluctuations in pressure

The outer wall (tunica adventitia, or tunica externa):

• Contains structural protein collagen, collagen is a strong protein that protects blood vessels from
damage by over-stretching.

Arteries have a narrow lumen which helps to maintain a high blood pressure.

A pulse is present in arteries as they stretch to accommodate an increased volume of blood with each
heartbeat.

Veins

Veins return blood to the heart

Veins contain the same layers as arteries but in different proportions:

Smooth muscle and elastic layer are much thinner in veins

• No need for a thick muscular layer as veins don’t have to withstand.

high pressure

Lumen of the vein is much wider than that of an artery

• Larger lumen helps to ensure that blood returns to the heart at an adequate speed and reduces
friction between the blood and the endothelium of the vein
• Rate of blood flow is slower in veins, but a larger lumen means the volume of blood delivered per
unit of time is equal to that of arteries

Veins contain valves

• Prevent the backflow of blood, helping return blood to the heart

• A pulse is absent in veins due to the increased distance from the heart
Capillaries

Have thin walls which are permeable, allowing substances to leave the blood to reach the body’s tissues

Form networks called capillary beds which are important exchange surfaces within the circulatory system

• Large number of capillaries branch between cells, substances can diffuse between the blood and
cells quickly as there is a short diffusion distance

Lumen that is very narrow in diameter

• Red blood cells need to pass through the capillaries in single file which forces the blood to travel
slowly which provides more time for diffusion to occur

Wall of the capillary is a single layer of endothelial cells

• Lines the lumen in arteries and veins

• Capillary walls are one cell thick (they do not have cell walls) so reduces the diffusion distance for
oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the tissues of the body
• Cells of the wall have gaps called pores which allow blood plasma to leak out and form tissue fluid
• White blood cells combat infection in affected tissues by squeezing through the pores in the
capillary walls
The cardiac cycle is the series of events that take place in one heartbeat, including muscle contraction
and relaxation

Contraction of the heart is called systole and the relaxation of the heart is called diastole

Volume and pressure changes

Contraction of the heart muscle causes a decrease in volume in the corresponding chamber of the heart,
which then increases again when the muscle relaxes

Volume changes lead to corresponding pressure changes

• When volume decreases, pressure increases

• When volume increases, pressure decreases

Throughout the cardiac cycle, heart valves open and close as a result of pressure changes in different
regions of the heart

• Valves open when pressure of blood behind them is greater than the pressure in front of them
• Close when the pressure of blood in front of them is greater than the pressure behind them

Valves stop blood flowing backwards

Atrial systole

The walls of the atria contract

• Atrial volume decreases

• Atrial pressure increases

The pressure in the atria rises above that in the ventricles, forcing the atrioventricular (AV) valves open,

Blood is forced into the ventricles

• There is a slight increase in ventricular pressure and chamber volume as the ventricles receive the
blood from the atria

The ventricles are relaxed at this point; ventricular diastole occur at the same time as atrial systole

Ventricular systole

The walls of the ventricles contract

• Ventricular volume decreases

• Ventricular pressure increases
The pressure in the ventricles rises above that in the atria

• This forces the AV valves to close, preventing back flow of blood

The pressure in the ventricles rises above that in the aorta and pulmonary artery

• This forces the semilunar (SL) valves open, so blood is forced into the arteries and out of the
heart

During this period, the atria are relaxing; atrial diastole occurs at the same time as ventricular systole

• The blood flow to the heart continues, so the relaxed atria begin to fill with blood again

Diastole

The ventricles and atria are both relaxed

The pressure in the ventricles drops below that in the aorta and pulmonary artery, forcing the SL valves to
close

The atria continue to fill with blood

• Blood returns to the heart via the vena cava and pulmonary vein

Pressure in the atria rises above that in the ventricles, forcing the AV valves open

Blood flows passively into the ventricles without need of atrial systole

The cycle then begins again with atrial systole

PRESSURE CHANGES IN THE HEART

Stage in Atrioventricular Semilunar

cardiac valves valves
cycle
Diastole Open Closed

Systole Closed Open

 Analysing the Cardiac cycle

− Lines on the graph represent the pressure of

the left atrium, aorta, and the left ventricle
− Points at which the lines cross each other are
important because they indicate when valves
open and close

Point A - the end of diastole

− The atrium filled with blood during the previous diastole

− Pressure higher in the atrium than in the ventricle, so AV valve is open

Between points A and B - atrial systole

− Left atrium contracts, causing an increase in atrial pressure and forcing blood into the left
ventricle
− Ventricular pressure increases slightly as it fills with blood
− Pressure is higher in the atrium than in the ventricle, so AV valve is open

