What is genetic engineering?

 Genetic engineering is the process of using recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology to alter Genetic engineering also known as DNA technology. DNA technology is already widely used to engineer
the genetic makeup of an organism.  the genes of cultured cells for numerous practical purposes. One remarkable breakthrough of DNA
 Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the direct technology is the genetically engineered bacteria. Bacteria are simple organisms that are easy to
manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology. reproduce and have a simple mechanisms of gene transfer.
 Since ancient times the practice of genetic engineering had begun. The three modes of gene transfer between bacteria are:
 Artificial selection is done to indirectly manipulate genes focusing on the physical traits among 1. transduction, which is transfer via virus;
organisms. Breeders choose which organism to mate and produce offspring with desirable 2. transformation, which is the uptake of DNA from the surrounding fluid and
traits. They maintain this procedure without control of what genes can be passed. 3. conjugation, which is the bacterial version of mating.
 Selective breeding is a process when animals with desired characteristics are mated to produce
offspring with those desired traits such as Angus cows are bred to increase more meat. What is the process of transduction in bacteria?
 Hybridizations are when two individuals with unlike characteristics are crossed to produce the Transduction is defined as transfer of portion of DNA from one bacteria to another by Bacteriophages.
best in both organisms like the disease resistant potato called the Burbank potato. What is bacterial transformation and how does it work?
Mule – The mule is a progeny of a female horse and a male donkey. > Inserting genes into plasmids
Liger – An offspring of a female tiger and a male lion. The piece of DNA or gene of interest is cut from its original DNA source using a restriction enzyme and
Zebroid or Zonkey – An offspring of a female donkey and a male horse. then pasted into the plasmid by ligation. The plasmid containing the foreign DNA is now ready to be
 Inbreeding is a technique of breeding organisms that are genetically similar to maintain desired inserted into bacteria. This process is called transformation.
traits found in the pure dog breeds.
As defined, genetic engineering is the process of changing the DNA in living organisms to create -Conjugation is the process by which one bacterium transfers genetic material to another through direct
something new. It involves artificial manipulation, modification, and recombination of DNA or other contact. During conjugation, one bacterium serves as the donor of the genetic material, and the other
nucleic acid molecules to modify an organism or population of organisms. serves as the recipient. The donor bacterium carries a DNA sequence called the fertility factor, or F-
Recombinant DNA Technology factor.
-The ability of bacterial cell to carry out conjugation is usually due to a specific piece of DNA called
Recombinant DNA is made by mixing DNA from two different sources. Restriction enzymes were plasmid.
discovered in 1968 by Swiss microbiologist Werner Arbe. -Plasmid is a circular DNA molecule smaller than and separate from the bacterial chromosomes. Plasmid
has the capacity to carry virtually any gene and replicate in bacteria, they are the main tools for DNA
 This was used to splice, connect (or ligate), and remove or add nucleotides to sequences of the technology.
DNA.
 This process is used in recombinant DNA technology to remove and insert genetic sequences How does genetic engineering work?
from and into other sequences of other organisms. To help explain the process of genetic engineering we have taken the example of insulin, a protein? that
 Inserting the desired gene into the genome of the host involves the selection of the desired helps regulate the sugar levels in our blood.
gene for administration into the host followed by a selection of the perfect vector (either  Normally insulin is produced in the pancreas, but in people with type 1 diabetes there is a
plasmid or bacteriophage) with which the gene has to be integrated and a recombinant DNA is problem with insulin production.
formed.  People with diabetes therefore have to inject insulin to control their blood sugar levels.
 The recombinant DNA has to be introduced into the host, maintained and carried forward to  Genetic engineering has been used to produce a type of insulin, very similar to our own, from
the offspring. Biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies practice these techniques in yeast and bacteria like E. coli.
working with medical and research purpose.  This genetically modified insulin, ‘Humulin’ was licensed for human use in 1982
Onions that do not make you cry The genetic engineering process
> A new finding could lead to genetically modified onions that  don't make us cry as we chop them. 1. A small piece of circular DNA called a plasmid is extracted from the bacteria or yeast cell.
Researchers in Japan have identified the enzyme that releases a tear-duct-tickling chemical when 2. A small section is then cut out of the circular plasmid by restriction enzymes, ‘molecular
an onion is cut. Onion's tear-jerker is a compound called propanthial S-oxide. scissors’.
3. The gene for human insulin is inserted into the gap in the plasmid. This plasmid is now
Golden rice is a genetically modified, biofortified crop. Biofortification increases the nutritional value in genetically modified.
crops. Golden rice is genetically modified in order to produce beta carotene, which is not normally 4. The genetically modified plasmid is introduced into a new bacteria or yeast cell.
produced in rice. Beta carotene is convereted into Vitamin A when metabolized by the human body. We 5. This cell then divides rapidly and starts making insulin.
need Vitamin A for healthier skin, immune systems, and vision.
