Unit-3 - IPv4 and IPv6 - 5 PDF

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IPv4

The Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the delivery


mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols.

Switching at the network layer in the


Internet uses the datagram approach to
packet switching.

Communication at the network layer in


the Internet is connectionless.
Position of IPv4 in TCP/IP protocol suite
IPv4 datagram format
Note

The precedence subfield was part of


version 4, but never used.
Note

The total length field defines the total


length of the datagram including the
header.
Figure 20.7 Encapsulation of a small datagram in an Ethernet frame
Figure 20.8 Protocol field and encapsulated data
Table 20.4 Protocol values
Example 20.1

An IPv4 packet has arrived with the first 8 bits as shown:


01000010
The receiver discards the packet. Why?

Solution
There is an error in this packet. The 4 leftmost bits (0100)
show the version, which is correct. The next 4 bits (0010)
show an invalid header length (2 × 4 = 8). The minimum
number of bytes in the header must be 20. The packet has
been corrupted in transmission.
Example 20.2

In an IPv4 packet, the value of HLEN is 1000 in binary.


How many bytes of options are being carried by this
packet?

Solution
The HLEN value is 8, which means the total number of
bytes in the header is 8 × 4, or 32 bytes. The first 20 bytes
are the base header, the next 12 bytes are the options.
Example 20.3

In an IPv4 packet, the value of HLEN is 5, and the value


of the total length field is 0x0028. How many bytes of
data are being carried by this packet?

Solution
The HLEN value is 5, which means the total number of
bytes in the header is 5 × 4, or 20 bytes (no options). The
total length is 40 bytes, which means the packet is
carrying 20 bytes of data (40 − 20).
Example 20.4

An IPv4 packet has arrived with the first few hexadecimal


digits as shown.
0x45000028000100000102 . . .
How many hops can this packet travel before being
dropped? The data belong to what upper-layer protocol?

Solution
To find the time-to-live field, we skip 8 bytes. The time-to-
live field is the ninth byte, which is 01. This means the
packet can travel only one hop. The protocol field is the
next byte (02), which means that the upper-layer protocol
is IGMP.
Fragmentation
 How do we connect networks with different maximum packet sizes?
 Need to split up packets, or discover the largest size to use.
 Different networks have different maximum packet sizes
 Or MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit)
Packet Size Solutions
 Fragmentation
 Split up large packets in the network acceptable
range
 Routers fragment packets that are to large to forward
 Receiving host reassembles to reduce the load on
routers
 Classic method
 Discovery
 Find the largest that fits on the network path and
use it
 IP uses today instead of fragmentation
IPv4 Fragmentation Fields
 Header fields used to handle packet size differences
 Identification, Fragmentation offset, MF/DF control bits
IPv4 Fragmentation Procedure:
 Routers split a packet that is too large:

 Typically break into large pieces


 Copy IP header to pieces
 Adjust length on pieces
 Set offset to indicate position
 Set MF(More Fragments) on all pieces except last
 Receiving hosts reassembles the pieces:
 Identification filed links pieces together, MF tells receiver when it
has all pieces
Figure 20.10 Flags used in fragmentation
Fragmentation Example
A 3,000-byte IP packet with a default IPHL of 20 bytes must be sent over an Ethernet network.
a)What is the data payload of the packet?
b) In how many fragments this packet must be decomposed?
c)What are the FO’s of the fragments?
d)What are the data payloads of the fragments?
e)How long the fragments are?
f)What are the expected lower and upper bounds of n?

Solution:
For Ethernet v2, MTU = 1,500 bytes.
a) The data payload of the packet is : DP = PL-IPHL

