Vol 2B Electronic Navigation Systems PDF

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|(: CONFIDENTI.ILi
SUMMARY TECHNICAL REPORT OF DIVISION 13, NDRC
VOLUME 2B
ELECTRONIC
NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

VANNRVAR BUSH, DIRECTOR
NATIONAL OFFENSE RESEARCH COMMITTEE

JAMES B. CON A NT, CHAIR MAN
DIVISION 13
H A R A D E N PRATT, CHIEF
WASHINGTON, D. C, ]946
B lf?%£*häi\" ■ '.
WKMSA
vem
NATIONAL DEFENSE RESEARCH COMMITTEE
James B. Conant, Chairman

Richard C. Tolman, Vice Chairman
Roger Adams Army Representative1
Frank B. Jcwett Navy Representative2
Karl T. Compton Commissioner of Patents3
Irvin Stewart, Executive Srrretary
1
Arniy rcjircsciilHllivu in nrdrr of service: -'.Vm'/y rrprcnentativeii in order of servire:
Maj. (icn. (!. V. Strong Col. L. A. Dpnson Real1 Adin. 11. G. Bowen Rear Adm. J, A. Furer
Maj. Gen. R, C. Moore Col. P. II. Fayinonvillc Capt. l,yl)iand P. Smitli Rear Adm. A, II. Van Keuren
Maj. Gen. C. C. Williams Brig. Gen. E. A. Hc^nicr Commodore II. A. Schade
3
Brig. Gen. W. A. Wood, Jr. Col. M. M. Irvine ('uiiii>iissioners nf PnienlH in order of service:
Col. E. A. lioutlipau Convvay P. C'ie Casper V>'. OOBIS
NOTES OX THE ORGANIZATIOX OF XDh'C
Tlic duties of the National Defense Research Cunimittce in a reorganization in the fall of 11)42, twenty-three ad-
were (11 to recommend to the Director nf OSRI) suitable ministrative divisions, panels, or committees were created,
projects and research programs on the instrunienfalities of each with a chief selected on the basis of his outstanding
warfare, together '.vith contract facilities for carrying out work in the particular field. The NDRC members then be-
these projects and programs, and (2i to administer the tech- came a reviewing and advisory group to the Director of
nical and scientific work of the contracts. More specilically, OSRI), The final organization was as follows:
NDRC functioned by initiating research projects on re-
Division I - Ballistic Research
quests from the Army or the Navy, or on requests from an
Division 2 — Effects of Impact and Explosion
allied government transmitted thnmgh the Liaison Office
Division 3 — Rocket Ordnance
of DSHD, or on its own considered initiative as a result of
Division -I — Ordnance Accessories
the experience of its members. Proposals prepared by the
Division, Panel, or Committee for research contracts for Division 5- New Missiles
Division (i — Sub-Surface Warfare
performance of the work involved in such projects were
Division 7 — fire Control
first reviewed by NDRC, and if approved, recommended to
Division S — Explosives
the Director of OSRI). I'pon approval nf a proposal by the
Division !l — Chemistry
Director, a contract permitting maximum flexibility of
Division 10 — Absorbents and Aerosols
scientifie effort was arranged. The business aspects of the
Division II Clienvical Engineering
contract, including such matters as materials, clearances,
Division 12 - Transportation
voucher.-, patents, priorities, legal matters, and admiiuslra-
tion ul patent matters were handled by the Kxecutive Sec- Division 13- Kleetrical ('omimmication
retary of OSliD. I livision II — Radar
Originally XDRC administered its work through five Division 10 Radio Coordination
divisions, each headed by one of the XDRC members. Division l(i Optics and Camouflage
These were: Division 17 Physics
Division IS - War Mt tallurgy
Division A — Armor and Ordnance Division 10— Miscellaneous
Division V, — Bombs, fuels, Cases, & (.'liemieal Problems Applied Mathematics Panel
Division C —• Comrmmication and Transportation Applied Psychology Panel
Division D- Detection, Controls, and Instruments i. ommitlee on Propagation
Division li Patents and Inventions Tropical Deterioration Administrative Committee
CONFlDKXTfAL
NDRC FOREWORD
As EVENTS of the years preceding 1940 revealed the monographs are an important part of the story
more and more i learly the seriousness of the world of these aspects of NDRC research.
situation, many scientists in this country came to In contrast to the information on radar, which is of
realize the need of organizing scientific research for widespread interest and much of which is released
service in a national emergency. Recommendations to the public, the research on subsurface warfare is
which they made to the White Mouse were given largely classified and is of general interest to a more
careful and sympathetic attention, and as a result the restricted group. As a consequence, the report of
National Defense Research Committee [NDRC] was Division fi is found almost entirely in its Summary
formed by Executive Order of the President in the Technical Report, which runs to over twenty volumes.
summer of 1940. The members of NDRC, appointed The extent of the work of a division cannot therefore
by tne President, were instructed to supplement (he be judged solely by the number of volumes devoted
work of the Army and the Navy in the development to it in the Summary Technical Report of NDRC:
of the instrumentalities of war. A year later, upon the account must be taken of the monographs and avail-
establishment of the Office of Scientific Research and able reports published elsewhere.
Development [OSHD], NDRC became one of its Of all the NDRC Divisions, few wore larger or
units. charged with more diverse responsibilities than
The Summary Technical Report of NDRC' is a Division 13. Under the urgent pressure of wartime
conscientious effort on the part of NDRC to sum- requirements, the staff of the Division developed
marize and evaluate its work and 1o present it in a navigation and communications devices and systems
useful and permanent form, it comprises some which not only contributed to the successful Allied
seventy volumes broken into groups corresponding to war effort, but which will continue to be of value in
the NDRC Divisions, Panels, and Committees. time of peace in the fields of transportation and com-
The Summary Technical Report of each Division, munications. The work of the Division, under the
Panel, or Committee is an integral survey of the work direction first of C. B. Jolliffe and later of Haraden
of that group. The first volume of each group's report Pratt, furnishes a foundation for what promises to be
contains a summary of the report, slating the prob- even more radical developments than those of the
lems presented and the philosophy of attacking (hem, war for one example, direction finders which will
and summarizing the results of the research, develop- operate at all elevations and azimuth angles, in other
ment, and training activities imderlaken. Some words, hemispherically.
volumes may be ''state of the art" I realises covering The Summary Technical Report of Division 13 was
subjects to which various research groups have con- prepared under the direction of the Division Chief
tributed information. Others may contain descrip- and authorized by him for publication. The report
tions of devices developed in the laboratories. A presents the methods and results of the widely varied
masler index of all these divisional, panel, and com- research and development program, and, in I he case
mittee reports which together constitute the Sum- of work with speech scrambling and decoding, it
mary Technical Report of NDRC is contained in a presents for the first time a comprehensive review of
separate volume, which also includes the index of a the slate of the art. The report is also a notable
microfilm record of pertinent technical labor; lory record of the skill and integrity of the scientists and
reports and reference material. engineers, who, with the cooperation of the Army and
Some of the NDRC-sponsored researches which Navy and Division contractors, contributed bril-
had been declassified by ihe end of 1910 were of liantly to the defense of the nation. To all of these we
sufficient popular interest that it was found desirable express our sincere appreciation
to report thorn in the form of monographs, such as the
VANXKVAK BUSH, Director
series on radar by Division 14 and the monograph on
sampling inspection by the Applied Mathematics Oßce of Scientific Research and Development
Panel. Since (he material treated in them is not dupli- ■!. 13. COXAXT, Chairman
cated in the Summary Technical Report of NDRC, Xntionnl Defence HcKearch Committee
CONFIDDNTIAL
■ »■HIHII IIIITTTTmirfinilTTM
FOREWORD
Tino 1'RKSKXT vulumc, \'üluine 2B of Division 13, together with notes on the accuracies and limitations
NDRC, was originally prepared by C'entrai inherent in them.
Communictitions Hesoarcli, ('ruft Laborat-ory, llur- Sections 2 through 30 embody descript ions more or
vanl University, as Part II of the linal report on less detailed of the various systems. Section 31 con-
(,'ontrart UivMsr-l 141, Service Project AN 31. It i> tains comparisons of the several systems, conclusions
iueliuleil in tliis series as a supplement to Volume 2.V as ' i I heir characteristics, a table summarizing nu-
of I he Snnimary Technical Report of Division 13, merical and other data, and recommendations for
Nl)lt<'. It presents a descripl ive and criliea] sili'\'ey further research.
of a nuinher of the electi'onic navigation systems de- The report (OSRD Report No. (3279) of which
veloped during the war, both in this country and in this volume is a reprint was dated December 1,1945,
Kurope. Some of the systems described are now or and, neccssaiiiy, the survey work leading to this re-
were operational during the war. Others are merely port was completed sometime before that date. Thus,
proposed. Pin-point bombing and blind landing systems proposed after the end of 1945 are not in-
techniques are excluded. cluded.
Section 1 represents an analysis of the principles HARADKX PRATT
underlying the three liasic types of iia\'igal ion systems Chief, Division 13
CONFIDENTIAL
CONTENTS
SECTION I'AliK
1 Introduction 1.01
2 Beacons and [nterrogator.s 2.01
3 Oboe • M)l
)
4 Shoran 4.0
5 Micro-H ,1.0
6 A.R.L. Intermittent Phase-Cornpariôn Distanco
Measuring System 0.01
7 A.R.L.One-Shot Distance-Measuring System .... 7.01
8 Canadian Distance-Meiisuring System S.01
9 GE Random Interrogation Distance-Measuring System 9.01
10 GE Time-Rationing Distantie-Measuring System . . . 10.01
11 Gee 11.01
12 Loran 12.01
13 Decca Xavigational System (QM) 3.01
14 Post-Office Position Indicator (POPI) 14.01
15 A-X Radio "Range" 15.01
](] Aircraft Direction-Finders and Homing Systems , . . 10.01
17 Sonne (Consol) (AN/FRN-5) 17.01
18 Bendix Automatic Position-Plotter 18.01
19 CAA VHP Omnidirectional Beacon 19.01
20 CAA LF Omnidirectional Beacon 20.01
21 Federal Bong-Range Xavigational System 21.01
22 Airborne Radar 22.01
23 Search Radar as a Xavigational Aid 23.01
24 AX APX-34 Short-Range Approach System .... 24.01
2.5 Federal Airport Traffic-Control Sj'stem 25,01
2() Map-PPI Superposition (Radar Mapping) 20.01
27 RCA Television-Kndar System 27.01
28 Sperry Omnidirecitional-Range and Distance Indicator . 28,01
29 AN/APA-44 Ground-Position Indicator (GPI) . . . 29.01
30 Miscellaiuôus l^nemy Navigational Systems .... 30.01
31 Comparisons, Conclusions and Recommendations . . 31.01
32 Appendix A A Short Glossary of Terns I'sed in this
Report 32.01
illlJß h- I W
CONTENTS
SECTION I'A (IK
33 Appendix B — Probabk; Values of some Physical and

Geodesic Constants 33.U1
34 List of Microfilmed Reports 34.01
35 Contract Numbers 35.01
36 Service Project Numbers 30.01
37 Index 37.01
n
f | Pi fff COXPlDKNTrAEft*«!«!
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ITHl
Electronic Navigation Systems Ml
Introduction
Under the pressure of wartime requirements a great many new and useful
navigational methods have been developed, planned, or suggested. The purpose of
this survey is to make a basic study of all known radio aids to navigation in order
to set up fair and useful bases of comparison, and in order to provide a common
background for further developmental programs. Conveniently, all known systems
may be analyzed in terms of three basic types, which are described and criticized
in Section 1 of this report.
In Sections 2 to 30 inclusive, we have attempted to summarize available

knowledge regarding specific systems, showing how each system is built up by
dressing one or more of the three basic types with instruments appropriate to the
occasion. In part, this instrumentation is determined by the particular navigational
problems which the designers of the system have attempted to meet. In part, the
choice of particular instruments and expedients seems arbitrary, depending upon
individual preferences and previous achievements of the system engineers. In some
such instances, we have mentioned alternative methods or devices, especially when
the alternative procedure seems to offer certain advantages. However, the authors
of this report specifically disclaim any personal experience or specialized back-
ground in electronic navigation, other than that which they have acquired in this
research by analyzing all available documents, visiting a number of research labor-
atories, and conferring repeatedly with the various Army, Navy, and Coast Guard
groups in charge of such developments and applications. This fresh approach to
the problem has permitted a strictly impartial consideration of all systems. If any
personal preferences occasionally are implied in the text, it should, therefore, be
understood that such thought.; have developed in the course of this survey, and now
represent the consensus of opinion of an unbiased five-man jury.
The authors consider an important, part of their contribution to be the col-

lection and presentation of descriptions of the numerous systems, existing or pro-
posed. If these systems are to be critically compared, such a collection of descrip-
tive material would in any case have to be made, and this report therefore presents
both the conclusions reached and an outline of the knowledge on which they are
based. Collection of these data proved to be a major enterprise, requiring the selec-
tion and analysis of several hundred documents, picked out from thousands of ab-
stracts of related material. Where possible these documents were supplemented
and brought up-to-date by personal inquiries and by inspection trips. After "thresh-
ing out" each system at some meeting of our research group, individual authors
have described the several systems assigned to them, attempting to observe a
reasonably uniform practice in text and diagrams. Such descriptions normally be-
gin with a brief summary in a standardized tabular form, intelligible to any scienti-
fically-minded reader. This introduction is followed by a presentation of such tech-
nical features of each system as are deemed likely to interest persons who are
reasonably familiar with electronic circuitry in general. Familiar items such as
conventional transmitters and receivers have been treated very lightly, in order to
conserve space for a fuller presentation of important novelties in electronic tim-
ing devices, phasing networks, etc. Particular attention has been paid to those tech-
nical assets and liabilities of each system which seem likely to determine its ulti-
mate precision and coverage. The descriptive sections are intentionally very un-
equal in length. Considerable detail has been included in treating systems which
have been placed in actual operation. Some of the proposed systems are very in-
teresting and may later prove to be valuable, but their components are somewhat
nebulous at this stage in the design and can be treated adequately in a few sentences.
1.02 Electronic Navigation Systems
With one very minor exception we have had complete access to all pertinent
information available in the United States and England, This information naturally
included data regarding a considerable number of enemy systems, though we have
had to describe some of these in outline form only, lacking details of instrumenta-
tion (in October 1945) at the time our survey closed. The gaps are probably not
important, as the one outstanding German system is covered in considerable detail,
partly on the basis of post-war inspection of significant components. On account of
the classification assigned to most of our source material at the time when such
information was obtained, we find it obligatory to assign the initial classification of
"Secret" to this survey. However, we hope and expect that our initial classification
may soon be reduced or deleted by competent governmental authority. Such action
would release the information to a larger group of engineers at a time when it
should be particularly useful in planning a coordinated world-wide navigation sys-
tem. At the specific suggestion of the Army and Navy, we have always included the
post-war aspects of the problem in our debates, in addition to the closely-related
military tasks. In our own judgment the descriptions and diagrams here included
are suitable for declassification at this time.
In order to conserve space we have excluded from our descriptions certain

highly specialized problems which the term "navigation" might otherwise include.
The specific exclusions are: 1. Pin-point bombing
2. Blind landing
3. Electronic Altimeters.
Accordingly, our treatment of "navigation" includes the location of military

vehicles and troops on land, the navigation of ships at sea, and the guidance of air-
craft over long distances and in the neighborhood of airports. Pilotage of ships
xuider difficult conditions is included in our field of interest, but our problem is sus-
pended while an aircraft is making its "bombing run" in the immediate vicinity of
a hostile objective and terminates when an aircraft arrives at the "stacking space"
over a friendly airport. These restrictions accord with the original directives in
which the survey was requested.
One additional comment on the word "navigation" may be useful by way of

introduction to our subject. In the broad sense "navigation" is typified by the pro-
blem of the tramp steamer, which should be able to follow any arbitrary route, any-
where on the high seas. We do not speak of "navigation" when referring to the loco-
motive engineer, who follows a steel track and is governed by block signals, warn-
ing torpedoes, etc. Commercial airlines, especially over land, present an inter-
mediate case, lying between these two extremes. Normally the pilot follows an
electronic track, equipped with radio beacons and equivalent milestones. However,
he may inadvertently become a "navigator" in the broader sense, in case he is
driven "off-the-beam" by severe storms or other emergencies. Modern versions
of the "beam" system are strongly favored by the airlines and are included in this
report, though our main interest attaches to the more difficult problems of general
unrestricted navigation.
Following the numerous descriptions of specific systems we have included

a few final remarks (Section 31) on comparisons, evaluations, conclusions, and
suggestions for continued research and development. For the most part, these are
the natural and almost inevitable comparisons and suggestions which germinate
automatically when a small discussion group submerges itself in such a welter of
related systems for a number of weeks. Constant restraint has been necessary in
order to keep individual members of the group from inventing a dozen or more new
variants of the species already on display. Scattered at appropriate places through-
out the descriptive sections will be found a few minor researches, of a theoretical
lUdlimillllHimUlin ll ,-»-——-—--—-—-^———.—~——= m,,.mmtmmm™.^mmm*wm*ii*mmmi—*m!tmimiimmmmmi^mimi*mi*m*immilim«*Jiril*milKX
Electronic Navigation Systems 1.03
nature, aimed at evaluation of the capabilities and limitations of the general prin-
ciples appearing in the context.
We wish to acknowledge the cordial cooperation of the Army and Navy Liai-
son Officers associated with the project and with our laboratory. Great assistance
has been rendered by the OSRD Liaison Office in Washington which assisted in the
procurement of the majority of the foreign and domestic documents employed in
the survey. Exchange of information with the Watson Laboratories and the Wright
Field research group of the Army Air Force, and with Division 14 of 'OSRD has been
particularly valuable. Provided with suitable credentials, we have been hospitably
received by a number of the industrial laboratories that are represented in sections
which follow. If exception be taken to any of our evaluations of the industrial pro-
posals, we are confident that our sincerity and good faith will not be questioned,
however much we may be criticized on scientific principles and applications.
In some cases, diagrams and descriptive material have been freely borrowed
from the appropriate documents, which are listed in the bibliography at the end of
each section. In other cases, where the wealth of available material made consider-
able condensation necessary, a new approach has been used. The documents listed
in each bibliography do not, of course, represent all the available references, but
rather those which we have found to be of greatest value for our purpose.
Space does not permit a complete description of the detailed circuitry in each
of the radar systems contained in this report. The circuits of one radar system
(AN/APS-! 5) are described in detail. Descriptions of the other radar systems omit
detailed circuitry and consider only the general characteristics, important features,
and special techniques involved. The circuit details may be found in various refer-
ences listed under each system.
Table 1.01 serves as an outline for Section 1. It will also be repeated, with
appropriate insertions, at the beginning of each of the descriptions of individual sys-
tems; the table containing a summary of the characteristics of the particular sys-
tem under examination. Finally these individual tables are collected on a single
sheet (pages 31.06, 31.07).
Table 1.01
1. Type of System (How the information is obtained)
(a) Pure range system (circular lines of position)

(b) Differential range system (hyperbolic lines of position)
(c) Azimuth system (radial lines of position)
ä. Useful Range (Over what coverage area the information is obtainable)
(a) Dependence on transmitter power

(b) Other considerations
3. Accuracy and Precision (Errors in the results obtained)
(a) The time measurement. Maximum theoretical precision obtainable with

equipment
(b) The propagation path. Uncertainties due to propagation
(c) Ambiguities
(d) Geometrical considerations in obtaining a "fix" from two or more lines of
position
4, Presentation or Use of Data (How the information is presented to the navigator)
(a) Aural
(b) Visual
(c) Automatic control
5, Operating Skills Required (Training and experience)
(a) At ground or fixed installation

(b) In the navigated craft
(c) Time required to obtain a line of position or a fix
6. Equipment Required (Weight, complexity, service and maintenance requirements)
(a) At ground or fixed installation

(b) In the navigated craft
7. Radio-frequency Spectrum Allotments Required (Frequency, wavelength, band-

width) ^
8. Present Status of Development

I. Types of Navigation Systems
a. Pure range systems

All systems depend on the constancy of the velocity of electromagnetic waves.
This quantity relates the measurement of a time or an electrical phase angle to the
determination of a distance or an angle in space. Consider first the determination
of a distance which is measured by measuring the time of travel of an electro-mag-
netic disturbance over the distance. The simplest application of this fundamental
idea is that of radar "ranging" or distance measuring. (The word "simplest" used
above does not refer to the equipment used to make the measurement but rather to
the simplicity of the governing principle). The radar transmitter sends out a sig-
nal which may be a pulse-modulated or otherwise modulated radio frequency car-
rier. This transmission travels outwardfrom the transmitter with a spherical wave
front. Aircraft, surface vessels, obstructions, and geographical or trooospheric
discontinuities and variations in the dielectric constant all reflect as "echoes" a
small part of the transmitted energy. A sensitive receiver located at or near the
transmitter receives and amplifies these "echoes". By suitable circuitry the elaps-
ed time between the sending of the signal and its return as an echo is measured
and the distance to the reflector of the echo is then known. Suppose for example
that such a measurement has been made and turns out to be twenty miles and that
the reflector in this case is a surface vessel. The radar operator would then know
that somewhere at a distance of twenty miles from his set (the position of which is
assumedknown) there is a surface vessel. (The operator may also get some measure-
ment of the azimuth angle to the particular vessel but that is another part of the story,
so let us suppose for the moment that all he knows is the distance). He could then
drawa circle of twenty-mile radius on his chart, and thus establish one line of posi-
tion for the surface vessel. A similar determination on the same vessel from a radar
set at a different location would establish a second circular line of position. These
two circular lines of position drawn on a chart about their respective transmitter
locations will intersect at two points, one of which corresponds to the location of the
surface vessel. The "fix" might equally well be determined by taking radar range
measurements from a craft to two or more known fixed reflectors or responding
beacons. In any case this pure range type of system is characterized by circular lines
of position. The responding beacons referred to above are simply receiver-transmit-
ters whichsendbackanamplified"echo"or response, thus extending the useful range
of the system and perhaps identifying the point from which the response was returned.
It is implicit in the pure range or distance measurement type of system that

the position of the navigated craft is disclosed in the general case where the craft
is to have its "fix" determined. Either it must radiate a signal to man-made reflec-
tors or beacons or to geographical reflectors. Or if its position is determined by
radar methods from fixed stations it must be informed of its fix. This information
may be coded or returned on a narrow beam communication system, televised, or
otherwise kept secret. It is however possible to "vector" or direct a craft by ground
radar determinations without exposing the position of the craft. The direct range
system has the inherent property of being saturable. A system is said to be satur-
able when the number of craft which may navigate with the aid of a given fixed instal-
lation is limited. Thus the number of aircraft or surface vessels which may be
"tracked" by a single radar set is limited, as is the number of craft which can inter-
rogate a given beacon at any one time without overloading it. If the radar set is on
the craft, then the number of such craft which can radiate signals in a given band is
limited by interference. Either each craft must send out pulses at his particular
frequency so that he can distinguish them in echo, or each must interrogate a beacon
at the beacon receiving frequency and match his own characteristic pulse rate in
order to select his own response. In the first case more craft mean more channels
^•06 Electronic Navigation Systems
in the spectrum, in the second the number of responses which a beacon can put out
is limited by overlapping. Practically, the theoretical condition of overlapping is
not approached since average power output for present day beacons limits the per-
missible number of responses per unit time for a given pulse energy. If one attempts
to shorten pulses to avoid overlapping, the result is increased band width of the
spectrum required for the transmission. The fundamental reason for the saturation
effect is the "round trip" nature of the transmission. This in turn is necessary if
one is to measure total time of travel. There is at present no sufficiently accurate
absolute time clock with a microsecond "hand". If one had such a clock aboard the
craft and knew that a certain station transmitted a pulse every second on the even
second on precise Greenwich time, he could then measure the time that the pulse re-
quired to travel from the fixed station to his position, and hence have a direct measure
of distance with one way transmission, and hence no saturation effect or disclosure
of position.
At the present time it is possible to build crystal oscillators which under pro-
per operating conditions, temperature, voltage control, etc,, will run with an uncer-
tainty not exceeding 1 part in a thousand million, 1 part in 10^ is equivalent to 1
microsecondinlTminutesor 5,37microseconds in 1.5 hours which is an uncertainty
of 1 mile in 1,5 hours, (5,37 microseconds is the time required for light or radio
waves to travel one mile,) Thus having set the high precision clock described above,
a navigator could determine his position with an uncertainty of one mile or less for
a time of one hour and a half from the setting of his clock. This means that at the
present state of the art one might navigate by pure range measurement up to 450
miles at a speed of 300 miles per hour, without saturation or disclosure of his posi-
tion with a maximum error of 1 mile in the determination of his line of position,
assumingof course that the above accuracy could be maintained with airborne equip-
ment as well as at the ground station. This hypothetical pure range system requires
the accurate measurement of very long time intervals which is not yet practicable.
Shorter intervals of time can be measured more exactly, that is to say an extremely
accurate clock is required to measure with a precision of one microsecond in 1000
seconds but it is easilypossibleto measure time with a precision of one microsecond
in one second. The microsecond is a very convenient unit of time and because of
theconstancy of the velocity of light it is quite common to speak of distances in terms
of microseconds, i,e, one statute mile is equivalent to 5.37 microseconds for a one-
way trip, or to 10,74 microseconds if a round-trip path is considered as in radar
echoes, A number of useful conversions from distance to time and corresponding
wave lengths and frequencies are given in Appendix B at the end .of this document,
b. Differential range systems

In the differential range systems, a shorter time interval is measured to deter-
mine a line of position. This is accomplished by transmitting signals from two fixed
antennas, these signals having a known time or phase difference as they leave the
transmitting antennas. If the signals are pulses, these are separated by a time inter-
val known to the navigator who is to use the system. If they are modulated or key-
ed then the modulation envelopes or radio frequency cycles have a known phase re-
lationship. Suppose for example, that two transmitting stations are located at points
A and Bin Figure 1-01 where the distance A to B is known as the base, and is in this
example 111,72 miles long, that distance being chosen since it corresponds to six
hundred microseconds time of travel of a radio wave from A to B, Suppose that
pulses are sent out simultaneously from A and B so that a navigator with proper
measuring equipment could determine the difference in the time of arrival of these
pulses at his craft. If the craft were at any point on the line which bisects the base
line at right angles, then the two pulses would arrive simultaneously, or conversely
if the navigator received the pulses simullaaeously he would know that he was some-
where on the perpendicular bisector of the base line. If he received the pulse from
B 100 microseconds before the pulse from A he would know that he was 18.62 miles
Fig. 1^01 Construction of hyperbolic lines of position

nearer B than A, The locus of points whichare 18.62 miles nearer B than Araay
be found by arbitrarily selecting a distance and drawing a circle of this arbitrary
radius about point B; and then drawing a circle about A which has a radius 18.62
miles greater than that about B. The locus of points thus determined is the curve
shown in Figure 1-01, (solid line), which is the line of position for the craft when
the measurement indicates that the pulse from B arrives 100 microseconds be-
fore the pulse from A. Figure 1-02 shows two families of concentric circles
drawn (dashed lines) about points A and B, the successive radii of the circles
being 18.62 miles or 100 microseconds apart. Connecting successive inter-
o
o
^3-
O
s
o
II II /;
■»J ^
o ^ V
600/JS
Fig, 1-02 Family of hyperbolic position lines, showing the relationship to an optical
interference pattern
sections of circles (solid lines) gives lines of position corresponding to time
differences of 100 up to 600 microseconds difference in time of arrival of the
two pulses. These lines of position are hyperbolae (if one assumes that the earth
is flat, which is very approximately true for coverage areas not more than 500
miles across) since they are the loci of points whose distances to A are greater
than their corresponding distances to B by a constant amount. Navigation systems
of this type are called hyperbolic or differential range systems. In the region to
the left of the base-line bisector in Figure 1-01 and 1-02 the pulse from A will
arrive first and one could draw a similar family of lines of position. The navigator
must be able to distinguish the A pulse from the B pulse in order to tell whether
he is to the right or left of the bisector. If the pulses are indistinguishable there
will De an ambiguity. This is avoided in certain systems by delaying the pulse from
one station by a time greater than the time to traverse the base line length. If pulse
A is so delayed then the pulse from B will arrive first at all points in the diagram,
there will be no ambiguity. Suppose that pulse A is delayed 700 microseconds be-
hind pulse B . Figure 1-03 thea shows the same diagram as Figure 1-02 without
600 JJS roops /eoops /900pS /looops
Fig. 1-03 Family of hyperbolic lines of position, with the A pulse delayed 700
microseconds behind the B pulse
the construction circles and with the hyperbolae marked with appropriate delay
times in microseconds. Two or more such sets of hyperbolic lines of position will
be necessary for determination of a "fix". Note that with direct range measurement
one transmitting antenna could define a family of circular lines of position, whereas
with the differential range system at least two transmitting antennas are necessary
to define a family of hyperbolic lines of position. With the differential range system
the crait emits no signals of its own and hence does not disclose its position, and
furthermore the system is not saturable. The longest total time which the navigator
must be able to measure is the total delay time between the sending out of pulses
plus the time-length of base line. Since the time-length of the base line entered into
the delay time as a necessary minimum value when there is to be no ambiguity, the
total time to be measured may be somewhat longer than twice the length of the base
line expressed as a time. In Figure 1-03 this is 1300 microseconds for points at the
extreme right of the diagram. Thus in general the greater the length of the base line
the longer the time interval which the system must be capable of measuring. The
only serious limitation on the length of the base line is that synchronism must be
maintained between stations whose pulses are to bear a fixed relation to one another,
and this in turn means that the pulse from one must be receivable at the other under
all propagation conditions. Very long base lines are desirable for hyperbolic systems,
since the lines of position will then be more or less straight and parallel over a
large area; this in turn means a large area over which the maximum precision of
the system is attainable. As pointed out earlier, the lines of position of a hyperbolic
system are hyperbolae if the curvature of the earth can be neglected. However, as
a number of people have pointed out, if one could use the longest possible base line,
which i? half the circumference of the earth, and set up transmitters at each pole,
then the lines of position would be circular and would in fact be parallels of latitude.
Hyperbolic systems lend themselves to fixed course navigation where the fixed course
is a hyperbola. It is interesting to note that when navigating on a hyperbolic course
the tangent lo the course at the position of the craft always bisects the angle made
bylines drawn from the position of the craft to each of the two stations which define
the hyperbola. This in turn means that the vector components of velocity towards
each station are equal in magnitude.
Pulse transmissions have to be repeated with a known repetition pattern,

usually at a constant repetition rale. As long as the repetition period is somewhat
greater than twice the longest time to be measured there will be no ambiguity. On
the other hand it is desirable to keep repetition rates fast enough so that the navigat-
ed craft does not move too far between measurements. If the measurement of time
is made visually on an oscilloscope then it is desirable to have the repetition rate
fast enough to avoid flicker. In the example of a pulse-modulated system just consi-
dered a delay time of 100 microseconds was added to the time length of the base to
make up the total delay time of the A pulse. This delay time has two useful func-
tions. First, it avoids the need of measuring very short time intervals which may be
difficult in a system designed for measuring long intervals. Second, it may be varied
in a predetermined manner for denying the effective use of the system to the enemy.
As a second example of a hyperbolic system suppose that the transmissions

from stations A and B of Figure 1-04 are sinusoidally modulated at 833 cycles per
second, so chosen because the wavelength corresponding to 833 cycles per second
is twice the base length which is 600 microseconds, and that the radio frequency of
stations A and B is different so that the transmissions from the two stations are
recognizable. Suppose further that the modulation envelopes are 180° out of phase
as they leave the transmitting antennas. On the craft being navigated there are two
receiving circuits tuned to the transmissions from A and B, and a suitable means of
phase comparison (it is assumed that equal phase-shifts are introduced by the two
receivers). Onthebisector of thebase line the two modulation envelopes from A and
Electronic Navigation Systems l.U
svrjrÄrss s»'ä* tz rf ^
Fig. 1-05 Similar to Fig. 1-04, but with base line = X

Electronic Navigation Systems. 1.13
B will be delayed in transmission by the same amount and will arrive, as they were
transmitted, 180° out of phase. Along the base-line extension from the A station
the phase difference between the two envelopes will be zero, if one uses the A trans-
mission as phase zero, and the position lines are lines of constant time difference
as they were in Figures 1-02 and 1-03 except that the time is measured in terms of
phase angles of the 833-cycle modulation envelope. The period corresponding to 833
cycles is ifi- = 1200 microseconds, and a phase difference of 30° at 833 cps corres-
833 '
ponds to a time-difference of 100 microseconds. Note that for this choice of modula-
tion frequency there is no ambiguity and also that 360 electrical degrees of phase
shift corresponds to 180° of azimuth angle about the center of the base line. If a
higher modulation frequency is used, the ratio of electrical to azimuthal degrees is
increased, but ambiguities arise. For instance, suppose the modulation frequency is
1666 cps so that the wavelength of the modulation cycle is equal to the base line
length, and that the modulation envelopes are in phase as they leave the transmitting
stations. Figure 1-05 then shows the resultant phase relationship between the receiv-
ed A and B modulation envelopes. It is evident that there are two lines of position
corresponding to any measured phase angle between 0 and 360° and hence an ambi-
guity. However, if the phase control of the transmitted modulation envelopes and
the precision of phase measurement at the craft in terms of degrees of electrical
phase angle is the same at 1666 cps as it was at 833 cps, the precision of a line of
position will be twice as high at the higher frequency. In general, for a constant
base line length, and constant precision of phase output and measurement, higher
frequency means higher precision of a line of position and more ambiguities. Length-
ening the base line and keeping modulation frequency and phase precision constant
does not improve the line of position precision at points near the baseline, although
as will be pointed out in the discussion of azimuthal systems the precision at points
away from the base line is improved. This is simply saying that longer base lines
give larger coverage areas for a given precision of result. The number of ambigui-
ties is in general twice the number of wave lengths of the comparison frequency in
the base line, the number of ambiguities being the number of lines of position along
which the same phase or time difference will be measured. Another possibility is
to transmit two different unmodulated radio frequencies from the two ends of the
base line, and then to convert these to the same frequency at the craft for the phase
comparison measurement. Here again the phase shifts introduced at the craft must
be proportional to the frequency and constant in time. One might transmit unmodu-
lated radio-frequency carriers at the same frequency for each antenna except that it
would be impossible to distinguish the transmissions from the tv/o antennas, and hence
compare their phase. Since radio frequencies are much higher than the 833 cps used
in the previous example the number of wave-lengths in the base line would be large
as would the number of ambiguities in the pattern if the base length were kept the
same. Furthermore the problem of maintaining radio frequency phase synchronism
at the two ends of a long base line is difficult. Hence systems using phapp compari-
son at radio frequencies usually employ shorter base lines. A shorter base line
implies a smaller region where the lines of position are approximately parallel. If
the lines of position of any hyperbolic system are extended far enough out. from the
base they asymptotically approach straight lines radiating from the center of the base.
c. Azimuthal or radial systems

A hyperbolic system becomes an azimuthal system when the base line is a
small fraction of the useful range of the system. At distances from the center of
the base line greater than five times the length of the base the hyperbolae are essen-
tially straight lines radiating out from the center of the base line. The hyperbola
which is the bisector of the base is exactly a straight line at all ranges. On the earth
these radial lines of position are approximately great circles for all ranges greater
than five times the base length. (The approximation is due to the possibility of mul-
^■MMi—"ii iijwmi UM