Point B - beginning of ventricular systole

− Left ventricle contracts causing the ventricular pressure to increase

− Pressure in the left atrium drops as the muscle relaxes
− Pressure in the ventricle exceeds pressure in the atrium, so AV valve shuts

Point C - ventricular systole

− The ventricle continues to contract

− Pressure in the left ventricle exceeds that in the aorta
− Aortic valve opens and blood is forced into the aorta

Point D - beginning of diastole

− Left ventricle has been emptied of blood

− Muscles in the walls of the left ventricle relax and pressure falls below that in the newly filled
aorta
− Aortic valve closes

Between points D and E - early diastole

− The ventricle remains relaxed and ventricular pressure continues to decrease

− Then blood flows into the relaxed atrium from the pulmonary vein, causing an increase in
pressure

Point E - diastole
 − The relaxed left atrium fills with blood, causing the pressure in the atrium to exceed that in the
newly emptied ventricle
− AV valve opens

After point E - late diastole

− There is a short period of time during which the left ventricle expands due to relaxing muscles
− Which increases the internal volume of the left ventricle and decreases the ventricular pressure
− At the same time, blood is flowing slowly through the newly opened AV valve into the left
ventricle, causing a brief decrease in pressure in the left atrium
− The pressure in both the atrium and ventricle then increases slowly as they continue to fill with
blood

= One cardiac cycle

Step 1: Work out the length of one heartbeat

− It takes 0.7 seconds for completion of one cardiac cycle, which is one heartbeat
− So, there is 1 cycle in 0.7 seconds

Step 2: Calculate how many heart beats occur per second

− Divide by 0.7 to find out how many cycles in 1 second

− 1 ÷ 0.7 = 1.43 beats in 1 second

Step 3: Calculate how many heart beats occur per minute

− Multiply by 60 to find out how many cycles in 60 seconds

− 1.43 × 60 = 85.71 beats in 60 seconds

So, the heart rate is 85.71 beats / min

Some of the factors that can influence heart rate include:

• Drugs
• Caffeine
• Alcohol
• Sex (male or female)
• Weight
• Height
• Temperature
• Diet
• Dehydration

Practical: The Effect of Caffeine on Heart Rate in Daphnia

Daphnia – Water fleas, small aquatic invertebrates they have transparent bodies which means their
internal organs (heart) can be observed using a light microscope which make them suitable for
investigating heart rate. You can investigate the impact of caffeine on the heart rate by placing them in a
caffeine solution on a microscope slide and count their heart beats

Apparatus

• Light microscope
• Cavity slide
• Culture of Daphnia
• Pipette
• Caffeine solutions at a range of concentrations
• Distilled water
• Stopwatch

Method

• Prepare five different concentrations of caffeine solution and a control solution of distilled water
• Add some pond water into the well of a cavity slide and add three drops of distilled water
• Select a large Daphnia and use a pipette to carefully transfer it to the cavity slide
• Place the cavity slide onto the stage of a microscope and observe the animal under low power
• Use a stopwatch to time 20 seconds, and count the number of heart beats by making dots on a
piece of paper
• Count the dots and express heart rate as number of beats per minute, multiply by three to
convert beats per 20 seconds into beats per 60 seconds
• Return the Daphnia to the stock culture
• Repeat steps 3-7 with at least 5 other Daphnia individuals
• Repeat steps 3-8 with different caffeine concentration solutions
Artherosclerosis is the disease process which leads to
coronary heart disease and strokes, fatty deposits can
either block an artery directly or increase its chance of
being blocked by a blood clot (thrombosis) which means
the blood supply can be blocked completely and if its not
restored quick the affected cells will be permanetly
damaged. In the coronary arteries this results in a heart
attack and in the arteries supplying the brain it results in a
stroke. Because the supply of blood to the brain is
restricted or blocked it causes damage or death to the cells
in the brain. Narrowing of arteries results in tissue death
and gangrene (decay). An artery can burst where blood
builds up behind an artery that has been narrowed because of atheroscelorosis.

Atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), is caused primarily by damage to the endothelium of an artery
followed by an inflammatory response. It is a progressive disease so it can worsen over time.