DP = 3,000 – 20 = 2,980 bytes


b) Number of fragments this packet must be decomposed: n = PL-IPHL/MTU-IPHL

n = (3,000 – 20)/(1,500 – 20) = 2.0135


… Since this result is not a whole number, it is incremented by 1 and rounded off to the nearest integer; i.e. n = 2.0135… + 1 =
3.0135… = 3 3.
c)The fragment offsets are: FOi = (i-1) * (MTU-IPHL/8)
FO1 = (1 – 1)*(1,500 – 20)/8 = 0
FO2 = (2 – 1)*(1,500 – 20)/8 = 185
FO3 = (3 – 1)*(1,500 – 20)/8 = 370
d) The data payloads of the fragments are: dpi = MTU - IPHL
dp1 = 1,500 – 20 = 1480 bytes
dp2 = 1,500 – 20 = 1480 bytes
dp3 = DP – (dp1 + dp2) = DP – 8*FO3 = 2980 – 2,960 = 20 bytes
e) The lengths of the fragments are:
pl1 = dp1 + IPHL = 1,500 bytes
pl2 = dp2 + IPHL = 1,500 bytes
pl3 = dp3 + IPHL = 40 bytes
f)The expected lower and upper bounds of n are:
Lower Bound : PL/MTU = 3,000/1,500 = 2
Upper Bound: PL/MTU + 1 = 3
2 <=n <=3
Therefore regardless of whether IPHL is 20 or 60 bytes, the packets must be broken up into no more than 3 fragments.
Figure 20.11 Fragmentation example
Figure 20.12 Detailed fragmentation example
Example 20.5

A packet has arrived with an M bit value of 0. Is this the


first fragment, the last fragment, or a middle fragment?
Do we know if the packet was fragmented?

Solution
If the M bit is 0, it means that there are no more
fragments; the fragment is the last one. However, we
cannot say if the original packet was fragmented or not. A
non-fragmented packet is considered the last fragment.
Example 20.6

A packet has arrived with an M bit value of 1. Is this the


first fragment, the last fragment, or a middle fragment?
Do we know if the packet was fragmented?

Solution
If the M bit is 1, it means that there is at least one more
fragment. This fragment can be the first one or a middle
one, but not the last one. We don’t know if it is the first
one or a middle one; we need more information (the
value of the fragmentation offset).
Example 20.7

A packet has arrived with an M bit value of 1 and a


fragmentation offset value of 0. Is this the first fragment,
the last fragment, or a middle fragment?

Solution
Because the offset value is 0, it is the first fragment.
Example 20.8

A packet has arrived in which the offset value is 100.


What is the number of the first byte? Do we know the
number of the last byte?

Solution
To find the number of the first byte, we multiply the offset
value by 8. This means that the first byte number is 800.
We cannot determine the number of the last byte unless
we know the length.
Example 20.9

A packet has arrived in which the offset value is 100, the


value of HLEN is 5, and the value of the total length field
is 100. What are the numbers of the first byte and the last
byte?
Solution
The first byte number is 100 × 8 = 800. The total length is
100 bytes, and the header length is 20 bytes (5 × 4), which
means that there are 80 bytes in this datagram. If the first
byte number is 800, the last byte number must be 879.
Internet Checksum

 Only for the header, but not for the


payload
 Each router modifies the IP header, but not
the payload.
 No special hardware can be used.
 Computationally efficient.
 The upper layers will check the integrity of
the payload by their own schemes.
To compute a checksum:
1. Put a 0 in the checksum field.
2. Add each 16-bit value together.
3. Add in any carry
4. Inverse the bits and put that in the checksum field.
To verify checksum:
1. Add each 16-bit value together (including the checksum).
2. Add in carry.
3. Inverse the bits.
4. The result must be 0.
Example of
checksum
calculation
in binary
Example of
checksum
calculation
in
hexadecimal
IPv6

The network layer protocol in the TCP/IP protocol


suite is currently IPv4. Although IPv4 is well designed,
data communication has evolved since the inception of
IPv4 in the 1970s. IPv4 has some deficiencies that
make it unsuitable for the fast-growing Internet.
Figure 20.15 IPv6 datagram header and payload
Figure 20.16 Format of an IPv6 datagram
Table 20.6 Next header codes for IPv6
Table 20.7 Priorities for congestion-controlled traffic
Table 20.8 Priorities for noncongestion-controlled traffic
Table 20.9 Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6 packet headers
Figure 20.17 Extension header types
Table 20.10 Comparison between IPv4 options and IPv6 extension headers
20-4 TRANSITION FROM IPv4 TO IPv6

Because of the huge number of systems on the


Internet, the transition from IPv4 to IPv6 cannot
happen suddenly. It takes a considerable amount of
time before every system in the Internet can move from
IPv4 to IPv6. The transition must be smooth to prevent
any problems between IPv4 and IPv6 systems.
Figure 20.18 Three transition strategies
Figure 20.19 Dual stack
Figure 20.20 Tunneling strategy
Figure 20.21 Header translation strategy
Table 20.11 Header translation

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