360o0R0o
Fig. 1-06 Azimuthal lines of position, derived from Fig. 1-05, showing effect of
radio-frequency phase addition and cancellation, resulting in horizontal radiation
pattern. Spacing = X, transmissions in phase
HI I 111 ——"
mmmir——-■—"^
-TlliBBlllHWlinglB
tiple transmission paths). As an example of an azimuthal system, suppose that the

base line is 1.862 miles long and that the antennas at each end of the base line are
driven in phase at a 1'requency of 100 kcps, the frequency whose corresponding wave
length is 1.862 miles, so that the base line is one wave-length long. Figure 1-06 is
simply an extension of Figure 1-05 which was for a case where the base was one
wave-length long. The base line length is so small compared to the useful range
that the points A and B are very close together and are not shown on the diagram
although their line of centers is assumed horizontal as it was in Figure 1-05. The
relative phase between the transmissions from the two antennas is given alongside
the lines of position. Now however, the frequency is the same from each transmit-
ting antenna and along the lines .marked 180° there will be phase cancellation so
that no radio frequency signals from A and B will be detected. Along the lines mark-
ed 0° or 360° there will be phase addition and a maximum intensity of 100 kcps sig-
nal will be received. The result of this is an interference pattern where the inten-
sity of the received signal varies as the cosine of half the angle of phase difference.
The dotted curved lines in Figure 1-06 are a polar plot of this function and are call-
ed the horizontal pattern of the antenna arrangement of Figure 1-06.
Figure 1-07 shows typical antenna patterns for various spacings and phase
relationships of the A and B signals. In azimuth systems the lines of position define
bearing angles on the base line of the system, so that the uncertainty of a line
of position expressed in miles is directly proportional to the distance out from
the center of the base line. The angular precision is highest near the bisector
of the base and poorest along the base line extensions. If with a given system it is
possible to control and measure phase to an uncertainty of ten degrees of electric
phase angle then the geometric angular precision will depend on the number of
wavelengths in the base line and on the angle between the particular line of position
under consideration and the bisector of the base. Consider points near the bisector
of the base line and assume the base line to be one-half wavelength long. The differ-
ential phase angles are the same as those in Figure 1-04 and one has 30 electrical
degrees compressed into less than 10 azimuthal degrees. So that if there were an
uncertainty of ten electrical degrees, the geometrical line of position uncertainty
would only be 3,33 degrees. If the base line is a whole wavelength then 60 electrical
degrees correspond to less than 10 geometric degrees so that the same uncertainly
of ten electrical degrees gives only 1.66 azimuthal degrees of uncertainty. As the
base line is increased in length, the precision and also the number of ambiguities
increase in direct proportion. In general, the maximum precision in a radial line
of position attainable with a two-antenna azimuthal system near the base line bisec-
tor is given by a simple equation.
Uncertainty in miles Overall uncertainty in electrical degrees

Distance to center of base in miles Number of electrical degrees in base
Thus if the system is capable of transmitting and measuring with an overall uncer-
tainty of 3,6 degress and if the base is 360 degrees (one wavelength) long the uncer-
tainty in distance will be one mile at 100 miles from the center of the base or 10
miles at 1000 miles. If the uncertainty of electric phase angle can be held constant
while raising the frequency and keeping the base length constant, or while lengthen-
ing the base and holding the same frequency, the effect will be to increase the pre-
cision in direct proportion. For a two-antenna azimuthal system the more general
equation for any given line of position is given on page 1.22. This equation assumes
that the base line length is much less than the distance from the observer to the
center of the base, which is true for azimuthal systems by definition. The num-
ber of ambiguities is twice the number of wavelengths in the base.
(a) Spacing A/2, phasing 0° (b) Spacing X/2, phasing 180°
(c) Spacing X, phasing 0° (d) Spacing A, phasing 60°
(e) Spacing A, phasing 120° (f) Spacing X, phasing 180°

Fig. 1-07 Horizontal radiation patterns, line of antennas horizontal
All the discussion so far has been concerned with systems employing two
antennas. Manyazimuthalsystems use more elaborate antenna arrays and variable
phase control circuits to produce rotation or oscillation of antenna patterns. Others
rotate the entire antenna array to produce the same effect. At the super high fre-
quencies these antenna arrays take the form of reflectors and lenses having very
sharp directional antenna patterns. With multiple antenna arrays the number of
ambiguities increases,for a given spacing, but since the array intensity pattern be-
comes more directional the side lobes are less pronounced and not as likely to give
rise to ambiguities. Systems which can be rotated have the advantage that the only
line of position actually intended for use is the base line bisector which is the most
accurate line defined by the system. An example of a horizontal radiation pattern
produced by three antennas is shown in Figure 17-03.
Composite Systems
A number of radar systems using such sharply defined antenna patterns
yield both range and azimuth data and hence serve to locate the craft from one fix-
ed installation. The range data define circular lines of position about the radar set
and the azimuth data define radial lines of position which intersect the circles at
right angles and give a "fix". The accuracy is constant for varying azimuth at a
given range, in contrast with other systems in which the two position lines defining
a fix do not always intersect at right-angles. Also the radial line of position is
always the base bisector.
II. Useful Range
(a) Dependence on transmitter power

Coverage implies that the navigation system is capable of maintaining con-
tinuity in the supply of navigational information. Twenty-four-hour continuity is
implied unless otherwise stated in a specific application.
The signal strength necessary for satisfactory reception depends on local

noise conditions at the receiver and on the noise generated within the receiver it-
self as well as on the type of transmission and the method of presentation. Local
noise varies with the geographical location, the season of the year, the time of day,
and other factors many of which are unpredictable. Coverage areas often may be
extended by increasing the transmitted power, but the increase of useful range at
long ranges is very small even for large increases of power. For instance, referring
to Figure 1-11, at 125 kcps, doubling the output power would extend the range for
10 microvolts per meter signal strength of ground wave from 1530 to 1610 miles.
And increasing the power by a factor of one hundred would only increase the 10-
microvolt ground-wave range to 2110 miles. The useful coverage area of a naviga-
tion system is further determined by several factors.
(b) Other considerations
(1) The maximum range from fixed stations is governed by the same consi-
derations that affect any radio transmission, fading and irregular or uncertain
reception.
(2) Interference between sky-wave and ground-wave transmission may pre-
vent use of the system in certain parts of the coverage area and there may be
skip regions.
(3) The angle between lines of position may be so oblique as to make the
precision of a fix too low.
(4) The coverage area by day will in general be different from that at night,
"■■iJimiOTTmr
1.18 Electronic Navigaüun Systems
due to changes in the average noise level and io ionospheric conditions (see page
1.26).
(5) The useful range for aircraft using line of sight transmissions is extend-
ed at high altitudes, and is subject to correction near the transmitting station,
since range measurements are actually slant range and since the phase aspect
(see Appendix A) of the transmitting towers changes rapidly as the elevation an-
gle becomes large. Also atmospheric refraction affects maximum range slightly.
(6) Under certain conditions tropospheric effects, "ducting", etc. may great-
ly affect the coverage area.
Since in many cases coverage areas are limited by the precision attainable
with a given system, most of the discussion of the above factors will be found under
the heading of accuracy.
ID. Accuracy
The accuracy of a "fix" depends on the precision of the line of position estab-
lished by a navigation system and on the geometrical relationship of the two or
more lines used to obtain the "fix".
All electronic navigation systems depend on the measurement of a time

interval, which in turn defines a distance (through the velocity of light). The spread
of recent determinations of the velocity of light in a vacuum is shown in Figure 1-08.
There is an uncertainty based on the above determinations of approximately 5 parts
in 100,000 in the value of this quantity. The velocity of light in air is reduced from
the value in a vacuum in the ratio 1/n, where n is the index of refraction of light in
air, and is equa) to 1.000294 for standard pressure and temperature conditions. For
extreme ranges (p -- 82 cm of Hg, t - -50oC; to p = 70 cm of Hg, t = +50oC) of tem-
perature and pressure on the surface of the earth, the velocity of light could vary by
as mu^ as one part in ten thousand. Thus there may be a maximum .uncertainty on
the surface of the earth of 1.5 parts in 10,000; converted to actual distance this
means, that without temperature and pressure corrections, there is an uncertainty
of 80feet in 100 miles or 800 feet in 1000 miles. It is evident that for most systems
this is a negligible uncertainty compared to others which arise. Since atmospheric
conditions may be quite accurately known, it is possible to correct for errors caused
by them if extreme precision is necessary. The uncertainty could thus be reduced
to approximately 0.5 parts in 10,000. The index of refraction at high altitudes
approaches its free-space value which is unity.
Since all navigation systems yield lines of position relative to fixed installa-
tions, the geographical location of these fixed stations, beacons, reflectors, and
natural reflecting or absorbing surfaces, must be accurately known. This consti-
tutes a serious problem in parts of the world where surveys have not been accurate.
The uncertainties in velocity of propagation, and in the location of geographical

points on the earth, must betaken into account, but they are not peculiar to a parti-
cular electronic system of navigation.
There are three general categories of errors which depend on the design
and operation of the navigational devices.
(1) Errors arising in the measurement of time intervals. These intervals
maybe as longas several thousand microseconds or shorter than 1/1000 micro-
second (10-9 seconds). These very short intervals are usually called phase
differences. Errors in time or phase measurements may occur both at the fix-
ed installations and in the navigated craft.
(2) Errors caused by variations in the path taken by the transmission in get-
JElectromc Navigation Systems 1.19
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ting from fixed station to craft, and vice versa. For ground-wave propagations
the path is usually quite predictable, and the errors are smaller than those which
arise in sky-wave propagalions where the path includes one or more ionospheric
reflections.
(3) Errors due to ambiguities which the navigator fails to resolve In many
systems the navigator of the craft receives the same signal along more than one
line of position and should be able to distinguish these by a fore-knowledge of
his approximate position or by other me?ns.
The Time Measurement

The generation of voltages defining standard time intervals, and the processes
used to compare such standards with the time intervals to be measured, are possible
sources of error in all types of system. In a direct range, or circular system, the
total time of travel of an electromagnetic cdsturbance is measured and converted
to a distance by multiplying by the velocity oi propagation. In differential range, or
hyperbolic systems, the differential time is measured and converted to differential
distance or directly to a line of position. In azimuth systems the differential time
is in the form of an electrical phase angle which may be measured directly or ob-
tained by measuriag relative intensity of radiation patterns where the intensity is a
function of transmitted radio-frequency phase, and also of the transmitter phase
aspect as sên from the receiver.
The measurement of an interval of time depends first, on the generation of ü
standard frequency which furnishes a continuous series of equal time intervals
(cycles) and is the time "measuring stick"; and second, on some means of compari-
son so that the time interval to be measured may be compared with a number of
cycles or a fraction of a cycle of the controlled frequency. The precision of crystal-
controlled oscillators is easily of the order of one part in a million, and may be as
good as one part in ICr if extreme care is taken with temperature control and so
forth. For direct range measurement one part in a million corresponds to a preci-
sion of 0.528feet in 100 miles which is a negligible error. High-"Q" ringing circuits
and other timing devices may be used where a lower order of accuracy is sufficient.
Unless very long time intervals must be measured, the precision of a crystal-con-
trolled frequency is likely to be much better than that of the comparison operation.
The problem is not unlike the measurement of time intervals with a clock. Assume
that the clock runs at a uniform and accurate rate: this is equivalent to saying above
that the oscillator operates at a constant frequency. If the clock has a second hand,
which revolves at one revolution per minute, one could measure an interval of one
hour to an approximate precision of 1 part in 3600 by measuring time intervals to
the nearest second, To measure the same time to a higher precision one would have
to divide the distance moved by the second hand in one second into smaller intervals.
Since the number of angular subdivisions on the face would have to be increased, it
would be necessary to use a narrower pointer or one whose alignment with fixed
marks on the clock face is accurately discernible. This requires both a narrow or
sharp edged pointer and sharply defined marks on the face. It may be necessary to
mount a hand on the clock which moves around ten times a minute or even faster, in
order to spread out. the time scale. The various electronic timing and indicating
circuits make possible a precise measurement of much shorter time intervals than
ordinary clocks but have the same basic limitations. The electronic measurement
of phase differences is a typical time measurement. In making a phase comparison
it is easily possible to measure relative phase with uncertainties of the order of
five fir ten degrees. It is much more difficult to measure phase angles with maxi-
mum uncertainties of the order of one half degree. One one-hundredth of a cycle, or
3.6 degrees, represents a typical uncertainty for phase angle measurements. At
100 cps, 3.6 degrees of phase angle corresponds to 100 microseconds, so that with
such a coarse "measuring stick" it would be extremely difficult to measure times
with uncertainties of the order of one microsecond. Using a comparison of 100-cps
(This page is inserted as the simplest means of correcting the inadvertent omission
of Figure 1-09.)
1.20a Electronic Navigation Systems
fc-iOkc) fc (fc + iOkc) f
SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION
RISE TIME 10% TO 90% = 108°
lOkc MODULATION ENVELOPE
z
re=z+{cos THo\
ffc- IC-,U-NW fc {fc+lOkc)(fc+20kc)
SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION
SINGLE COS PULSE
Fig. 1-09 Comparison of continuous lOkcps modulation envelope with a single pulss
shaped like one full cycle of the modulation envelope as shown. Periodograms show-
ing the spectral distribution for each type of transmission are shown on the right.
(Note that the 10 kcps side band amplitudes for the continuous wave case have the
same value as the distribution curve for the pulse at carrier frequency plus or minus
10 kcps.)
modulation envelopes for a system such as that ditûssed on page 1.10, one could
measure times up to 10,000 microseconds (assuming that the transmissions from
the two stations are distinguishable), corresponding to base-line lengths of the order
of 1,000 miles, with an uncertainty of the order of 100 microseconds, and have no
ambiguities. K higher accuracy were necessary it would be better to use a 1,000-
cps modulating frequency for the phase comparison. This would give uncertainties
of the order of 10 microseconds for the same precision of phase angle measurement,
but would give rise to 10 ambiguities or 10 lines of position along which the same
phase difference is measured. In order to reduce uncertainties to values of the
order of 1 microsecond it would be desirable to use a modulating frequency of the
order of 10,000 cps, which would in turn give 100 ambiguities. An expedient for
resolving the ambiguity in this case is to omit 99 out of every 100 cycles, transmit-
tinga single complete 10,000-cps cycle every 10,000 microseconds. This cycle be-
gins and ends at the zeros of output voltage in the modulated output assuming 100 %
modulation. The equation for the amplitude (e) of the upper envelope of such a pulse
is e =-r+ -zcos 2irloS. The modulation envelope becomes in this case a pulse
having a length of 50 microseconds at the half-amplitude value. Fig. 1-09 shows such
a pulse for comparison with the 10-kcps modulation. On the right are shown the
spectral distributions of transmitted frequencies for the two types of transmission.
It is evident that receiver band width requirements will be similar for the two
transmissions; this point is further discussed under frequency and bandwidth.
Phase cOTT>parisons are simplest and usually most accurate when the compari-
son is between waveforms having 0° or 180° phase difference. Many direction find-
ers can detect phase deviations as small as one-half a degree from zero. In this
case the phases of a wave arriving from a distant transmitter at two parts of a
receiving antenna array are compared and the array is turned physically until the
phase difference is zero, indicating that the array is parallel to the arriving wave-
front. The final measurement is always made at zero phase difference. In other
systems, a voltage corresponding to one of the two waveforms whose phase differ-
ence is to be measured, is the input to a calibrated, continuously-adjustable phase
shifter, which is adjusted for zero phase-difference between its output and a voltage
corresponding to the other wave. The comparison is thus made at zero phase differ-
ence and the actual phase difference is read off the dial of the phase shifter. This
procedure adds the possible errors in the phase shifter to those of the recognition
of zero difference. Certain other types of phase measuring devices have larger
errors near zero difference than elsewhere. Systems which define lines of position
as lines of constant radio-frequency phase difference must transmit accurately
phase-controlled carriers from each transmitting antenna, and at the receiver the
circuits must not introduce different phase shifts into the two transmissions. Further-
more, it is necessary to identify transmissions from the different antennas. This is
done in the POPI system by a keying sequence, transmissions from different antennas
occurringsuccessivelyatasingle frequency. In this case the receiver circuits will
not give rise to differential phase shifts. However, it is necessary to have a phase
"memory" circuit in order to compare phases of voltages produced at the reception
point by the different transmitting antennas, since they do not occur simultaneously.
The Decca system transmits simultaneously at different frequencies from the two
or more antennas of the fixed station. These carriers are converted to a common
frequency at the craft and compared. Assuming accurate phase control at fixed sta-
tions, the phase shifts in the receiver's radio frequency and converter stages must
be accurately controlled, since the two transmissions come through different ampli-
fier channels. This requirement in turn precludes the very sharply tuned circuits
which might at first seem desirable for continuous-wave reception and noise exclu-
sion. Any variation in the time delay between transmitted pulses in a pulse system,
or any shift in pha.se of a modulation envelope, or radio frequency carrier, will
1,22 Electronic Navigation Systems
shift the whole pattern of lines of position, and hence must be accurately controlled.
Many azimuthal systems define lines of position which are rotated either by rotat-
ing the entire antenna assembly, as in various radar systems, or by systematically
and continuously shifting the phase of different antennas of the transmitting array,
as in the Sonne system or the various omni-"ranges". In either case the phase
control is a possible source of error in the resultant lines of position. In certain
azimuth systems the time measurement, or rather time definition, is entirely done
at the transmitter.
A system of the AN type of radio beacon defines a line of position as a line

along which two overlapping patterns have the same intensity. These patterns might
be produced by keying antenna currents to produce the two patterns shown in Fig.
1-07 (a) and (b). The pattern of Fig. 1-07 (a) is keyed as an A (•-) and the pattern
of Fig. 1-07 (b) is keyed as an N (-•) which interlocks in time with the A to pro-
duce a continuous tone along the lines where the two patterns have the same inten-
sity, which is known as the equisignal. Electra operates on a similar principle ex-
cept that the keying of the patterns is by interlocking dots and dashes, and the pat-
tern used is multilobed, giving higher precision but more ambiguities. These sys-
tems only define exact position along a finite number of lines. Sonne rotates the
Electra pattern and thus enables the navigator to find his line of position over the
entire coverage area. In the Federal long-range system, lines of position are de-
fined by relative intensity measurements on four overlapping patterns. All these
systems depend on accurately phased antenna currents, which constitute a timing
problem. The numerical relationship between phase angle uncertainty and azimuth
angle uncertainty is given by
Aö = A0 = AS
27m cos 9 R .
Where A0 is the uncertainty in azimuth angle
A0 is the overall uncertainty of electric phase angle
n is the number of wavelengths in the base
0 is the azimuth angle measured from the perpendicular bisector of the base
AS is the lateral uncertainty in line of position in miles
R is the distance to the center of the base in miles.
A numerical example for the Sonne system is worked out on page 17.24.
Whether the time comparison is between radio frequency cycles, or sinu-

soidal or pulse modulation envelopes, the real criterion for time uncertainty is the
steepness of slope of the wave form at the point of comparison. The rise time for
a pulse is usually taken as the time required to get from 10 to 90 percent of the
peak pulse amplitude. For a pulse form like that of Fig. 1-09, this time corresponds
to 108 degrees of phase angle or about thirty times the typical maximum phase un-
certainty of 3.6 degrees used above. For pulses, a rise time of 25 or 30 times the
maximum allowable uncertainty is a reasonable engineering choice. Since rise time
is inversely proportional to band width of transmitted pulse waveforms, one attempts
to keep rise times as long as possible. This question is discussed further under
frequency and bandwidth. The relation of rise time for pulses to maximum time un-
certainty also depends on the type of presentation.
If the pulses are being displayed and compared on a PPI scope, where the
pulse modulates the beam intensity, it is necessary to have the duration of the pulse
of the same order of magnitude as, or somewhat shorter than, the maximum tolerable
uncertainty. Thus to measure times with an uncertainty not greater than one micro-
second, the pulse rise time should be somewhat less than a microsecond. On the
other hand where the pulse is displayed as a vertical displacement (as in Loran) or
horizontal or radial displacement (as inShoran) against time as the other coordinate,
the pulse may be of considerably longer duration than the maximum tolerable uncer-
Flectronic Navigau a b}- r.s 1.23
tainty. In these cases the relative sizes of CRO spot, and the total spread of the
pulse detern;;:.t Lhe minimum uncertainty. With the latter presentation, it is usual-
ly desirable to nave the entire pulse on the screen for monitoring of amplitude so
that pulses of similar forms may be compared. Thus if the total trace length is 200
microseconds (as in Loran) it in quite possible to make pulse comparisons with un-
cei uanties of the n-rter of one microsecond. In all cases small, sharply focused
spots are necessary i. r such measurements and the noise level must not be too high.
In Loran or Shoran .luise tends to make a multiple or broadened trace which is not
capable of fine resolution. In PP1 presentations noise clutters the screen and tends
to reou v the sharpness of the picture. No general statement can be made as to the
eflectsi.' t.'oiseonoscilloscopic presentation* since noise wave forms may have any
of an infinite number of possible shapes, Nc p.nsp is assumed here in the horizontal
or time ba.se signal. If the pulse is modula' ,.g x low frequency carrier whose period
is a substantial fraction of the rise time ther; the position in time of the front edge
will llutter by the amount of the carrier period unless lhe phase of the carrier bears
a constant time relationship to the pulse envelope.
The Propagation Path

The second general class of errors in navigational systems are those aris-
ing from deviations from the expected transmission oath or paths. Radio transmis-
.vions in free space travel straight outward from a :;■ urce, like other electromagne-
tic radiations. Radiations starting from sources near the surface of the earth will
encounter various obstacles, and will travel throui ;i the earth's atmosphere. The
radiations may be reflected or absorbed by obstacles. In general, diffraction will
occur, so that obstacles of small dimensions relative to the wave length will not cast
clearly defined radio shadows. Since the atmospheric density decreases with height
there will be refraction, tending to bend the radiation path towards the earth. Radia-
tions originating near the surface of the earth tend to bend around the curvature of
the earth by a combination of refraction and diffraction. Since the earth is an im-
perfect conductor there will be ohmic losses associated with the passage of an electro-
magnetic wave over the earth's surface. These losses will tend to attenuate the
radiation intensity near the surface. If the earth were a flat, perfect conductor the
radiationwould decrease in intensity inversely as the distance from the source. This
is practically the case for transmissions well above the surface of the earth, as in
line of sight transmission from plane to plane. Actually the attenuation along the
surface is greater than that predicted by the inverse first power of distance due both
tothecurvai-ioandthe poor conductivity. Norton's Formula*takes account of these
factors and us reliability has been experimentally verified down to a frequency of
180kcp;?„and liiere is no reason to doubt it at frequencies below this value. Figures
1-10 and 1-1.; ire graphs of Norton's formula fcr a range of low and medium fre-
quencies, Ir.r; nutter and receiver being at the ^ .irth's surface and transmission
occurring'.jver sea water. The inverse first power -r distance law is plotted on each
graph for refer« uce. At high frequencies ground losses are high and diffraction
bending is lesspronormced. This direct transmiss:;)'- '.* known as ground-wave pro-
pagation. Under cert im conditions, the expected ground-wave range may be greatly
increased by ' ductin.. or "trapping'1 of a wave between the earth's surface and in-
version layers in the atmosphere above the earth. Tins phenomenon ic particular-
ly common over sea water
.he other important radio trans raiss ions between points on the earth's sur-
face are Known is sky-waves, since they are propagated by means of reflections from
iunized layers of gas in the 'pper atmosphere. The free electrons in the rarefied
gases of the outer atmosphere behave like any free electrons in that they move in re-
sponse to electroma-gnetic radiation. The motions of free electrons in a metal are re-
* K, A. Norton, "The Calculation of Ground-Wave Field Intensity Over a Finitely

Conducting Spherical Earth", Proceedings of the I,R,E., December, 1941.
1,000,000
rOO,000
10,000
u
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UJ
s
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2 3 •» 5 6 78910 JO 30 40 50 100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 5000 10,000 20,000
STATUTE MILES OVER SEA WATER

6 = 80, (T-Sxicr1
Fig. 1-10 Graph of Norton's formula for transmission over sea water, both scales
logarithmic
sponsible for its reflecting properties. Free electrons in the ionosphere will reflect
impinging radiation if the electron density is sufficient. The motions of the free
electrons may be hampered by collisions with gas molecules. This process will
involve loss of energy and therefore absorption of energy from the radiation which
originally caused the motion. The ionizing of layers of gas is caused mainly by ul-
traviolet, and partly by corpuscular radiations from the sun, so that the electron
density in a given layer is governed by a balance between the arrival of ionizing
energy from the sun and the continual loss of free electrons due to attachment to
atoms and molecules, and to recombination with positive ions. Since the ultra-violet
and corpuscular radiations from the sun may fluctuate greatly in intensity, the re-
1 II ————»..———■mam™»
o o o oo o O O O O O O
o o o Q O O O O in «J- 10 (M
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in ^- 10
d313lM a3d SllOAOaOIW
suiting density of ionization will also fluctuate. The ionized layers are diffuse in
structure and hence do not present a sharply-defined reflecting layer. For this
reason the apparent height of the reflecting layer depends on the angle on incidence
of the radiation as well as on the frequency. For vertical incidence the apparent
height of the reflecting layer is greater than at grazing incidence. At grazing inci-
dence the radiation travels for a longer distance through the lower fringes of the
layer and is therefore subject to greater absorption losses due to collisions. The
lower important layer is known as the "E" layer, which has an approximate effective
height ofseventy miles for a vertical incidence reflection. The upper layer is known
as the "F" layer and is approximately 190 miles high. The "F" layer is a relative-
ly thick layer, of greater electron density, having boundaries in which this density
tapers off gradually. It often exhibits two maxima of electron density at different
levels. The "E" is at present the more important layer for systems using pulse
transmissions. For grazing incidence the effective height is lower, being approxi-
mately fifty-four miles for two-megacycle transmissions leaving the earth tangent
to the earth's surface. There is evidence that this effective height for grazing in-
cidence reflection is lower than fifty-four miles at frequencies below two megacycles.
At the present time, data on ionospheric reflections for other than vertical incidence
are systematically predicted from measured vertical-incidence data. However, there
are practically no ionospheric data of any sort at low frequencies. Although the ultra-
violet radiation from the sun is cut off at night, the recombination of molecular oxy-
gen takes place slowly and a sufficient electron density persists through the night
to give good reflection at the lower frequencies. In fact, although the "E" layer is
denser in daytime than at night, it also extends to lower levels where the atmospher-
ic gases are more dense, and hence where energy absorbing collisions are more
likely to occur. At night, the "E" layer is more tenuous but also more sharply de-
fined, and reflected radiations are subject to less attenuation due to passage through
regions where the collision rate is high. Since the higher-frequency radiations re-
quire a greater electron density for reflection, there are practical limitations to
the usefulness of sky-waves at various frequencies. At frequencies above 60 mcps
ionospheric reflections are very rare. Between 60 and 30 mcps reflections may
occur but are not reliably predictable, and hence not useful for transmission pur-
poses although they may give rise to undesirable interference. Below 30 mcps fair-
ly reliable predictions are available. In general, at frequencies below 20 mcps
transmission from one point to another on the surface of the earth will be both by
ground-wave and by one or more sky-wave types of propagation. (Sky-waves embrace
one-hop or multiple-hop "E"-layer paths and one or more "F"-layer transmissions.)
Variations in lines of position in navigation systems which are directly or

indirectly caused by sky-wave transmissions fall into two categories. First, those
which arise from the fact that sky-waves exist as a mode of propagation in addition
to ground waves. The second sort of errors are those arising from abnormal varia-
tions in the behavior of the reflecting ionospheric layers. Cpnsider the first type
of error. The sky-wave path between two points on the surface of the earth will
always be longer than the ground-wave path. Speaking in terms of time, for points
near the transmitter the one hop "E "-layer sky-wave will require approximately
600 microseconds longer time for transmission than the ground wave. As the re-
ceiving point is moved away from the transmitter, the amount by which the sky-wave
path is longer than the ground-wave path approaches a nearly constant value which,
in terms of time, is approximately sixty-five microseconds at extreme one-hop ranges
for two-megacycle transmissions. This time difference between sky-wave and
ground-wave transmissions, having common transmitting and receiving points, is
known as the sky-wave delay-time and has important bearing on navigation-system
design. Since this delay time decreases with increasing distance, the phase of a radio
wave coming by sky-wave propagation will differ from that of the ground wave by a
variable amount depending on the distance traversed. And furthermore, since the
received radiation is the instantaneous sum of ground-wave and one or more sky-
wave components, its resultant phase and amplitude may vary with distance quite
differently from the phase and amplitude variations of the ground wave alone.
A second source of error in systems using spaced antenna arrays may be

present even with perfectly normal sky-wave reflections. Sky-wave transmissions
may leave an antenna array at substantial elevation angles. When this occurs, the
phase aspect of the transmitting antennas is different for sky-wave and ground-wave
propagation. This is equivalent to saying that the differential distance to two anten-
nas by the sky-wave route is in general different from the differential distance by
the ground-wave path. The result is that in hyperbolic and azimuthal systems, the
lines ofposition defined by the system are different for sky- and ground-wave propa-
gations. Figure 1-12 shows in solid lines a typical set of ground-wave position lines
for an azimuthal system and in dotted lines the pure one-hop sky-wave position lines
for the same phasing of the antenna currents and the same antenna array. The dotted
lines in this case are calculated for a uniform ionospheric height of fifty-four miles.
A similar situation exists for hyperbolic lines of position. Note that the effect is
not present along the base-line bisector (vertical line in Figure 1-12) and is largest
as one approaches the base-line extension (horizontal line in Figure 1-12). The dot-
ted lines converge toward the solid lines as the range increases, since the one-hop
sky-wave leaves the antenna array at nearly zero elevation angle for extreme ranges,
so that the transmitting array has the same phase aspect as for the ground wave,
and therefore produces the same radiation pattern. However, two-hop "E "-layer
and "F"-layer transmissions may predominate, and in this case the sky-wave cor-
rection may have to be applied even at extreme ranges. All the above effects can be
compensated for if it is possible to separate sky-wave from ground-wave propaga-
tion, and if one has available a reasonably good prediction of seasonal and diurnal
variations in the effective height of the ionosphere or expected sky-wave delay time.
There are several possible methods of separating ground waves from sky waves.
First, by being so near the transmitter that ground waves are strongly predominant,
or far enough away that ground waves are reduced to negligible relative value. (There
is in this latter case the strong possibility that the sky-wave may consist of both
one-hop and multiple-hop transmissions which may be inseparable.) Second, by con-
trolling the elevation angle of transmitted and received radiations so as to utilize only
one path at a time. This is only practical at the higher frequencies, where sharply
directional antenna systems are feasible. Third, by transmitting intermittently so
that the firs.t radiation received after a period of no transmission is that which trav-
eled by the shortest route, which is the ground wave. The various pulse-modulated
systems make use of this method of separation of ground and sky waves. If the pulse
is substantially shorter than the minimum delay time of sixty-five microseconds,
then ground-wave and sky-wave pulses will be distinguishable at all ranges, and
either may be used for measurement purposes. Fourth, by transmitting at higher
frequencies, so that ionospheric reflection does not occur.
With pure ground waves there is no need to be able to predict sky-wave pro-
pagation conditions, but in order to use sky waves it is necessary to know what to
expect for delay times and usable frequencies.
Since sky waves must travel a distance at least twice the effective height of
the ionosphere, roughly one hundred and ten miles for 2-mcps transmissions, the
sky-wave intensity will normally be a small fraction of the ground-wave intensity at
points near the transmitter; but, at ranges of the order of one hundred miles and
more, the sky wave may be much stronger than the ground wave, especially over
land. This is particularly noticeable at frequencies from ten to thirty megacycles
where the ground-wave attenuation is high and where ionospheric reflection may be
good. As the frequency is lowered, the distance out to points where ground- and
sky-wave field strengths are comparable, increases. With present available data it
i 1000
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
MILES
Fig. 1-12 Relative location of azimuthal lines of position for ground wave (solid
lines) and one-hop E-layer sky wave (dashed lines). Base line horizontal,
first quadrant only shown
Note; lines of position determined by two-hop E-layer sky wave and one-
hop F-layer sky wave will deviate from ground-wave lines by larger amounts
is not possible to give numerical figures in this connection. Such data would be very
useful in evaluating the potentialities of low frequencies for navigation systems.
Several things need to be known in this connection for very low and low frequencies.
First, what will be the sky-wave delay time for oblique-incidence ionospheric reflec-
tions. Second, how serious will sky-wave attenuation be, and will two-hop trans-
missions be of comparable field strength to one-hop transmission, since the one-
hop propagation has a longer path through the lower attenuating fringe of the "E"
layer. For a given range, an "F"-layer or a two-hop "E"-layer transmission takes
offfromthetransmittingarrayat steeper elevation angles than for the one-hop "E"-
layer path.
Systems using sky-wave transmission use a chart designed for ground-wave

transmission by applying corrections based on a certain expected delay of sky waves.
The correction may be equivalent to as much as 50-60 microseconds. Whether or
not sky-wave corrections are necessary depends on whether the ground wave recep-
tion zone extends out to regions where the single-hop "E"-layer reflection paths
leave the transmitter system at low elevation angles. Since the effect depends on
the cosine of the elevation angle of the propagation path from the horizontal, eleva-
tion angles less than eight degrees will give rise to corrections which are less than
i/o of the phase aspect at the point in question. If one assumes an "E"-layer 60 miles
high, the ground-wave range would have to be approximately 700 miles in order to
avoid appreciable corrections. This fact in turn will have a bearing on the choice
of frequencies for systems depending on both sky- and ground-wave propagations.
In general it is not desirable to use ground-wave propagation from one station of a
transmitting pair and sky-waves from the other. This procedure is not at all im-
possible, but since sky-wave corrections would involve total sky-wave delay time
and not the difference of two such times, the precision would be lower.
All the possible sources of error so far discussed arose out of a considera-
tion of normal predictable ionospheric conditions, the uncertainties being as to
which paths the radiation actually followed. There are also the types of errors
which are due to unpredictable fluctuations. These fluctuations in sky-wave field
strength are probably due to motions and density variations of the electrons in the
reflecting layer. These motions give rise to a variation in the sky-wave delay time
which has an experimental value ranging up to more than forty microseconds, and
has a twenty-minute average which may vary by twenty microseconds from one
twenty-minute interval to the next. Variations in sky-wave delay time may be
thought of as variations in the effective height of the ionosphere. Because of this
variation in delay time, any use of sky-waves for direct-range systems would
involve rather large uncertainties. The same consideration has a bearing on the
possibility of maintaining synchronism between a pair of hyperbolic-system trans-
mitters. If it is possible to separate sky-wave from ground-wave transmission, it
is possible to maintain synchronism with ground-wave signals, with corresponding-
ly good precision, up to the limit set by the ground-wave intensity and local noise
conditions. It is further possible to synchronize by single-hop "E"-layer sky-waves
provided that there are means of separating this sky-wave component, and of main-
taining watch to effect an intelligent smoothing of the fluctuations, and provided that
a lower order of accuracy can be tolerated. In differential-range and azimuth
systems, the difference between two sky-wave arrival times is the measured quan-
tity, and if the variations in delay time are the same for each sky-wave then they
will cancel out in the difference. This will be the case at points along the base line
bisector where the distance to each transmitting antenna is the same (assuming
changes in the effective height of the reflecting layer to be identical all over the
coverage area). For points near the base line extension, the difference in ground-
wave distance to the transmitting antennas has a maximum value, and even though
the effective ionospheric height is the same at each reflecting point the variations in
this height give rise to variations in the measured difference between times of
arrival of sky-waves. For azimuthal systems which have relatively short base lines
(two or three miles), the reflecting points are near together and hence more likely
to be at the same effective height, and to vary in effective height together. On the
other hand with long base lines it is much less likely that the effective ionospheric
height is the same at both reflecting points or that it will vary in the same way at
the same time. Thus with continuous-wave systems using sky-waves or composite
transmissions, the shorter base lines are better from the point of view of propaga-
tionuncertainties. Ionospheric tilt or "patchiness" may interfere seriously with the
precision of a line of position from azimuth systems and its effect may be to dis-
place any of the lines of position of the system. Tilt is equivalent to horizontal
electron-density gradient.
Pulse-modulated systems offer the possibility of separating ground wave

from sky wave and hence of making measurements on one component of the signal
at a time. For instance, suppose that transmitted pulses have a duration substan-
tially shorter than sixty-five microseconds. Then the ground-wave pulse would
always be completely over before the same transmitted pulse travelling by the sky-
wave route arrived at the receiver. There would be no interference and one could
measure difference in times of arrival of ground waves or sky waves independent-
ly. However, as will be pointed out in the discussion of frequency and bandwidth,
the length of a pulse is not a quantity which may be chosen at random for any fre-
quency of transmission. As the frequency is reduced, the difficulties in the way of
producing and using short pulses increase. This usually means longer pulses and
hence overlapping of sky wave and ground wave. The technique of cycle-matching
(suggested for LF Loran) on the early parts of two pulses whose time-difference is
to be measured has some attractive possibilities.
The leading edge of a received pulse is unique in that for the first sixty-odd
microseconds of its build-up time it will consist of pure ground-wave transmission,
uncoataminated by sky-waves, provided that the receiver is within ground-wave
range. If one could perform a phase match between radio-frequency cycles of two
pulses during this early part of the pulse it would be possible to achieve the high
time-precision which is obtainable with a phase measurement at the radio-frequency.
This possibility hinges on certain identification of the first few cycles so that the
right pair are matched. This identification in turn requires a rapid rise of the front
edge of the pulse and therefore relatively wide band-width allotments.
Errors due to_ambiguities

Two circles or two hyperbolae may intersect at two points. Either of these
two points may be the actual position of the craft. Unless some third line of posi-
tion exists, or unless the navigator knows his approximate position by other means,
there is an ambiguity of position.
Azimuth systems having multilobed antenna patterns have sector ambiguity.