In a healthy artery the endotehlium is smooth as it reduces friction between the blood and the inside of
the artery

Steps

• The endothelium becomes damaged and dysfunctional, the endothelial damage can result from
high blood pressure, result of high levels of certain types of cholesterol, smoking, diabetes,
obesity, and old age.
• An inflammatory response occurs, and white blood cells leave the blood vessel and move into the
damaged area which is the artery wall. These cells accumulate chemicals from the blood
(cholesterol) and a fatty deposit builds up called an atheroma.
• Calcium salts and fibrous tissue also build up at the site which results in a hard swelling called a
plaque on the inner wall of the artery. The build up of fibrous tissue means that the artery wall
loses some of its elasticity because it hardens.
• Plaques causes the lumen of the artery to become narrower which makes it more difficult for the
heart to pump blood around the body and can lead to a rise in blood pressure. Plaques lead to
raised blood pressure and raised blood pressure makes it more likely further plaques will form
because the damage to the endothelial tissue in other areas becomes more likely

So arteries get atherosclerosis as the fast-flowing blood in them is under high pressure so there is a lot of
damage to the walls however low pressure in veins means less risk of damage to the walls.

If the arteries become very narrow or completely blocked, they cannot supply enough blood to bring
oxygen and nutrients to the tissues which means the tissues will not be able to function normally.
The consequences of atherosclerosis

Coronary heart disease

Narrowing of the coronary arteries limits amount of oxygen-rich blood reaching the heart muscle,
resulting in a chest pain called angina. Angina is usually
experienced during exertion when the cardiac muscle is
working harder and respires more. Because the heart muscle
lacks oxygen, it’s forced to respire anaerobically. This results
in chemical changes which trigger pain.

If a fatty plaque in the coronary arteries ruptures, collagen is

exposed which leads to rapid clot formation. The blood
supply to the heart may be blocked completely. The heart
muscle supplied by these arteries does not receive any
blood, so it is said to be ischaemic (without blood). If the
affected muscle cells are not exposed to oxygen for a long
time, they will be permanently damaged. This is what we call a heart attack or myocardial infarction. If
the zone of dead cells occupies only a small area of tissue the heart attack is less likely to prove fatal.

Coronary heart disease symptoms

− Shortness of breath and angina (intense pain, ache or a feeling of constriction and discomfort in
the chest, or in the left arm and shoulder)
− Severe indigestion
− Heaviness, tightness, pain, burning and pressure –behind the breastbone, jaw, arm / neck
− Women - unusual fatigue, shortness of breath and indigestion

Sometimes coronary heart disease causes the heart to beat irregularly. This is known as arrhythmia, and it
can lead to heart failure. Arrhythmia is important in the diagnosis of coronary heart disease.

Stroke
If the supply of blood to the brain is briefly interrupted, then a mini stroke may occur. A mini stroke has
the symptoms of a full stroke but the effects last for only a short period, and full recovery can happen
quickly. However, a mini stroke is a warning of problems with blood supply to the brain that could result
in a full stroke in the future.

If a blood clot blocks one of the arteries leading to the brain, it will result in a full stroke. If brain cells are
deprived of oxygen for more than a few minutes they will be permanently damaged, and it can be fatal.

Stroke symptoms
− Numbness
− Dizziness
− Confusion
− slurred speech
− blurred or lost vision, often only in one eye.
Visible signs include paralysis on one side of the body with a drooping arm, leg or eyelid, or a dribbling
mouth. Right side of the brain controls the left side of the body, and vice versa, therefore the paralysis
occurs on the opposite side of the body to where the stroke occurred.

Rapid blood clotting is vital when a blood vessel is damaged. The blood clot seals the break in the blood
vessel and limits blood loss and prevents entry of pathogens through any open wounds by providing a
barrier where a scab can form under which wound healing can occur.

When platelets, a type of blood cell without a nucleus, come into contact with the damaged vessel wall
they change from flattened discs to spheres with long thin projections. Their cell surfaces change, causing
them to stick to the exposed collagen in the wall and to each other to form a temporary platelet plug.
They also release substances that activate more platelets.

Direct contact of blood with collagen within the damaged blood vessel wall triggers a series of chemical
changes in the blood. A cascade of changes results in the formation of a blood clot.

The clotting cascade

1) Platelets and damaged tissue release a protein

called thromboplastin.

2) Thromboplastin activates an enzyme that

catalyses the conversion of the protein prothrombin
into an enzyme called thrombin. Other protein
factors, vitamin K and calcium ions must be present
in the blood plasma for this conversion to happen.

3) Thrombin then catalyses the conversion of the

soluble plasma protein, fibrinogen, into the
insoluble protein fibrin.

4) A mesh of fibrin forms which traps more platelets

and red blood cells to form a clot.