 6. . To create large amounts of the cells, the genetically modified bacteria or yeast are grown in GM Trees
large fermentation vessels that contain all the nutrients they need. The more the cells divide, Grow faster, yield better wood.
the more insulin is produced. Australian eucalyptus trees have been altered to withstand freezing temperatures.
7. When fermentation is complete, the mixture is filtered to release the insulin. Loblolly pines have been created with less lignin – better to make paper.
8. The insulin is then purified and packaged into bottles and insulin pens for distribution to
patients with diabetes. POSSIBLE HAZARDS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING
Uses of Genetic Engineering  Risks for human health, e.g. higher chances for cancer.
1. To make insulin for use by diabetic person  Risks for animal health, e.g. higher chances of infection.
2. To make growth hormone to treat dwarves.  Risk for creating new microbes that are difficult to kill by antibiotics.
3. To prepare vaccines.
4. To make plants resistant to disease. BENEFITS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING
5. To make pigs, cows or fish grow faster. Genetic Engineering
6. Higher production of milk by cows.  the processes of changing the DNA in living organisms to create something new. It involves
7. To make pigs with less fat – leaner meat. artificial manipulation, modification, and recombination of DNA or other nucleic acid molecules
in order to modify an organism or population of organisms.
GMO  Recombinant DNA technology has applications in various areas like medicine, focusing on the
Genetically discoveries of medicine to cure and improve human health and nutrition aimed to produce
Modified good quality and high quantity crops
Organism  Genetically Modified Organism are also called transgenic organism since genes are transferred
= Transgenic from one organism to another.
An organism which has foreign DNA integrated into its genetic material is called GMO. EXAMPLES OF TRANSGENIC ORGANISMS
 GRAPPLE - taste of grapes but looks like apple
LESS-FLATULENT COWS  TRANSGENIC COW - contained human protein per litre of milk and found to be more
Scientists have identified the bacterium responsible for producing methane and designed a line of cattle nutritionally balance
that creates 25% less methane than the average cow.  VENOMOUS CABBAGE -injected with scorpion venom aimed to kill caterpillars
GOLDEN RICE: is genetically modified (rich in vitamin A)  BANANA VACCINE - can produce virus proteins against hepatitis and cholera
DROUGHT-RESISTANT SEEDS  ESCHERICHIA COLI insulin gene is injected to bacteria to produce hormone insulin
GOATS MAKE SILK PROTEIN IN MILK  SPIDER GOAT - spider enhanced milk that can produce silk stronger than steel
Strong, flexible spider milk is one of the most valuable products in nature, and it could be used to make  LUMINOUS CAT produce a fluorescent protein in its fur
many products – from artificial ligaments to parachute cords.  LIGER hybrid of tiger and lion
This “silk milk” could then be used to manufacturer a web-like material called Biosteel. Planting genetically modified organisms
TADPOLES WHICH FLUORESCE  The aim of planting genetically modified organisms and its commercial use is to help improve
Tadpole modified with jellyfish genes show promise as a faster and less expensive way to detect farming methods efficiently and productively. Some of the most common genetically modified
pollution than traditional method. crops are soybean, maize, cotton, canola, alfalfa, papaya, eggplant, potato, apple, safflower,
FEATHERLESS CHICKENS pineapple, and sugarcane.
Grow better in warm countries.  Genetically modified plants have created resistance to harmful agents, enhanced product
No need of cooling. yield, and shown increased adaptability for better survival. Recombinant technology has been
PEST – RESISTANT CABBAGE widely used in improving crop varieties. Several transgenic or genetically modified organisms
Gene that programs poison in scorpion tails was combined with cabbage. These genetically modied (GMO) have been produced
cabbages produce scorpion poison that kills caterpillars when they bite leaves – but the toxin is modified  Recombinant DNA technology is playing a vital role in improving health conditions by
so it isn’t harmful to humans. developing new vaccines and pharmaceuticals. The treatment strategies are also improved by
STRAWBERRY WITH ANTI FREEZE developing diagnostic kits, monitoring devices, and new therapeutic approaches.
Antifreeze is a chemical found in a fish living in cold water to avoid its blood freezing. Gene able to make o Synthesis of synthetic human insulin and erythropoietin by genetically modified bacteria;
antifreeze was introduced into strawberries to avoid them from mushing up when frozen. But they o human growth hormones which cure stunted growth;
become blue. o tissues plasminogen activator -which dissolves blood clots among patients who had heart
attack;
 o transgenic pigs- used to produced human hemoglobin; o It is concerned with all the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among life sciences
o human clotting factors have also been produced in the milk of transgenic goats; and the cited fields. Bioethics is commonly understood that refers to the ethical implications
o production of “pharm” animals to synthesize such as pharmaceutical products and and application of the health-related life sciences including biotechnology, such as cloning,
o production of new types of experimental mutant mice for research purposes gene therapy, life extension, human genetic engineering. It promotes critic reflection about
List of genetically modified organisms: ethical conflicts, which are caused by progressing in life science and medicine.
-Genetic engineering is the direct modification of an organism’s genome, which is the list of specific
traits (genes) stored in the DNA.
-Changing the genome enables engineers to give desirable properties to different organisms.
-Organisms created by genetic engineering are called genetically modified organisms (GMOs).