That is, the signal received from the system is the same along several radial or
hyperbolic lines. There are two factors which influence original design in these
cases. If a system has few lobes, the number of sector ambiguities is less but the
precision within a sector is also reduced for the same phase or amplitude discrimi-
nation. Many multilobe systems use a large number of lobes for high angular pre-
cision, and require an addition direction-finding equipment to locate which sector
the craft is in, or a second "coarse" radiation pattern for the same purpose. It
is essential that if the navigation system has ambiguities there be some means
of resolving them. Furthermore, the sectors of ambiguity must be sufficiently
broad thai the craft cannot move across a sector in less than two or three times the
time required to obtain a fix. If for instance a system has a ten-degree sector,
then at a distance of 100 miles from the antenna array, the sector is approximate-
ly seventeen and one half miles across. Flying at 300 mês per hour at right
V
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3 X> £
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iiiiiiiiiiiiiiymifiiiiiiiiiiiiiiini'iiiwiiiw'ii iiiiiiiwmiiiiiiwiMiiiiMiiniiiiiiiiniiiiiiin i
Fig. 1-14 Uncertainty in line of position, hyperbolic system

^^.«.^».■^■-«^«»■■■«■»»■»»IIUIIMM^
angles to the radial lines, a plane would cross the sectoi- in three and one-half min-
utes. If the time required to obtain a fix is of the order of two minutes, it is obvious
that the system would not be useful at ranges so close to the transmitter. It is evi-
dent that for regions sufficiently distant from the transmitting station, sector ambi-
guities fall into the category of gross errors which would only be a serious problem
for craft which are completely lost.
Geometrical considerations in the use of two or more lines of position for a fix
Since time measurements and propagation path predictions are subject to
error, a "line" of position established by the system has a degree of uncertainty.
Suppose the navigator knows his exact position by other means, then a series of
measurements using a navigation system which has no systematic errors will
yield readings which on the average will form a statistical ensemble about the true
value. It is then possible to draw two lines of position which form boundaries to a
region within which 907« of a larg^ number of position-line measurements will fall.
These lines will straddle the true line of position. If the navigator wishes to deter-
mine his position, assuming that he does not know where he is, he can take a
measurement and know that there are nine chances out of ten that his true position
line is within a similar zone about his measured value. The geometrical shape of
such a zone depends on the type of system and on the timing and path uncertainty.
Figure 1-13 shows such zones for two circular systems. When a "fix" is taken using
circular position 'zones" from two stations such as A and B of Figure 1-13, there
is an 8.1 out of 10 chance that the true position of the craft lies in the quadrangular
areaa,b, c, d. The quadrangular area e, f, g, h, in Figure 1-13 represents similar
"zones" intersecting at a less favorable angle; there is still an 8.1 out of 10 chance
of including the true position in the area but the area is larger and the true position
therefore less accurately known. Figure 1-14 shows the shape of the zone of uncer-
tainty about a hyperbolic line of position. Note that in Figures 1-13 and 1-14 the
assumption if made that the measure of distance or time has the same uncertainty-
regardless of total distance or time measured. This will be true for all errors due
to incorrect phase comparison or pulse alignment, but will not be true for errors
arising from frequency drift or variations in either the velocity or the path of pro-
pagation. In Figure 1-14, the zone of uncertainty approaches a sector of constant
angular width as the hyperbolae approach radial asymptotes. Figures 1-15 and 1-16
show similar constructions for zones of uncertainty in azimuthal systems. It is
assumed that 90% of bearing measurements will fall within 1° of the true value.
Then at a distance of 100 miles from station A there are nine out of ten chances that
the true line of position lies within 1.75 miles of the measured value, 0.0175 being
the tangent of 1°. If then two measured lines of position intersect at an angle near
90° at a point not more than 100 miles from either station, the position of the craft
is somewhere in the diamond shaped area shown shaded in Figure 1-15. In this case,
the maximum probable distance between the actual position of the craft and its cal-
culated position is of the order of two and one-half miles for the case assumed. If
the angle of intersection of the two lines of position is for example 15 degrees, the
result is shown in Figure 1-16, where the maximum probable error is approximately
16 miles at 100 miles from the fixed station. If one plots the region within which the
angle of intersection of two lines of position is equal to or greater than any given
value, the boundary of that region is found to be a circle passing through the two
fixed stations. This is illustrated in Figure 1-17, where the circle passing through
the two stations encloses a region where the angle of intersection of azimuthal lines
of position is always equal to or greater than 30°. At any point on such a circle, the
angle of intersection of azimuthal lines of position is the same. At any point on a
similar circle drawn for two stations constituting a hyperbolic system pair, the zone
of uncertainty will be approximately the same width measured perpendicular to the
hyperbolae as in Figure 1-14 where ab = cd = ef. Such a circle may be used to de-
lineate regions of coverage having a precision equal to or better than a given value.
If in range systems it is also possible to measure differential range, then the area
■*— 1 wfBiHint'tMiiin' KH^BBBBBBî^nBHl^Hiai^HHlHEHMHPSWmi
Fig. 1-15 Uncertainty in a fix determined from azimuthal lines of position, angle
of cut near 90°
of uncertainty may be reduced by a substantial factor as shown in Figure 1-18. The

diamond shaped area in black dashed lines is reduced to a hexagonal region between
the dotted lines. In this case it is assumed that the precision of the differential
range measurement is the same as that of the direct range measurement.
IV. Type of Presentation
The presentation refers to the manner in which the navigator is made aware
of the navigational information. In certain cases it may be desirable to by-pas:-: the
navigator or pilot and feed the course data directly to the steering control mechan-
ism. Aside from this "automatic" operation, the navigational data reaches the con-
s
'S
cd
-r-t
in'
s
W
CO
M^M—^M^M^——^—^——mamimamM ■MrTTiir»iirTf"™~irlJ~—~
A B
Fig. 1-17 Boundary of a region within which the angle of cut is equal to or greater
than a given value
sciousness of the navigator by either visual or aural means. It is in general true
that it is possible to present more information in a given time by visual means than
by aural means. However, a glance at the various instruments visible from the
pilot's position on an aircraft, and the recognition that he has to see objects out-
side the plane also, v/ill indicate that in most cases of aircraft navigation, the pilot's
visual channels for the reception of information are pretty well saturated. Whatever
reaches the pilot by aural means arrives by way of a set of earphones which, in some
cases, may be switched to several circuits (interphone, various radio communication
channels, etc.).
For single-place fighter craft it is desirable to have navigational informa-

tion presented in as simple a manner as possible. Homing information or prese-
lected course flying lends itself easily to simple presentations such as right-left
visual or aural indications. In this case accuracy is subordinate to simplicity. For
aircraft direction or "vectoring" from ground stations, such as in radar fighter-dir-
- ---
\
'\
\
\\
\
.
.,
I
'
\
- ----
\
I
\
-A--- -
Fig. t-18 Illustrating the reduction in uncertah:ty of position by combmation or
\
.circular and hyperbolic lines of pQSitioa · ·
l'Ction, the presentation Is via voice communl~aUon ch.a nnels from the cur.trol point,
:tnd high precision is possible since lt is determined by. the ground in~tallations. A
similar system is usefulfor airport traffic control. For general navigation or fight-
e r craft the problem is more difficult. Suppose a fighter craft after a S<'Vt>ral min-
utes "dog fight" or easl'Ye action Is completely lost. Assuming that h(l has .a com-
pass ,. he then needs to be able to obtatn a "fix" in order to proceed with hiS assigri-
nt<'nt. Tbts implies that he must be able to take some sort of a chart of tl:.w r('gion
wh('l'~ he is ahd put a dot, labeled with a time, on it to represent his position. It
may also be deslrabl~ to plot a series of fixes thus defining his cour.st'. While thf'
prf'sentatlonofgeneral navigational data In a useful form to a fighter pil 0t is a n'r):
~' < · r ious problem, It is relatively much easter to do for the navigators of larl!<' .lia·-
crafl and ships since in these cases the naYlgator usually does not h.w(' extcnsiv('
other activities. ·
Aural lndtcatlog
Under aural types of presentation there are three useful subdivisions:
(a) Direct v.erbal or code lnstructtOia \'Ia radio communicatiOn circuits from fixed
stations or other craft. This is sometfmes eaUed· "Yec:torlnc''.
(b) Homing or other preselected coune na'Yiptloa bJ "dot-dash" or A-N dil't'cl
error indicatloa.
(c) General navigation 1lf aural recCJIDlUon of some form of identification nf lines
of poslttOD.
Direct -.erbal Instructions are aed 1D radar flg~er or bombf-r control and
in airport control systems. The p1»11r.d or shlp radar controll('r ''s(>(>s" Uw craft
in its relation to other craft and fixed objects, and directs the navigation. This implies
that some means of recognition must h? used so that the controller knows which of
several craft in his radar or optical Held of vision is in fact, the one which he is
talking to. This is an extremely scriiais problem when many craft are using the
system at the same time.
Homing or preselected course navigation often makes use of coded signals

to indicate deviation from the preselected course. When the craft is off course on
one side, the navigator hears coded "dot?", when he is off on the other, he hears
"dashes". Similar indication is used in the radio "range" navigation system
where the coded letter A (•-) is heard when off course on one side, and N (-•) is
heard on the other side. A system of this type may have a two or lour or multilobe
pattern so that there are several lines ;aong which one could navigate towards or
away from the beacon.
A truly general navigation System must enable the navigator to draw his
line of position on a chart no matter where he is in relation to the station, provided
of course that he is within range. Various systems do this by rotation or angular
oscillation of a pattern such as the preselected course type. The navigator gets his
line of position by aurr.i recognition of the instant when an equisignal or otherwise
designated line crosses his position, as in the Sonne system.
Visual Indication
The visual presentations ol information fall into two natural classifications:
(a) Mechanical indication, dials, pointers, or switching of lights.
(b) Osrilloscope presentation.
The mechanical indicators include meters of the pointer-on-scale type and

dial inr'^ rations of various sorts. They are simple and direct and have the enormous
advantage of not presenting too much information. Zero-center meters may be used
to indicate deviation from prescribed course or from line towards home. The fact
that deviations right or left from course may be made to appear as right or left de-
flections of a pointer is of great importance in that it contributes to the naturalness
ofapilot's corrective reaction, a result not obtainable with aural presentations un-
less some binaural device is used. Furthermore, the exact course is more sharply
indicated and the actual extent of deviation is quantitatively displayed. This is a de-
sirable feature since it tends to prevent hunting back and forth across the course.
Certain systems use automatic dial reading to indicate actual lines of position;
others depend on coincidence alignment of some type on an oscilloscope followed by
a reading of mechanical indicators attached to the phase shifters or potentiometers
used in adjusting the coincidence.
Oscilloscope indicators are certainly the most versatile tools yet devised to
present information that can be reduced to electrical or magnetic variations. The
presentations may be of any sort from simple right-left steering directions to
complete PPI maps of the surrounding geographical features as well as of other craft
in the neighborhood. In general the oscilloscope presentation allows of the use of
weaker signals than direct reading mechanical systems. Furthermore, anomalous
propagation conditions, reflections from tropospheric or geographic discontinuities,
and enemy jamming or meaconing may completely upset the operation of automatic
mechanical indicators. A skilled operator on the other hand, using an oscilloscope pre-
sentation may recognize and discount the spurious signals and still be able to deter-
mine his line of position. An oscilloscope presentation is particularly adapted to
monitoring sky-wave pulses in order to select times when conditions are stable and
hence readings are more reliable. The same might be said for any instantaneous
mechanical type of indicator except that the oscilloscope shows not only the ampli-
(■wnwinmiM 11 n iniiwiiiriTinnir"" """"" ***
tude but the changes in form of the pulse which is indicative of the stability of pro-
pagation conditions. In general it will be easier to meacon continuous-wave trans-
missions than pulse types where the presentation is on a "scope". Suppose for
instance that one is using a system in which lines of position are lines of constant
radio-frequency phase difference between two carriers. A meaconing station could
transmit one of the carrier frequencies and shift actual phase of the system locally
or even over the entire coverage area if sufficient power were available. This could
be done without the knowledge of navigators using the system. Also in the case of
a system which establishes a line of position by comparison of modulation enve-
lope phases, a continuous wave transmitter correctly phased could bring about
a phase shift of the modulation envelope by any desired amount. Since meaconing
cannot ordinarily be done from points near the system transmitter, the phase shifts
produced will varyfrom point to point within the coverage area. Meaconing of pulse
systems requires the generation of a false pulse. Theoretically at least it would
not be impossible to generate a pulse which would cancel out one of the system
pulses along an arbitrary line across the coverage area. Practically, this would be
very difficult and the general effect would be to broaden the resultant pulse or dis-
play two pulses. This effect might not be observed by the navigator using a mechan-
ical type of indicator but would certainly warn him of the malicious intent of the
enemy if he were using an oscilloscope presentation. As previously pointed out,
with pulse transmissions the front edge of a pulse is unique in that it arrives by the
most direct route and is not composite. If the pulse is of short duration the signals
arriving by the different paths do not overlap and hence may be easily recognized
on an oscilloscope.
Oscilloscopic presentation of data has been criticized for displaying too much
data at one instant and hence confusing the navigator. It is true that in the case of
an inexperienced navigator, his first reactions to the indications on his "scope" might
be total bewilderment, but so would the first reactions of almost any intelligent be-
ing to the array of instruments visible from the pilot's seat of a modern plane.
Pilots become familiar with the utility of the instruments in front of them, and navi-
gators come to depend on their "scopes".
In general, the mechanical indicators are best adapted to continuous-wave and

modulated continuous-wave systems where ground-wave propagation predominates
and where the transmissions are free from the effects of enemy machinations.
Oscilloscope indicators are ideal for puh,. types of systems where they may extend
the useful coverage to longer ranges and enable the system to be used under less
favorable transmission conditions,
V, Operating Skill Required
There is a tendency among many people to deprecate any piece of equipment

which requires any skill on the part of the operator. If these people actually con-
trolled the design of navigational equipment everything would have to be ''foolproof
andnewideas would never get a trial. On the other hand, this tendency is a necessary
and beneficial counter-balance to the imaginative genius of other people who would
multiply and extend the intricacy of modern radar and navigational gear until only
they themselves could operate it. The fact is that neither pilots or navigators are
morons; they are people of well above average intelligence. They may be too busy
under certain circumstances to be able to make careful and precise measurements,
but given time and training, they could operate and maintain any reasonable creation
of the electronic genius. Under the stimulation of wartime necessity, the number of
ships and aircraft which must be navigated has multiplied enormously The training
of navigators must be carried out in as short a time as possible The U. S. Navy
allows a sixteen-week basic training period to train a man in the necessary math-
ematics, astronomy, geography, and navigation. As a part of this training, the navi-
gator learns to take a three-line celestrial "fix" in from twenty to forty minutes,
which is no mean accomplishment and involves the skilful use of a modern sextant,
an instrument fully as delicate to use as an oscilloscope or other ordinary electronic
gear.
Since all navigation systems have a relatively small number of fixed trans-
mitting stations compared to numbers of craft using the system, the training of rela-
tively small numbers of operators and maintenance personnel for fixed installations
is not as serious a problem as that of training the large numbers of navigators who
will use the system in the navigation of various craft, even though the operators of
fixed installations will m general require more extensive training than the navigators.
The present trend in training programs is to allow as much as thirty or forty hours-
out of the sixteen-week basic training course for training in the practical operation
of electronic navigational gear. Almost any intelligent person could learn to go
through the motions of taking a "fix" by electronic means given sufficient time; but
the skill and proficiency developed by training and practice enable the experienced
navigator to get an accurate "fix" in a short time, and to be aware of faulty opera-
tion of the gear, or anomalous propagation conditions, or enemy "tampering" with
the signal. As previously indicated, the lime for getting a "fix" must be short com-
pared to the maximum rate at which the craft passes from one sector of a pattern
having ambiguities to another. Another important reason for insisting on a short
time to take a "fix" is because when an aircraft is forced down or a surface vessel
is damaged, life or death may depend on being able to get a "fix" quickly and radio
out the craft's position with sufficient accuracy to enable rescue to be effected or
at least to bring rescue craft within range of a "squawker" or other portable marker
beacon.
VI. Equipment Required
At the relatively few fixed stations of a navigational system such factors as

weight, power requirements, complexity, skills required of operating and maintenance
personnel, etc., are comparatively easy to account for. A consideration of these
same factors poses a serious design problem for equipment on the navigated craft.
For large surface vessels the weight and bulk of the equipment is less critical than
for small vessels and aircraft. On single-place fighter aircraft the weight and size
become extremely critical factors in the design, and only the simplest types of pre-
sentation and lightest possible equipment can be tolerated. High precision and long
range become less important than lightness and simplicity. On the other hand, ship-
borne and large aircraft navigational aids will tend to stress precision and long
range usefulness. For aircraft where the fuel load is a large percentage of total
load there is a three-way balance to be achieved between weight of navigational
equipment, accuracy of the equipment, and fuel load saved by accurate navigation.
In other words, cutting the weight at the expense of navigational precision may mean
that due to flying a less accurate (and hence longer) course, the weight of fuel re-
quired increases more than the weight saved in navigational equipment.
Fixed Station Equipment

Since the best sites for fixed stations are usually remote from electric pow-
er facilities, a reliable and well-regulated power plant is the first requisite of a fix-
ed station. Except for small battery-operated beacons the power supplies are usual-
ly generators driven by fuel-burning engines. Since the continuity and reliability of
navigational coverage is of extreme importance, the power supply may need to have
standby units.
The design of raclio-fi equency circuits in gem ral will be conditioned by the
same need for continuity and reliability, and in addition must include accurate fre-
ouencv cent-ration and phase-control circuits.
t:lr·ctrnnt( Nav t,;att '·' ::; y. , , 111:- J •.• l
Th<'tr-.n:> m ttllne; a ntt·r.naarray t.-, . 1 n·;t...:.alt :. lilt lit 1n rr.any :.yl>lt-:ta::- . CaP·
in the cnolct· ,;f sl\es, Old<'qu:ah• dc·:·l((n of gro~u11dtn1: nt·tworks. pn·cisi"rt ;Jf !>pacir.~
and an~rular nr u·nt:tl wn of antr-nna a rray ~ •• 11 c·.doi r :hut1 · rnart·nally to tht· U!:!Curacy
and rehability uf tnt: systr·m. A:; a rull· at 1:; .rtopr.ICill.'.tl to ~uld ii )OW•I.l'" quency
vertu:al antt•nn:1 a quarif·r 'A'avt•lf'nt.rth lu g r. !th •s w•JU! ·I be· 1093 ft·N at 300 kcps and
3280 feet at lOG kl·p:,). Cf· rtain systc·m:; u.; t· b:1rr.~.:c b:ll :o,uns to huld up a very long
antenna but tht•M· ha-w• " fuul-Wt-.J! h£· r unrdiahtl1ty wlm:h prccludt•s thf'ir use in a
ru~rmanf'nt instaUation . Il is ul>ual:y 111 c r !>sary ' " u~l' an antrnna whir.h is a small
fraction or a wavel t>ngt!a lugh, and th~·~ i , ; top lotad · 11 tn tnl' n·a:-.f• th<' current at the
bast> ;m d to havt .1w whol£' antt•nn:J rarry a l.1rgl r curn·nt. ~w r'eby increasing its
t>ffPCtlVt·nt·ss as a ra,~tator . Wht·tht•r thl' t ••p IS lnadPd · ,,. nut, t hc•rr is usually some
type or matchang cinutt at tlw bd st t" rn;,t<:h tl:' ' .tnt•·nn:t t •· a transmission line or
transmttt<'r output . Tlw 'A'hft!l- C1 n•b ta;.ti•·n c•m:.tit ut l·:· a <"l rt' Uit with a fairly high
.. urctivc · 0 " -.·hcn the · acrual r .• di .ttlll~ !'art >~f tl.l· ant• ·nna is ':>hort compar<'d to a
quartt>r 'A'3Vt' lf•nKlh , .u:o :ts a rt·.: u lt tt11 · P·~- :;t blc· rat• (If rt:, ro 11f the fr ont £'dgf' of a
pulse output 1:-. liuult·d . l'h1s 1...; s :tylll.,: l~a t tht· b:md wtdlh of ·· - ·tntrnna and its
assoclatt•d circuits 1,; narrow, p••rt oap~ unrlf.s1 rably ·;1 .. ~arro'A - _..t •. J c1rc-uits are
us€'d to limit tran.-; n:i:tt••i radi:~t1 on t11 .1 •l(•s lrt•d b·~n d Wl'jth, but it is prt-frrabl<> to
ciosuchlim1ting.and pu bc s hapintt ,. ,th •n u n • tr;u·t.Jbi£' ctrcuits than ant(·nnas. Fur-
thPrmore th€' ud!atiun- rr-s ts tanct• ..r antt·lllla:> which an· a ~mall fract:on of a quar-
ter wave l€'ngth (!>0°) :s VPry ::.mall , bt•1ng o nly 6 .5 o hms h1r a 45c antt"nna (1 ;' 8
wavP lengthl ard 1.5 uttm s fo r a 22. 511 an\.-rana. It is n~·<'<'ssary '" krt"p ohmic resis-
tancf' of antennas and gr•1und syst<'m~ much l(IW<'r than lht•S<' valu<'s for any reason-
able powrr £'Hic- lf•ncy. This in turn rt•qutr<'s C'lCtrnsiVl' radial grounding systf'm s~
SincP any form •·f s harply cti r£'ctiVt' array involvt·s ,, 11umtx•r of ant€'nnas, it is im·
pract!calt(l butld tllf•mforlovdrPqutncy ~ y s tt·m s . At h : ~hd fr<'QU<'nCiE'S, th<' ant<'n-
na problrm 1s much l<'~s difficult :tnd 1t 1s quilt' pt •s sibl<' t u construct antenr••~ :!rrays.
r£'fl <'cl••r ~ (d t ~ ht·~i. and lrns<'s wl:lc-h P \' t' o.; harply drfuwd bt·ams. if thPse arl' d<'-
slr<'d.
VII. Fr P.que nry and Bandwtdt h
A gPm·ral cons 1deratlCln ot frequt•ncy .wd b-.1nct-.·•dth rE>quir€'m't'hts for

tronir. navigation sys tem!' Involves both f'n~in<'<'ring and P<'litical as pt'cts . The
operating frt•que ncy for a particul.tr s y~h· m :mJ 11s bandwidth rt>quirement
t'ngineeringproblems. Tht>availabilityofa givt·n bandwidth at a particular lP
inthe frequency spN·trum 1s a politil.'al qut>sti• ,n. Th<' pus!'ibtlity of accura .ong·
range naviw.tt iun b} <'h·ctronic- m€':ws Ita:-; bf't'n amply dt•monstnt€'d during the war,
and thE' de!'lrability ur post-w.u ma 1ntc·n:111C f' of s uc·h s HVJ<"es is obvious. A chart
showin~ tht• prt'o; ('nt us('s of various part s of the r adio-frequency spectrum and the
frequt>ncif•s whic:a lhf' ~t'\'r' r:>.l naVIj.:at !Un :; ystt·m s now us €' is shown on page 31.05.
SincE' in mos t cas t•s thE' l·Xact trans mitt •n.: fr<'qu<'ncy is not critical from an engln-
eeringpointofvif'W.ttmay be c·host"n t11 fit ava1!abl<' rant(PS m thP spectrum. Those
parts of the radio s p r ctrum which h:lVr bf't 11 us t•c1 for a fixed purpose for many years
and for which Jar"e cap 1tal sums hav(· b\•f'n investt>d in transmitting and receiving
Pquipm('nt,a s inthl' C'ast· "f th<' br,.ackastinJ! band !ru m 535 to 1605 kcps, ar<' prac-
tically untouch,tble· ~VC'n for a v.-orldw ic1t· navt~at inn systE-m. On the other hand
amatPur band ..; :1 rl' !llotPr J:Ius lv likdy to ) bf' t.l kt" n ovt· r f11 r other purposes wht>n their
usefulll('SS tx>r .onll ' · l \'i•.lo ·n!. Many !•f• ~ ~Ill ll.IVil!:lt l llll:d US('S for parts of th(' spec-
trum arl' o b:-.tol ('SCt·nt o r Wt••.lld lw · ,f " " 'r• · !!f'llt'ral u:: l' WPr<' madE' of pr<'SE'n\ Loran
('llV f' T:t~• · or th.l t 11f .111:, ••Pl " l' S UC' l' l ~- s fu! lomg r ;l'll-:• ~Y .' I f' lll ,
• <\ P • · \ r • l l • · o~r :uoh· .,f ' Ill l • •v. - ~ r • ·q V I ' IH, tnto ·nn.o p r· ·b!orn undf' r ~ tt•ady- s tat i'C UJHi l -
- , . :• , • • • '1 U l·>- fl ~?.-:~- I : · ' C'· 3 :.~2
-1.42
- - -- ------- - --
Th~re is plenty of r<t'Jm in the Sjwctrum fur a guod, well- :ntegrated navip-
Uon system, but thE'rl' J!l not ro11m f,,r .til tlw ~nssibl~ systems covt-ring thf' same
territory at the same tun~. H•t'4l' Yt·:-. 1n v:l··· · otf the importance or the problem lt
is highly <k>s irable tu •.-wf' a va •l •.l1l• i ,,.,., ,.1 ,. ·p:.ce fur further experimentation
with navigation system.· .-~~d ht r:•·c· ; n v t t' r 1;::d f'Volutwn towards better ultimate
systems.
lncuns ideringth ~wdwHith lf a t;l >• .1 :· s t< :n it i5 necess ary to take account
ot the bandwidth requtrt>d for thl' cumph•t(' clta in of transmitting stations which are
required to proYlde t·uvt r :egr ""' r a n ,oct-au or a largf land area such as North
America or Europe. Thus a pul ~ e ~y s tt-m Jikt: Luran requires a relatively larp
bandwidth allotment, but one c-an "Pf'ratt· many fixed transmitters on the same fre-
quency since the variou.; :;tations may tw- d i stm~uished by thf'ir repetition rates.
A systt>m Jikt• ~onnf' ·•: • h·· 11lht•r h.111d ~_- : ; n . •Jif' r:th• With a much narrower bandwidth
allotment pt'r s tatiiJn, tJut ('an not :-.t.1d·. _, ut :ons too clost>ly to~otether, and must not
USE' the same.> frt>qu<>nq· for any twu sta · h •ns wtlich can bt• received stmultaneoualy
at any point in the cun.-ag«· an·a. Tht• jll"1 '·'' Ill l.~;ran receiver (AN/APN-4) ls de-
slgnedfor rc.>ct!ivingsixtt·t·n pn~ ~ibh· pa1r'- •st xt ('(•n rcp('tilion ratf's ) on each of four
frequt'ncy channels. Compktf' <'c1\'cora&.:l' ..c thr :\orth Atlantic would probably re-
quire the US<' uf all t ht tatt·s on on(' c ha·1r.t·: . Thf' ra!'lge of Sonne Is of the same
order of magnitude as tha t of Lor.tn, aud s ixt l'f'n Scmrw stations spaced 3 kcps apart
would r~quif€' appruxintatt'ly 50 kcp~ ,.f b.tndwldth for a l'Omplete system. This
figure of ~0 kcps bandwidth is nf thr s anw ordt•r nf magn · •Jde as that of an Ideal
Loran puls<' lra nsmis s1un. Actua l Lur.tn tr.ms m1ssions arc somewhat wider. It
might be poss ible to s:ack Son1w transmiss,ons as clos(' together as 1 kcps apart,
but sh.lrp rect> tver circuit!, tl·tHJ t" hrn:HH·n t he • ·qu isi ~otnal and reduce the pr~ision
of a lin~ or position. !:1 ~<'twral. tht> (.j ,• rm.ws ust·d wider spacing than 1 kc:ps for
their ope ratlngSonnr H .tti•ms . Thf' trar. s miltPd pnwl'r from Gf'rman Sonne stations
wa~of tht' o rdt' r of 1 .5 kw wh1c- h i.' t •• lw .-.•rr p:~ rN1 with toe kw a( peak transmitted
pnv.-f' r fro m a t v,•teal L1or ! r. :-: 11:.. u. tl1'"', '"' 1 • t h<' t•qutvalf'nl ratio of signal streftllh8
is 0.123 to 1.0. T111s val •Jt' :'- indtca:t·d 111 rdalion t o other signal streftllhs in Fll·
urc 1-1 "1 . T h.' .w c r a g,- pcnn•r of a Loran transmis sion is much less than 1,$ kw.
Figur£' 1-19 shows tht• f rrquf'ncy :-;p('ctra of a probability pulst> like that ol
FigurE' 1-20 (s olid lind. a eos in(' pulsE' lik(' that of Figure 1-09 and a rectanplar
pulse, all havin~ a n(JOllnal duration of 50 microsl'conds. \\'hllf' It may be easy to
decidf' what an tdcal puis£' should look like, it is not l'asy to generate such a pulse,
modulating a radio-frPquc.>ncy carril'r at the powu l('Vt>ls which are necessary. The
problem rt>ducrs to tht· fact that while the £'xpenditure of considerably mort" money
in englneer1ng and opf'ratlng costs mi~ht produc(> a better pulse from the point ol
view ol redul'Ni oondwtdth of transmi:::-;ion, in mos t cases the.> intt>rference produced
ln a narrow band recc1ver tun('d 100 kcps off thr crntt'r of the pulse spectrum wlll
be negll1ible at points located at somt' distance from the transmitttor. The distances
at which pulsE's ceasE' to bf' a SE'rinu!-' ~tJurcr of intf'rfe rence dt>pend both on the
shape ol thf' pulst' as 1ndicatf'd, on thE' p<'ak transmlttt'd power. and on the local
noise letel and the no is(' gt'neratf'd in the l'f'C('iVt>r. Tht> fact th~t radio noise condi·
lions vary greatly with t he location, timP Q{ day, and timE' of year, l'tc., make num-
erical assess ments mPaniu~if· : · o.: l'XCf'pt in avf'ragr terms. Ncverthelttss the truth
rPmalns that while pul:-;p forms ~ hnuld bf' improvrd, tht>re is a diminishing gain to
bf> <~c h it>VE'd by- carr y i n~ uut e xtrf'mf' rf'fin<'ments. Sftyond a certain point the only
br·n•·f it-; whtch rf'~ ult a r r- <·onf inNi t n vf' ry limit f'd art>as near transm itting station~ .
Th• d 1 .-l,;li of pr:u.: t ;ca l pLbl· :-. hapt> ~; 1:-:, ltkf' s n many oth('r ('ngin('f' r ing pro-
bit n•:- . :1 <" - >~ n : • rn m l ': c brt wrr·n ·' numht>r " f tnnflic tmg n ·quirf'mcnts . A'::i point<'d
••L:t • .1rl1t r 1:1 • ~ ·. •r t1 :· tlw tl! tiWablr· tl llldll: :tl•,'•' rtaint y th r :- hortf'r th£' ris f' timl'
·~ ' ' 1 i ' 11 - •r • h :. 11<! .· ~-1 111 f 1r 'l"l' l • r·. · "l ut:• ·n in P PI prr:-:t'ntatlc>no.; th f· r is f'
-20c)b
-30db|£i
-40db
■50db
-60db
40db
150 100 75 bO 25 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
keps
Fig. 1-10 Pcrioclogrannt'iivt'lüpc.s of rcclai'gular, cosmc, and probability pulses all
having the same nominal duianMi and the -ame peak value. The rectangular and
cosine pulses have liarmomc h rnis in lla ir penodograms which are not shown in
the above curves sinci' Ihe [HMIII nf mlei-est i:' the rate at which the envelope de-
creases with frequency away frnm the canm r. If one assumes tiie peak power ra-
diated during the pulses i; 10(1 kvv th( n the relative field strength of ;i (50 kc wide)
group of Sonne station: radiating 1.5 kvv is shown for comparison.
PROBABILITY PULSE
V\r-C0SINE PULSE
\
\
■cyi'
Fig. 1-20 Comparison of a probability pulse (o = Ef and a cosine pulse
1+1
e - E ( 1+ 1 cos pi ) from ;tt
lit - -" to ,A +77
2 2
time and total duraiion of pulses must be short. The ideal pulse shape from the
point of view of minimum bandwidth required for transmission is one having the
-at*
equation of an error function, c - Ef . However, all actual pulses have to reach
their maximum value in a finite time whereas probability pulses have infinite dura-
tion measured along the time axis. The cosine pulse of Figure 1-09 is a simple
mathematicalform of finite time duration, and it has a reasonably narrow bandwidth
as is evident from Figure 1-19. Many actual pulses have leading edges closely
approximating this cosine form, although the trailing edges are more nearly of an
exponential form. For a given pulse shape such as a half-sine or a cosine as in
Figure 1-09, the shorter its duration in time the wider will be its spectrum and vice
versa. However, one must be careful in interpreting the meaning of this statement.
Consider for instance a comparison of rectangular pulses modulating a carrier and
all having the same amplitude but different lengths in time. A receiver tuned a few
kcps off the carrier will receive a click when the pulse begins and another when it
stops. These clicks will have the same intensity whatever the pulse duration as
long as it is very much longer than the period of a single RF cycle. The periodo-
gram of such a pulse of amplitude E and having a duration 2tn is
■ z 77
f
A(f) - 2Et sin (T-r
77 J
2"'f n
1
where f is the frequency measured from the carrier value, and in = -~ . When the
frequency is near the carrier value, f is near zero and A(f) reduces to 2Etn, so that
theperiodogram amplitudeat carrier frequency will increase with the pulse duration.
On the other hand for f>fn, and considering the values of the periodogram at the max-
imum points where the sine function is unity, the periodogram is given by
onHnSKHHraBBBOfeanfl
(a) (b)
Fig. 1-21 Modification of a rectangular 50 microsecond pulse at the end of each of
three stages of video amplification. The upper half power frequency is 12,700 cps
for a single stage and 6,500cps for 3 stages in case (a); and 31,850 cps per stage
or 16,200 cps for the three stages in case (b). The time scale is given in terms of
the time constant of a single video stage in each case.
aWCBHUMHRWBMIWB
1.46 Electronic Navigation Sysum.s
2EI,
E _1
A (f) since 2f,
7; "j:f ?t,
2f n
showing that the amplitude of the periodogram is an inverse function of frequency