Usually blood does not clot inside blood vessels. Platelets do not stick to the endothelium (inner lining) of
blood vessel as it is very smooth and has substances on its surface that repel platelets but if
atherosclerosis has occurred and the endothelium is damaged, the platelets come into contact with the
damaged surface and any exposed collagen. The clotting cascade will be triggered within the vessel
resulting in a clot.
1.2.1 - Cardiovascular Disease
CVD is a general term for conditions affecting the heart and blood vessels

It is usually associated with:

⎯ Atherosclerosis; the formation of hard plaques in the artery lining

⎯ Thrombosis; the formation of blood clots in the arteries

Risk factors are factors that can be linked to an increased risk of a disease

Exposure to a risk factor doesn’t guarantee that an individual will suffer a disease, e.g. a person who
smokes regularly isn’t guaranteed to develop lung cancer, but their risk compared to someone who
doesn’t smoke is much higher

Certain risk factors are correlated with certain diseases, but correlations are not always causations

The chance of developing CVD is higher in individuals who have a diet high in cholesterol, don’t
exercise regularly, and smoke; these behaviours increase the likelihood of damage occurring to the
arteries.

Diet A diet high in saturated fat Genetics Individuals can inherit alleles
increases blood cholesterol levels, making them more prone to high
increasing atheroma formation blood pressure of high blood
and therefore thrombosis. cholesterol, therefore more likely
A diet high in salt also increases to develop CVD
blood pressure.
High blood Increases risk of damage to artery Age The risk of developing CVD
pressure walls, increasing atheroma increases with age due to blood
formation and therefore vessels becoming more fragile
thrombosis. High blood pressure is and plaque building up over time
linked to other factors such as
stress, alcohol, poor diet, and
inactivity
Smoking Smoking decreases the levels of Biological Men are 3 times more likely to
protective chemicals called sex suffer with CVD than
antioxidants in the blood; this premenopausal women, due to
increases the risk of damage to lower level of hormones such as
cells lining the arteries, leading to oestrogen, which increases levels
atheroma formation and therefore of good cholesterol in the blood.
thrombosis
1.2.2 - Interpreting Data on
Risk Factors
⎯ Correlation is where a change in one variable occurs at the same time as a change in
another variable.
⎯ Causation is where the change in one variable causes the change in another variable.

Correlation between a risk factor and a diseases does not always mean that a causal relationship
exists

⎯ Identify trends and state what the results show e.g. the data show that the oldest age group has the
highest relative risk of heart disease
⎯ Use numbers from the data to back up descriptions, e.g. the data show that the oldest age group of
80+ has the highest relative risk of heart disease of 2.4
⎯ Work out what the data shows about the relationships between variables, e.g. the data show that
there is an association, or correlation, between age and the relative risk of heart disease

Larger sample sizes are more likely to give valid results as the sample is more likely to be representative of the
population in question

⎯ Some studies need to have a control with which to compare the results
⎯ Studies should be repeated, or there should be many studies that show the same result, before
conclusions can be drawn
⎯ Researchers should not be biased; Randomly selecting participants removes bias and increases the
likelihood of a representative sample

the more variables that have been controlled the more reliable and valid the data

⎯ Reliable data can be reproduced by repeating an experiment

⎯ Valid data has only tested one independent variable whilst all other variables are
controlled

there should be no bias involved in the collection or analysis of data

⎯ Bias in data can come from human sources, e.g. by selecting a non-random sample or
manipulating data to emphasise a certain outcome

the use of an experimental control provides a point of comparison and ensures that
the results are due to the variable of interest
 repeats of the data need to be taken within a study, and similar results should be
collected

⎯ Similar results are reliable

it should be possible to reproduce a set of findings by repeating an entire

investigation

Evidence from one study is not enough to conclude that a risk factor is a risk to health or
associated with a particular disease

Meta-analysis - Studies similar in design would need to be analysed together to make links

Similar conclusions would need to be drawn from all studies to accept the findings

When conflicting evidence arises, more research is needed to show which pattern is correct and is
often a sign that other variables are involved

Risk is defined as the chance or probability that a harmful event will occur

The statistical chance of a harmful event occurring needs to be supported by scientific evidence
gained from research

An individual's perception of risk may be different to the actual risk of something occurring

Risk can be overestimated because of factors such as:

⎯ Misleading information in the media

⎯ Overexposure to information
⎯ Personal experience of the associated risk
⎯ Unfamiliarity with the event
⎯ The event causing severe harm

Risk can be underestimated because of factors such as:

⎯ Lack of information
⎯ Misunderstanding of factors that increase the risk
⎯ A lack of personal experience of the associated risk
⎯ Unfamiliarity with the event
⎯ The harm being non-immediate
1.2.3 - Treatment of CVD
Types of medication for the treatment of CVD include