History of GMO Development

1973: created first genetically modified bacteria
Herbicide tolerance: “Herbicide tolerance is the inherent ability of a species to survive and reproduce 1974: created GM mice
after herbicide treatment.” 1982: first commercial development of GMOs (insulin-producing bacteria)
1994: began to sell genetically modified food
2003: began to sell GMOs as pets (Glofish)

What is the GMO process?

 All genetic changes affect the protein synthesis of the organism.
 By changing which proteins are produced, genetic engineers can affect the overall traits of the
organism
 Genetic modification can be completed by a number of different methods:
o Inserting new genetic material randomly or in targeted locations
o Direct replacement of genes (recombination)
o Removal of genes
o Mutation of existing genes
GMO Bacteria
Bacteria are the most common GMOs because their simple structure permits easy manipulation of their
DNA.
One of the most interesting uses for genetically modified bacteria is the production of hydrocarbons
(plastics and fuels) usually only found in fossil fuels.
 Cyanobacteria have been modified to produce plastic (polyethylene) and fuel (butanol) as
byproducts of photosynthesis
 E. Coli bacteria have been modified to produce diesel fuel
Engineering Plants
How might genetic engineering modify plants to solve everyday problems?
GMO crop production in the US (2010):
93% of soybeans
93% of cotton
86% of corn
95% of sugar beets
BIOETHICS
Example:
o Bioethics is the study of controversial ethics brought about by advances in biology and
 One common modified crop is Bt-corn.
medicine. Bioethics are multidisciplinary. It blends philosophy, theology, history, and law with
A gene from the Bt bacteria is added so the corn produces a protein that is poisonous to certain
medicine, nursing, health policy, and the medical humanities.
insects but not humans.
Banana Vaccines
Modified virus injected in sapling tree causes the bananas to contain virus proteins large amounts of particular proteins. Engineered bacteria like the E. coli secrete the protein products in
the medium thus, it is easy for the scientist to collect and synthesize it.
Venomous Cabbage  Despite the advantages of bacteria, it is equally important to utilized eukaryotic cells to
Scorpion genes added to the cabbage prevent insects from eating it produce protein products. The simplest and the most recommended among the eukaryotic
Other Reasons to Genetically Modify Crops: cells are the Saccharomycetes cerevisiae or yeast. Similarly, yeast also have plasmid that can be
 Insect resistant used as gene vectors, it can also take up foreign DNA and integrate it into their genome
 Herbicide resistant  Some protein products require mammalian cells, genes of these products are often cloned in
 Drought/freeze resistant bacteria as a preliminary step, before it can be transfer. Many proteins that mammalian cells
 Disease resistant normally secrete are glycoprotein with chains of sugar attached. Because only mammalian cells
 Higher yield must be used for making these kind of products.
 Faster growth Here are some of protein products of recombinant DNA technology.
 Improved nutrition
 Longer shelf life
Engineering Animals
Could genetic engineering be used to modify any animals to solve problems?
Bioluminescent Animals
Uses:
 Protein tracking
 Disease detection using bioluminescent imaging (BLI) to identify different types of cells
 Novelty pets (Glofish are available now)
Fast-Growing Salmon
Genes from two other fish cause this salmon to continually produce growth hormones
Less Smelly Cows
Modifying bacteria responsible for methane production in cattle results in 25% less-flatulent cows
Web-Producing Goats
Spider genes in goats enable the production of spider silk in goat milk