off the center of the band for this particular pulse form, and is independent of the
duration. In terms of energy, the energy in sideband;; remote from the carrier fre-
quency depends on the shape of the leading and triilmg edijcs of the pulse, and is
independentof pulse duration if the lop ofthe pulse is flat, whereas the carrier ener-
gy is a function of pulse duraliun. The relative amount of sideband energy radiated
goes down as the pulse is lengthened, since it is diluted by more and more carrier
energy, but the actual sideband energy is independent of duration and the 'clicks'
producedare just as annoying. One solves the key "click problem for code trans-
nutters by simple delay circuits which round the corners of the otherwise rectangu-
lar modulation envelope. With pulse- the problem is more difficult, since the steep
front edge of the pulse is for many use'- its most imporiant feature and one which
must be preserved if accurate time measuremi nts are to be made. The problem
is to have the leading edge of tin puise arrive at its steepest portion by a gradual
increase of slope. The probability pulse ace. ipliöhr.s u'ns to the highest possible
degree but ii spends too long a ti're n-arhmg t.s steepest part, as shown in Figure
1-20 (solid line). The simple rule oi leading . M.i trailing edges is that if the func-
lion of time which describes Hie leading or !;, IrjUing edge has a discontinuity of
value, as in a rectangular puls" (step function), then the sideband intensities dimin-
ish, as the inverse first power of the frequency difference between sideband and car-
rier. If the derivative ol tlie mathematicui form of the pulse lias discontinuities, as
in the case of triangular or hail-sir.i pulse.), tin Uw is inverse square, etc. In the
case of the cosine pulse of Figuie I-GO the first derivative is continuous but the
second is not, so the ôvernnig function is an inversi cube. All the derivatives of
a probability pulse are coniisuo-js.
One might approach the problem from the point of view of physically gener-
ating a desirable pulse by modifying a convenient initial form until it has the desir-
ed shape. This moJification may be Ihought oi as a trimming off of the higher fre-
quency components of the pulse. Figure- 1-21 (:>) and (a) shows the appearance of
the initially rectangular pulse after each of three similar successive stages of
video amplification for two different hnndwidths. The vertical dimension of the
pulse is kept nearly constant to bring out the essential change of shape correspond-
ing to the reduction in intensity of the higher frequency components of the pulse
spectrum, Tlu last pulse shown in Figure 1-21 for each amplifier bandwidth is
approaching the idea.1 probability pulse shown in Figure 1-20 (solid line), Although
having the samt; initial width, the final pulse produced by tiie narrower amplifier
will be broader than that produced m the ivider amplifier. A similar effect is pro-
duced m the envelope of a pulse-modulated radio-frequency signal when it is passed
through successive tuned circuits, as iaa receiver or transmitter. This is shown
in Figure 1-22. Here again the change in shape of 1 rectangular pulse-modulated radio
wave ''packet' may be thought (if as cue to clipping the higher frequency side bands
ofthesignai. After detection, this pulse-modulated signal has the appearance of the
last pulse in Figure 1-2J. Any measurement of the time interval between twopulses,
or the recognition of coincidence 0! two pulses, A ill be most accurate if it can be
made at the steepest part of the pulse, Consider the alignment of two similar pulses
whichareto be exactly superimposed as in;i Loran indicator, where the pulse ampli-
tude is vertical and the time base is liuri/.ontal. The hueral separation of two pulses
which are nearly superimposed is greatesl at the steepe; I part of the pulse, as shown
in Figure 1 - 25. As pointrdoul earlier, noise tends to broaden the trace and thus re-
duce the precision of such a nuasu.: rmeui or alignmcm by causing the two pulses
IBB ■flwHBWBW^—I
hi |;!
ji]I' !
1
11!
! ,<
I '
ill: iPh-
mm
m
Fig. 1-22 Modification of a rectan-
gular radio-frequency pulse in a ra-
dio-frequency amplifier having an
overall bandwidth (for the three
(I stages) of 13,000 cps (pulse length
50 microseconds).
Mh
:
l|i i ii ''If
■-^
MMMUaBBT—ll—WM
UBCHUWUMMMMBK
Fig. 1-23 Showing the lateral separation of two nearly superimposed pulses
being compared to merge into a single broad 'race. As each trace is broadened the
two pulses merge together where their slopes are small, but the last part of the
pulses to become unresolvable is the steepest part.
From the point of view of propagation uncertainties, the earlier in time that
one can use the front edge of a ground-wave pulse, the less contaminated it will be
with other modes of propagation, hence the desirability of getting up to the steep
part as rapidly as possible. If one is using sky-wave pulses there is the further
requirement that the ground-wave pulse must not be so long that its trailing edge
contaminates the leading edge of the desired sky-wave pulse. Thus both the steep
front edge and the short tail are necessary attributes of practical pulses for such
comparisons as are made in a Loran indicator. For any required steepness, which
is usually numerically given in terms of rise time, one could stipulate the necessary
duration of a pulse for any choice of pulse form (such as cosine or probability) and
hence the band width required for transmission. Since the pulse which is finally
displayed on the receiver scope is shaped by all the circuits through which it passes,
a natural question arises as to relative bandwidths of transmitted pulse and receiver
response. It is fairly obvious that there is no reason for having the receiver band-
width much broader than that of the pulse being received, since the pulse shape is
not improved (made steeper or shorter) by this procedure and the broader receiver
picks up more noise. For any leceived pulse, the receiver will always increase the
rise time and broaden the pulse by an amount inversely proportional to the overall
receiver bandwidth. Figure 1-24 shows the effect on a cosine pulse, of the form
used in Figure 1-09 and having a duration of 50 microseconds at half amplitude,
produced by single-stage video amplifiers of three different bandwidths (30 kcps,
20 kcps, and 15 kcps). After passing through the 30-kcps amplifier, the pulse is
broadened somewhat, but if one used a broader amplifier than 30 kcps the improve-
ment in pulse form would bo slight f'-r the raided cost and increased noise reception.
On Hie other hand the pulse after Ihe 15-kcps amplifier has nearly twice its original
base length of 100 microseconds. There is an approximate relationship between the
—■—■————^■^——i———
COSINE PULSE
-30kc
25 150
microseconds-
Fig. 1-24 Distortion of a cosine-shaped pulse in a single-stage amplifier, for three

different bandwidths, showing the upper envelope of the pulse only.
-i'--''-1"- -■'■■■l-.i
rise time of a pulse and the upper half-power frequency of a video amplifier which
is capable of transmitting the pulse with negligible distortion; i.e.,
0 35
the rise time (seconds) = r—^ '—= 7 r
upper half power frequency (cps)
A similar relation holds for a radio-frequency amplifier transmitting a pulse-mod-

ulated radio-frequency signal; here
the rise time (seconds) = — 0 7

bandwidth (cps)
where the bandwidth is the frequency difference between upper and lower half-power
frequencies for the amplifier. The approximations are due to the fact that video
and RF amplifiers may be compensated or aligned in various ways and the numer-
ical factor depends on the amplifier circuits as well as on the particular pulse
shape and the definition of negligible distortion. The ability of a receiver to fol-
low a rapidly changing modulation envelope, whether it be a pulse modulation or
a sinusoidal modulation, is the basic property which is measured numerically
in terms of bandwidth. A similar statement holds for the ability of a video am-
plifier to follow a rapidly varying signal. The word "follow" used here refers
both to following up the rise and down on the trailing edge. There is a tendency
in present equipment to have the overall receiver bandwidth rather narrower than
that of the transmitted signal, in order to improve the signal-to-noise ratio. If
such a receiver operates satisfactorily from the point of view of precision of re-
sult, the implication is that the transmitted signal is broader than it needs to be and
it should be tailored to reduce the required bandwidth for transmission. The whole
question of ideal signal-to-noise ratios depends on the type of transmission, and the
presentation and use of the received signal. In search radar applications, where the
primary object is to detect the presence of craft at extreme ranges, it is desirable
to use long pulses and narrow receivers. The presentation will show relatively
large blobs for targets, incapable of fine resolution, but easier to spot above the
noise which clutters the screen and hides the target whose location is unknown. On
the other hand a broader receiver and shorter pulse could be used in the case of a
target which has been located and enclosed within a narrow "gate" sothat only those
noise pulses which arrive within the time duration of the "gate" are seen along with
the desired signal.
In the matter of signal-to-noise ratio, the various continuous-wave systems

have the advantage of being able to use quite narrow band receivers. Changes in
craft position are so slow, even at airspeeds contemplated, compared to the rapid
changes of instantaneous radio-frequency voltage in a cycle or a modulation enve-
lope, that one received cycle is almost identical to the next or to the next hundred
cycles,andasa result the bandwidth required is small. However, it must be borne
in mind that if radio-frequency phase is the information-bearing variable, then the
amplifier must be stable against phase shifts. The narrower the band width, the
more sensitive a receiver is to slight frequency drift. The angular phase shift
caused by a slight frequency change in received radiation or drift of receiver reso-
nant frequency is given for a single-stage single-tuned receiver by
2Af
A0
Bandwidth (cps)
where A0 is the uncertainty in phase angle, Af (cps) is the maximum deviation of

receiver frequency from signal frequency. This difference is assumed small in
comparison to the bandwidth and constitutes the fiequency uncertainty. For sever-
al stages, the total phase shift is the sum of the phase shifts for each individual
ÜLiLdii :rrm.
stage. The overall bandwidth diminishes as the number of like stages increases,
but not in simple inverse proportion. So that in general this formula gives too small
a value for phase angle uncertainty in terms of overall bandwidth for a number of
single-tuned stages. It is possible to design double-tuned stages and combinations
of double- and single-tuned stages which are more stable against phase shifts.
In general the more specialized the receiver the more difficult is its operation,
service, and maintenance. As an example, suppose the bandwidth is 100 cycles per
second and that it is required to keep uncertainties in phase below 3.6 degrees, or
0.0628 radians, then the maximum allowable frequency drift will be 3.14 cycles per
second which is one part in 10^ at 300 kcps. This would be relatively easy at the
transmitting station where accurate crystal control of frequency is possible but
would be more difficult in a receiver where thermal drift of the inductance and
capacitance elements in the tuned circuits is not easily controlled under operating
conditions which involve large temperature variations and require light weight and
small physical dimensions. The Decca system requires phase-stable amplifiers
and on the assumption that Decca has a range as great as Sonne or Loran, it would
need 32 phase-stable amplifier channels for a receiver to use a chain of stations
covering the North Atlantic for instance. There is the further difficulty that these
32 frequencies must all be submultiples of some higher frequency and it might be
rather difficult to find space in the spectrum for a group of frequencies covering
such a large overall band spread, even though the individual channels are very nar-
row. For a system like the Federal long-range system, the relative amplitude of
received signals is the quantity which bears the information. Here the very nar-
row amplifier must be stable and linear with respect to input signal amplitude, since
signals of different strengths have to be compared.
VIII. Present Status
There is a wide difference between an operational system and a proposal.

When a system has been proposed, there is a temptation to dismiss the working out
of practical details as if the success of such a process were a foregone conclusion.
When one examines the detail of some of the operational systems it is obvious that
more than one stroke of genius has gone into the working out of this detail.
On the other hand the operational systems have not reached their ultimate
state of perfection and systems still require integration into unified navigational
utilities.
llMiMg^^—MIKBIBMI—■nHllgmBiCMUJMMnpiiinilliMiii n min \nvtimmN\miMu-i\mmHiinii*mu*irmaamâ^^mmmmatmmia^mmmKm^mmnmimm^^m... ui^nasBBa
Beacons and Interrogators 2.01
Part I General Information
Introduction
A radio beacon is an installation of radio transmitting, or receiving and
transmitting apparatus which supplies suitable information for use in the deter-
mination of one or more of the following: range, azimuth, identification. The
following discussion is concerned mainly with radar beacons or racons of the so-
called responder type which automatically transmit a reply signal only upon the
reception of an interrogating signal consisting of a radar pulse of a length special-
ly reservedfor this function alone0 This feature adds a measure of security to the
operation of the racons. Responder beacons may be interrogated either by regular
search radar sets (using a special pulse length of from 2 to 5 microseconds dur-
ing beacon operation) or by so-called interrogator-responser installations designed
especially for the purpose of interrogating beacons and receiving the beacon re-
sponse signals. Responder beacons used for purposes of IFF, are commonly re-
ferred to as transponders. Interrogator-responsers are often referred to simply
as interrogators; and these installations may or may not be synchronized with a
local radar set. Interrogator-responsers which are synchronized with local radar
sets usually operate at a submultiple of the radar pulse repetition rate in order to
reduce the likelyhood of overinterrogation of the radar beacon which may be re-
sponding to a number of interrogators simultaneously. Beacons operating in the
super-high-frequencyX or Kbands are limited to the use of relatively heavy trans-
mitting equipment consisting of magnetrons and wave guides, while those operat-
ing in the lower frequency bands may utilize ordinary vacuum tubes and lumped
constant circuits which in general are much lighter in weight. Both magnetrons
and UHF triodes are used in the S-band.
Uses
Radar beacons have a number of uses, the most important of which are:
(a) fixed ground installations for general navigational use by aircraft, (b) portable
and mobile beacons for temporary navigation (including homing), (c) airborne
beacons for identification and control of aircraft both within and beyond normal
radar range.
Triggering Requirements
The requirements of a beacon depend to a certain extent upon its particular
use. With the exception of some IFF transponders, a beacon is designed so that
it may be triggered or interrogated directly by pulses from radar sets operating
anywhere within a particular frequency band such as the X-band or S-band. Most
racons respond only to pulses having a time duration of between 2 and 4.5 micro-
seconds, and are unaffected by normal radar search pulses most of which have a
duration of one microsecond or less. Increased security may be obtained if nec-
essary by the use of beacons requiring two interrogating pulses occurring simul-
taneously on different frequencies.
A radar responder beacon replies on a different frequency from that of the

radar interrogation. In order to eliminate ground clutter and other radar echoes
when observing beacon responses on a PPI, the receiver of the radar set is made
sensitive to signals of the beacon response frequency and insensitive to the echo
signals of the radar transmission frequency. For example, the standard X-band
beacon response frequency is 9310 mcps which is just below the 9335 to 9415 mcps
range of the standard aircraft X-band radar frequencies. A separate local oscilla-
tor is usually provided in the radar receiver for reception at the beacon response
frequency. During reception at the beacon frequency, a loss which may amount to
as much as 20 db occurs due to the presence of the TR switch which acts as a
relatively high-Q band-pass filter tuned for best reception at the frequency of the
radar transmitter rather than at the beacon response frequency. However in order
2.02 Beacons and Interrogators
Code. Narrow-Wid«-Norrow-Wido (NWNW)
m+- -HtHf -H4ttf hfHtt

Time in seconds
(a)
CODE- fu)
mi^m 30
^
seconds
(b)
A scan S Scon
CODE' || j| || is on indicator at oil limes
(C)
Fig. 2-01 Types of beacon codes

■HnSMSCMBMM
Beacons ana Inii/rrogaturs 2.03
toreduce the high TR loss, radars ■'1 recent design have incorporated a relay-oper-
ated device for automatic retuning of the 7'R box to the beacon frequency during
beacon reception.
Coding
Beacon response signals may be coded for purposes of identification. Sever-
al types of coding are in use. the most common of which is known as range coding.
Some IFF equipment however, makes use of either gap or sequence coding neither
of which gives instantaneous identification as does range coding. The three types
of coding are illustrated by the diagrams and cathode ray tube indications shown in
Figure 2-01.
Sequence coding is illustrated in Figure 2-0l(al Several hundred consecutive

responses appear as a single pip on the A scope lasting for about one half second,
following which is a 2.5 second interval in which no signals are returned by the
beacon and only the main b'ing is visible on the scope. Then the beacon responds
again for one half second but this time returning wider pulses which show up as a
wider response signal VAI the A scan. Groups of wide and narrow response pulses
separated by longer ?;.-response intervals follow one another in some definite
sequence to form a code such a'- the narrow-wide-narrow-wide code illustrated in
Figure 2-01(al
Gap coding, illustrated in Figure 2-0l(bjis similar to sequence coding in that

considerable time is required in order to read the complete code from the oscillo-
scope. In gap coding the beacon response consists of a continuous series of identi-
cal pulses with occasional brief interruptions or gaps which are arranged to form
a code such as the Morse letter Li illustrated in Figure 2-01(bj. A complete code
re-occurs about every 30 seconds and consists of some combination of short and
longreply periods separated by gaps which are short compared to those immediate-
ly preceding or following the code.
As illustrated in Figure 2-01fc! range coding gives immediate identification

because the entire code appears at once on the screen of the oscilloscope. The
beacon response to a single interrogating pulse consists of a series of from two
to six appropriately spaced pulses. The spacing between any two pulses is usually
eithei about 15 or 35 microseconds corresponding to range increments of about
1.2 or 2.9 nautical miles respectively, Both the number of pulses and the spacing
between them may be varied to form different codes. On the screen of the oscillo-
scope the distance to the first beacon response signal is indicative of the range between
the beacon and the interrogating radar.
Range coding can be read on intensity-modulated oscilloscopes (B or PPI

scans) more easily than can either sequence or gap coding. Range codes are usually
produced by an electronic coder, while sequence or gap codes are usually produced
by mechanical coders.
Many interrogator-rcsponser units of the type used primarily for homing

operations make use of the L-scan type of presentation. The L-scan is sometimes
referred to as ji double A-scan. Ranges are indicated on the vertical scale and
signal blips appear horizontally on either or both sides of a vertical center line
as shown in Figure 2-02. Right and left steering directions for homing are usually
indicated by inequality of amplitude of the signal blips appearing on the two sides
of the scope presentation. Tins may be accomplished by simple lobe-switching
technique aboard the navigating craft. Cnurse or track indications may also
2.04 Beacons and Interroeators
be obtained if lobe-switching is also em-

ployed at the fixed ground beacon in-
stallation. (See Section 24).
Nature of Response Signals

As viewedonaPPI scan, a beacon
response normally takes the form of a
small arc similar to that produced by a
radar echo signal from a large isolated
object. However, there is considerable
variation in the effective angular width
of the radar beam for both interrogation
and reception. As a radar beam sweeps
over a beacon location, the time or angu-
lar spread within which the signal strength
at the beacon site is sufficient to trigger
the beacon depends upon the horizontal
Fig. 2-02 Example of -scan
field pattern of the radar beam, and the
presentation
maximum field strength at the beacon site,
and also upon the sensitivity of tiic beacon receiver and the directivity characteristics
of the beacon receiving antenna. The angular spread of the visual signal on the
PPItube depends upon all of the above and also upon the sensitivity and directivity
charactenstcs of the radar receiving system. The angular spread for interro-
gation varies from 0 at maximum range to a full circle at close range. Between
the maximum range and about 1/10 of maximum range, only the main lobe of the
radar beam is sufficiently strong to interrogate the beacon. Below about 1/10 of
the maximum r'.mge the side lobes may also interrogate the beacon, so that at close
range the beacon response may appear as a full circle on a PPI scan, unless the
directivity of the radar receiving antenna is sufficient to limit the angle through
which the beacon response may be seen. It is thus quite apparent why beacon re-
ceivers should not be too sensitive. At close range the angle of interrogation may
in some cases be reduced if an aircraft radar antenna is tilted upward to reduce
the field strength at the ground beacon. The fact that most ground beacons have
a rather sharp vertical directivity pattern beamed on the horizon helps somewhat
in reducing the received signal strength at close range from aircraft at high
altitudes. In fact the beacon response may even be lost entirely by an interrogating
aircraft nearly over the beacon.
Radar beacon response pulses are usually of the order of 0.5 microsecond
duration. Since 0.5 microsecond corresponds to the time required for an electro-
magnetic wave to travel about 1''10 mile, beacon response pulses of 0,5 microsecond
duration often do not show up very clearly on a 100-mile sweep even though the
video signal strength is adequate. The visibility of a beacon response on the PPI
screen may be improved by 'video stretching1'. The video stretching feature
consists of lengthemngthe 0.5 microsecond video Dulses to about 2.b microseconds
duration by means of an appropriate circuit.
Ovennterrogation
The transmitter of a responder beacon has a limited traffic handling capacity.
After an interrogatingpulse has been accepted by the beacon discriminator circuit,
the beacon receiver is made insensitive to further interrogation pulses for a period
of about 200 microseconds. If a number of radars are working a responder beacon,
afractionof the interrogating signals sent out from (Mich radar will go unanswered
because they arrive at the beacon less than 200 microseconds after accepted sig-
nals from other radars. The code arcs on a PPI sea?! will then appear slightly
broken up. If so many radars interrogate the beacon that its transmitter load
reaches its safe upper limit, the period during which the beacon receiver is in-
sensitive is automatically lengthened to a value sufficient to prevent further increase
in the transmitter load. The beacon replies are shared statistically among the
interrogating radars so that each radar will always receive some replies as long
as its repetition rate is not synchronized with that of any other interrogating radar.
Exact synchronization of repetition rales is a most unlikely occurrence. A micro-
wave beacon such as AN/CPN~ 6 can serve as many as 50 to 100 aircraft. The num-
ber of aircraft which can simultaneously interrogate a beacon and receive intelligible
responses signals depends upon the types of beacon and interrogating radars used.
Accuracy
The accuracy of measurement of the range or bearing of a beacon depends
largely upon the interrogating radar equipment. Radars equipped with 10 to 15-
mile sweeps with step range-delays can give the apparent slant range to within
one-tenth mile or less. A correction of from 0.5 to 0.6 mile must be subtracted
from the apparent slant range to compensate lor delay in the beacon circuits. The
measurement of azimuth or bearing of a ground beacon by an aircraft radar is limit-
ed to an accuracy of one or two degrees corresponding to an angular position error
of 2 to 4 miles at a range of 100 miles. Since range can be measured with greater
precision than azimuth, a more accurate navigational fix can m general be made
by simultaneous measurement of the ranges to two beacons rather than by measure-
ment of both range and azimutn of a single beacon.
Range and Siting of Microwave Beacons

Very-high-frequency radio waves travel m nearly straight lines, so that
the maximum range at which a microwave beacon can be "seen", may be determined
by simple geometry. For example, in Figure 2-03, the line BP tangent to the
earth's surface illustrates the maximum
possible range for the case of an aircraft
at an altitude H,, interrogating a ground
beacon the antenna of which is at a height
Hjj above the sea level surface of the earth.
The maximum range between aircraft and
beacon antenna is the sum of the respec-
tive "horizon ranges" Rj, and RD corres-
ponding to t.ho heights HândHp.' The aver-
age radar-horizon range, R, in nautical
miles from any altitude, H2 infeet is given
by the formula U - 1.22/H. The above
formula yields a value of R which is about
15 per cent larger than the geometrical
horizon range illustrated in Figure 2-03,
in order to allow for the average amount
of bending (or refraction) of the tangent
radio beam. To save numerical calcula-
Fig. 2-03 Horizon-range diagram tion, the chart of Figure 2-04 is provided
for the determination of average radar-
horizon ranges. The chart also contains in graphical form, information for the
determination of the approximate total range between aircraft and ground beacon
for the case in which an obstruction such as a building or hill causes the effective
skyline to be at a small angle of elevation above the sea-level horizon. The number
of angular degrees marking the dashed line of Figure 2-04 correspond to the angle
of elevation "A" above sea level as shown in Figure 2-05 or as shown with some-
what less distortion in Figure 2-06.
«1,000 .,
JS.OOO
80,000
z to, 000 I
;fc://S :;:-^
^Tt?v--:-:v
5,000 V-VKA
^.r:
X^
\
:^ X-
■AAWPK!
<so leo £00
RäNGE IS NAU'ICAI. M^LS
Fig. 2-04 Average radar-horizon range characteristics
The chart of Figure 2-04 is useful

for the rapid determination of expected
range vs. aircraft altitude charts for any
beacon site. A skyline survey made with
a good transit located at or very near to
the beacon antenna yields the angle of ele-
vation of important skyline features as a
function of azimuth angle. The results of
such a skyline survey might appear as
shown in Figure 2-07 which is an imagin-
ary sot of data drawn to represent, a typi-
cal seaside beacon having open sea from
about 0° to 180° azimuth. Due to the ele-
vation of the beacon antenna, the sea-level
horizon-angle is in this case -.18°. The
Fig. 2-05 Reduction of maximum angle A in Figure 2-06 is the angle of
range by skyline object O ' elevation measured above the sea-level
Imrr/onandwouldbe .30 + .18= .48 degrees
for the highest point H to the northwest in Figure1 2-07. At an inland beacon site
the depression angle of the sea level horizon may he calculated from the formula:
Depression angle d 0.018 .H;, degrees with Hu in feet above sea level. The height
of the beacon antenna used m ihe above numerical example was assumed to be 100
feet. With the a idol the chart of Figure 2-04, the data from the skyline survey may
/ // /
■/ -
. - ^ / ' ///////'Z
■; ■. ■/////// ■ ///- ///, . - 'Z-- ■■
/ / /
Fig. 2-06 Details of the angle of elevation A

be readily converted into a useful expected range vs, aircraft altitude chart such as
that of Figure 2-08 for the given beacon. Maximum ranges for microwave beacons
may be predicted by the above method more accurately than they can be checked
without many hundreds of carefully controlled test flights for each beacon site.
As an aircraft approaches a beacon within the horizon range, interference

effects may occur in the form of a slow recurrent fading of the beacon signals. The
fading is due to partial cancellation between a direct signal and a signal reflected
from the earth's surface. Overland, the fading due to interference effects is usual-
ly slight, but reflections from a water surface may cause the fading to amount to 20
db or more.
As long as an aircraft is above the radar horizon, the received signal power
-13 pt Gp Gb ^
is given by the formula: P - 1,85 x 10 watts where Pr is the pow-
R2
er transmitted, Gp and Gjj are the absolute gains of the aircraft and beacon antennas
respectively, A is the wavelength in centimeters, and R is the range in nautical
miles. Either leg of the transmission - from aircraft to beacon or from beacon to
aircraft - may be the limiting factor in determining the maximum usable range. An
aircraft flying at an altitude of 30,000 feet should be able to obtain responses from
beacons at ranges up to about 230 nautical miles (radar horizon). Beyond the radar
♦.5 i : 1 i
I !
—
1 1 '
\- -f- 1
O i H
>~
- t 1 ( , L.. .i __
j j 1 TN
S .2 — 1 i V i
30
K
-1
i 1 1 \ 1
UJ
M ! ! \
O
0° ■ 60° ;20° 180' 240' ; 1 I too0 i 11 36(A
. L . i . , . . i , . i
ä , . / i t
11 —
CD - 2 ---■! f—-f—
< 1 : 1 1
oo
UJ
UJ
%
UJ
o
-3
-4
+ -I 1
■
1
i
1
1
1
1
I
1
>
<
-1 (
—H
1 i 1 1 i 1 1
Fig. 2-07 Graph showing the elevation of the skyline from the beacon in the
various directions of the compass. (Beacon height 100 feet)
7^r:.-1-ii---.,-r'.VAW;L'i Ba^B^BIBH^HiK^HnaÎâi^^^ViBI^^^*
SEASIDE BEACON
LATirUOE 42 21 01 NORTH
LONGITUDE 70 57 32 WEST
ANTENNA ELEVATION I00FT,
ABOVE SEA LEVEL.
280
W270
260 V
250
I8C
Fig. 2-08 Average beacon range in nautical miles for

aircraft at elevation shown
hori/on however, the signal strength drops off very rapidly and even a large in-
crease of power would increase the attainable range by only a few miles.
Part II Description of a Typical Beacon (AN/CPN-6)
A description of a typical radar responder beacon follows: AN/CPN-6 is a

heavy X-band radar responder beacon designed for ground, ship,or truck installa-
tion. An operational block diagram of this beacon is shown in Figure 2-09.
When a radar operator in an aircraft wishes to obtain a beacon signal, he

turns a selector switch from SEARCH to BEACON. This changes his radar trans-
mitter pulse width and receiver tuning so as to make possible interrogation and
reception of the beacon.
The RF interrogating signal from the radar transmitter enters the omni-
RECEIVING
ANTENNA
TRANSMITTING
ANTENNA
— - ■ — ~ -
r - — - -
9320 MC 1 1 STABILIZING FREQUENCY

RECEIVER TO |
9430MC TUNER CONTROL
' 1
REJECTS ' |
SIGNALS UNDER | ,
DISCRIMINATOR
2)JSEC. AND . 1
OVER 5 jJSEC. '
i 1
2J48
BLANKING TRANSMITTER
AGATE OF 175 TO 1 1 MAGNETRON
GATE leOOpSEC PERMITS I •
FORMING OF CODE AND ' i
LIMITS DUTY CYCLE j '
TO .002 OR 0.2% 1
1 1
2 TO 6 PIPS |
CODER SPACED 15 OR
35/JSEC APART '
KEYER FOR
MODULATOR FORMS 0,5 j i M0DU1 .ATOR
TRANSMITTER
DRIVER PSEC PULSES , ,
RECEIVER CABINET TRANSMITTER CABINET
Fig. 2-09 Operational block diagram of X-band beacon AN/CPN-6
directional beacon receiving antenna and is led by wave-guide to the superhetero-

dyne receiver. If the interrogating signal frequency lies within the receiver pass-
band extending from 9320 mcps to 9430 mcps, it is converted to an intermediate
frequency and amplified, converted to a "video" pulse envelope, amplified again and
ledtoapulse-widthdiscriminator circuit. The discriminator circuit rejects ordin-
ary search pulses shorter than two microseconds, or longer than five microseconds
and passes beacon interrogation pulses of between two and five microseconds dura-
tion. A pulse which has passed through the discriminator circuit triggers a self-
blanking multivibrator and also the first of a scries of multivibrator circuits in the
coder. The self-blanking multivibrator keeps the coder insensitive to incoming
signals for a time somewhat longer than the duration of the code train. This limits
■'—"—" TTiMinmm'-™-1'"11'^^^-!-»' Î;--.::-B-M; ^smamK
2,10 Beacons and interrogators
the maximum duty cycle and also prevents the beacon transmitter from triggering
itself in a ''ring around" fashion. The coder forms a series of from two to six
trigger pulses wUh cither short (15 microseconds) or Jong (35 microseconds) spaces
between them, ,!•; pending upon the setting of the code selector switches. The code
trigger pulses are next sharpened, reduced in length to one-half microsecond, and
amplified by the modulator driver. In the modulator the pulses are squared-up,
further amplified to 11,000 volts peak, and applied to the magnetron transmitter
operating at the X-band beacon frequency of 9310 mcps. A resonant cavity is used
to tune the magnet run and stabilize its output frequency. The RF output of the mag-
netron is led by wave-guide to an omnidirectional transmitting antenna.
The beacon response signal is picked up by the radar set in the interrogat-
ing aircraft and displayed on the PPI screen as in Figure 2-01(c). The distance
from the center of the PPI to the nearest small curved arc gives the slant range be-
tween beacon and aircraft '.assuming an undelayed sweep). The series of arcs or
dashes forms the code which identifies a particular beacon. The azimuth bearing
of the beacon is read off the PPI m the same manner as for radar signals.
A brief description of some of the component parts of the racon system fol-
lows:
Antennas and RF Lines

A rectangular wave-guide 1 x 1 '2 inch, is used for the transmission of RF
energy because of its mechanical simplicity, low loss, and high power-handling ca-
pacity. Stub transformers are used at the base of each antenna unit to convert from
the normal mode in the rectangular guide-feeder to the second mode (TM^j) in the
cylindrical guide of the anlennu or vier- versa. Both transmitting and receiving an-
tennas are of the slotted, cylindrical, wave-guide type giving horizontally polarized
radiation with an omnidirectional pattern in the horizontal plane, and a half-power
vertical beam width of five degrees centered on the horizon when the antenna axis
is ina vertical position. The transmitting and receiving antennas are virtually iden-
tical, but the transmUting-antenna array is tuned for best operation at the beacon
frequency of 9310 mcps while the receiving array is adjusted for best response at
9375 mcps, which is the center of the receiver pass band. For shipboard installa-
tions special antennas arc provided which have a vertical beam width of 30 degrees
at the half-power points, corresponding to a gain of only 3 compared to a gam of 20
for the 5 degree beam. This sacrifice- of nearly 10 db m beacon performance is
necessary it: order to obtain sucha broad beam that the beacon response will remain
visible when the ship is rolling heavily.
The output frequency of the beacon transmitter is checked by a transmitter

frequency monitor consisting uf several components. A directional coupler extracts
one part in 20,000 from the RF power output of the beacon transmitter. The direc-
tional coupler feecis a resonant civity buili of low temperature coefficient alloy', pre-
tuned at the factory to the ciesired beacon frequency, and having a Q factor of about
10,000 sothat its transmission is down fifty percent at plus or minus 0.5 mcps from
the resonant frequency. The resonant cavity is followed by a crystal detector,
amplifier, and indicating meter. The magnetron frequency puller (stabilizing tun-
er) is adjusted'miti! the indicating meter of the frequency monitor reads a maximum.
A similar receiver frequency-momtur is also provided for use in adjusting the
local oscillator circuit.
Oscillator and IK Amplifier

A racon has I lie difficuii job of responding 0 -ignals troni radar sets whose
transmitter fi equepi ms he sevttered throughout ; rather wide frequency band of
approximat! !y Hi) mcps width T actual bandwidth of the IF amplifier used in
this receiver is about 35 mcps extending from approximately 11 to 46 mcps. The

required 110 mcps bandwidth is obtained by utilizing both sum and difference fre-
quency components in the output from the converter, and by shifting the local oscil-
lator frequency back and forth between two fixed values chosen such that the ampli-
fied radio-frequency bands are periodically shifted and overlap slightly to produce
a wide effective RF pass band as illustrated in Figure 2-10. The switching of the
local oscillator frequency takes place at a rate of between 150 and 200 times a sec-
ond. An RF signal not lying in a region of overlap would of course be amplified
only half of the time.
'2
9314 9360 9375 9390 9436
mcps mcps mc
ps mcps mcps
I
HO rnegacycles/sec.(plus a margin of safety}
R-F BANDS COVERED WITH LOCAL OSCILLATOR

FREQUENCY AT "F"OR 9360 MCPS
[77773 R-F BANDS COVERED WITH LOCAL OSCILLATOR

i/ / / /A FREQUENCY AT "F," OR 9390 MCPS.
Fig. 2-10 Receiver band covered by switching frequency of local oscillator
RF.CFIVING
ANTENNA
RECEIVKR FREyOENCY CDVI:RAGE SUPPRESSOR

FREQUENCE 9j?0 incns TO 9430 mcps OATE INPUT
. MONITOR
I-F AMPLIFIER I VIDEO

I ■ncAL SNI' VIDEO AMPLIFIER TO
r/STALI
(CRY (8 STAGES,1 DETECTOR AMPLIFIER ■■'—pND t WD PULSE WIDTH
^3 C:TL;,ATnR-M MjIXER 11 TO 46 mcps DIODE 1ST STAGE DISCRIMINATOR
PAST BAND STAGES
INTÂ
M-A/B -fcAC7 MSN7 J-6s,V7
MI'LTI- 0^0
SWITCHING
VrBRATnR TUBE
bZWi MSN7
SWITCHING CONTROL
ON-OFF SWITCH
'I
SWITCHING DC LEVEIj
ELECTRONIC
TUNING CONTROLS
K.'.rCTR'iNIC SWITCUNG
Fig. 2-11 Receiver block diagram (AN/CPN-6)

2.12 r.'ea.coa'J and Inlerrugators
R.F.
INPUT
!
:-' '^y' FREQ'JENCY

VCAPH 'rCJ INDICATOR
PHOBE
TC 1-F
STRIP
••lc0 V
Fig. 2-12 Electronic switchin. circuii iucn u.scillaior, and crystal mixer
(AN CPN-G)
•*iiO r"—~ -| 4^0 recps

!
i
--
+20 \ \ *-20
X
i
\
0 N.i\ \.\ B ' \ 0 Rô
-20
^sr ;
i
1
.. •-
\C
- 1 .
V \
•2C
w S
2w
i,... „a
1
APPROXIMATE VOL1AGE RANGE
Of D LEVEL CONTROL
10
-l6t) -lr;0 -13ij -IV.
hhith .■ : -■!■ '.■•."!..A ;i:'
Fig. 2-13 Power output r.mJ fre-quency charncteristicH of a typical

/2;-.-A /B tube
A block diagram of the AN/CPN-6 receiver components is shown in Figure