⎯ Antihypertensives
⎯ Statins
⎯ Anticoagulants
⎯ Platelet inhibitors

Antihypertensives lower blood pressure which reduces the risk of arterial endothelial damage and
therefore reduces the risk of atheroma’s and thrombosis

Beta blockers, vasodilators and diuretics act as antihypertensives

⎯ Beta blockers prevent increases in heart rate

⎯ Vasodilators increase the diameter of the blood vessels
⎯ Diuretics reduce blood volume by decreasing the amount of sodium reabsorbed into the
blood by the kidneys, therefore decreasing the volume of water reabsorbed into the blood

Statins lower blood cholesterol by blocking an enzyme in the liver, which is needed to make
cholesterol , this lowers the LDL concentration in the blood therefore reducing the risk of atheroma
formation. At high levels, LDLs increase the risk of atheroma’s forming.

Anticoagulants reduce blood clotting; reduced formation of blood clots decreases the likelihood of
thrombosis and therefore reduces the risk of blood vessels being blocked by blood clots.
Platelet inhibitors are also substances which reduce blood clotting, platelet inhibitors are a type of
anticoagulant. They prevent the clumping together of platelets, so preventing the formation of
blood clots. Aspirin is an example of a platelet inhibitor.

Antihypertensives Reduce blood pressure Side effects: headaches,

drowsiness, heart
palpitations, swelling of the
feet and ankles, and
persistent cough
Statins Reduce the levels of bad LDL Takes a while to become
cholesterol in the blood, so effective, needs to be taken
reducing the risk of long term to remain
atheroma development. They effective, give patients a false
increase the levels of good sense of security, side effects
HDL cholesterol in the blood include muscle and joint
which aids with further pain, liver damage, and
removal of LDL cholesterol neurological issues.
Anticoagulants Reduce the formation of new Can cause excessive bleeding
blood clots and can reduce if injury occurs, including
the size and growth of internal injury. Side effects
existing blood clots include fainting, osteoporosis
and swelling of tissues and
can also damage the foetus.
Platelet inhibitors Reduce the formation of new Can cause excessive bleeding
blood clots, and so the risk of if injury occurs and can
blood vessel blockage cause side effects such as
rashes, liver dysfunction, and
stomach lining damage.
Combining more than one
type of platelet inhibitor
increases risks of side effects

1.2.4 - Energy Budgets & Diet

Cells need a constant supply of energy to fuel metabolic processes which is released during
respiration. So, organisms need to take in enough food to fuel respiration because foods contain
stored energy in the form of biological molecules such as carbohydrates and lipids.

Energy budgets – the amount of energy taken in by an organism minus the amount of energy the
organism transfers during life processes such as growth, movement, reproduction, and respiration.
energy input - energy output = energy budget

The average adult needs around 2000 kcals per day to maintain a healthy weight and about 8700
kJ a day to maintain a healthy weight

Step 1: Use the graph to find the energy

expenditure for each activity for males
School = 4 kJ/min
Running = 17 kJ/min
Sleep = 3 kJ/min
Meals = 5 kJ/min

Step 2: Convert values into the number

of hours the student spends on each
activity
School = (4 x 60) x 6 = 1 440 kJ in 6 hrs
Running = 17 x 60 = 1 020 kJ in 1 hr
Sleep = (3 x 60) x 8 = 1 440 kJ in 8 hrs
Meals = (5 x 60) x 2 = 600 kJ in 2 hrs

Step 3: Add up the energy expenditures

to find the energy output
1440 + 1020 + 1440 + 600 = 4 500 kJ

Step 4: Substitute numbers into the

energy budget equation
energy input - energy output = energy budget

12 400 - 4 500 = 7 900 kJ

The student has an excess of 7 900 kJ of energy every day.

Energy imbalances can affect weight gain:

- Energy budgets should be balanced - The amount of energy taken in should equal the amount of
energy used or transferred.
- Weight gain - If energy intake is higher than the energy output excess energy will be converted into
fats by the body so the person will gain weight. If the energy output remains less than intake over a
sustained period of time the individual may become overweight and eventually obese
- Weight loss - If energy intake is less than energy output the body will need to take energy from
elsewhere and fat reserves will be converted into energy, the person will lose weight. If the energy
difference is large over a sustained period of time the individual may become underweight
 1.2.5 - Monosaccharides
Carbohydrates contain elements: carbon, hydrogen + oxygen

- Hydrogen + oxygen are found in the ratio 2:1

There are 2 types of sugar

- Monosaccharides: made up of single unit sugars

- Disaccharides: made of 2 sugar units

Polysaccharides are also carbohydrates:

monosaccharides disaccharides Polysaccharides containing 3 or more sugar units

Can be joined by
condensation reactions to
form

Monosaccharides are the monomers of carbohydrate; they can join to make carbohydrate polymers

⎯ Monosaccharides are simple carbohydrates

⎯ Monosaccharides are sugars

The main function of monosaccharides is to store energy within their bonds. When the bonds are
broken during respiration, energy is released.