GMO Concerns
What are some concerns regarding genetically modified foods and animals?
 Risk to human health; unsafe to eat
 Harm to the environment and wildlife
 Increased pesticide and herbicide use
 Farmers’ health
 Seed and pollen drift Pharmaceutical Industry and Medicine
 Creation of herbicide-resistant super weeds DNA technology has already had a major impact on the pharmaceutical industry and on human
 What about genetic engineering in humans? medicine. Recombinant DNA establish its influence in the different field of medicine such as: therapeutic
Nearly 50 countries around the world, including Australia, Japan and all of the countries in the European hormones; diagnosis and treatment of disease and; development of vaccines.
Union, have enacted significant restrictions or full bans on the production and sale of genetically A. Therapeutic Hormones
modified organism food products, and 64 countries now have GMO labeling requirements Insulin and growth hormone (GH) were the first pharmaceutical products made using
Recombinant DNA Application recombinant DNA technology. Before 1982, the main source of insulin were pigs and cattle
Production of Gene Products tissues obtained from the slaughterhouse. Insulin extracted from the animals are chemically
Recombinant cells and organisms modified by DNA technology are used nowadays to manufacture many similar but not identical to human insulin, thus it causes harmful side effects in some people.
useful products. Bacteria are the best candidate for manufacturing a protein product. Major advantages Genetic engineering solved this problem by developing bacteria that actually synthesize and
of bacteria include the plasmid and the phages that are used as gene cloning vectors and the fact that secretes human insulin. Growth hormone(GH) was harder to find, children with GH deficiency
bacteria can be grown rapidly and cheaply in large tanks. Bacteria are easy to be engineered to produce had to rely on human cadavers to acquire such hormones. In 1985, scientist made an artificial
 gene for GH by joining human DNA fragment to a chemically synthesized piece of DNA. Using soybeans, Bt eggplants and Bt corn that contains genes from Bacillus thuringiensis which makes
this gene, they were able to produce GH in E. coli. the crops resistant to certain insect pest.
Other hormones produce because of the development of recombinant DNA technology are the;  The nutritional value of crop plants is also being improved. ‘Golden rice,” a transgenic variety
Blood Clotting Factor VIII with daffodil genes produces grains that contains beta-carotene, which our body uses to make
 Blood clotting elements assume a fundamental part in the administration of patients that vitamin A.
experience the ill effects of hemophilia, a draining issue including the absence of capacity to  Today, scientist is also exploring the possibilities of making transgenic farm animals, though at
deliver sufficient blood clotting component VIII for blood coagulation to work as ordinary present only on an experimental basis. The goals tend to be the same as those of traditional
 The capacity to make recombinant blood coagulating factor VIII permits bigger amounts to be breeding to improve the quality of farm animal products. However, the development of
utilized by and by and diminishes the requirement for blood gift to get the factor normally transgenic farm animals is proceeding slowly due to some encountered problem with the
 The promising effect of blood clotting factor VIII enables the scientist to see the brighter future animals such as increased susceptibility to disease and low fertility
for people who are suffering from this kind of disease through recombinant DNA technology

B. Diagnosis and Treatment of Disease

DNA technology is likely to be used increasingly in disease diagnosis. Recombinant DNA has
been utilized in the advancement of the most well-known analytic procedures for HIV and to
recognize the presence of HIV in an individual. The neutralizer test utilizes a recombinant HIV
protein to quantify antibodies in the body that multiply when there is an HIV contamination.
The DNA test utilizes turnaround record polymerase chain response (RT-PCR) to identify the
presence of HIV hereditary material. This method was created utilizing the rDNA of atoms and
investigating the genome successions.
C. Vaccines
 DNA technology is also helping medical scientist develop vaccines.
 A vaccine is a harmless variant of a pathogen that is used to prevent an infectious
disease.
 When a potential host is inoculated, the vaccine stimulates the immune system to
develop lasting defences against the pathogen. Especially for the many viral diseases
for which there is no effective drug treatment, prevention by vaccination is virtually
the only medical way to fight the disease.
 This method has been used to make the vaccine against hepatitis B virus. Hepatitis B is
a disease of the liver that can be forestalled with the hepatitis B antibody.
Recombinant DNA of the hepatitis B infection surface antigen is created in yeast cells
to be remembered for the antibody. This is gainful as the hepatitis infection doesn't
multiply in vitro and recombinant DNA gives a technique to make the DNA expected to
control hepatitis B.

Agriculture and the Genetically Modified Organism

 A growing concern of most people nowadays is the shortage of supply of food around the
world. Scientist concerned with feeding the growing human population are using DNA
technology to make genetically modified organisms for use in agriculture.
 Researchers can manipulate the DNA of a single somatic cells and then grow a plant with a new
trait from the engineered cells. Already in commercial use are a number of crop plants carrying
new genes for the desired traits like delayed ripening, and resistance to spoilage and disease.
 Many of the genetically modified(GM) plants have received genes for herbicide resistance. For
example, a number of varieties of soybeans and cotton carry a bacterial gene that makes the
plants resistant to herbicides. Currently, the most common crops are the Bt cotton, Bt