2-11. The local oscillator-tube (type 723-A/B) is a velocity-modulated tube of the
reflex type. Its frequency is caused to vary in jumps by application of a rectangular
voltage to its reflector electrode, as indicated in Figure 2-12. The rectangular
voltage waveform is generated by a multivibrator circuit and coupled to the local
oscillator through a cathode-follower switching-tube which conducts for half the
cycle. The voltage of the reflector electrode of the 723-A/B tube oscillates be-
tween two levels; a negative voltage set by the DC level control during the nega-
tive half of the multivibrator square-wave cycle, and a less-negative voltage de-
termined by the setting of the switching-level control during the positive half of
the multivibrator cycle. Frequency and power output characteristics of the local
oscillator are shown in Figure 2-13 as a function of the reflector-to-cathode vol-
tage. A mode such as the second from the left may be moved by mechanical tun-
ing of the tube's resonant cavity until the center of the mode B is at about 9375
mcps which is the desired center-frequency of the receiver pass band. The
switching of the local oscillator is adjusted by the DC level and switching controls
so that half of the time the operating conditions correspond to point A (9390 mcps)
and the other hali of the time to point C (9360 mcps). A probe couples the cavity
of the local oscillator tube to a section of wave guide containing the non-linear
crystal mixing element, the output of which is led to the IF strip.
The IF amplifier-strip consists of eight identical stages the first of which

and its input circuit from the crystal mixer are shown in Figure 2-14. Each IF
stage is essentially a wide band video amplifier with series-shunt peaking com-
pensation. The gain at frequencies below ten megacycles is greatly reduced by a
f -T-
I
Fig. 2-14 IF input circuit and first IF amplifier stage

cathode degeneration circuit in order to obtain a band-pass characteristic extend-

ing from approximately 11 to 46 mcps. A typical overall response curve for the
IF strip is shown in Figure 2-15.
The IF amplifier stages are followed by a diode detector which feeds the
envelope pulse to three conventional video-amplifier stages the output of which goes
to the pulse-width discriminator circuit.
o 10 20 30 1|0 50
FREQUENCY IN MEGACYCLES PER SECOND
Fig. 2-15 Overall frequency response characteristic of the IF strip
Pulse-Width Discrimination
The pulse-width discriminator circuit is shown in Figure 2-16. The output
uf the final video-amplifier stage is applied to a diode clipper-circuit which passes
the negative portion of a signal pulse to the grid of the unbiased "drooler" tube.
This negative signal drives the drooler well beyond plate current cut-off and its
plate potential then rises exponentially toward +250 volts as its plate-to-ground
capacitance charges through the 270,000 ohm plate load resistor. The rise of plate
potential, the first part of which is quite linear, is coupled to the grid of a cathode-
follower which is normally biased beyond plate current cut-off. The plate circuit
of this tube contains an inductive plate load which presents a significant impedance
only to very rapid variations in plate current; but since this tube normally acts as
a cathode-follower most of the time, it is referred to as such. The bias on the
cathode-follower is adjusted (by the control labelled 2 MICROSECONDS in Figure
2-16) so that approximately 1.9 microseconds is required for the positive-going
signal applied to the grid to raise its potential to the point at which plate current
starts flowing. Then the plate potential of the cathode-follower drops to a lower
value with the flow of plate current. If now the input pulse from the video stage
should terminate at say 2.0 microseconds after its start, the drooler tube imme-
diately becomes conducting and drives the cathode-follower beyond plate current
cut-off. The sudden stopping of plate current in the inductive plate-circuit of the
cathode-follower generates a positive pulse to trip the biased blocking-oscillator
which in turn sends a negative triggering pulse to the coder. If however, a signal
pu;se from the video amplifier is shorter than about 1.9 microseconds, the cathode-
follower never becomes conducting and no triggering pulse is sent to the coder, The
circui' thus far described discriminates against pulses of shorter duration than
about 1.9 microseconds (most radar search pulses are of the order of one micro-
second or less) and allows pulses of about two microseconds or longer to trigger
the coder.
il ° Output
,ooi/jf to Coder
Fig. 2-16 Pulse width discriminator circuit
It is sometimes necessary to simultaneously discriminate against pulses

longer than about five microseconds as well as shorter than two microseconds.
This is accomplished in the circuit of Figure 2-16 by applying to the blocking
oscillator grid a delayed negative signal of sufficient magnitude to completely
overpower any positive pulse from the plate of the cathode-follower occurring upon
the termination of a signal pulse longer than about five microseconds duration.
During a long signal pulse the voltage at the cathode of the cathode-follower con-
tinues to rise. This voltage is coupled to the grid of an amplifier with sufficient
negative bias to prevent the flow of plate current until five microseconds after the
start of the positive-going signal from the cathode-follower. When plate current
starts to flow in the biased amplifier, its plate potential drops and a negative gate-
like signal is impressed on the grid of the blocking oscillator. Upon the termination
of a longvideo-signal pulse, a positive trigger from the plate of the cathode-follower
is applied to the grid of the blocking oscillator. The biased amplifier also sudden-
ly stops conducting and its plate potential rises. However the plate-to-ground
capacitance of the biased amplifier stage and also capacitor C-312 (see Figure
2-16) take sufficiently long to charge that there is still a negative signal at the grid
of the blocking oscillator sufficient to prevent its triggering.
Formation of Code
Each output pulse from the discriminator triggers the coder, the function of
which is to form a series of from 2 to 6 pips spaced 15 or 35 microseconds apart
for use in controlling the range-coded beacon response. A schematic circuit dia-
gram of the coder appears in Figure 2-17. It consists essentially of a chain of
single-shot multivibra'ors, firing in sequence, the cycle of events for any one multi-
vibrator being initiated at the close of the cycle for the previous stage. In each
multivibrator a sudden drop of plate potential is differentiated to obtain sharp neg-
ative pips at the input to the collector-amplifier V-407. The grid resistor of the
collector tube forms a differentiating circuit with the coupling capacitors from the
output of each multivibrator. The response of the differentiator to the more slow-
ly rising part of the plate voltage waveforms is negligibly small as shown by volt-
age waveform ey of Figure 2-18.
Briefly the operation of the coder is as follows: The negative trigger pulse
from the discriminator circuit trips a "single shot" multivibrator circuit which
generates a self-blanking gate that prevents further triggering of the coder for a
period ranging from a normal length of about 175 microseconds to a maximum of
about 1800 microseconds whenever too many aircraft are seeking replies from the
beacon. Simultaneously with the triggering of the blanking gate,a negative pulse
passes to the "collector" through capacitor C-407. At this instant the first pip-
forming multivibrator is also triggered and either 15 or 35 microseconds later
(depending upon the position of the first spacing control switch) this multivibrator
delivers a second negative pulse to the collector through C-408. Each of the re-
maining pip-forming multivibrators then fire, one after another, to form the re-
mainder of the code. The spacing between any two pips may be set to either 15 or
35 microseconds by changing the capacitive part of the time constant in the appro-
priate multivibrator. A selector switch is also available which grounds a grid of
any of the last four multivibrators in order to provide for termination of the code
at fewer than six pips. A few typical voltage waveforms are given in Figure 2-18.
The circuit used for protection against overinterrogation works in the follow-
ing way: The first tube of the coder is a single-shot multivibrator which starts the
operation of the coder when the grid of its normally conducting section V-401B is
driven beyond cut-off by a negative pulse from the video amplifier. While the grid
ofV-40lB is negative, the multivibrator is of course insensitive to further negative
triggering pulses so that during its period of operation it generates its own blank-
ing gate. A DC voltage from the transmitter circuit directly proportional to the
magnetron current is fed to the grd of a biased DC amplifier tube (V-408 of Figure
2-17) which is non-conducting at low interrogation rates. When the average interro-
gation rate exceeds a certain level. V-408 conducts a current which passes through
the bias and cathode-level control-circuits of the sell'-blanking multivibrator V-401,
the effect of which is to increase the plate current drawn by the left hand or A sec-
tion of V-40i during its conducting portion of the cycle. The accompanying increas-
ed drop of plate potential of V-401A drives the grid of V-401 B further negative so
that a longer time is required for its potential to drift back to cut-off. The greater
DC voltage level of the cathodes also increases the length of the self-blanking gate
by increasing the required voltage range through which the grid of V-401 B must
pass before getting back to cut-off potential after being driven negative. The gradual
increase in the self-blanking gate from its normal 175 microseconds to a maximum
, -H-r-v
+
-'-r T; Jf -*, - V' ■
> <*
4I -Ik i '
.
U ^-.-l--,
.:<'■'■'
.:'
* '.
H|U i
■ -'iri i '■
r '-'■ -■ 4-
fernH-
-T- ■ -
1
_,■:,/
J
T
^ i-^V f
- .. . ; '" ,
i-,.
-i .i ■ tU l-iM- ...;; _-..

+ h ■■
7,-
-( r
4.\L -VJ „, U\ .. ,
'""" i'V-L? V
',0 iv
ir
'1
4 :-,f ' f - -t -■-'
-
i - <■ ■' i i .. ... i .
mi ■•;■•.••',,■,/:
Fig. 2-17 Schematic diagram of coder

—tir-""" •■'■""''
of about 1800 microseconds, lengthens the time that the coder is insensitive to fur-
ther signals, thereby limiting the average rate of response to interrogations.
Transmitter Components
175 - 1800/1. sec "The" output' voltage pips from the
BLANKINS GATE coder must be suitably shaped and ampli-
fied for use in pulsing the magnetron. The
circuits necessary to accomplish this are
SPACING
shown schematically in Figure 2-10. Each
output voltage pip from the coder is ampli-
MICROS EC OHDS fied and sharpened in V-610 which triggers
the blocking-oscillator V-611. A tuned cir-
55 MICROSECONDS
cuit (L-601, C-608 and C-611) connected to
the grid of the blocking-oscillator is used
to control its period of oscillation. Regen-
erative action, followed a half-cycle later
by degenerative action, takes place in the
blocking-oscillator. The oscillatory cir-
cuit is tuned to about one mcps and makes
one oscillation of large amplitude followed
by a few highly damped oscillations. The
output of the blocking-oscillator therefore
consists of a positive pulse of one-half
microsecond duration. This pulse is applied
to the grids of the driver tube V-612 in which
the pulse is still further amplified, and its
top is flattened by limiting action in the grid
circuit when grid current flows. The modu-
U_1L CODER
OUTPOT lator tetrodes V-901 and V-902 are normal-
ly biased beyond cut-off. The pulse output
Fig. 2-18 Formation of a typical from the driver stage causes the tetrodes
code to conduct for a period of one-half micro-
second during which the plate potential of
the modulators V-901 and V-902 is lowered from 15,000 to about 4000 volts. The
high-voltage capacitor C-904 has previously been charged to a potential difference
of 15,000 volts during the longer non-conducting period of the modulators. During
the one half microsecond conducting period of the modulators, the lowering of the
positive terminal of the high voltage capacitor from 15,000 to 4000 volts above
ground results in the application of an 11,000 volt negative pulse to the cathode of
PUl St SHiP NG
Fig. 2-19 Schematic circuit diagram of transmitter components

the magnetron the plate of which is at ground potential. During this time, the magne-
tron oscillates and radiates energy into the wave guide leading to the transmitting
antenna.
Part HI Brief Descriptions of Common Beacons and Interrogators
The remainder of this section contains very brief descriptions of some of

the better known radar responder beacons and interrogator-responser units. The
material has been taken mainly from section 4 of the U. S. Radar Survey.
A. Interrogator-Responsers
Lucero is a British airborne interrogator' of high power, operating at fre-
quencies between 171 and238 mcps. It is used for the following purposes: (1) Hom-
ing onto long-range responder beacons; (2) Interrogation of IFF transponders on
other aircraft; (3) Execution of rooster operations; (4) Beacon approach; (5) Hom-
ing at medium range to light transportable beacons; (6) Position-finding at medium
ranges with Rebecca-H equipment.
Rooster operation consists of calling for support with a signal upon which
other friendly aircraft can home. For example, a reconnaisance aircraft which
may have located an enemy objective, hovers over the target with its rooster bea-
con turned on so that friendly bombers may reach the objective by homing on the
beacon signal.
Rebecca is a low-power British airborne interrogator designed to operate

with Eureka ground beacons at spot frequencies between 215 mcps and 235 mcps.
It is used primarily for short-range homing operations. Range and homing indi-
cations are provided on an L-scan CRO.
AN/APN-2, 2A, 2Y is an airborne 135-cm. interrogator-responser. It pro-

vides range and relative bearing information for homing and navigational use. It
is a modification of the SCR-729 to perform the function of the British Rebecca
Mark II. Range measurements may be made to within 200 yards. The maximum
usable range varies from 25 to 100 miles depending upon the type of responder
beacon interrogated. The AN/APN-2A model may act either as an interrogator-
responser or as a transponder.
B. Responders and Transponders

Eureka is a British low-power ultra-portable responder beacon operating
at spot frequencies between 215 mcps and 235 mcps and designed for use with the
British airborne interrogator Rebecca. It is used primarily for short-range hom-
ing operations and has a range of about 20-40 miles, depending upon the altitude
of the interrogating aircraft.
BGX {AN/CPN-6) is a ground-based or shipborne X-band range-coded

responder beacon. It supplies the interrogating aircraft with range, azimuth,
and identification information for navigation and homing. Its useful range is
line-of-sight.
BPS (AN/CPN-8) (an up-to-date version of BGS) is an air-transportable
coded responder beacon which provides range, azimuth and identification for the
guidance of aircraft equipped with S-band radar sets. Its maximum range is of
the order of 100 miles.
Rosebud (AN/APN-19) is an S-band, range-coded beacon designed for use

in aircraft. Installed in fighter aircraft, it enables GC1, SCI, MEW, or other
radars to identify and vector such fighters at ranges greater than their detection
ranges on enemy bombers. In fighters and bombers, Rosebud greatly increases
the range and reliability of close-support bombing and photo-reconnaissance with
SCR-584 radars equipped with plotting boards. The range is iine-of-sight which
corresponds to a maximum of about 250 miles at an altitude of 30,000 feet.
Aspen (AN/APA-9) is an airborne S-band beacon designed especially for

the Oboe Mark II navigational system. The reliable range is to the horizon (approx-
imately 250 miles from an altitude ol 30,000 feet.)
BABS (AN/CPN-7) is a blind-approach beacon operating at a frequency of

173,5 mcps. The ground installation is designed for interrogation by aircraft
equipped with either SCR-521 or SCR-729 to provide for instrument approach to
a landing field. The airborne equipment provides range and homing information
on an L-scan CRO. The aircraft is guided to within one mile of the runway at an
altitude of 200 feet and the actual "landing is accomplished visually.
Airborne Bups or Rosebups (AN/APN-29) is an S-band ultra-lightweight

coded responder beacon designed for aircraft installation. Its range is line-of
sight against a powerful radar.
BPP(AN/PPN-2) is a lightweight paratroop responder beacon for use with

supply aircraft equipped with Rebecca (AN/APN-2) interrogators. The beacon
operates in the 135~cm, wavelength region and has a range of at least 40 miles for
aircraft at a height of 5000 teet.
AN/PPN-3 is a 135-cm. paratroop responder beacon for use with Rebecca

interrogator-responser radars. It is designed especially for use with AN/APN-2,
and is a close copy of the British Eureka Mark ID. With AN/APN-2 at an altitude
of 500 feet its range is about 18 miles with a 10 foot antenna height, and about 25
miles with a 50 foot antenna height.
YH or YH-1 is a 176 mcps land or shipborne beacon of use as a navigational

aid. When interrogated by ASV, ASVC, ASE, AN/APX-2, and SCR-729 it responds
with a coded reply on 177.5 mcps. It has a maximum range of the order of 100
miles.
YJ, YJ-1, YJ-2 are ground or ship-based responder beacons used as navi-
gational aids to aircraft equipped with 176 mcps or 515 mcps search radar. The
beacon replies with a gap-coded signal on either 177.5 mcps or 520 mcps depend-
ing upon the frequency of the interrogating pulse. The useful range extends to about
100 miles.
AN/CPN-3 is an S-band range-coded ground responder beacon designed to

provide homing and navigational aid to aircraft equipped with SCR-517, -520, -717,
~7?0, or AN/APS-2. The useful range is line-of-sight.
BLACK MARIA is special identification equipment designed for installation

in aircraft. It is triggered only by the simultaneous reception of pulses in the S
and G bands, and it responds in the G band.
BUPS (DC) (AN/ UPN-1) is anS-band, battery-operated, self contained, ultra-

portable, coded, responder beacon. Its reliable range is about 35 miles with 3CR-
717 or AN/APS-2 at 5000 feet.
HNOi i ■■■■min hl u \immM\mm,
BUPS (AC) (AN/UPN-2) is similar to AN/UPN-1 but is AC operated.
BUPX (AC) (AN/UPN.3) isanX-band, AC-operated ultraportable responder

beacon Its range is approximately 40 miles with AN/APS-3 or -4 and greater
than 100 miles with AN/APS-10 or -30. ' greater
(DC) (AN/UPN 4) iS simnar to AN üp

operated^" - / N-3 except that it is battery
AN/CPN 13 AN CPN 15
cons. " ' / - . and AN/PPN-8 are Mark V IFF transponder bea-
Bibliography
Identification Classification Title Issued by
Chapter XIII Confidential Principles of Radar (a book) The Staff of the

MIT Radar School
590 Confidential Siting and Range of Microwave MIT Rad. Lab.

Beacons
Secret Airborne Beacons for Aiding General

Control of Aircraft by Ground H.M.McClelland
Radar--First Preliminary Communications
Report of Special Committee Officer Army Air
ön Beacons Forces
Secret Ground Beacons for Air-Ground General

Cooperaiion Second Preliminary H.M.McClelland
Report of Special Committee on Communications
Beacons Officer Army Air
Forces
Ship 290 Confidential Preliminary Instruction Book U.S. Navy Dept.

for Radar Equipment AN/CPN- Bureau of Ships
6
602 Confidential The Statistics of Beacon In- MIT Rad. Lab.

terrogation
Section 4 Secret U. S. Radar Survey Div. 14 NDRC

Navigational
Radar
Section 2 Secret ü. S. Radar Survey Div. 14 NDRC

Airborne Radar
WA-3753-11 Confidential LUCERO, T. R. 3566 Air Ministry
JEIA 3233 Secret Rebecca and Eureka Equipment Council for Scien-
(Australian) tific and Industrial
Research, Radio
Physics Laboratory
91-3/31/44 ConfidentiaJ Video Stretching as a Method MIT Rad. Lab.

of Improving X-band Beacon
Reception
Oboe 3.01
Type of System
Range.
Useful Range
"About 250 miles from 30,000 feet altitude.
Accuracy and Precision

The line of position of the aircraft is known to within about + 25 yards.
Presentation of Data
Aural on the controlled aircraft.
Visual on PPI at the ground stations.
Operating Skills Required

Trained operators for aircraft.
Trained operators for ground stations.
Equipment Required
"300 lbs. of airborne equipment (AN/APA-9).
Large heavy ground installations (modified SCR-584or British Oboe Mark II).
RF Spectrum Allotments Required

Frequency 3150 to 3240 mcps.
Bandwidth = 8 mcps.
Present Status
Operational.
Oboe is an H or range type of system used primarily for precision blind

bombing and photo reconaissance operations. The fundamental principles of opera-
tion may best be described with the aid of Figure 3-01. G^ and G2 are suuably posi-
tioned ground-stations each of which measures the range between it and the aircraft
bypulse interrogation of a responder beacon in the aircraft. Station G-^ supplies the
aircraft with sufficient information to enable the pilot to fly a circular course at con-
stant radial distance from G|. The radial range from G^ is chosen so that the arc
of flight passes through a preselected target. Station G2 measures the ground speed
of the bomber along the arc, and from this speed and a pre-knowledge of the aircraft
altitude and type of bomb used, transmits a bomb release signal to the aircraft at
the instant that it reaches the proper range.
The ground stations G| and G2 are of tlie order of 100 miles apart, and control
of the aircraft may take place at long ranges of 100 to 150 miles or more from the
ground stations.
Various names are used to designate the stations G^ and G2 respectively such
as; cat and mouse stations, tracking and release stations; or drift and rate stations.
Both cat and mouse stations transmit on the same radio frequency, but use
different pulse repetition rates. The necessary signals to the pilot to keep the air-
craft on course and to the bombardier to indicate the desired instant of bomb release
are transmitted by means of either space or width modulation of the same pulses
that are used for range measurement. The tracking signals from the cat station to
the pilot of the aircraft consist of aural indications of the dot-dash type. A steady
tone of moderate intensity is used for the ' on course" indication, A series of dots
or a series of dashes is heard if the bombing aircraft is off course to the right or
to the left respectively. The intensity of both dots and dashes gradually increases
«.»roi»^^^NI».rM|1||||,||,|1|WT,rj1V||rr[|./|,|||i|rm|r.[|||if|||||H<
Oboe 3.01
Type of System
Range.
Useful Range
"About 250 miles from 30,000 feet altitude.

The line of position of the aircraft is known to within about + 25 yards.
Aural on the controlled aircraft.
Visual on PPI at the ground stations.

Trained operators for aircraft.
Trained operators for ground stations.
Equipment Required
'300 lbs. of airborne equipment (AN/APA-9).
Large heavy ground installations (modified SCR-584 or British Oboe Mark II),
RFJJpectrum Allotments Required.

Frequency 3150 to 3240 mcos.
Bandwidth -■ 8 mops.
Present Status
Operational.
Oboe is an H or range type of system used primarily for precision blind

bombing and photo reconaissance operations. The fundamental principles of opera-
tion may best be described with the aid of Figure 3-01. G^ and G2 are suitably posi-
tioned ground-stations each of which measures the range between it and the aircraft
by pulse interrogation of a responder beacon in the aircraft. Station G^ supplies the
aircraft with sufficient information to enable the pilot to fly a circular course at con-
stant radial distance from G|. The radial range from G\ is chosen so that the arc
of flight passes through a preselected target. Station G2 measures the ground speed
of the bomber along the arc, and from this speed and a pre-knowledge of the aircraft
altitude and type of bomb used, transmits a bomb release signal to the aircraft at
the instant that it reaches the proper range.
The ground stations G| and G2 are of tlie order of 100 miles apart, and control
of the aircraft may take place at long ranges of 100 to 150 miles or more from the
ground stations.
Various names are used to designate the stations G^ and G2 respectively such
as; cat and mouse stations; tracking and release stations; or drift and rate stations.
Both cat and mouse stations transmit on the same radio frequency, but use
different pulse repetition rates. Ihe necessary signals to the pilot to keep the air-
craft on course and to the bombardier 'o indicate the desired instant of bomb release
are transmitted by means of either space or width modulation of the same pulses
that are used for range measurement. The tracking signals from the cat station to
the pilot of the aircraft consist of aural indications of the dot-dash type. A steady
tone of moderate intensity is used for the on course" indication. A series of dots
or a series of dashes is heard if the bombing aircraft is off course to the right or
to the left respectively. The intensity of both, dots and dashes gradually increases
3.02 Oboe
prf = i66^
h (CAT)
BOI.;B RELEASE POINT
G2 (MOUSE)
FRIENDLY Ei;Ei.nr
TERRI TORY TERRITORY
Fig. 3-01 Geometry of approach to the target in Oboe bombing system

The cat station Gj transmits the tracking intelligence.
The mouse station G2 transmits the bomb-release signal.
as the aircraft deviates further andfurther from its proper course until at a distance
of about 200 yards off course a maximum tone is reached corresponding to 1002>am-
plitude modulation; after which there is no further increase in the volume of dots or
dashes with further deviation from the course.
The course information may be obtained by either space or width modulation

of the pulses transmitted from the cat station. The space modulation scheme is
illustrated by Figure 3-02. Every other transmitted pulse of the 266 or 194 pulses
per second is fixed in time phase. The relative position of the intervening pulses
can be varied so that they occur at any desired point between 1/2 and 3/4 of the time
spacing between the fixed pulses. The normal 'on course" position of the movable
pulses is 5/8 of this distance. When in the 5/8 position, the energy in the movable
pulses neither adds to nor subtracts from that contributed to the lined filter by the
fixed pulses. When the movable pulses are halfway between the fixed pulses, their
energy adds to that of the fixed pulses and the response of the tuned filter in the
receiver is a maximum; and when the movable pulses are located at three-quarters
Oboe 3.03
Fixed Puls« rixsd Puls«
Tons Intensity
Dots at
mzzzzzzzzi
100% Modulutioi
Dots ot
mzM,
'XUZ4///A
-'//'. Background
50% Modulation Tons
ooshss at
ioo% wodulolion
Dashes at '-^-*Y//A* Background

50% Modulation V-'TT///^ ^ Ton«
Fig, 3-02 Space or phase modulation of the ground-station signal pulses
of the way between the fixed pulses, the effects of the fixed and variable pulses cancel
one another resulting in zero output signal from the tuned filter.
Whenever the aircraft is flying at the proper range from the cat station,
the variable pulses are always in the 5/8 position resulting in a steady output tone
of moderate intensity. If the aircraft deviates from the proper range, the phase of
the variable pulses from the cat station is automatically keyed back and forth be-
tween certain limits (such as A and B in Figure 3-02) equidistant on either side of
the 5/8 position. Within the 1/2 and 3/4 position limits, the amount of phase shift
back and forth from the 5/8 position increases the further the aircraft is from its
proper course, but the time spent in each position is not the same, and whichever
time is the greater depends upon whether the range error is positive or negative.
imtmmniuriw
—IT" —IM 11 UM irnrn i
3.04 Oboe
For example, if the range of the aircraft from the cat station is slightly too small,
the phase or position of the variable pulses might shift back and forth between the
limits A and B of Figure 3-02, remaining in position A only long enough to allow for
the transmission of a dot signal of increased intensity, and then shifting to position
B for a somewhat longer period during which the tone intensity is reduced from
that of the "on course" indication. If on the other hand, the range of the aircraft
from the cat station is slightly too large, then the phase timing of the variable
pulses transmitted from the cat station would be such that the phase corresponds
to position A for a longer period than for position B so that the output signal from
the tuned filter consists of dashes of increased intensity with shorter spaces of
lesser intensity. Thus it is seen that eiiher dots or dashes may be formed by shift-
ing the movable pulses back ard forth between limits corresponding to the depth of
modulation, with the relative lengths of time during which the pulses remain in each
position determining whether the output of the filter will consist of dots or dashes.
In the width-modulated system, all pulses tnmsmitted from either the cat
or mouse stations are fixed in their space or phase relationship, but vary in width
in accordance with the modulation. Circuits in the aircraft receiver are so arrang-
ed that the intensity of the response of the tuned filter varies from zero to a maxi-
mum as the width of the received pulses varies from one to three microseconds
duration. The "on course" signal is produced when all pulses have a width of two
microseconds. Relative intensity modulation of the desired depth may be obtained
by shifting the pulse width (within 1-3 microsecond range) back and forth between
values equidistant above and below the "on course" value of two microseconds. By
properly controlling the relative periods during which the pulse width is set at one
or the other of the two Mmits, desired dot or dash signals may be produced in the
same manner as in the space or phase modulation system previously described.
The airborne part of the Oboe equipment (Aspen) consists of the antenna sys-
tem, including the RF plumbing and controls for directing the antennas towards the
cat and mouse stations; a receiver; a repetition rate filter unit for obtaining audio
signals for the pilot and bombadier; a modulator which includes the transmitting
equipment and in which is also located the T-R box, the local oscillator and crystal
mixer of the receiver, and a pre-amplifying unit which operates at the intermediate
frequency of the receiver; a control-junction box which contains the controls for the
system; and a power supply.
The operation of the Aspen unit of the Oboe system is illustrated by the block
Pi'.KA.M! 1
(~l:
•R H*1 -
T-R j
REf'tTITJON
-f-f»-w- H ITDMATORU KATE
KILTER
* V .v
I'n.VKH
MCDU:■: ITT
Fig. 3-03 Block diagram of the airborne Oboe equipment AN/APA-9 (Aspen)
im ii im i iinrnmMmwMiTMMwniifflmiMMa^
Oboe 3.05
diagram of Figure 3-03. An incoming RF .signal pulse is received by the antenna

and passes through a T-R box. into a crystal mixer. The resulting intermediate-
frequency signal passes through a pre-amplifier and then to the receiver proper.
The receiver is either a British ''.Penwiper'1 receiver or a British "Pepperbox" re-
ceiver. It has two outputs, one of which is a trigger which actuates the modulator
and causes an RF beacon response pulse to be transmitted for each received signal
pulse. The other output from the receiver is fed to a British filter box, which con-
tains two peaked audio amplifiers one of which is resonant at the characteristic
pulse repetition rate of the cat ground station, and the other of which is resonant at
the repetition rate of the mouse ground station. The outputs of the filter unit are
connected to the headphones of the pilot and bombadier so that the appropriate aural
signals are conveyed to them for control of the aircraft course and to indicate the
moment of bomb release. The amplifiers in the receiving system are made insensi-
tive for a short interval during the transmission of the beacon response pulse. This
gating function is indicated by lines from the control box in the block diagram of
Figure 3-03.
The microwave (f = 3150 to S240 mcps) Oboe ground stations used to track
the aircraft are either Oboe Mark II, which is a modification of the original British
Mark I system, or Oboe Mark II HSM which is a modified SCR-584. The British
systems use the Mark I console, /,SG modulator and RF head, and a modified anten-
na.
The basic geodetic data supplied to the ground stations for an Oboe operation
consists of the ranges from the tracking and releasing stations to an aircraft at a
pre-selected height directly above the target. A number of corrections must be
applied in order to determine the correct range for bomb release. At long ranges
where the curvature of the track is slight, very little error is introduced by using
the measured average ground speed, but at short ranges where the angle of cut
changes considerably, appreciable error may be introduced into the calculations due
to the change in the angle between course and wind directions as the aircraft flies
around the circular track. The ground speed would change even if the aircraft flew
with constant "effort" but it flies with constant airspeed which further complicates
theproblem. The calculations necessary for the determination of the correct bomb-
release range are discussed in AWAS note No, 16 entitled "Theory of the Average
and Instantaneous Velocity Measuring Mouse",
Bibliography
M-148-c Confidential Handbook of Instructions for MIT Rad. Lab.

Radio Set AN/APA-9
Section 4 Secret U.S. Radar Survey (pages Div. 14 NDRC

Navigational 4-167 to 4-171]
Radar
6 3- 9/16/43 C onf idem ial Comparison of Vector and Dot- MIT Rad, Lab.
Dash Methods in the Oboe
Rh ering Problrm
Note No. 16 Secret The ay of the Average and A.W.A.S.

AuRust 1943 Instantaneous Velocity
Measuring Mouse
SHORAN 4.01
Type of system
Range or distance (H system)
Frequency and Wavelength

ITO - 520 mcpsTO3 - 0,94 meter). Bandwidth: 4 mcps.
Useful range
Line of sight, 180 miles at 12,000 feet, (depends on height of craft)
Accuracy
Estimated probable precision of fix (theoretical) -- 50 feet.
Equipment required
(a) Ground: Two beacon responders, transportable by truck. Directional
antennas used, which may be mounted on 50 ft, masts. Careful location of beacons
required to give estimated accuracy noted, (b) Crait: (AN/'APN 3) Interrogating trans-
mitter, receiver and highly specialized timingand indicating circuits. Total weight:
232 lbs.
Operating Skill Required

(a) Ground beacons will run unattended but skilled crew is needed for tri-
angulation of site and setting up of beacons, (b) Navigator with some special train-
ing required in craft.
Presentation
Pip matching on a 3-inch CRC. When this has been accomplished, Shoran
distances from ground beacons ar:1 read directly on mileage dials.
Present status
Developed by RCA and extensively used in the latter part of 1944 and early
part of 1945 in Europe as a precision bombing device. In this capacity, Shoran has
given extremely accurate results.
General Features
The Shoran system was developed primarily as a precision blind bombing
device, at relatively short ranges (100-200 miles). As with any device which can
be used to navigate a crait to a specific point. Shoran can also be used as a precision
navigational aid. However, it is not specifically adapted to flying a predetermined
but arbitrarily selected course, and as a long-range navigational aid would be of no
USP in its present form. Accuracy was a first consideration in the development of
the existing equipment, simplicity and man-power requirements being deliberately
sacrificed. In use as a precision bombing device, a computer is added to the air-
borne equipment. Since this report is concerned with navigation, the action of the
computer is not discussed.
Principles of the System

The two ground beacons are located in suitable positions (high ground). The
accuracy of the system depends on the accuracy with which the beacon positions are
known. The craft carries a transmitter (3 watts average power) which radiates
pulses (j- microsecond duration) in alternate groups at two different frequencies.
The beacon receivers are tuned to these two frequencies, so that both beacons are
interrogated by the craft transmitter, but independently. The reception of a pulse
from the CKilf by a beacon causes the beacon to re-radiate a pulse (on a different
frequency) which travels back to the craft and is there received and displayed. Means
are available in the craft tor measuring accurately the time taken for the pulses to
4.02 SHORAN
travel from cralt to beacon and back. The two time intervals 00 determined (one
for each beacon) enable the craft to determine its distance from each of the two bea-
cons. This yields a fix, as the point of intersection of the two circles whose centers
are the two beacons and whose radii have been determined.
The two beacons are known as the "rate" and "drift" stations. Tu reach a
predetermined point, whose Shoran distances from the rate and drift stations are
known, the procedure is as follows. The craft will navigate (by Shoran or other
means) until it is proceeding along an arc whose center is the drift station and whose
radius is the required drift station distance from the destination. Proceeding along
this arc, the distance from the rate station changes progressively. When this dis-
tance is equal to the required rate station distance from the destination (as observed
by the navigator) the designated point has been reached.
230
Fig. 4-01 Amhiguiti! s
I&lUi^dt&lih&A ■null um HH iiMiiMiiiiimiiiF iMiiiwi mwi
SHORAN 4.03
Referring to Figure 4-01, suppose that the destination point A is 130 miles
from beacon P and 110 miles from beacon Q, If 0 is to be the drift station, the
approach may be as shown by arrows. Clearly the approach might have been from
the opposite direction, and equally P might have been chosen as the drift station so
that there are four possible lines of approach using the drift-and-rate procedure.
The advantage of this procedure is that one of the distances being observed (the drift)
remains constant during the final approach, leaving the navigator free to concentrate
on the rate reading.
As in all systems of this type, there is ambiguity as between points A and B^,
both of which lie at the required distances from the beacons. It is assumed that the
two sets of beacon pulses may be identified at the craft, so that the craft will not
arrive at a point 130 miles from Q and 110 miles from P. Other ambiguities exist
however, due to the fact that the Shoran indicator indicates tens and units of miles
(as well as tenths and hundredths) but not hundreds of miles. Thus the Shoran indi-
cator will also give the required indications at points 83 (30,110; 130,10; 230,110;
230,210 etc.)
Shoran Distance
Distinction must be made between geographical (gieat circle) distances and
Shoran distances.
Craft
Beacon
Fig. 4-02 Shoran distance
Due to refraction, radio waves do not travel in straight lines. The assump-
tion usually made is that above a certain height the actual path is an arc of about
15,000 miles radius. Furthermore the actual velocity of radio waves will not be
constant along the Shoran path, neither will the heights of beacon and craft above
sea level be the same in general. For these reasons, the Shoran distance (S, Fig-
ure 4-02) will be greater than the great-circle distance M by an amount A, so that
S ■ - M + A. The correction A is given to a close approximation by the formula
A = 2.152. M.(H + K) +1,794-QL K)2 - 0.2477 M3

8 8
10 10 M 108
where the symbols have the meanings indicated in Figure 4-02 and H and K are
measured in feet, A and M in miles (statute).
Regarding the theoretical precision of Shoran, RCA gives the following table
of causes of error and their estimated contributions:
jummwmttm
4.04 SHÜRAN
Source of Error Maximum Estimated Error
(1) Residua), approximation error« in the ± 20 ft.

computed corrections
(2) Drift of craft timing frequency after + 30 ft.

checking with ground station
(3) Setting and reading mileage dials i 10 ft.
(4) Scale non-linearity in craft timing + 60 ft.