Monosaccharides can combine through condensation reactions to form larger carbohydrates.

Some monosaccharides are used to form long, structural fibres, which can be used as cellular
support in some cell types.

General formula -> (CH2O)n

- 3C = triose
- 5C = pentose
- 6C = hexose

Formula = C6H1206
Main sugar used in respiration and can exist in 2 forms (alpha + beta)

⎯ Glucose is a hexose sugar

⎯ The six carbons that make up glucose form a ring structure
⎯ Carbons 1-5 form a ring, while carbon 6 sticks out above
the ring

Glucose comes in two forms: alpha (alpha) and beta (beta)

The forms of glucose are almost identical; they differ only in the
location of the H and OH groups attached to carbon 1

⎯ Alpha glucose has the H above carbon 1 and the OH group

below
⎯ Beta glucose has the H below carbon 1 and the OH group
above

-> readily absorbed in the body

-> used in respiration
-> provides a rapid source of energy
-> Tastes sweet
-> soluble

The structure of glucose is related to its function as the main energy store for animals and plants :

⎯ It is soluble so can be transported easily and has many covalent bonds which store energy.

Occurs naturally in fruits, honey + some vegetables.

-> an isomer of glucose

-> only 4C in the ring

Occurs in the diet mainly as a part of lactose.

-> OH groups on C1 and C4 are on the opposite side of the ring to glucose
1.2.6 – The glycosidic bond
The name of the glycosidic bond that forms depend
on the location of the OH groups on the
monosaccharides concerned, e.g.

⎯ If the OH groups are located on carbon 1 of

one monosaccharide and carbon 4 of the
other, a 1,4 glycosidic bond forms
⎯ If the OH groups are located on carbon 1 of
one monosaccharide and carbon 6 of the
other, a 1,6 glycosidic bond forms

Every glycosidic bond result in one water molecule

being released, thus glycosidic bonds are formed by
a condensation reaction

The glycosidic bond is broken when water is added

in a hydrolysis reaction

Examples of hydrolytic reactions include

the digestion of food in the alimentary tract and
the breakdown of stored carbohydrates in muscle
and liver cells for use in cellular respiration
1.2.7 – Disaccharides
Two monosaccharides can join via condensation reactions to form disaccharides

A condensation reaction is one in which two molecules join via the formation of a new chemical
bond, with a molecule of water being released in the process

The bond that forms between two monosaccharides is known as a glycosidic bond

The function of disaccharides is to provide the body with a quick-release source of energy

⎯ Disaccharides are made up of two sugar molecules, so they're easily broken down by enzymes
in the digestive system into their respective monosaccharides and then absorbed into the
bloodstream

Due to the presence of many hydroxyl groups, disaccharides are easily soluble in water

These hydroxyl groups form hydrogen bonds with the water molecules when dissolved in aqueous
solutions

Just like monosaccharides they are sweet in taste; Sucrose (table sugar)

Sucrose -> made from glucose + fructose

Lactose -> made of glucose + galactose

Maltose -> made from glucose + glucose

Contains two molecules of glucose linked by a 1,4 glycosidic bond

⎯ This means that the glycosidic bond is located between carbon 1 of one monosaccharide
and carbon 4 of the other

Contains a molecule of glucose and a molecule of fructose linked by a 1,2 glycosidic bond

⎯ This means that the glycosidic bond is located between carbon 1 of one monosaccharide
and carbon 2 of the other
Contains a molecule of glucose and a molecule of galactose linked by a 1,4 glycosidic bond

1.2.8 – Polysaccharides
Starch and glycogen are storage polysaccharides; they are adapted for this function by being:

⎯ Compact: Large quantities can be stored

⎯ Insoluble: They will have no osmotic effect on cells, unlike glucose which can dissolve and
raise the solute concentration of cell cytoplasm, causing water to move into cells by osmosis

Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are carbohydrate polymers; repeated chains of many monosaccharides joined by

glycosidic bonds in a condensation reaction

Polysaccharides may be:

Branched or unbranched

⎯ Being branched increases the rate at which a polysaccharide can be broken down

Straight or coiled
Starch is the storage polysaccharide of plants; it is stored as granules inside plant cells.