phase-shift circuits
Maximum estimated possible error •f 120 ft.
Since it is unlikely that all four of the component errors will be simultaneous-
ly of the same sign, the estimated probable error i.i; given as + 50 ft. These errors
refer to the Shoran distances of the craft from the beacons. Thus there will be an
areaof uncertainly determined by .ires of position representing the limits of rate and
drift radii. This area of uncertainly will have a minimum value if the rate and drift
circles intersect at right angles, (Sec Section 1 i.
Principles of Operation of the Equipment
Referring to the block diagram of the equipment carried in the craft (Figure
4-03), there i-: a commutator which is motor-driven from the main power source
(d-c supply In the case of aircraft). This commutator performs a complete sequence
of switching operation.1; every ' 3 0 second. The craft transmitter '40) is pulsed by
the timing ge..^ at a pulse repetition rate- ol approximately 930 cps. Since the craft
transmitter must interrogate two beacon transponders on different frequencies, and
since the interrogating pulses for the rate beacon must be phased differently from
those wind', are to interrogate the drift beacon, two pulse outputs are provided from
the timing gear. These two pulse outputs are used alternately for periods of 1/40
second with idle period.-; of 1 '40 sec-mil interspersed between them. This is one of
the functions uf the commutator. Jr. synchronism with this operation, the radio fre-
quency of the transmitter must be switched tocoincide alternately with the frequencies
assigned to the two beacon receivers. This is accomplished by having another sec-
tion of the commutator operate a relay which short-circuits a portion of the trans-
mission-line section which determines the tram mittrr oscillator frequency. This
sequence of operation:-; is represented m Figure 4-04. It will be seen that the plane
transmitter frequency is shifted by an a nimmt Al" during portions of the cycle. This
amount is of the order of 15 - 30 meps.
The frequency of the crystal oscillator is actually 93,109 cps. (93.109 keps).
In the block diagram and in the discussion which follows, this figure has been rounded
off to 93 keps for the sake of simplicity. The reasons for the selection of this basic
frequency (identical in all Shoran timing circuits) is as follows:
(1) Consider a craft - beacon distance of 100 miles. The total distance to be covered
by the pulse which interrogates Hie beacon and by the response transmitted back
from beacon to craft will then be 200 miles and the time taken for its round trip
is 1074 ;i sec. Since it is desirable to ilknv time for a response to be received
due to each transmitted pulse before the emission of the next pulse, this means
that the pulse repetition rale (prf) must not ho greater than 931.09 pps (corres-
ponding to a period of 1074 iisec.i ,1 lüümili s is (he maximum range to be indi-
cated,
(2) Since the final indication is loin by means of pip alignment on a circular CRO
SHORAN 4.05
o
z
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rt
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,7
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-3
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fc
iMiinnBiiiirrr,"~™"î«HHiiifi'iiiiP""" ",<"" """ '"
4.06 SHORAN
^^B
^^
^WA -mw^
J_ _3 _5 _3.
40 20 40 40 20
time (sec.)
Fig. 4-04 Transmission sequence

plane transmitter interrogates beacon P on frequency f
plane transmitter interrogates beacon Q on frequency f + Af
inactive periods
sweep, the frequency of the sweep should not be higher than 931.09 cps, in line
with the above considerations.
(3) Accuracy demands that much higher sweep speeds should be available for deter-
mination of miles and fractions of miles. In the present case, sweep speeds of
9,310.9 cps (corresponding to a 10 mile range) and 93,109 cps (corresponding to
a 1 mile range) are provided.
(4) A lower prf would allow ranges of over 100 miles to be indicated directly; but
since the operational range of Shoran is limited by propagation considerations
tosomethingof the order of 200 - 250 miles, and since the operator is presumed
to have other information which will enable him to supply the number of hundreds
of miles, it is apparent that the extra complication introduced by a fourth sweep
speed would not be justified,
(5) The prf should be as high as possible consistent with (1) above, in order to enable
the maximum amount of intelligence to be transmitted in a given time. Further-
more, a prf of about 930 pps means that about 23 pulses will be transmitted in
each 1/40 sec. period during which the transmitter is pulsed. It would not be
desirable further to reduce this number.
In line with the above considerations, the crystal oscillator (1) is followed by
two frequency dividers (3) and (4) each of which divides by 10. These are of the re-
generative type, whose action may be explained by reference to Figure 4-05. The
input signal, of frequency 93 kcps (f), is applied by way of Tj to the control grid of
the mixer tube VV The plate circuit of V2 is tuned to 0.1 f (9.3 kcps). Assuming
T0^' L
a g 93kc/s
\ } -|-005pf gj g Output
1 L-^ e .
-VWvV
f-- \
:h LJ
?19(rT
COl^*
t
<; s
^ - '01. '-?
>68C)k
< >
t
fotMf
? r
1—I—.vm^
Fig. 4-05 Frequency divider

Pl^^l——■———■■——————
4.06 SHORAN
J7777T>r7, ., "VTZ,
VA B \\\V
^
_3_ JL
40 20 40 40 20
time (sec.)

plane transmitter interrogates beacon P on frequency f
plane transmitter interrogates beacon 0 on frequency f + Af
inactive periods
sweep, the frequency of the sweep should not be higher than 931.09 cps, in line
with the above considerations.
(3) Accuracy demands that much higher sweep speeds should be available for deter-
mination of miles and fractions of miles. In the present case, sweep speeds of
9,310.9 cps (corresponding to a 10 mile range) and 93,109 cps (corresponding to
a 1 mile range) are provided.
(4) A lower prf would allow ranges of over 100 miles to be indicated directly; but
since the o{ erational range of Shoran is limited by propagation considerations
tosomethingof the order of 200 - 250 miles, and since the operator is presumed
to have other information which will enable him to supply the number of hundreds
of miles, it is apparent that the extra complication introduced by a fourth sweep
speed would not be justified.
(5) Theprf should be as high as possible consistent with (1) above, in order to enable
themaximumamount of intelligence to be transmitted in a given time. Further-
more, a prf of about 930 pps means thai about 23 pulses will be transmitted in
each 1/40 sec. period during which the transmitter is pulsed. It would not be
desirable further to reduce this number.
In line with the above considerations, the crystal oscillator (1) is followed by
two frequency dividers (3) and (4) each of which divides by 10. These are of the re-
generative type, whose action may be explained by reference to Figure 4-05. The
input signal, of frequency 93 keps (f), is applied by way of Tj to the control grid of
the mixer tube V^. The plate circuit of V2 is tuned to 0.1 f (9.3 keps). Assuming
ä v.
,npu, ^ ;
, r 1
multiplie
Fig. 4-05 Frequency divider

SHORAN 4.07
a signal to exist at this frequency, this signal is fed back to the control-grid of the
multiplier tube Vj, which is driven sufficiently hard to operate in a non~linear man-
ner. The plate circuit of Vj is tuned to 0.9 f, and the resulting signal at this fre-
quency is applied to the grid of Vo together with the original input of frequency f.
These two signals, beating in the non-linear mixer tube V,, provide the necessary
output at 1/10 f. This system may be thought of as a regenerative, non-linear amp^
lifier with a tuned output, which is not self-sustaining. The phase of the output is
stable and is correlated with that of the input.
i Referring again to the block diagram (Figure 4-03) the oscillator (1) and fre-
quency dividers (3) and (4) furnish signals of frequencies approximately 93 kcps,
9.3 kcps and 0.93 kcps. These three signals are applied to three suitably designed
quadrature networks (5), (6), (7). Each quadrature network gives two outputs which
are in quadrature (90° phase relationship) with respect to each other. These quad-
rature outputs are used for two general purposes: (a) generation of a circular sweep
on the cathode-ray tube indicator, (b) generation of suitably phased marker pulses
and transmitter pulses. The selector switch (8) (which is a part of the multi-gang
range switch) places the selected pair of quadrature voltages on the horizontal and
vertical deflection plates of the cathode-ray tube (9), thus yielding a circular sweep
whose frequency is (approximately) 0.93-kcps on the 100 mile range, 9.3 kcps on the
10 mile range and 93-kcps on the 1 mile range.
There are three main functions performed by the remaining components of

the timing circuits:
(a) Generation of pulses used to trigger the transmitter in the craft. As previously
explained, the frequency of these pulses is 930 pps (on all ranges) and two sets
of pulses are required to be available, with different phasing, one set used dur-
ingperiods A (Figure 4-04) when transmission is at the frequency to which the P
beacon responds, and the other set used during periods B (Figure 4.-04) when the
frequency is changed to that to which the Q beacon responds.
(b) Generation of marker pulses. These serve as a fixed time reference: they ap-
pear as an outward deflection at the top of the circular sweep, and the received
pulses from the beacon transponders are to be aligned with the marker pulses.
Generation of suitable blanking and intensifying pulses.
If the marker pulses are to be fixed on the circular trace, and if the received
pulses are to be aligned with them, it follows that the transmitted pulses must be
advanced in phase with respect to the marker pulses by an amount whose correspond-
ing time-advance is exactly equal to the time of transit of the interrogating and reply
signals plus the delay time associated with the beacon. The latter time is standard-
ized at 1.93/jsec. corresponding to an extra distance of 0.18 mile for all Shoran
beacons. This phase advance is performed by the calibrated variable phase shifters
(10) through (15). These phase shifters are of the continuous type, in which the two
quadrature inputs are applied to two stator coils oriented so that their planes inter-
sect at an angle of 90°, and the output is taken from a rotor coil, the angle of which
(with respect to the stator coils) determines the relative phase of the output. Con-
siderable care was taken in the design of these phase shifters to make them as near-
ly linear as possible, that is, the phase-shift obtained is very nearly proportional to
the angle through which the rotor is turned. These components are among the most
critical in the system: the indicating dials of the phase shifters are calibrated dir-
ectly in miles, and the accuracy attainable depends on the precision with which the
phase shifters can be constructed. The six phase shifters are ganged in two groups
of three each: one set is concerned with the phasing of pulses for the rate station
and the other for the drift station. Two "pulse selectors" (29) and (30) generate
pulses for the craft transmitter. Each pulse selector receives three inputs: 93 kcps
irniMmm—ifTUTf -r'"■■'—i1™1™"1«18
4.08 SHORAN
sinusoidal, 9.3kcpspulses (ofwidthabout 11^ sec) and0,93 kcpspulses (widthabout 110

^sec). These input pulses are produced by conventional clipping, differentiating and
clipping circuits at (20) through (23). The action of the pulse selectors may be ex-
plained by reference to figures 4-06 and 4-07. The three inputs are applied to three
grids of amulti-gridtube (Figure 4-06). Biasing potentials are so arranged that plate
current will only flow if all three grids are simultaneously gated positively.
Considering now Figure 4-07, it is seen that only once in each period of 1074
;jsec. (corresponding to a frequency of 0.93 kcps) will the required condition exist
and plate current flow. The output at the plate of the tube will therefore consist of
pulses at a repetition rate of 930 pps. The width of the pulses is about 2 psec.
It will be observed that the exact position in time of these pulses depends on
the phasing of the three inputs. One complete rotation of the 93-kcps phase shifter
(360°phase shift) will shift the pulses 10.74^1 sec. corresponding to a change in bea-
con-craft distance of 1 mile. Similarly one complete rotation of the 9.3-kcps phase
shifter will produce a time-shift of 107.4/J sec. (10 miles), and a complete revolu-
tion of the 0.93-kcps phase shifter will give a time-shift of 1074 /jsec (100 miles).
However, a given change in one phase shifter must be accompanied by a proportional
change in each of the others, in order for the required time-coincidence between the
waveforms of Figure 4-07 to be main-
tained. For this reason, the three
phase shifters of each set are geared 5SA7
together. Twenty revolutions of the 9 3kc/s
Pulses
handwheelonthe front panel produce
one revolution of the 93-kcps phase
shifter simultaneously with one-tenth 93kc/s
of a revolution of the 9.3-kcps phase Sine wave
shifter and one one-hundredth of a re-
volution of the 0.93-kcps phase shift-
er. This process may be thought of
as constituting a movement of the
whole of Figure 4-07 to right (or Fig. 4-06 Pulse selector
93 kc/s
93 kc/s smewave
■m ii ^sec pulses
9.3 kc/s
0.93 k(/5
HOpsec pulses
Output
Zjjsec.pulses
-107?.2 ^jsec-
LJiOO 200I 300

_
vusec
Fig. 4-07 Pulse selection

SHORAN 4.09
left) by 10.74/J sec with respect to some arbitrary (but fixed) time scale. The number
of rotations of the various phase shifters is recorded in units, tenths and hundredths
of miles by suitably geared counters which therefore give direct range indications
(one for the rate station and one for the drift station) on the front panel. Tens of
miles are indicated on a dial mechanically connected to the 0.93-kcps phase shifter.
As previously noted, the number of hundreds of miles must be known by other means.
In order to avoid the very large amount of cranking that would be necessary for a
shift of (say) 30 miles, provision is made for the 0.93-kcps phase shifter to be dis-
connected mechanically from the rest of the gear train and reset in any one of ten
preset positions, any of which yields correct phasing and gives movements of multi-
ples of 10 miles. Since the counters indicate nothing larger than ten miles, their in-
dication is not upset by this operation.
(36) represents a part of the motor-driven commutator which performs the

switching operations indicated in Figure 4-04, together with (43) which effects the
change in the transmitter frequency. (42) is a push-button switch (normally closed)
which normally allows the transmitter pulses tobe used for blanking the CRO beam so
that actual transmitted pulses (which may come through the receiver circuits even
though receiver and transmitter are not tuned to the same frequency) will not be dis-
played on the CRO trace. To check the zero adjustment of the equipment, (42) is
pressed. This allows the transmitter pulses to appear on the display. Since the 0.18
mile beacon delay must be allowed for, the marker and transmitter pulses should be
aligned when the phase shifters are set for a corresponding delay. Since the phase
shifters produce an advance (instead of a delay) in the transmitted pulse, they must
be set at -0.18 mile, or in other words at 99.82 miles, when this adjustment is to be
made. The marker pulses are then moved slightly by means of (41) until coincidence
between them and the transmitted pulses is obtained.
Marker Pulse Generation and Blanking
The following problems arise in connection with the display of marker and
received pulses:
(a) Marker pulses appear at a frequency of 0.93 kcps. On the 100-mile sweep, this
results in one marker pulse per sweep, but on the 10-mile and 1-mile sweeps
there will be one pulse every ten sweeps and one pulse every hundred sweeps
respectively. The same considerations apply to the received pulses, which will
have the same prf as the marker pulses. This would mean that the circular trace
would be much brighter than the marker and received pulses when using the 10-
mile and 1-mile sweeps. It is therefore desirable to blank out all sweeps except
those during which the marker and received pulses occur and at the same time
to intensify the desired sweeps. This function is known as ''circle blanking" and
is accomplished by pulse selectors (38) and (39).
(b) It is necessary to blank the CRO beam at the instants when the craft transmitter
is pulsed. This is accomplished as already explained in connection with switch
(42), which is in the cathode circuit of the blanking-pulse amplifier (44). The
blanking pulses are mixed and applied to the grid of the cathode-ray tube.
(c) In order to distinguish between the received rate and drift pulses, the rate pulses
are made to deflect the beam outward and the drift pulses inward. This is accomp-
lished by (27) in conjunction with a section (28) of the commutator.
(dj If the output of the receiver (19) remained connected at all times to the central
deflecting electrode of the CRO (9), noise voltages would be displayed as clutter
on all parts of the sweep. For maximum operational range, the amount and in-
tensity of the clutter should be as small as possible. For this reason, it is ad-
vantageous to disconnect the receiver output during the display of the marker
pulses (see also (e) below). This is accomplished by suitable pulses taken from
(34) and applied to (27) and is known as "receiver blanking".
Mil ■■' -'■ ■'- "" " ~
4.10 SHORAN
(e) If the marker pulses occur on the same sweep as do the receiver pulses and if
the pulses are being aligned, then when all three pulses are nearly in alignment
it will be difficult to distinguish one pulse from another. This arises from the
fact that as the pulses start to overlap, they will add instead of being superposed.
Figure 4-08 illustrates this for idealised pulses.
Pulses Added Pulses Superimposed
Fig. 4-08
This indicates that marker and received pulses should occur on different sweeps.
Provided that the marker is accurately positioned on any sweep, it does not matter
which sweep is used. On the 100-mile sweep, when a marker pulse occurs on
every sweep, this "offsetting" of the marker pulse is not possible, but neither
is it important, since the final pulse alignment will not be done on the 100~mile
range. On the 10-mile and 1-mile sweeps, the marker pulse is offset by one and
by ten sweeps respectively. This is accomplished by using a 0.93-kcps source which
is phased differently from the regular 0.93-kcps source, for the generation of mark-
er pulses in the 10-mile and 1-mile switch positions. This process is known as
"marker offsetting".
Considering now the circuits by means of which the above five problems are
solved, the pulse selector (37) operates in the same way as previously explained for
(29) and (30), and its output consists of 2 /jsec. pulses with a prf of 0.93 kcps which
are to be used as markers. (41) allows for small changes in phase of the 93-kcps
inputfor the purpose of zero setting as already explained. The 0.93-kcps input is tak-
en either from the "regular" phase setting or from the "offset" phase setting, depend-
ing on the position of the range selector switch (31). The pulse selectors (38) and (39)
have only two inputs (9.3 kcps and 0.93 kcps) and are only operative in certain switch
positions. When operative, they function on the same principle as that described for
the three-input pulse selectors, and deliver HO^jsec. pulses with a prf of 0.93 kcps,
which are used to intensify the CRO beam (normally at threshold intensity) at appro-
priate periods as noted below. The phase changers (16) (17) (18) and the pulse-shap-
mgcircuits (24) (25) (26) have the same functions as described in connection with the
generation of transmitter pulses.
Scrambling
Since a number of craft may be interrogating the beacons during any given
period, there is a possibility that spurious pulses may appear on the display. That
is, craft A may see the pulses resulting from beacon interrogation by craft B, as
well as those produced by its own interrogation of the beacons. In order to minimize
this effect, there is on the commutator a section (represented at (2)) which renders
the first frequency divider inoperative (by gating its suppressor grid) for two periods
of 1/40 sec. during each 1/10 sec. cycle of switching operations. This is represented
at C in Figure 4-04. Now under the least favorable conditions, all the crystal oscilla-
tors in interrogating craft might have exactly the same frequency and all the spurious
returns would therefore lock in stationary positions on all displays. But since the
commutator is motor-driven from the craft's power source, and since the probabi-
lity of 20 such motors running at precisely the same speed is extremely remote, the
nrnimiiMWMiin
^HHBBHBWtHKiaHMM^n^BHn^WIHBHB
SHORAN 4.11
sequence of dividing operations will not re-start in identical phase on all craft after
each 1/40 sec. interruption. The spurious returns will therefore move at random all
over the trace, and although contributing to clutter will not be confused with the craft's
own return, which is locked in fixed position on the sweep. This function is known
as "scrambling", A corresponding section of the commutator (35) ensures that the
CRO beam is completely blanked while the scrambling switch is open, by cutting off
the plate supply voltage to the blanking-pulse amplifier for appropriate intervals of
time.
Consider now the situations existing on each of the three range-switch positions.
(a) 100-mile gweep: Thereare930rotationsof the sweep per sec. Pulses are trans-
mitted (and received) at a rate of 930 per sec. Every sweep is used and none
are blanked, since the pulse selectors (38) and (39) receive no input signals. Mark-
er pulses (regular) are generated by (37). The trace is blanked while the trans-
mitter is operative. Thebrillianceof the display is controlled only by the intensity
control on the CRO (not shown on the block diagram). 2000 rotations of the hand
crank, causing 1 rotation of (14), 10 rotations of (12) and 100 rotations of (10),
would cause the rate pulse to be shifted through one complete sweep (100 miles
range change).
(b) 10-mile sweep: There are now 9,300 revolutions of the sweep per second and
930 marker pulses per second, also 930 beacon responses. The marker pulses
are offset by a time corresponding to one sweep. Thus the beacon response, if
visible at all, will occur on the sweep preceding that on which the marker pulse
occurs. These two sweeps only are allowed to appear. The remaining 8 out of
every 10 are blanked, since (38) and (39) now generate pulses which are used to
intensify the beam during the two sweeps corresponding to marker ar.d received
pulses. The overall brilliance of the display is thus unchanged. The beam is also
blanked while the transmitter is operative. A given rotation of the mileage dials
will now produce ten times as much movement of the received pulses around the
trace as it did in (a). Due to the position of switch (34) radial deflection due to
receiver signals is now prevented during the sweeps on which the (offset) marker
pulses occur.
It is to be noted that the received pulses will not appear on the display at all
unless they were approximately aligned with the marker pulse on the 100-mile
sweep.
The sequence of events now occurring is shown approximately to scale in
Figure 4-09. In this diagram only one sequence of pulses is represented (rate
or drift) and no attempt is made to show actual amplitudes or waveforms. Pulses
which result in blanking or disabling are shown below the axis, and intensifying
pulses above. It is assumed that the marker and received pulses have been
correctly aligned, and that the approximate range shown on the dials is 30 miles.
(c) 1-mile sweep: There are now 93,000 sweep revolutions per second, and in each
100 of these there will occur one marker pulse and one received pulse. The
marker pulses are offset by 10 miles = 10 sweeps. Supposing the marker and
received pulses tobe aligned, then if received pulses occur during the 1st, 101st,
201st sweeps of a particular sequence, marker pulses will occur during
the 11th, 111th, 211th sweeps. The beam is blanked while the transmitter
is operative. A given rotation of the mileage dials Will now produce one hundred
times the displacement of the received pulse compared with (a) above. (39) now
generates intensifying pulses of lljusec. duration (= 1 sweep) and recurrence
rate 930 pps., corresponding to the sweeps on which the (offset) marker pulses
occur, and (38) performs the same function for the sweeps on which received
pulses are liable to occur if the pulses have been previously aligned on the 100-
mile and 10-mile range scales. Due to the position of (34), the receiver output
4.12 SHORAN
Sweeps 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
III I I I I I !■ f- I I I I I I I I I I I- I I I I I I I I I I I I
Morker
Pulses
Transmitted
Pulses
Received
Pulses
30
Miles
Transmitted
Pulse
Blanking
Beam
Intensified
("Circle
Blanking"
Receiver
Blanking i_r i_r u u

Fig. 4-09 Time relations
Note; each sweep represents 107.4 microseconds,

or 10 miles range change.
is disconnected from the indicator for periods of 110^ sec. of which the 11 yj sec.
sweep containing the marker pulse is the center portion. Operations controlled
by the commutator (scrambling, 1/40 sec. CRO blanking, pulse polarity switch-
ing, transmitter frequency and pulse phase switching) proceed at all times, ir-
respective of the position of the range switch.
Polarity Switching and Disabling Circuit

The functioning of the block denoted as (27) is illustrated by the circuit of
Figure 4-10. Receiver pulses are applied to the control grids of both Tj and To at
A. The screen supplies of the two tubes are gated alternately by S which represents
a section of the commutator ((28) in Figure 4-03). Tj functions as a normal (invert-
ing) amplifier andT2 as a (non-inverting) cathode follower. The outputs of both tubes
are placed in parallel by a 0.2 /jf condenser, so that both tubes work into the same
load. The amplitude of the output will be the same no matter which tube is on but
will be inverted (with respect to the input) if T] is on, non-inverted if T2 is on. The
output is taken at B. Negative receiver-blanking pulses (from (34) in Figure 4-03)
are applied at C, thereby gating the suppressor grid of T| or the screen grid of T2
depending on which tube is on. This prevents any receiver signals from appearing
at the output terminal B during the sweep on which the (offset) marker pulse occurs.
SHORAN 4.13
Co 1 0.05^ f ->»B+
O.ljjf
6AC7
IOK <56K
r
O.Zuf
,6AC7
Ao- 1 'WV-
/K
—f-v\/V~»' •—vw-
ISOOJQ 1800 C"
T2
330il
I50K <^^> vWW M
'^ -08
^jjf
1000' % |33K 2200
- •33K
SL • 22 00
>
Ml
Fig. 4-10 Polarity switching circuit
Crystal Frequency Check

By means of a small variable shunting condenser, the frequency of the crystal
oscillator (1) (Figure 4-03) may be adjusted to coincide with that of the crystal at
one of the ground beacons, which is accurately stabilized. This operation is per-
formed preferably immediately before a reading is taken. It will be realized that
any departure of crystal frequency from its assigned value of 93,109 kcps represents
a source of error in the system. When the frequency of the oscillator has been so
adjusted, frequency-calibrating pulses transmitted from the ground stations and re-
ceived at the craft will remain stationary on the display.
The information here presented was obtained from various copies of the peri-
odical "Radar", and from the handbook of maintenance instructions for Radio Set
AN/APN3 (CO-AN 08-30 APN3-2-M).
Micro-H 5.01
Type of System
Range.
Useful Range
Radar line-of-sight. For an aircraft altitude of 30,000 ft., the maximum
range is about 230 nautical miles from the ground beacons.

The range of the aircraft from any beacon is accurate to about + 50 yards.
Visual presentation on PPI.

Trained radar operator in the aircraft. No operators required at ground
beacon sites.
Equipment Required
The aircraft must carry a weight of about 370 lbs. of AN/APS-15 radar
equipment in addition to the 15-lb. Micro-H attachment. Two AN/CPN-6 ground
beacons are required.

X-band radar (9335-9415 mcps). Bandwidth about 2.5 mcps.
Present Status
Operational.
In the Micro-H system, a predetermined hyperbolic or circular course may

be accurately maintained by an aircraft through the use of simultaneous range
measurements to each of two ground responder-beacons. This method of triangula-
tionfromknown beacon stations is capable of high precision since each beacon res-
ponse is sharply defined in range, and no azimuth measurements are involved. Such
a system, unlike Oboe, makes possible the use of beacon responses by many aircraft
simultaneously; and in the case of Micro-H Mark II, these aircraft may fly on dif-
ferent courses. The system is used primarily for blind bombing.
Micro-H Mark I is a Micro-H system utilizing a lime delay in the response

of one of two ground beacons. Hyperbolic courses only may be flown in this system.
No equipment other than AN/APS-15 (H2X) is required in the aircrait. The adjust-
ible delay in one of the ground beacon responses may be set to any desired value
'_ 'irrespondmg to a given hyperbolic course. The controlled aircraft flies along the
desired hyperbolic path by keeping the two beacon responses at the same apparent
range on the PPI. This is easily done by following the beacon responses with the
adjustable slant range marker. The bombs are released when the required range
from the undelayed beacon is reached. With the Micro-H Mark I time delay equip-
ment at one of the two ground beacon stations, all aircraft, using this pair of beacons
for H-type navigation, are restricted to flying along a single hyperbola, the position
of which is determined by the amount of time delay introduced at the ground beacon.
The beacon containing the delayed response is useless for general navigation.
Micro-HMark II(AN/APA-40) is ar. attachment for AN/APS-15 {H2X) equip-

ment wh.'ch provides for the introduction of appropriate time delays in beacon res-
ponse ')■• circuits in the airborne equipment rather than at a ground beacon station.
With hir-arrangement,anaircraftcanflyeithi'ra hyperbolic or a cat-mouse course;
and the croir*1 of a particular hyperbola c,r a particulai cat-mouse course is de-
pendent only upon the settings of controls in :,lvj lircraff. The same ground beacons
5.02 Micro-H
may be used by aircraft flying on different missions.
For Micro-H Mark II, no additional time-delay circuits are required, other
than the phantastrons already incorporated in the H2X equipment, but they need to
be reshuffled somewhat for Micro-H operation. The AN/APS-15 (H2X) equipment
is described in Section 22. The Micro-H Mark II attachment is essentially a switch-
ing device which provides for different
sweep-delays and range-mark delays in
each of two 180° azimuth sectors of the
PPI scan. The switching device is syn-
chronized with the rotation of the antenna
spinner so that the range measuring cir-
cuits can be suitably adjusted for observa-
tion of beacon A during half a revolution
and for beacon B during the other half re-
volution of the antenna. The mechanical
motion of the antenna is transmitted by a
synchro link to the Micro-H Mark II con-
trol unit where it runs a system of cams
and microswitches which periodically
change the sweep and range delays as the
antenna turns through the two 180° azimuth
sectors at some point within each of which
the antenna looks towards one of the bea-
cons. The switching action may be made
to occur at any desired azimuth, such as
midway between the two beacons. When
flying a hyperbolic course, the beacon res-
Fig. 5-01 Beacon responses for a ponses appear at the same apparent range
hyperbolic course as illustrated in Figure 5-01.
The phantastron delay circuits are arranged as shown in the simplified

block diagram of Figure 5-02. As in H2X, the step-delay phantastron can be made
to open an eight-mile gate around any 10-mile crystal-controlled pip between 10
and 200 miles in order to obtain a trigger pulse delayed by an integral number of
ten-mile steps. In Micro-H Mark II however, the control-voltage for this step-delay
phantastron is alternately taken first from one and then from the other of two
voltage-dividers which control the ten-mile-step sweep delays for the two sectors.
The triggering of the PPI sweep is still further delayed by the altitude phantastron
which introduces a continuously variable delay of any desired fraction of ten miles.
The range mark may be delayed from the triggering of the PPI sweep by the range
phantastron which introduces any desired delay between about 0.6 and 16 miles.
The calibrated continuously-variable delays introduced by the altitude and range
MODULATOR SWEEP
TRIGGER TRIGGER
FINAL STEP-DELAY ALTITUDE RANGE RANGE

FREQUENCY
PHANTASTRON PHANTASTRON PHANTASTRON MARK
DIVIDER
Fig. 5-02 Arrangement of delay circuits in Micro-H Mark II

Micro-H 5.03
phantastrons are adjusted by the controls on the drum computer and also by the
settings of two additional control-voltage potentiometers (one for each phantastron)
located in the Micro-H Mark 11 unit. The latter two controls may be set for a de-
sired delay and locked in position. Thus provision is made so that any of the phan-
tastrons may introduce a different delay in the different sectors of the PPI scan,
although depending upon the type of course flown, it is desirable for one of the phan-
tastrons to introduce the same delay for both sectors. The arrangement and switch-
ing of the delays depends upon the type of course to be flown.
MOUSE MOUSE
BEACON BEACON
NO. 2 BE;. CON
Cat-mouse course Cat-mouse course Hyperbolic course

(cat beacon in B-sector) (cat beacon in A-sector)
Fig. 5-03 Courses available with Micro-H Mark D
Three types of courses as illustrated in Figure 5-03 may be flown with the
aid of a Micro-H Mark II attachment for H2X. For cat-mouse courses the aircraft
flies along a circular arc at a constant range from one beacon (the cat beacon) and
releases bombs when reaching the proper range from the other (the mouse) beacon.
The cat-mouse roles of the beacons may be interchanged to provide an alternative
direction of approach. For this type of course, the altitude phantastron introduces
the same delay in both sectors. When flying a cat-raouse course, the start of the
PPI sweep in the cat sector is delayed in time by an appropriate amount such that
the first return from the cat beacon appears at a convenient place on the expanded
sweep--say half way out. A fixed range mark is then set up so that it comes exact-
ly at the desired cat range. In the mouse sector, the start of the PPI sweep is de-
layed so that all of the bombing run of perhaps 15 miles appears on the expanded
sweep. The range mark is adjustable within this mouse sector by means of the drum
computer, so that the operator can check his mouse range occasionally as he
approaches the release-point range.
For a hyperbolic course, the delay introduced by the range phantastron is

the same for both sectors, while the delays introduced by the other two phantastrons
are different for each sector. In the case of a hyperbolic course, the start of the
PPI sweep in the sector containing the nearer beacon is delayed so that all of the
bombing run occurs within the range of the expanded sweep. The start of the PPI
sweep in the sector containing the farther beacon is delayed by this same amount
plus the required difference in the ranges to the two beacons corresponding to the
particular hyperbolic course flown. The drum computer controls the position of
the range mark in both sectors, and the two beacons will appear to be at the same
range if the aircraft is on course.
With the Micro-H Mark II attachment for H2X, provision is also made for
ii niwf reinnim-"-"-"'**'-- f»B^™ ■ ■ '"
, .< „■mwnw^^v^HVBBWBS
5.04 Micro-H
the use of sector scan in normal beacon navigation. When used in this way for bea-
con navigation, the PPI sweep is delayed in each sector only in steps of ten miles to
which must be added the appropriate range mark delay in order to obtain the range
of a beacon in that sector.
Bibliography
M-197 Confidential Handbook of Maintenance MIT Rad. Lab.

Instructions for AN/APA-40
(Micro-H Mark II)
Section 4 Secret U.S. Radar Survey (pages Div. 14 NDRC

Navigational 4-163 to 4-166)
Radar
i
A.R.L. Intermittent Phase-Comparison Distance-
Measuring System 6.01
Type of system
Pure range or "H" system.
Useful range
36 miles for experimental model.
Accuracy and precision

Not known; probably better than ±1/2 mile.
Presentation
Dial indicates range (distance).
UJ UJ
TRANSMITTER RECEIVER SHAPER
MODULATOR PHASE SHAPER

SHIFTER
^
r>
2 PHASE
2588cps MOTOR "x
OSCILLATOR
THYRATRON
MOTOR CONTROL
n^5^-
o
400cpS
POWER SUPPLY
CALIBRATED DIAL
Fig. 6-01 Block diagram of system

6.02 Intermittent Phase-Comparison Distance-
Measuring System
Operating skill required

~ (a) At ground beacon: can operate unattended.
(b) In aircraft: none - read dial.
(c) Time required to get reading; instantaneous reading is correct every
two seconds.
Equipment required
(a) At ground beacon: transmitter and receiver at frequency different by
about 10 kcps. The transmitter may be a localizer transmitter adapted
tosimultaneously re-transmit the aircraft interrogation modulation-fre-
quency of 2588 cps. Fairly simple to service.
Radio-frequency spectrum allotments required

Response - 110 mcps - 6 kcps bandwidth. Interrogation - 100 or 120 mcps -
6 kcps bandwidth.
Present status
Developmental.
This distance meter is of the intermittent phase-comparison type. The phase-

comparison method of distance-measurement was used by the Germans in their
Benito system which is described in section 30. Figure 6-01 is a block diagram
of the airborne equipment. An oscillator operating at 2588 cps supplies the voltage
used for phase comparison. A timing circuit permits the transmitter to transmit
for one twenty-fifth second every two seconds. This transmission is modulated by
the 2588-cps audio frequency. The receiver is gated on during the time that the
transmitter is transmitting.
At the ground the interrogating signal is received and the recovered modu-
lation frequency of 2588 cps is used to modulate a transmitter on a different fre-
quency. The ground equipment is designed so that the phase shift is very small and
constant.
The Bell Telephone Laboratories published an unfavorable report on the use

of the phase-comparison principle using existing communication equipment in
ground vehicles. They stated that the condition of small and constant phase shift
could not be satisfactorily met. It should be borne in mind that this should not con-
demn the system as such,since the communication equipment tested worked at fre-
quencies of only a few megacycles and had quite a narrow bandwidth. The resultant
steep phase vs. frequency characteristic made this particular application of the
principle impractical.
The retransmitted signal from the ground is received at the aircraft and
the phase of the recovered 2588-cps frequency is compared with the phase of the
2588-cps voltage used to modulate the interrogating transmitter. The 2588 cps was
chosen since 36 miles distance (total path-length 72 miles) will give a phase lag of
360°.
Thephase comparison is accomplished by an automatic phase follow-up sys-

tem. This system drives a calibrated continuous phase shifter in such a way that
the output of the phase shifter will be kept in phase with the returning signal.
Figure 6-02 is a diagram of the phase-sensitive thyratron motor-control

Intermittent Phase-Comparison Distance- 6.03
M?nsuring System
400C ps
5v,
<■ 2 Phase
400c.p.s. Motor
Produced From
Received Signa
Calibrated Dial
Fig. 6-02 Phase-sensitive motor-control circuit
circuit. The output of the phase shifter is shaped into a square wave and applied to
the shield grids of the two thyratrons in opposite phase. The signal received from
the ground transmitter is shaped into a square wave and applied to the grid of Vo.
On the negative swings of this voltage V3 is cutoff and the damped parallel circuit
in the cathode starts a highly damped train of oscillations. The first swing will be
negative. The cathodes of the two thyratrons are directly connected to the cathode
of V3 so that the negative pulse is applied to these two cathodes. The plates of the
two thyratrons are connected to opposite ends of the secondary of the 400-cps power
transformer. Thecenter tap supplies one winding of the two-phase motor. The cur-
rent m the other winding of this motor is shifted 90 by the use of a series capaci-
tor. The phase of the current through the controlled winding of the motor and hence
the direction of rotation of the motor depends upon which thyratron is firing. Fig-
ure 6-03 illustrates the voltages applied to the shield grids and cathodes of the
thyratrons. Either thyratron can only be fired by the negative cathode pulse if the
positive half of the square wave is present on the shield grid. The square waves
applied to the shield grids are not of sufficient amplitude to cut off the thyratrons
once they have been fired. They are only extinguished when the 400 cps plate sup-
ply voltage goes negative. As drawn in Figure 6-03 both thyratrons would fire and
6.04 Intermittent Phase-Comparison Distance-
Measuring System
Square wave applied to

shield grid of VI —>
Square wave applied to

shield grid of V2 <—
11 Pulses applied to
cathodes of VI and V2
Fig. 6-03 Waveforms of phase-sensitive motor-control
therefore there would be no resultant motor torque. If the pulses shift slightly to
the right in phase V^ only will be fired. The motor rotation produced will drive
the phase shifter in such a direction that the two square waves are shifted to the
right in phase and the balanced condition of Figure 6-03 is re-established. The
calibrated dial indicates the phase shift required to bring about this balanced con-
dition.
The chief reason for developing such a phase-comparison distance-meter is

the fact that it could tie in very well with an existing blind approach system. The
localizer of this system radiates two lobes modulated by 90 cps and 150 cps res-
pectively. It is thought that this transmitter and antenna system could be used as
the ground responding transmitter in this system. The 2588-cps modulation could
be radiated by both antennas. The localizer receiver in the aircraft could be used
and the 2588 cps separated from the 90 cps and 150 cps by filtering.
A.R.L. One-Shot Distance-Measuring System 7.01
Type of system
Useful range
50 to 100 miles.