Plants make glucose during photosynthesis and the molecules of glucose are joined to make the
polysaccharide starch

Starch is constructed from two different polysaccharides:

Unbranched helix-shaped chain with 1,4 glycosidic bonds between α-glucose molecules

⎯ Its helical structure makes it compact, meaning that much can be stored in a small space

A branched molecule containing 1,4 glycosidic bonds between α-glucose molecules and 1,6 glycosidic
bonds

⎯ The branches result in many terminal glucose molecules that can be easily hydrolysed for
use during cellular respiration or added to for storage
Glycogen is the storage polysaccharide of animals and fungi

Is highly branched and not coiled

Contains both 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds

⎯ Glycogen is more branched than amylopectin

The branching provides more terminal glucose molecules which can either be added to or
removed by hydrolysis; this allows
the quick release of glucose to suit the
demands of the cell.

This is essential in animal cells as

animals are very metabolically active

⎯ Glycogen is compact which means that

much can be stored in a small space

Liver and muscles cells have a high

concentration of glycogen, this enables
a high cellular respiration rate

2 polysaccharides
Amylopectin is a polymer
Glycosidic bond between the molecules is: Mixture of amylose + amylopectin of alpha glucose, molecule
Both are polymers of alpha glucose is branched
-> reverse of condensation Amylose is a chain of many alpha glucose
linked by 1,4 glycosidic bonds Starch has no effect of osmosis
-> water is added to the bond

-> usual reaction when carbohydrates are broken down in the digestive system Amylose bends to form a
spiral. Hydroxyl groups
project into the middle
to form hydrogen bonds
Polysaccharides are many simple sugar units joined together (stabilising the shape)

There are 3 main types found in food -> starch, cellulose, glycogen

They are a type of polymer

They are chains of monosaccharides Glycogen is a polymer of alpha glucose

It is branched like amylopectin
- They are not sweet
- The branch points occur more often
- They are not soluble in water
It is the storage of carbohydrates of
They can be branched or unbranched
animal cells
They can be broken down easily to give glucose for respiration
Large, insoluble, no effect on osmosis
Some are used for storage
- Starch + glycogen
- These molecules are:
-> Compact in shape and easily broken down into monosaccharides
1.2.9 Lipids & Ester Bonds
⎯ Lipids are macromolecules containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. However lipids
contain a lower proportion of oxygen than carbohydrates.
⎯ They are non-polar and hydrophobic so insoluble in water
⎯ Lipids have an important role in energy yield, energy storage, insulation, and hormonal
communication.

⎯ Triglycerides are lipids that form the main component of fats and oils
⎯ The monomers are glycerol and fatty acids

⎯ Glycerol is an organic molecule that contains a

hydroxyl group bonded to a carbon atom

⎯ Fatty acids contain a methyl group at one end

of a hydrocarbon chain known as the R group
and at the other is a carboxyl group

o The shorthand chemical formula for a

fatty acid is RCOOH

⎯ Fatty acids can vary in two ways:

o Length of the hydrocarbon chain (R

group)

o The fatty acid chain (R group) may

be saturated (mainly in animal fat)
or unsaturated (mainly vegetable oils)

⎯ Saturated fatty acids contain no carbon-

carbon double bonds

o The hydrocarbon chain is saturated

with hydrogen atoms due to the
absence of double bonds

o They form unbranched, linear chains

⎯ Unsaturated fatty acids can be mono or poly-

unsaturated

o If H atoms are on the same side of the

double bond, they are cis-fatty acids
and are metabolised by enzymes
 o If H atoms are on opposite sides of the double bond, they are trans-fatty acids and cannot
form enzyme-substrate complexes, therefore, are not metabolised. They are linked with
coronary heart disease

⎯ Triglycerides are formed by esterification

⎯ An ester bond forms when a hydroxyl (-OH) group

form glycerol bonds with the carboxyl (-COOH) group
of the fatty acid

o The formation of an ester bond is

a condensation reaction

o For each ester bond formed a water molecule

is released

o Three fatty acids join to one glycerol molecule

to form a triglyceride

o Therefore for one triglyceride to form, three

water molecules are released

Triglycerides are fats and oils

Fatty acid and glycerol molecules are the components that

make up triglycerides

Fats and oils have a number of important functions in

organisms: energy storage, insulation, buoyancy, and protection
1.2.10 – Reducing Risk Factors
of CVD
A risk factor is any factor that increases the chance of developing a particular condition or disease

An increase in a risk factor does not guarantee the development of disease, but increases the risk

An example of a risk factor for the incidence of CVD is increased blood cholesterol