No values available.
Presentation
Veeder counter.

(a) At the ground beacon: can operate unattended.
(b) In the navigated craft: direct-reading Veeder counter.
(c) Time to obtain a reading: instantaneous.
Equipment required
(a) At the ground beacon: Responder beacon - skill to service fairly com-
plicated equipment.
(b) In the navigated craft: Interrogator-responser and fairly complicated
indicating system.
Radio-frequency spectrum allotments re quired

Not known.
Present status
Developmental.
Description of system
This system is of the type that transmits an interrogating pulse to a ground bea-
con. The beacon receives this interrogating pulse and transmits a response pulse pre-
sumably on a different frequency. The equipment in the aircraft measures the time de-
lay between the interrogating pulse and the response pulse. The system to be describ-
ed is unusual in that it uses the very low recurrence rate of 1 pulse per second.
The circuit is designed so that it can measure distance using a single pulse; thus
it can be called a one-shot system. The fundamental time-measuring circuit is a
gated charging circuit for a capacitor as shown in Figure 7-01. Tube V2 is fired
by the transmitted pulse and Cj begins to charge. The received pulse fires Vj.
This drops the plate voltage of V2 to about -15 volts. Since Cj has acquired some
charge the cathode of V2 will be positive and V2 will be cut off. The charge on Cj
therefore depends upon the time between transmitted pulse and received pulse. The
switchS2is opened to cut off Vj and make the circuit ready for another cycle. The
switchSj is also closed to the bottom side to short Cj once each cycle. The voltage
at point X indicates the distance. An electronic follow-up drives a calibrated volt-
age divider so that its voltage equals the voltage at point X. Figure 7-02 is a block
diagram of the follow-up circuit. The voltage from point X and the voltage from
the voltage divider are applied to a balanced vacuum-tube voltmeter circuit (simi-
lar to the voltohmist circuit). The output of the voltmeter circuit controls a ring
modulator circuit. A 400-cps voltage is supplied to the ring modulator circuit. The
400-cps output will be of 0° phase if the voltage of X is greater than that from the
voltage divider. If the voltage of X is less than that from the voltage divider the
output phase will be 180°. The amplified output of this ring modulator controls a
7.02 One-Shot Distance-Measuring System
i-300v -VWWWV\A-/^
52
Fig. 7-01 Gated charging circuit
thyratronphase-sensitive motor-control circuit. This phase-sensitive motor-con-

trol supplies one stator winding of a two-phase motor. The other stator winding is
supplied through a 90° phase shifter from the 400 cps supply.
Figure 7-03 is a complete circuit diagram of time-measuring circuit and

follow-up system.
Figure 7-04 is a diagram of the phase relations present in the motor-con-

trol circuit. Figure 7-04 (a) represents the phase relations present when the con-
trol voltage is zero (zero error-voltage). The plates of V7 and Vs are supplied
with 400-cps voltages 180° out of phase. The cathodes are also supplied with 400-
cps bias voltage 180° out of phase. The bias voltage of each tube is made to lag
the plate voltage by approximately 135°. The control voltage is applied to the two
grids in phase. When no control voltage is present both tubes will conduct for a
short period each cycle. Since the two tubes will supply equal currents through
the stator winding no torque will be produced. When a control signal is present
as shown in Figure 7-04 (b) one tube will conduct for a longer period than the other
due to the fact that one grid signal is shifted so that it lags the plate voltage by a
lesser amount and the grid signal of the other tube is shifted so that it is more
nearly 180° out of phase with its plate voltage. This will unbalance the current sup-
plied the stator winding and a torque in one direction will be produced. When the
phase of the control signal is reversed as shown in Figure 7-04 (c) the unbalance of
conducting times is reversed and a torque in the opposite direction will be produc-
ed. The two-phase motor will be driven in such a direction as to make the error
voltage applied to the voltmeter circuit zero. This motor also drives a P.M. field
One-Shot Distance-Measuring System 7.03
VOLTAGE REGULATED
POWER SUPPLY
X»- BALANCED
VACUUM TUBE RING
MODULATOR
VOLTMETER
SERVO
AMPLIFIER
-o- PM FIELD
DC GENERATOR
■o- VEEDER
COUNTER
rh
2 PHASE MOTOR
PHASE SENSITIVE
THYRATRON
MOTOR CONTROL
400Cps
POWER
Fig. 7-02 D.C. follow up

■iiiwiminwr"*" ■H^yH^BBB HHBHHBUHnW
1
—^QQOQQQ r
k. in w5'
\ CM ' —»,
0)
0)
u
c
o
Ä
W
i
0
c
o
S
Si
hfl
-o
3
U
•r-<
Ü
CO
o
I
t-
hfl
Ill Ml ■■■■-~TTrillliMTW
One-Shot Distance-Measuring System 7.05
_—-- Bias of V7 —
Plate Voltage —
t of V7
Critical Tiring Voltogo
. Critical Firing Voltage

*£._r-
{0.)
.. -Bios of V7
Plate Voltage
^ of V7
- Grid Signal
V
Critical Firing Voltage
Control Signal
I
Cndlsignol —
Bios of Vr -Critical Firing Voltage
Plate Voltage of V8
ib)

!
BiOS Of Vg
Plate Voltage of V
Fig 7-04 Phase relations in motor-control circuit

DC generator. The output of this generator is applied in series with the voltage
from the voltage divider which is applied to the voltmeter circuit. Since the polar-
ity of this voltage is opposite to the error voltage and proportional to the speed of
the motor it serves as an anti-hunt element. This is a typical "error plus first de-
rivative" servo-system which is widely used in a variety of forms. The motor
drives a Veeder counter which indicates the distance.
Since quite short pulses may be used and because of the very low repetition
rate, high peak powers can be used. It also means that a large number of aircraft
can interrogate one beacon.
...—lyt-A^-»«. .-.»■,..;...-
Canadian Distance-Measuring System 8.01
Type of system
Useful range
50 miles at 1000 feet; 100 miles maximum range.

(a) Calculated and estimated errors + 1 mile.
(b) Errors revealed by operational use+ 1 mile.
Presentation
Visual presentation on meter.

(a) At ground beacon - may operate unattended. Skill to service respcnder
beacon required, (b) In the navigated craft - Little skill required. Manual range
search must be turned until lock-on light lights and then switch is thrown to auto-
matic follow-up. (c) Time required to obtain a distance measurement - Time to
read meter if follow-up is tracking; time to search and lock on: 30 seconds tol
minute (limit is beacon coding time).
Equipment required
(a) At ground beacon: Fairly complex responder beacon. Weight 1000 to
2000 lbs. (b) In navigated craft: Fairly complex interrogator-responser and
automatic range follow-up. Weight 22 lbs. installed.

Frequency -
Interrogation - 202 mcps airways sub to ch
222 mcps approach
Response - 212 mcps
Bandwidth - 3 to 4 mcps
Present status
Experimental.
This system uses an interrogator-responser on the craft and a responder
beacon on the ground. The pulse repetition frequency of the interrogator is
approximately 200 pps. The interrogating pulses are 2 microseconds long and the
interrogation frequency is 202 mcps for airways beacons and 222 mcps for runway
approach beacons. The beacons respond with a 5-microsecond pulse on 212 mcps.
An automatic range-tracking circuit tracks the beacon in range and gives a meter
indication. A manual range search must be used originally to select the desired
beacon. A rate-of-approach meter has also been developed and flight tested.
Figure 8-01 is a block diagram of the interrogator-responsor. The pulse

repetition frequency is determined by a free-running multivibrator. The output of
this multivibrator is applied to a special sawtooth generator. The slope and
linearity of the sawtooth are very constant. The slope of this sawtooth is negative.
This sawtooth is applied to two circuits called "snaps". These snaps have the
property of generating a pulse at the instant the sawtooth voltage equals an exter-
8.02 Canadian Distance-Measuring System
UJ
RECEIVER
MULTI- SAWTOOTH
VIBRATOR GENERATOR
HIGH IMPEDANCE
D.C, VOLTMETER N
DISTANCE INDICATOR'
DC. VOLTMETER
RATE OF APPROACH INDICATOR
Fig. 8-01 Block diagram of system
nallyappliedDC control voltage. A fixed bias is applied to snap 1 sufficient to make

it fire on the linear part of the sawtooth. This output pulse drives the modulator
which in turn drives the transmitter. The output of snap 2 drives two pulse-genera-
tors. The pulses produced by these two pulse-generators gate two video amplifiers
connected to the receiver output. The two gates and received pulse are shown in
Figure 8-02. The output of these two gated video amplifiers is integrated and mix-
ed. The 10-microsecond gate gives a positive output voltage. The 5-microsecond
■ggnmiMrnjiiiiBiMniim mniiiiif—*"
■HKÎHI^B^Ma
Received Pulse falling in

5 ju-sec. Gate 5 ju-sec. Gate tends to
move Gates to Left.
Received Pulse falling in

10 ju-sec, Gate
10 ju-sec. Gate tends to
move Gates to Right.
Received Pulse
Fig. 8-02 Video gates a-nd received pulse
gate gives a negative output voltage and has 20 to 30 times the effect of the 10-micro-
second gate. The mixed output of these two gated channels is applied to a control
amplifier. This control amplifier employs an electronically-amplified time-constant
and will hang on for several minutes if the control voltage disappears. The output
of this control amplifier controls snap 2. A positive voltage applied to the control
amplifier results in an increase in the spacing of the pulses produced by the two
snaps. The output of the 10-microsecond gated channel therefore tends to move the
pulse of snap 2 farther from that of snap 1. The output of the 5-microsecond gated
channel (with about 20 to 30 times the effect of the other) tends to move the gates
closer to the pulse of snap 1, This results in an automatic follow up which will
track the received pulse in range. Since the 5-microsecond gated channel has the
greater gain the follow-up will lock on to the leading edge of the received pulse.
When it is desired that the system track a particular response the SPST
switch must be thrown to manual track and the manual range-search potentiometer
varied until the beacon response falls into the 10 microsecond gate. The lock-on-
light will light when this condition is reached. The beacon code may be read from
the lock-on light. The switch may then be thrown to automatic track.
Since the spacing of the gates from the pulse of snap 1 depends upon the
difference in two DC voltages a voltmeter can be connected between these two
points and used to measure the distance.
The circuit of the linear sawtooth generator used to trigger the two snaps
is given in Figure 8-03. This circuit, sometimes called a Miller Rundown, makes
use of negative feedback to obtain a very linear sawtooth, A positive rectangular
pulse is applied to the screen grid of V3 from the cathode follower which is driven
by the timing multivibrator. This positive pulse on the screen grid increases
the plate current and the plate voltage of V3 begins to decrease. This decrease
is applied to the grid by the coupling capacitor connected from plate to grid. Thus
the grid voltage is lowered and the plate current is prevented from rising to as
high a value as it would in the absence of the coupling capacitor. Thus the plate
voltage decreases slowly and very linearly. The output is taken directly from the
plate of V3.
The circuit given in Figure 8-04 is that called the "snap". The sawtooth
waveform from the Miller Rundown is applied through a decoupling filter and the
Fig. 8-03 Sawtooth generator
secondary of the transformer to the cathode of V4. The plate of V4 is connected

to +200 volts through a large resistor. This plate is also coupled to the grid of
V5. As long as the sawtooth voltage is greater than 200 volts V4 cannot conduct.
The plate current of V5 will be high since the only bias will be the contact poten-
tial bias developed across the 2.2 megohm grid resistor. When the sawtooth
voltage reaches 200 volts the diode V4 will begin to conduct and the grid voltage
of V5 will start dropping. The plate current of V5 will start to decrease. The
transformer B.O.-l is phased in such a way that the decreasing cathode current
induces a voltage in the secondary of the polarity given on the diagram. This
lowers the grid voltage still farther. This is a regenerative action resulting in a
sudden plate-current cutoff. The plate-current of the tube is then held at zero since
the sawtooth is differentiated by the grid coupling circuit and holds the grid below
cutoff. The positive pulse output is taken from the plate of V5. Two of these snap
circuits are used. The one shown is the one that times the transmitted pulse. The
other one controls the timing of the tracking gates. This second snap is the same
as the one shown in Figure 8-04 with the exception that a variable control voltage
is applied instead of the fixed 200-volt control voltage.
Figure 8-05 is a diagram of the diode control-voltage comparator. The out-

put of each gate is a negative pulse if the response pulse falls in the gate. The nega-
tive pulse from the 5-microsecond gate is applied to the cathode of VI 6b through the
.006-/1 f coupling capacitor. The negative pulse from the 10-microsecond gate is
applied to the cathode of Vl6a through the .0005-^f capacitor. When the output of
the 10-microsecond gate swings negative VI6a conducts and the .0005-/if capacitor
is charged with the polarity shown. When the negative pulse is over the cathode
of Vl6a swings positive due to the charge on the .0005-^f capacitor. This positive
voltage is connected to the output through the 4.7-megohm resistor. When response
pulses fall in the 5-microsecond gate V16b will conduct for each negative pulse
and supply a negative control-voltage through the 470-thousand~ohm resistor.
■ HSBCHm^BBiaEJSWtBUM« roil niMrmii™iw [wns—l——M^^TM^—MigMWyi^H^âBigWMiî^—
nwinBiMiiiiyiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii mi»
,L6aL5
OOÜ5pt
10K
-VWW^ -vüfiMfifiay-
500ph
B.O.-I
OOZfll V5
6AG5 t
ipl
; 2 2 Meg
Fig. 8-04 Snap circuit
X .0005/jf
Pulses from
video Amplifier
6AL5
VI6a vVI6b
J L
! Meg
4.77 Meg S
.ooejuf
470K + I8V.
Control
Voltage
Fig. 8-05 Diode Comparator

+ 285v.- +200v. H20V.

Regulated
Control
voltage
to Manual Range
Search
Fig. 8-06 DC control amplifier
The pulse from the 5-microsecond gate is therefore more effective in making the
control voltage negative than the pulse from the 10-microsecond gate is in making
the control voltage positive. In order to attain a stable intermediate control
voltage the output pulse from the 5-microsecond gate must be very short. m
Figure 8-06 is a diagram of the control amplifier that controls the variable
snap. The 4^f-coupling capacitor between plate and grid of V7 gives this tube an
amplified time-constant effect. The functions of this control amplifier are to retain
temporarily the condition established by the most recent control pulses, to smooth
out pulsations from the control voltage and to bridge gaps due to short-period
interruptions. The control voltage is applied to the grid. If this control voltage
is removed the grid voltage will change very slowly since the only DC return of
this grid circuit is the leakage resistance. If for instance the grid voltage tended
to increase the plate voltage would decrease and this decrease could be coupled
back to the grid through the 4;jf. coupling capacitor. This grid is tied directly
■BDI
to the grid of V6 which acts as a DC amplifier to control the triggering voltage on

the variable snap. The plate voltage of V6 is the bias voltage of the variable snap.
The time delay between the triggering of the fixed snap and the variable snap is a
function of this bias voltage. As this bias becomes less positive the time delay in-
creases. If the response pulse falls only in the 10-microsecond gate the control
voltage developed is positive. The bias applied to the variable snap is therefore
made less positive and the time delay between the transmitted pulse and the track-
ing gates increases. This delay will increase until the leading edge of the response
pulse enters the trailing edge of the 5-microsecond gate enough to being about a
balanced condition.
The complete circuit diagram is given in Figure 8-07.
Thepartof Figure 8-01 enclosed in the dotted line is the circuit for produc-
ing the rate-of-approach indication. The DC bias voltage and the slowly-changing
bias voltage applied to the distance meter are applied to two differentiators having
a time constant of 1 second. A differentiator is used on the DC bias voltage to
eliminate errors due to voltage fluctuations. The outputs of these two differentiators
are applied to a vibrating-reed inverter and converted to AC. This AC is amplified
in a stable amplifier. The output of this amplifier is rectified by a vibrating-reed
synchronous rectifier and applied to a DC meter which indicates rate-of-approach.
The heading for zero rate-of-approach can be determined to + 1 or better. The
heading for maximizing the rate-of-approach can be determined to + 6° or better.
Fig. 8-07 Circuit diagram

lIliiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiimii
Canadian Distance-Measuring System 8,09
Confidential Airborne Distance National Research

Indicator Council of Canada
Radio Branch
15 July 1945
GE Random Interrogation Distance Measuring System 9.01
Type of system
Useful range
Not known - probably 100 miles.

Not known.
EARLY LATE
•1 BLOCKING BLOCKING
OSCILLATOR OSCILLATOR
RECEIVER
^ ^ > i.
S ' 1 t '
EARLY -4— LATE

GATED GATED
BIASED AMP AMP
MULTIVIBRATOR
j
1"
\
/
J
' f '
DIODE
MIXER
FAST COMPARATOR
TRANSMITTER 1
SAWTOOTH
i >. '
__^
PEAK
^ AMP
J SYNCH VOLTMETER
MODULATOR
OSCILLATOR
/
» HAM
VEEDER
GE
COUNTER
MET FR
DC
[__
CONTROL
AMP
i Track
search 1 a.
RANGE \ '
SEARCH
S'AWTOOTH V
RELAY
AMP
Fig. 9-01 Block diagram

i^mBmm—^MK^^mmtmM:
9.02 GE Random Interrogation Distance Measuring System
Presentation
Veeder counter.

(a) At ground beacon: can operate unattended.
(b) In the navigated craft: no special skill required--automatic presenta-
tion.
(c) Time required to obtain a reading: instantaneous.
Equipment required
(a) At ground beacon: responder beacon - requires highly trained personnel
to service.
(b) In the navigated craft: interrogator, receiver and automatic follow-up.
Fairly complicated and requires highly trained personnel to service.
Radio frequency spectrum allotments required

Not known.
Present status of development

Proposed.
In this system the equipment on the navigated craft interrogates a ground
responder beacon and measures distance by measuring the delay between the trans-
mitted pulse and the beacon response. An unstable oscillator supplies the syn-
chronization for the system. It triggers the modulator which contains a pulse shap-
ing circuit. The modulator in turn pulses the transmitter. An automatic range
follow-up system is used. The output of the receiver is applied to an early gated
amplifier and to a late gated amplifier. The outputs of these gated amplifiers
which are of opposite polarity are compared in the diode comparator and the differ-
ence used to control a biased multivibrator delay circuit through a DC control
amplifier. The fast sawtooth is triggered by the synchronizing oscillator and is
applied to the biased delay multivibrator. The delay produced is directly propor-
tional to the bias voltage from the DC control amplifier. When the tracking gates
are locked on the response pulse the DC bias applied to the delay multivibrator pro-
duces a time delay equal to the delay between transmitted pulse and response pulse.
When the delay between the transmitted pulse and the response pulse changes, the
bias on the delay multivibrator changes and the delay produced by the delay multi-
vibrator changes so as to make the tracking gates follow the response pulse. An
automatic range search is obtained by switching the DC control amplifier to a slow-
range search sawtooth. When the gates are moved to a delay such as to accept
responsepulses the relay amplifier is energized and switches the DC control ampli-
i'ier over to the automatic follow-up gates. Presumably a DC follow-up is used to
drive the Veeder counter distance-indicator.
GE Time-Rationing Distance-Measuring System 10.01
Type of system
Useful range
TOO miles maximum.

Not known.
Presentation
Meter.

(a) At ground beacon: Operates unattended, (b) In the aircraft: No special
skill required, (c) Time to obtain a fix: Instantaneous.
Equipment required
(a) At ground beacon: Responder beacon and 800-cps timer, (b) In the air-
craft: Interrogator-responser and fairly complicated control circuit.

Not known.
Present status
Proposed.
LJ L
'
, RECEIVER
PULSE LENGTH
DISCRIMINATOR
■
ZyUSec 1 jusec
pulses p ulses
1
''
TRANSMITTER
FREQUENCY SEARCH PEAK

DIVIDER SAWTOOTH VOLTMETER
; k
1 '
MODULATOR .^ i 100 MILE

nonFR TRIGGER
TRANSF ORMf:R
Fig. 10--01 Block diagram

10.02 GE Time-Rationing Distance-Measuring System
This system uses an interrogator-responser on the aircraft and a responder
on the ground. This system is unusual in the fact that the interrogations are
invited by the ground beacon. The ground beacon transmits 2-microsecond invi-
tation pulses at a rate of 800pps. In the aircraft equipment the 2-microsecond pulses
are selected by a pulse-length discriminator. These pulses are applied to a fre-
quency divider which steps the frequency down to 16 cps. The aircraft interrogates
at a 16-pps rate. There are therefore 50 time-channels available for 50 interro-
gating aircraft. In the aircraft equipment there is an automatic search circuit
which finds an empty time channel and transmits its interrogating pulses in that
channel. The beacon responds to an interrogation with a 1-microsecond pulse.
These 1-microsecond pulses occurring at a 16-pps rate are separated from the
2-microsecond invitation pulses by a pulse-length discriminator. Since the dis-
tance corresponding to the period of an 800-cps frequency is 116 miles the maxi-
mum distance is limited to 100 miles.
A block diagram of the craft equipment is shown in Figure 10-01.
GEE 11.01
GEE (OR G) SYSTEM OF NAVIGATION
Type of system: Differential range (hyperbolic)
Useful range and coverage area

Since the frequencies used with Gee are of the order of 20-85 mcps., reception
is essentially limited to line-of-sight range, although refraction and ducting extend
thissomewhat. Gee fixes have been obtained by sky-wave, but this is not to be relied
upon. The range practically attainable therefore depends mainly upon the height of
the craft and the siting of the transmitter. This statement assumes that adequate
power is radiatedfor good signal-to-noise ratio at ranges corresponding to the maxi-
mum operational craft heights encountered. Another way of stating this is to remark
that if a given average radiated power provides satisfactory reception at a line-of-
sight range corresponding to a craft height of (say) 20,000 feet, then the range at this
and lower altitudes will not be materially increased by increasing the transmitted
power.
Formulae are available for computing ranges at various heights (see section
2 of this document).
Line-of-sight ranges for various craft altitudes, assuming favorable trans-

mitter locations (on the forward side of a high hill) but making no allowance for duct-
ing and refraction effects, are as follows;
Height of craft (feet) Range (statute miles)

5000 126
10000 161
20000 212
30000 250
40000 283
As previously mentioned, the effect of refraction and ducting will be to increase

these figures, so that at 10,000 feet (for example) the range might be extended from
161 miles to 250 or 300 miles. As a result of this, the maximum operational range
of Gee at heights of 30,000 feet and over has been considered as about 400 miles.

It is shown later in this discussion that time measurements with the Gee indi-
cator can be made to within 2/3 microsecond under good conditions. Position-line
precision is greatest along the base-line (see Fig. 11-02). In this location, an error
of 2/3 microsecond in time measurement produces an error of 0.062 mile = 327 feet
in line of position. As with all hyperbolic systems, the error in line of position re-
sulting from a given error in time measurement varies according to the craft's
position on the family of hyperbolic position-lines. This subject is discussed else-
where (see page 12.10). Error in a fix is discussed in section 1. These errors are
theoretical. Operational data indicate an average accuracy of 2 to 3 miles in position-
line determination (average of many results under varying conditions).
Type of presentation
Visual. Pulse alignment and time-marker counting on a cathode-ray tube.

(a) Ground Installations: A full-time trained monitor operator is required
for each Gee station, (b) Craft: The operator must have instruction in the use of
the specialized equipment. The actual operations follow a routine and are in them-
11.02 911
selves simple, (c) Time to obtain a fix: Approximately 1 minute. Runningfix
technique is not required.
Equipment required
(a) Ground installations: Each station consists of a pulse transmitter, with
appropriate timing circuits and test gear. One chain of four fixed stations gives a
fixover its coverage area. The fourth transmitter makes accuracy possible in areas
where the accuracy of fix obtained from the other three would be poor. Craft: A
specialized Gee receiver and indicator are required, together with Gee charts.
Frequency and wavelength

The system has been used on frequencies within the 20-85mcps band (15-
3.5 meters). The bandwidth of the receiver is about 1 mcps.
Present Status
Gee has been the standard British aircraft electronic navigational aid used
during the war. It was the principal navigational aid used during the initial landings
in France onD-Day, 1945. German use of Gee transmissions is known as Hyperbol.
Principle of operation
The four ground stations comprising a chain transmit on the same frequency.
The four stations are here designated A, B, C and D. A is the "master" station and
the others are "slaves". The A station transmits pulsesof 2- 10 microseconds
width with a pulse repetition frequency of 500 pps. Stations B and C transmit pulses
with a repetition frequency of 250 pps, the two stations being synchronized to alter-
nate pulses from the A station. The exact synchronization of the slave stations to the
transmission from the master station is essential to the accuracy of the system and
represents the manual control mentioned above. The D station transmits double
pulses, and has a repetition frequency of 500/3 pps.
The transmissions from the slave stations are triggered by the master sta-
tion. That is, pulses radiated from the master station (where the prf is accurately
controlled by a carefully stabilized crystal oscillator) arrive at a slave station, are
received and cause the slave station to emit pulses of its own. The exact timing of
the pulses will therefore depend on the distances between the master and each of
the slave stations. This distance is of the order of 70 - 80 miles, representing a time
of transmission of about 400 microseconds. To this there is added at the slave station
a delay-time which is a constant and which represents a controlling factor in the
location of the position lines obtained.
Assuming (for purposes of illustration) that a time interval of 500 microsec-

onds elapses between the emission of a pulse from the master station and emission
of the triggered pulses from any of the three slave stations, the sequence of events
would be as shown in Figure 11-01. (Note that 500 microseconds = 0.5 milliseconds).
Certain of the A pulses are double: this point is referred to later.
A Gee receiver at some definite location will receive signals from all four
transmitters, but the time relations existing among the received pulses at the location,
of the craft will not be the same as in the diagram of Figure 11-01 on account of the
different distances between the four transmitters and the receiver. It is by measure-
ment of the time delays between the A, B, C and D pulses that a fix is obtained. To
amplify this statement, consider the hypothetical location of the four transmitting
stations represented in Figure 11-02.
A craft located anywhere on the line a0b0 (the perpendicular bisector of the
line AB joining the A and B transmitters) will receive the A and B pulses in the
GEE 11.03
A
PULSES
time o 10 12
(millisecl
B
PULSES
C
PULSES
D
PULSES
Fig. 11-01
same time relationship as that obtaining between the original transmissions, since
both signals will have experienced the same time delay in reaching the craft. This
line is therefore the locus of all points for which the relative time delay between the
received A and B pulses is constant and equal to that between the transmitted pulses.
Another line a^b.. may be drawn such that for any point on it the relative time
delay between the received A and B pulses is some other fixed amount. This line is
a portion of a hyperbola, of which A and B are the foci. There is an infinite family
of such hyperbolae, each one characterized by a definite fixed time delay. Thus if the
operator on the craft can determine the relative time delay between the received A
and B signals, and also which signal came first, he may locate himself as being on
one of the hyperbolic position lines. This function is performed by means of the Gee
receiver and indicator, which displays the received pulses on a suitable time-base
• which can also be furnished with time-marker pips. The problem of determining
which signal arrived first is avoided due to the fact that slave pulses are triggered
by the arrival of master pulses. There is thus no point at which the slave pulse can
arrive first.
Observations on pulses from stations A and C will likewise give a set of hyper-
bolic position lines (dotted lines in Figure 11-02). The intersections of these two
families of hyperbolae yield a set of fixes. Gee charts are provided on which these
hyperbolae are overprinted, different colors being used for different pairs of stations.
There are certain intersections in this lattice of intersecting hyperbolae at

which the angle of intersection is so acute as to lead to considerable possible error
in the fix obtained. In these positions, observations from stations A and D are used
in place of either the A-B or the A-C set of pulses. Station D is so positioned as to
give the necessary coverage in these areas. Constructions for areas of coverage,
variations in precision in different regions on a family of hyperbolae, and sources of
error will be discussed in connection with the Loran system. Gee and Loran are both
^mmuammtmmmmmrmmmiamama^m
11.04 GEE
\ * i- ' ; / / / /
\ \ \ \- i ■/ y / /
\ /
\ i ■. /
/ : /
\ \ \ ' •'/;/.• /.•
N
s \\ \ ' , ■ I ' i ■' ■■'
\\\ \\ > i f- / ■• /■" .••■
N ^\i iv// • • ••■ •■■

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••- .- ..•■■/ /■/.■■' / • \ iv. \ \^

^ .•••■ // ..•■■
■•'■ /
/ ./
' /'•■ •■.■ I.".-"
| v
V ^\ \
\ \ s
/.•■•■ / ■■• ' .•■• /I .M ^^ •>. \ \

\
• /
/
/ / ■ /
i v v •. \
/ ' .•' / \ ■ \
\ •.
.■' ;
:\
/ .■' /
: \ \ ■
■ ;
b, •• ,
'■ \
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bo
Fig. 11-02 Intersecting Gee lattices

GEE 11.05
hyperbolic navigation systems and depend on the same principles, differing mainly
in the frequency used and coverage area attained, and in certain details of the indi-
cator circuits. The general considerations relating to hyperbolic systems are dis-
cussed more fully in the Loran section of this report, for the êason that this materi-
al is more easily available in various Loran publications.
Gee System Transmitter

The transmitter must be capable of putting out short pulses of RF energy
and must be very accurately synchronized. At master stations, the transmitter is
synchronized to pulses obtained from a crystal-controlled frequency-divider rack.
At slave stations, synchronization is from the output of a receiver which picks up
thepulsesfrom the master station. A suitable fixed time delay is introduced between
the output of the receiver and the pulsing circuits.
The signal received by the receiver at slave stations will be weak, and it is
essential that the performance of the receiver shall not be affected by spurious sig-
nals from the slave transmitter itself. This transmitter must therefore be of the
type in which the main oscillator is pulsed, so that this oscillator will not be radiat-
ing at the time of arrival of the next synchronizing pulse from the master station.
Furthermore, the synchronization of the transmitted pulses must not be sub-

ject to random variations due to changes in the small but finite time required for an
oscillator to build up from zero when pulsed. For this reason, a priming oscillator
is used, very lightly coupled to the main oscillator. This priming oscillator is itself
pulsed slightly in advance of the pulse which permits the main oscillator to oscillate.
Monitoring is provided by a fixed cathode ray oscillograph whose sweep is

initiated by the priming pulse. The vertical deflection plates of this oscillograph
may be connected to various test points throughout the transmitter. Provision is also
made for triggering the sweep of an external cathode ray oscillograph.
Figure 11-03 shows a block diagram of the transmitter and associated timing
circuits (omitting power supplies and control equipment).
The pulse-shaping tube Vj is a pentode amplifier which is normally cut off.

The positive pulses applied to its grid are large enough to draw grid current. The
outputfromthe plate is therefore a large, square negative pulse. A part of this out-
put is applied to Vw, whence it is used to trip the priming oscillator, the sweep of the
monitor CRO and also an external monitor sweep if desired. V2 is normally conduct-
ing and has its grid leak returned to the B+ line. It is a pentode, and the screen and
plate resistors are of large value so that the screen and plate potentials are normally
of the order of 10 - 15 volts above ground. The plate and screen are direct-coupled
to the control grids of V3 and V4 respectively, and in both plate and screen circuits
there are shunt RC combinations of variable time-constant. When therefore the grid
of V2 is cut off by the arrival of the negative pulse from Vj, its plate voltage rises
exponentially with a time constant which is adjustable (preset "delay" control). Since
the cathode of V3 is held constant at approximately +50v, a certain time elapses be-
fore Vo starts to conduct. This delay (adjustable) is of the order of 3-8 microseconds
and represents the delay between the pulsing of the priming oscillator and that of the
main oscillator. This and other waveforms are shown in Figure 11-04. When V,
conducts its plate voltage drops sharply. This provides a timing edge to which the
pulsing of the main oscillator is synchronized. The magnitude of the change in plate
voltage of V3 is controlled by having its plate supply voltage variable. This provides
a control over the width of the pulse actually used to trip the main oscillator ("width
trim 1"). V4 is a similar stage to V3, but fed from the screen of V2 instead of from
n.06 GEE
ATOR
ATOR
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GEE 11,07
V| GRID
lOv
Vi PLATE 200V
>-50
CUTOFF
^SLOPE ADJUSTABLE
Vg PLATE
tlO
V3GRID
ADJUSTABLE
\/3 PLATE 3-8pS (WIDTH TRIM 1)
DELAY
ADJUST-
ABLE
Vg SCREEN ■ CUTOFF
V4GRID
SLOPE ADJUSTABLE
15-30 >is — ADJUSTABLE

V4 PLATE DELAY (WIDTH TRIM 2)
ADJUSTABLE
V5GRID
w -CUTOFF
.Vg CATHODE POTENTIAL
\/6 GRID
0-10
700V
Vg PLATE
0-20
IHM
VN PLATE
\f
V|o GRID
r IOOV
\.
Fig. 11-04 Transmitter waveforms

-i _ im in» ■■■■»■»«■■«■■i» nmmiiniT-mi ^——^—
UM GE^
the plate, and having a longer time constant in its grid circuit than is the case with
V3. The negative timing edge produced at the plate of V^ will therefore be delayed
with respect to the timing edge produced by V3. This delay is of the order of 10-20
microseconds and is adjustable by changing the screen resistor of V2 ("spacing"
control). The reasonfor this second timing edge is to enable the transmitter to radi-
ate double pulses if used at a "D" slave station. V4 may be disabled (by removing its
screen voltage) if double pulses are not required. The depth of the timing edge pro-
duced is likewise adjustable by varying the plate supply voltage to V4 ("width trim 2").
The outputs of V3 and V4 are differentiated and combined at the grid of V5.
The grid resistor of V5 is returned to the Bf line so that the tube is normally con-
ducting. Positive pulses therefore occur at the plate of V^, synchronized to the tim-
ing edges produced by V3 and V.. Further provision for varying the width of these
pulses is made by changing the time constant of the grid circuit of Vc. The output
fromV5 is applied to Vg and the tops of the pulses are squared by grid-circuit clip-
ping. The plate circuit of Vg contains an inductance and is fed from a supply at about
750v. Its output therefore consists of negative pulses of about 700v, with an over-
shoot (due to the inductance) on the trailing edge. Its output is applied to the modu-
lator tube Vj^ and the overshoot results in a sharp cutting-off of the RF pulses emit-
ted by the transmitter. The modulator V^ has its cathode held at -2000v, and its
plate resistor returned to ground. This plate resistor is of 3000 ohms, and serves
also as the grid leak of the oscillator stage. V^ runs at zero bias and therefore
draws a large current (over 0.5 amp). Its plate voltage with respect to ground is nor-
mally -1600, which is sufficient to cut the oscillator off. When the 700v. negative
pulses are applied to its grid, corresponding positive pulses appear at the plate and
in this way the oscillator is pulsed.
The oscillator (V^, V13) is of the push-pull TGTP type. When it is pulsed,
there is sufficient coupling with the priming oscillator (which is already oscillating)
so that the build-up time is short and of constant duration. The power amplifier
stage (V^, Vi c) is also push-pull and is fed by a tuned section of transmission line
from the oscillator plates. The antenna is coupled to the power amplifier either by
a tapped coil or by a tapped length of short-circuited transmission line.
The priming oscillator (VJQ) is a Hartley circuit, pulsed by the output from
Vj taken through a suitable inverter and cathode follower (V^, Vg). The grid circuit
of V^ is arranged to have a time constant such that the tube is cut off for about 50
microseconds by the negative pulses from V,. This is the duration of the pulses
applied to the priming oscillator, which will therefore continue to oscillate after the
main oscillator has stopped. But when a double pulse is required, the priming oscil-
lator will still be functioning for the second pulse. Since the pulse repetition period
is 4000 microseconds (at slave stations) the priming oscillator will be cut off long
before the receiver is sensitized for the reception of the next transmitted pulse from
the A station, and no difficulty will be experienced with feedback.
The plate supply to the final power amplifier stage is variable from 2000v to
to 28,000v and the maximum peak power output is about 300 kw.
The Gee Receiver and Indicator. Principles of Operation