⎯ An increase in the presence of a risk factor would be expected to lead to

increased incidence of disease

The incidence of disease describes the number of cases of a disease that

occur within a particular group of people within a given time

⎯ Cholesterol is a type of lipid produced in the body

⎯ Cells require a source of cholesterol for cell membrane functioning, sex hormone structure,
and the synthesis of bile

⎯ Cholesterol is transported around the body as lipoproteins

o Lipoproteins are molecules composed of lipid and protein

o There are two types of lipoproteins: high density lipoproteins (HDLs) and low-density
lipoproteins (LDLs)

⎯ The balance of HDLs and LDLs in the blood is thought to be an important factor in the risk
of developing heart disease

HDLs contain unsaturated fat, cholesterol, and protein

These molecules transport cholesterol from body tissues to the liver to be recycled or excreted; they
are responsible for reducing blood cholesterol levels when it is too high

HDLs are also thought to contribute to the removal of cholesterol from the fatty plaques that form
during atherosclerosis
LDLs contain saturated fat, cholesterol, and protein

The role of LDL is to move cholesterol from the liver into the bloodstream where it remains until it is
required by the cells; they increase blood cholesterol levels when it is too low

- LDLs bind to receptors on cell surface membranes, enabling them to be taken up by the cells
that need them and removing cholesterol from the blood
- High levels of LDLs can lead to blockage of these membrane receptors, causing blood
cholesterol to rise

LDLs are often thought of as 'bad cholesterol'

- When your body has too much LDL cholesterol the membrane receptors on the surface of
cells are blocked, leading to an overall rise in blood cholesterol
- Cholesterol contributes to the formation of plaques in the arteries

High density lipoproteins are often thought of as 'good cholesterol'

- This is because HDLs carry cholesterol to the liver where it is broken down and excreted,
therefore lowering overall blood cholesterol levels

The ratio of LDLs to HDLs is important; the healthy ratio is thought to be roughly 3:1 of LDL:HDL

- An LDL:HDL ratio larger than 5:1 increases the risk of heart disease

Some scientific studies have linked a diet high in saturated fats to an increased risk of CVD

Obesity has been linked to an increase in CVD events

Waste-to-hip ratio is the circumference of the waist in cm divided by the circumference of the hips
in cm

- For women the ratio should be less than 0.86

- For men the ratio should be less than 1.0

BMI is a value derived from dividing an individual's mass in kg by the square of their height (m2)

A BMI of less than 18.5 indicates that the person is underweight

18.5 - 24.9 is considered normal
25 - 29.9 is considered overweight
A person with a BMI of 30 or higher is considered obese
Smoking has been linked to CVD by many research studies

- Health warnings now exist on all packets

- TV and media portray smoking as an unhealthy lifestyle choice
- Free materials, including prescriptions, are available to support individuals to stop smoking

Inactivity has been linked to increased risk of CVD

There are many campaigns and initiatives to encourage all people to partake in more exercise

- Increased hours of physical education in schools

- Targeted encouragement at different groups of people, such as teenagers

1.2.11 – Practical: Vitamin C

Content
The chemical name for vitamin C is ascorbic acid

⎯ Ascorbic acid is a good reducing agent and therefore it is easily oxidised

Methods for the detection of vitamin C involve titrating it against a solution of an oxidising agent
called DCPIP

⎯ DCPIP is a blue dye that turns colourless in the presence of vitamin C

⎯ Note that titration is a method of chemical analysis that involves determining the quantity
of a substance present by gradually adding another substance

The volume of vitamin C solution required to decolourise DCPIP should decrease as the
concentration of the vitamin C solution increases

Make up a series. e.g. six of known vitamin C concentrations (Serial dilution)

Use a measuring cylinder to measure out 1 cm3 of DCPIP solution into a test tube

Add one of the vitamin C solutions, drop by drop, to the DCPIP solution using a graduated pipette
or burette
Shake the tube for a set period of time using a stopwatch (keep the shaking time the same for each
concentration; this is a control variable)

When the solution turns colourless record the volume, in number of drops, of vitamin C solution
added

Repeat steps 2-5 for the same concentration twice more and calculate an average

Repeat steps 2-6 for each of the known concentrations

Results can be plotted as a line of best fit showing the volume of vitamin C needed to decolourise
DCPIP against the concentration of vitamin C

The line of best fit for such a graph is known as a calibration curve; unknown substances can be
compared to it to gain an estimate of their vitamin C concentration

This calibration curve produced from this experiment can be used to estimate the concentration of
vitamin C in fruit juices

DCPIP is an irritant

⎯ Avoid contact with the skin

⎯ Wear eye protection