(1) Basic Timing Device:
The craft equipment comprises a superheterodyne receiver incorporating certain
anti-jamming features, together with timing circuits and a cathode-ray tube in-
dicator.
The equipment measures accurately the time interval between the arrival
of an A (master) pulse and that of a B (slave) pulse, and simultaneously the time
GEE 11.09
interval between A and C pulses. Since both these measurements are made after
the same set of adjustments, and at the same time, ideal conditions exist for
obtaining a fix at a definite instant in time.
The basic timing device at the craft is a 75-kcps crystal oscillator whose
frequency is adjustable within a narrow range. This oscillator has its output
circuit tuned to 150 kcps, and performs two main functions:
(a) It provides two sets of timing markers on the display, at 150 kcps and 15 kcps
frequency respectively (6.67 and 66.7 microsecond intervals between mark-
ers). Furthermore, when using either set of markers, every fifth marker is
raised to facilitate counting.
(b) It is used to synchronize the sweep frequency to 500 cps.
Sincetheprf of the master station is 500 pps. and that of the slave stations
250 pps (A and B) or 500/3 pps (D), it follows that the received pulses will re-
main locked in stationary positions on the display if, and only if, the frequency
of the crystal in the craft is adjusted (by means of the fine frequency control)
to agree exactly with that of the crystal at the master station, where the prf is
accurately controlled. Itfollows therefore that the accuracy of the timing mark-
ers is automatically that of the timing gear at the master station. The latter is
of course very carefully controlled
(2) Display:
The display in the Gee indicator consists of a linear sweep on which the pulses
and time markers are displayed. In order to lengthen the sweep and so permit
more accurate time measurement, the sweep is divided into two parts, which
appear as two horizontal lines, one vertically under the other. The frequency of
the entire display is therefore 250 cps. Referring to Figure 11-05, the actual mo-
tion of the CRT beam is as follows:
P to O: beam on, first half of sweep, one A and one B pulse displayed.*
Q to R: return trace, beam blanked.
R to S: beam on, second half of sweep, one A and one C pulse displayed.
S to P: return trace, beam blanked.
(3) Clearing Switch:

By means of a two-position selector known as the clearing switch, either time-
marker pips or received pulses are displayed on the sweep, but not both.
(4) Sweep Speeds:

Three sweep speeds are provided. These are:
(a) Main sweep, 250 cps, in two horizontal sections. This is used for approxi-
mate pulse alignment, and for counting the whole number of 15-kcps time
markers between A and B or A and C pulses.
(b) Strobe sweep. This is much faster, and is divided into four parts, one for
each of the four pulses visible on the display. It is used for accurate pulse
alignment, and for counting the number of 150-kcps time markers (or tenths
of 15-kcps intervals) in the time intervals to be measured. The position of
the time intervals corresponding to the strobe sweeps is indicated relative to
the main sweep by a small depressed section of the main sweep when this is
in use. By means of fine and coarse controls, these time intervals corres-
ponding to the Band C strobe sweeps can be shifted relative to the main sweep.
D pulses also appear during alternate sweeps on each trace, since the prf of the
D station is 500/3 pps. For purposes of explanation only the B and C pulses are
presently considered.
11.10 GEE
Fig. 11-05 Sweep sequence
Since time markers still appear on the strobes, the fine and coarse controls
need not be linear in themselves, but need only be stable over a period of
time,
(c) Expanded strobe sweep. Faster than the strobe sweep, likewise divided into
four parts, used for final pulse alignment and for estimation of tenths of the
spacings between 150-kcps markers (or hundredths of 15-kcps intervals).
The appearance of the indicator under various conditions, illustrating the de-
tails of the three sweeps available, is shown in Figure 11-06. The ghost pulse beside
the A pulse on the lower trace is used to identify the two parts of the display, so that
the operator may know which of the slave pulses should be positioned on the lower
trace.
Accuracy of Time Measurement

It will be seen that by the above means, time intervals maybe estimated to about
one-tenth of a 150-kcps time-marker interval, or to 2/3 microsecond, if the pulse
alignment and estimation are done with care. The sharpness of the pulses to be
aligned (and therefore the accuracy with which they may be so aligned) depends on
the band width of the receiver and also on the transmitter characteristics. With pre-
sent equipment, it seems probable that the errors introduced due to unsatisfactory
pulse-shape will be smaller than the residual error in estimation of time intervals,
having regard to the radio-frequency used.
Error in the master oscillator used for timing the pulses transmitted from
a master station should be extremely small if the crystal temperature is closely con-
trolled, so that this source of error is negligible compared to the others mentioned.
There remain errors due to propagation conditions. These may be serious

under certain conditions. They are of the same nature as those encountered in other
hyperbolic systems such as Loran, and are discussed in more detail in section 1.
Procedure used in obtaining a fix

Starting with the main sweep and with received pulses displayed, the fine fre-
B^^K^BMS^^BB
GEE 11.11
,A pulse
J
Apulse 'B pu'se
r^te1 ||Dpuse
XCpulse
(a) Main time-base, clearing (b) Strobe time-base,

switch up, signals on strobes pulses correctly aligned
(c) Expanded strobe time-base, (d) Strobe time-base,

clearing switch down clearing switch down
(e) Main time-base,

clearing switch down
Fig. 11-06 Indicator displays

11.12 GEE
quency control of the crystal oscillator is first adjusted so that pulses remain sta-
tionary, with the A pulses at the left end of the traces. The coarse B and C strobe
controls are now adjusted until the strobe markers on the main sweep are so posi-
tioned that the B and C pulses stand on them. Switching to strobe time base, so that
those intervals which were formerly strobe markers on the main sweep now are them-
selves expanded into full sweeps, the fine B and C strobe controls are now adjusted
so that the B and C pulses are aligned with the two A pulses, all four pulses lying
vertically one under the other. This process is completed using the expanded strobe
sweep.
The clearing switch is now moved so that time markers are displayed instead
of received pulses. 150-kcps markers are used first, the tenths and whole numbers
of markers being counted with the expanded strobe and strobe sweeps respectively.
The time of the fix is noted at the instant when the tenths are read. Finally, returning
to the main sweep the number of whole 15-kcps time markers is counted. The final
count therefore gives the time intervals between the A and B pulse positions, and
between alternate A and C pulse positions, to 1/100 of a 15-kcps time-marker inter-
val.
It will be seen that with this system, the time interval read is not directly
that between pulses, but rather that between strobes which have been positioned so
that the pulses lie in corresponding positions on them. The two operations requiring
care (matching of pulses, counting of time intervals) have therefore been separated
so that the full concentration of the operator may be exerted on each. It will be noted
that the receiver gain used ic the same for all received pulses. This means that for
certain positions of the crau, in which the craft-station distances (and therefore the
amplitudes of the corresponding received pulses) are of considerably different value,
the heights of the displayed pulses will not be the same. Since leading edges of pulses
are to be matched, and since the slope of a leading edge is influenced by the peak
height of the pulse, this feature imposes a certain limitation on the accuracy attainable.
On the other hand, both sets of pulses are displayed simultaneously, so that
a fix is obtained at a definite instant, and the time required to make the adjustments
for a fix is less than in the case of systems where the two position-lines necessary
for a fix are separately obtained.
Indicator Circuits
Figure 11-07 shows a block diagram of the timing and indicating circuits.
The master oscillator (V12) is crystal controlled with a 75 kcps crystal in

the grid circuit. A 50|iuf. variable condenser in parallel with the crystal gives fine
control of frequency. The plate circuit is tuned to 150 kcps. Vi o is a blocking os-
cillator (squegger) whose output is a series of sharp pulses at 150 kcps. V*. is a
second blocking oscillator arranged to give a frequency division of 5. Vjr is a
similar stage dividing by 2. V.g likewise divides by 5. The 3 kcps output from
Vig drives a multivibrator (V^V^n) which may be switched to divide by 5,
6, or 7. Division by 6 is the normal arrangement, yielding a 500-cps pulse output.
Vg and VQ form a square-wave generator, giving a 250-cps square-wave output. V^
and VJQ are identical stages. The output of each is a rectangular (positive) pulse
whose leading edge is locked to the trailing edge of a half-cycle of the 250-cps. square-
wave input. V7 and VJQ are driven by opposite phases of the square-wave. The dur-
ation of the output pulses is accurately controllable, coarse and fine adjustment being
provided on the control panel in each case.
These pulses (known as strobe timing pulses) together with the output of the
500 cps multivibrator V17 Vig may be used to initiate the cathode-ray sweep. Vu
GEE 11.13
Lü
RP Amplifier 6-atage IP Video
1 amplirior Diode Amplifier
—| (spot freq.
(with anti- Detector
or freq. band)
jam featuree)
Cal. pips
shaping
X circuit
Vl
150kcn 15kc
Bquegger - 6(5,7)
Vl3 v
17 v
18
150
W 15kc .(Jkc
kc 150kc 30kc
Master
Oec.
V
'16
1Z
Fig. 11-07 Block diagram--indicating and timing circuits
is a stage in which all the pulses to be used for initiating the sweep are combined
together. The 500-cps multivibrator pulses are applied through a clamping circuit
to the suppressor grid of a pentode, while the control grid receives both the B and C
strobe timing pulses. As a result the output at the plate of V^ is a combination of
three sets of positive pulses: (1) the A strobe pulses, 500 cps, leading edge locked
to the trailing edge of the 500-cps multivibrator output, (2) the B strobe pulses, 250
cps, leading edge delayed (as explained in connection with V^ and V^Q) behind the
trailing edge of the 500-cps multivibrator output, (3) the C strobe pulses, 250 cps,
similarly delayed but by a different interval and following alternate 500-cps multi-
vibrator pulses. This output is sketched in Figure 11-08.
ÄUITL m ira.
t2 -t. to
Fig. 11-08 Sweep initiating pulses

t controlled by B strobe timing controls (coarse and fine)
t, controlled by C strobe timing controls (coarse and fine)
The waveform at the screen of VJI will be similar but without the A pulses,
since changes of suppressor grid voltage do not materially affect conditions in the
screen circuit.
The time-base generator may be triggered either by the pulse output just des-
cribed (strobe position) ordirectlybythe 500-cps multivibrator pulses (main position),
This generator (V4 VV Vg) is of the type which produces a sawtooth sweep correspond-
11.14 GEE
ing to each pulse supplied to it. The initiating pulses (or gating pulses) are applied
to the suppressor grid of a pentode having a condenser connected between plate and
grid. The grid-leak is returned to a point at some positive potential. When the sup-
pressor grid is gated by a negative pulse, the condenser charges up. When the sup-
pressor is returned to zero potential, the condenser discharges at a rate determined
by the positive potential of the point to which the grid leak is returned. A sawtooth
sweep is therefore produced for each pulse applied, the start of the sawtooth coin-
ciding with the trailing edge of the initiating pulse. The output is push-pull so that
bothsetsof horizontal deflecting plates are driven. The following sweeps are avail-
able:
(1) Sweep selector in "main1' position, grid leak returned to a point of low positive
potential, 500 sweeps per second. Each sweep is of about 2000 y sec. duration.
(2) Sweep selector in "strobe" position, grid leak returned to a point of high positive
potential, 1000 sweeps per second of which 500 will be A strobe, 250 B strobe
and 250 C strobe. Each sweep is of about 80 wsec. duration.
(3) As in (2) but the size of the condenser is reduced, giving an "expanded strobe"
sweep. Each sweep is of about 20yusec•. duration.
These displays may be identified in Figure 11-06.
The 250-cps square wave from Vp VQ is applied to one of the vertical deflection
plates. The main presentation therefore shows two horizontal time bases, one above
the other. In addition, those sections of the main time base corresponding (in time)
to the Band C strobe sweeps are slightly displaced downward, This is accomplished
by Vq, whose action includes several functions now to be described.
Two types of deflecting voltage can be applied to the upper vertical deflection
plate:
(1) The output of the receiver (positive pulses) containing received pulses from the
A station (500 per second) from the B and C stations (250 per second) and from
the D station (double pulses, 500/3 pc- second).
(2) Calibration pips, of either I 5-kcps or 150-kcps frequency. The calibration pips
(positive) are passed through a shaping circuit consisting of a cathode-follower
clipper (V-j). Either of these sets of signals (selected by the "clearing switch")
is applied to the control grid of Vg, The screen of Vo is fed in the usual way by
a dropping resistor and bypass condenser. The suppressor grid of V„ is normally
at -80v (thereby cutting the tube off) but is gated to Ov by positive pulses corres-
ponding to the Band C strobe initiating pulses (these are obtained from the screen
circuit of V-JI,) A large amount of negative feedback is used (resistance-capaci-
tance coupling from plate to grid). As a result of this, three significant effects
are produced:
(a) At times other than those occupied by the B and C strobes, V3 is cut off and
positive pulses (either received pulses or calibration pips) appear at the
plate via the feedback network,
(b) During the time occupied by the B and C strobes, Vo conducts, and the sig-
nals appear inverted at the plate. The amount of feedback is pre-adjusted so
that the amplitude of the output is the same as before.
(c) During the B and C strobes, the voltage level at the plate of V3 is lowered
due to the fact that the tube is now conducting, and this portion of the sweep
will therefore be lower than the main part.
Figure 11-06 (page 11.11) shows the appearance of the display under various
conditions.
TheDpulsesappear on both traces of the main time-base because their spacing

is 6 milliseconds whereas the time of one trace (plus return) is 2 milliseconds. The
GEE 11,15
period of the whole display is 4 milliseconds.
When signals are received, the repetition rate at the transmitter (500 cps)
may not agree exactly with that at the receiver, causing the received pulses to drift
sideways. This is corrected by a vernier adjustment to the crystal frequency. When
the pattern is thus locked, the operator proceeds with pulse alignment and time-marker
counting as already described. By means of special Gee charts, on which the hyper-
bolic lines of position for varying numbers of 15-kcps time-interval markers are
overprinted in color, a fix may be plotted.
In areas where the A - Band A - C lattices intersect at too acute an angle for
good accuracy, the D pulses may be used instead of either the B or the C pulses.
Since the D pulses occur on both traces, the appropriate strobe marker can be used
as desired.
The usual arrangements are made to blank out the cathode-ray beam during
flyback, and also to intensify the beam during the B and C strobe time-base traces.
Bibliography
CD 0808 D Confidential Gee - R ARI 5342 WDGS
CD 0895 D Confidential Type 7000 Station T1365 WDGS
JEIA 1342 Secret Evaluation of S.W, Gee chain CCDU, RAF
CD 0895 F Confidential Type 7000 Station Ground Equipment Air Ministry
CD 0208A (2) Confidential G-H Airborne equipment Mkl ARI5525 Air Ministry
JEIA 7031 Secret Accuracy of Gee Coastal Com-

mand
SD 0208(2) Secret Gee Mkll Equipment ARI 5083 Air Ministry
WA 116 36 Confidential How Gee works Air Ministry
JEIA 8883 Secret Trials of G-H Mkll Intelligence

Division,UJS.N.
Report 625 Secret The Future of Hyperbolic Navigation MIT

IBHVHHMB
LORAN 12.01
Type of System
Differential range, yielding hyperbolic lines of position.
Useful Range
Approximate practical maximum ranges over sea are given in Table 12-01.
It should be noted that areas adjacent to transmitting stations are areas of low pre-
cision and in some cases are not usable; also that a craft must be within the ser-
vice area of each of two Loran pairs in order to obtain a fix. Figures given are for
the 70-100 kw. transmitters in present use.
Table 12-01 Maximum range (statute miles) over sea.
Day Ni ?ht
1 Ground Wave Sky Wave Ground Wave Sky Wave
i
Standard Loran j 850 600 1600
SS Loran - 1600
LF Loran 1500- 2000
All figures in the above table are based on tests made in temperate latitudes. Re-
ceived noise level is greater in tropical latitudes and less in polar regions, modi-
fying the figures accordingly. Regular Loran readings have been made (by skywave)
at distances of over 2000 miles, but such distances cannot be relied upon. Higher
noise level during night hours accounts for the reduced night-time ground-wave
ranges.

See discussion on pages 12.09-12.12.
Presentation or use of Data

The presentation is visual (pulse matching and time-marker counting on the
screen of a cathode-ray tube). Proposals have been made for an automatic plotting
board which would obviate time-marker counting and interpolation of a line of posi-
tion on the Loran chart. A recent modification presents time-differences on a mech-
anical counter, obviating actual counting of time-markers.

(a) Ground Stations: The maintenance of synchronization between "master'
and "slave" stations (see below) calls for skilled monitoring. The operator should
know all that the craft navigator knows, and more besides. The crew required at a
standard Loran station with its own power supply is from 20 to 30 men.
(b) Craft: The Loran operator must be trained in the use of the specialized
receiver and indicator, and also in the interpretation of the received pulses display-
ed. 40 or more hours of instruction are given to operators having a previous know-
ledge of general navigation.
(c) With ground-wave signals, a line of position is obtainable in approximate-
ly one minute, a fix in from two to five minutes. With sky-wave signals, the opera-
tor maintains a continuous watch and obtains lines of position when conditions are
favorable.
Equipment Required
(a) Ground: A chain of Loran stations, providing the two sets of hyperbolic
position lines necessary for a fix, may consist of four stations, of which two are
masters and two slaves. In the case of standard Loran, one master may control two
slaves, or one slave may be pulsed by two masters, making a total of three trans-
mitters, each of which will be of 70-100 kw. peak power. Mast or inverted-L anten-
12,02 LORAN
nas are usfd. Receivers and monitoring equipment arc also required, and (in the
case of slave stations) synchronizing equipment.
(b) Craft; A specialized Loran receiver and indicator are used, weighing
about 70 lbs. (Airborne equipment).
Rad;;' Frequency Spectrum Allotments Required

Standard and So Loran (see page 12.08) use frequencies in the range 1700-2000
keps (wavelength 176-150 meters). For LF Loran, a frequency of 180 keps is pro-
po, ni (1667 meters). Since the transmission consists of pulses, the bandwidth re-
quired may be given a nominal value of 50 to 70 keps for Standard and .SS Loran, 10
keps for LF7 Loran. Channel space is however economized by having several pairs
of stations transmit on the same frequency, using different pulse repetition rates.
The optimum bandwidth for the receiver is stated to be about 50 keps (at 6 db. down).
Prosent Status of Development

Standard Loran is a well-established long-distance navigational aid. It is the
only long-distance radio navigational aid available at the present time over large
areas of the Atlantic and Pacific.
SS Loran, originally proposed as a night-bombing aid over Germany, is well

established but not so widely used as Standard Loran.
L.F. Loran is expected to be in operation in the Pacific in the fall or winter

of 1945.
General Principles of Operation

The ^master" station of a Loran pair transmits pulses (of about 40 micro-
seconds durationforStandardLoran, or 300 microseconds fox LF Loran) at a repeti-
tion rate which is characteristic of the particular pair. For most Standard Loran
stations this is near 25 pps, for SS Loran near 33 1 3 pps. Pulses from the
master station are received at the craft after an interval representing the time taken
for the transmission to travel the distance fron master station to craft. Pulses from
the master station are also received at the "slave" station after some other interval
which is characteristic of a given pair of stations and is proportional to the base-
line used (distance from master to slave). These received pulses cause the slave
station to transmit pulses of its own at the same repetition rate. A fixed delay time
is introduced at the slave station between received and transmitted pulses, for
reasons which will be explained below. The slave transmission is thus synchronized
with, or locked to, the master transmission. This is the significance of the terms
"master"and 'slave". Pulses from the slave station arrive at the craft after a time
interval representing the distance from slave to craft. The craft therefore receives
two series of pulses, one from master and one from slave. The time interval between
the arrival of master and slave pulses is measured at the craft by means of the in-
dicator on which the received pulses, and also suitable time-marker pips, are dis-
played. From the discussion of hyperbolic systems given in section 1, it will be
seen that the time delay between received master and slave pulses is characteristic
of a hyperbolic line of position, and that two intersecting lines (obtained from dif-
ferent Loran pairs) yield a fix.
The Loran indicator makes use of a cathode-ray tube, on which appear two
linear time-base sweeps, swept in succession and displayed one under the other.
If the prf is 25 per second, then one master pulse and one slave pulse will be dis-
played every 40,000 microseconds. Now the measurement process requires that of
these two pulses, one appear on the upper part of the sweep and the other on the
lowerpart. Therefore, the slave pulse should be delayed by at least one-half of the
"^^^1——nil i I' i I.
LORAN 12.03
repetition period, or 20,000 microsecond?, to ensure this result. Furthermore, in

order to accomodate the time differences to be encountered at extreme parts of the
desired coverage area, an additional "coding" delay is introduced at the slave sta-
tion. These delays in the emission of the slave pulses constitute the fixed time de-
lays mentioned above.
These and other time intervals are represented in a system of symbols which
has become standard terminology in Loran. They are as follows:
c - velocity of radio propagation (= 1 86,200 statute miles per second, or 0.1862 miles
per microsecond)
T = indicated time difference
T' = true time difference
L = recurrence interval
D = absolute delay
S = coding delay
ß = time taken for pulse to travel from master to slave
All times are measured in microseconds.
Consider the distance-time relations for the locations of master, slave and
craft shown in Figure 12-01. Since the velocity of propagation of radio waves may
be taken as constant (186,200 miles per sec), it is convenient to measure any dis-
tance in terms of the time (in microseconds) required for transmission over that
distance. Thus the base-line AB is ß microseconds long, where ß = AB c. Assume
now that a pulse is radiated from the master station A at some arbitrary time t = o.
This pulse will arrive at slave B at a later time t - p, and the slave pulse will be
radiated from B at a still later time t = ß +iJz+ S . The absolute delay D between
the emission of master and slave pulses is therefore D = ß +L/2 + 8
If the craft were situated at P, the distances AP and BP being equal, the true
time difference between received pulses will also be ß +L/2 + 6 . This willbe thecase
at any point on the line PP1 which is the perpendicular bisector of AB. However, due
to the fact that a time difference of L/2 IS automatically taken care of by the presenta-
tion of the two pulses on the upper and lower parts of the linear time base, the low-
er trace of which starts exactly L/2 microseconds after the start of the upper trace,
the indicated time difference as read by the navigator anywhere on PP1 will be ß+§
Suppose that RR1 is a hyperbola such that the difference between the slave
and master distances to any point on it (BR - AR) is constant and equal to x. Then
the true and indicated time differences for this line will be T' - ß + L/S + S +*/c ,
andT = /i+S +x/c . Likewise for the hyperbola QO1 , on which x1 = (BQ - AO),thetime
differences are T1 - ß + L/2 + 6' +xl/c and T - ß + S - x'/c . Here x'will be numerically a
negative quantity. The extensions of the baseline, which are the limiting hyperbolae,
correspond to indicated time differences of S and 2ß + S as shown on Figure 12-01.
It follows that a set of hyperbolae can be drawn on a chart, and can be marked with
the indicated time differences (allowing for slave station coding delay) they repre-
sent. Thus the navigator measures his indicated time difference and obtains a line
of position, by interpolation between the printed hyperbolae if necessary.
Disposition of SJîtions, Coverage Areas

(a) Standard Loran: In Standard Loran, the maximum practical base-line
length is about 600 miles. This is so because reliable ground-wave reception, with
adequate signal-to-noise ratio for synchronization of slave to master, is not obtain-
able over much larger distances than this. A 300-niile base line is conventional and
gives |J - 1611 microseconds. S is customarily fixed at 1000 microseconds. This
y pi""""! ""■ ■■ ■I—M-—™Min»m« miiiiMiiiiiirfiiim'~~'TinTnT nniiiii iMrimw mm
12.04 LORAN
/
A
,6 IT=S
1T=/3+S + F T=ß+8-ff'
Fig. 12-01 Loran: distancp-tuno relations
gives maximum and minimum indicated time differences of 1000 microseconds and
4222 microseconds. Charts are prepared with hyperbolae marked every 100 micro-
seconds. A set of hyperbolic position lines is shown in Figure 12-02, and two sets,
using a master station and two slaves with base-lines intersecting at 135°, in Figure
12-03. With the latter arrangement, or with a straight-line chain, the coverage area
for a fix will be determined by the limit at which ground-wave or sky-wave reception
from all three stations is obtainable. Sky-wave reception at these frequencies can
be relied upon only at night, and then should not be used at distances less than 300
miles. The outer limit for sky-wave reception is (as already stated) about 1600 miles.
Figure 12-04 (a) shows the ground-wave service area of a 3-station chain. The full
linos indicate the area within which a line of position may be obtained from master
A and slave B. A fix may then be obtained within the shaded area. A base-line of
300 miles is assumed (600 miles from D to C). Figure 12-04 (b) is drawn to one-
half of the scale of (a), and shows the sky-wave coverage (shaded area). The dotted
lines in both figures show the boundaries of areas adjacent to the base-line within
LORAN 12.05
Fig. 12-02 Loran pair

12.06 LORAN
I
I ::
\
\ \:
, \
V- /
\ \ V I / / .• / .'' /
\ 1
: :
, \ .\
^ ■• \ ; > .••! /; ./ /■■ /•■
/.■■ /
/ y
/
^.r.r'..■/■/..-/
.■■/v-A-v'-/'/■/•■'
. •.<.•.N.A.t-l / / / .^..
/ ; /
Fig. 12-03 Loran triplet
which the "geometricalprecision" is poor (lower than 1 mile/microsecond for ground-

wave) for one or other of the pairs. Geometrical precision is further discussed on
page 12.10.
It will be seen that a chain of Loran stations will have a useful sea coverage
area which is roughly in the form of a strip extending parallel to the coast line on
which the stations are located.
(b) SS Loran: Other factors being constant, the greatest precision of fix will
be obtained in areas where Loran hyperbolae intersect at right angles. With Standard
Loran, such areas are localized and are small in extent. The longer the base-lines
used, the more extensive will these areas of high precision be. This leads to the use
of sky-wave transmission for slave synchronization, the base-line between master
LORAN 12.07
(a) Ground wave
(b) Sky wave
Fig. 12-04 Standard Loran coverage areas

12.08 LORAN
Fig. 12-05 Sb Lnran coveragp area
and slave being extended to 1300 miles or more. With SS (Üky-wave synchronized)
Loran, the two pairs are located so as to straddle the required coverage area, their
base lines being approximately at right angles. This gives a large area in which
the Loran hyperbolae are approximately straight and parallel lines, the two sets in-
tersecting nearly at right-angles.
Figure 12-05 shows the coverage area for 1500-mile base-lines and station
locations as shown. Ground waves are not normally used with SS Loran, since this
would usually involve cross-matching (one ground wave and one sky wave). Areas
within 300 miles of any of the stations arc therefore not represented as covered.
(c) LF Loran. Using frequencies of the order of 180 kcps, ground-wave

propagation may be relied upon to distances of about 1500 to 2000 miles with the
transmitter power contemplated. This means that longer base-lines may be used,
with ground-wave service areas and precision eomparable to those given by SS Loran,
but without the disadvantages attendant on the use of sky waves. Longer pulses (300
microseconds) and very large antennas (625 feet, umbrella loaded) are proposed.
Since transmission at these frequencies must of necessity involve the use of band-
widths narrower than 50 kcps, the rise time of the pulses will be longer than is the
case with standard Loran practice. This means that the pulse-matching technique
used must take rather carefully into account the details of pulse form, since it is not
usually possible to match amplitudes in order that similar portions of the leading
edges of pulses will have the same slope. The reason for this is that since long pul-
ses are used, there is the danger that sky-wave1 returns, mixing in variable phase and
amplitude with ground-wave returns, will distort all but the initial portion of the ris-
ing pulse-front. Since this initial portion is of rather gradual slope, a limitation is
thus imposed on the precision of match attainable.
LORAN 12.09
A technique of "Cycle matching "has therefore been proposed for possible use
in slave- station synchronization, and perhaps ultimately for use in the craft. Indi-
vidual RF cycles at corresponding positions in the two pulse envelopes would be se-
lected and used for comparison. This refinement is still in the experimental stage.
A further discussion of the effect of tuned circuits on pulse rise times is given in
section 1.
Pulse Rates
Üince the received pulses are displayed on a time-base on a CRO screen, the
recurrence rate of the time-base must be synchronized to that of the pulses if a sta-
tionary display is to be obtained. Since it must be made possible to receive several
pairs of stations to give fix coverage over different areas, two possible methods of
accomodating these various channels exist.
(a) Different radio frequency for each pair, same prf for all stations.
(b) Same radio frequency for all stations, different prf for each pair.
With pulse transmissions at this frequency, the spectrum allotments required would
be prohibitive if scheme (a) were used. Loran therefore uses scheme (b) allowing
several pairs of stations to be "stacked ' at the same frequency.
Provided that the pulses to be observed stand still, the operator will not be
unduly distracted if the rate of drift of other pulses (to whose prf he is not synchron-
ized) across the CRO screen is quite slow. The prf's ("rates1') used need not there-
fore differ by large amounts. Adjacent pulse repetition periods differ by 100 micro-
seconds. Corresponding prf's, periods and "rates1' are as follows:
prf (per second) 25 25^ 25-g- 25^ etc. up to 25^

(approximate)
period (microseconds) 40,000 39,900 39,800 39,700 etc. up to 39,300
"rate" (station pair) 0 1 2 3 etc. up to 7
A similar group of pulse repetition frequencies based on 33 j pps is also used. The
navigator has on the indicator panel a multi-position switch, which selects the rate
desired; that is, causes the received pulses from the two stations corresponding to
this rate to remain stationary on the screen, while any pulses which may be received
on other rates drift by.
Uncertainties in Loran Line of Position

Various factors combine to produce uncertainties in a line of position, ex-
pressed as the probable error of a numerical indicated time difference. These fac-
tors may be classed in two groups:
(a) Systematic. This includes all effects traceable to the layout of the sys-
tem itself.
(b) Operational. This includes human factors, both at the craft and in slave-
station synchronization, and effects which cannot be predicted, such as variations in
noise level and in ionospheric conditions. Some notes on various factors follow:
1. Errors in measurement of time intervals with the Loran indicator.

It has been estimated, on the basis of large numbers of observations made
under average conditions, that the probable error of a Standard Loran time measure-
ment is about 1 microsecond. This means that out of a large number of measure-
ments, 50 per cent will depart from the true value by less than 1 microsecond and
50 per cent by more than 1 microsecond. Assuming a standard error curve distri-
■(^■■^■■H^^BMi
12.10 LORAN
bution, another way of stating this result is to say that 90 per cent of the measure-
ments will be in error by less than 2.44 microseconds and 10 per cent by more than
this amount. These figures are obtained from many measurements. Under good
conditions and with a skilled observer, readings in error by only 0.5 microsecond
have been consistently obtained. It is clear that no one figure for this error will be
acceptable to all interested persons.
2. Errors in synchronization.
The slave station operator has essentially the same problem as the craft na-
vigator. Master and slave pulses are displayed on his monitoring oscilloscope, and
he must maintain the correct time delay between them. With SS Loran, there will
be periods when reliable observations are impossible owing to varying ionospheric
conditions. Accordingly, the timing oscillator at slave stations must be so care-
fully stabilized as to be capable of running free during these periods with negligible
drift. However, errors in synchronization have been known to occur.
3. Resultant error in a line of position.

The effects of the two errors just mentioned are to broaden Loran hyper-
bolae into bands, and to change the location of the hyperbolae slightly. The resul-
tant error in line of position varies with the location of the craft, since the hyper-
bolae spread further apart as the distance from the stations increases. The error
in line of position is therefore the product of two quantities:
(a) The net timing error in microseconds.
(b) The change in position per unit change in time difference, measured in
miles per microsecond, at the point in question.
The first of these quantities is statistical and has already been discussed; the se-
cond is purely geometrical. For example, two hyperbolae, corresponding to time
differences which are 1 microsecond apart, cut the base line at points which are
separatedby0.093 mile, or 492 feet. Thus, on the base line a timing uncertainty of
2.44 microseconds corresponds to a positional uncertainty of 2.44 x 492 or 1200feet
(0.23 miles). This is the minimum positional uncertainty for a timing uncertainty of
2,44 microseconds. At points far distant from the base line, the positional uncertainty
may be several miles.
Regarding the second, or geometrical, quantity, it may be shown that the

number of miles error per microsecond error is constant for all points on an arc
of a circle which passes through the locations of master and slave stations. A fam-
ily of such circles (of which the base line and the extensions of the base line are the
limiting cases) is shown in Figure 12-06. Portions of the 1 mile microsecond arc
were drawn in Figure 12-02 (a), and the.se define the wedge-shaped areas adjacent
to the base line extensions in which poor precision is obtained. It should be pointed
out that the error in position per microsecond error for the circles in Figure 12-06
is measured normal to the hyperbolic position lines and not along the circles them-
selves. It will be realized from Figure 12-06 that the longer the base line is, the
larger will be the area over which a given precision is attainable. So Loran makes
use of this fact.
4. Error in a fix.
Since a fix is determined by the intersection of two hyperbolae, and since
uncertainty exists as to the location of each hyperbola, the actual position of the
craft is somewhere within an area whose boundaries are the limits of uncertainty
of the two hyperbolae. The shape, area and dimensions of this figure of uncertainty
dependon the angle of cut between the hyperbolae, and this makes quotation of numer-
ical values for error in a fix impossible. The subject is discussed further in sec-
tion 1.
LORAN 12.11
Fig. 12-06 Circles of constant miles per microsecond error

12.12 LORAN
5. Errors in assumed values of base-line length_a.nd velocity of jJi\-paâtion.

These factors amount to a change in the orientation and location of the Loran
hyperbolae. Their effect is further discussed in section 1.
6. Skywave errors.
If skywave measurements are made with Standard Loran, a sky wave correction
must be applied, due to the fact that the difference between the skywave propagation
paths to the craft is not the same as that between ground v/ave paths unless the craft
happens to be on the perpendicular bisector of the base line. This correction is
printed on the appropriate parts of Loran charts. It varies with position, being large
at points which are close to one transmitter of a pair but far from the other. Since
the skywave delay curve flattens out to a constant value for large distances (see
Section 1), the skywave correction (which is equal to the difference between the two
skywave delay values) tends toward zero as the distances of the craft from the two
transmitters increase. Since the height of the E-layer of the ionosphere is not cons-
tant, the skywave delays for the two transmission paths involved, and therefore the
skywave correction, are subject to changes. These changes introduce random errors,
so that the probable error of a skywave reading is several times that of a ground-
wave reading.
With SS Loran, where skywaves are used both for position determination and
alsofor slave station synchronization, such errors partially cancel. A more extend-
ed discussion of skywave propagation and resultant errors is given in section I.
One of the merits of SS Loran, however, is that random errors due to changes in
propagation conditions are somewhat offset by the excellent angle of cut obtainable
over most of the service area, and by the greater area over which a given geometri-
cal precision is attained, due to the long base-lines,
7. Errors due to incorrect interpretation of received pulses.

When skywaves are used, the received signal is not a single pulse, but con-
sists of a train of pulses reflected from various layers of the ionosphere. For Loran
purposes, the pulse received by single-hop transmission from the E-layer of the
ionosphere, known as the E, pulse, is chosen. If a ground-wave pulse is visible, the Ej
pulse will be the first one following it. Since the intensity of reflection and the degree
and nature of the polarization of the various components of the signal are non-related
functions of time, the observer sees a constantly changing picture. A reliable fix
using skywaves thus demands an experienced operator who can recognize "normal"
conditions and take a measurement when he sees that these conditions exist. If a
ground wave pulse is used by mistake for an E, pulse, large errors are introduced
and these are usually detectable by their inconsistency with other data at hand.
The Loran Receiver and Indicator

Several different models of Loran craft equipment are in use. The differences
between them are in general differences in detail only. In one model (the DBE, in
production) the time-difference is shown on a direct-reading mechanical counter
driven by the knobs used for pulse alignment, and time-markers on the CRO pattern
are therefore not provided. In another model (AN/APN 9), the fast sweep is logarith-
mic and a three-inch cathode-ray tube is used. The descriptions which follow are
concerned with the AN/APN 4 equipment.
Receiver (R - 9/APN 4)
Figure 12-07 shows a block diagram of the receiver. The R.F. amplifier is
tunable to four frequencies, selected by a four-position switch. These are 1750,
1650, 1900 and 1950 kcps in model R-9B/APN4; and 1850, 1900, 1950 kcps and 9600
kcps (no longer used) in model R-9A/APN4. Three wave-traps are provided, tuned
to the intermediate frequency which is 1050 kcps. The bandwidth of the IF amplifier
LORAN 12.13
R.F. DET. D.C.

CONVERTER ISt IF 2nd IF ->- 3rd IF ->■
ANT. AMPLIFIER - I RESTORER
'
M M /i
1
GAIN
AMPLIFIER VIDEO
BALANCE AMPLIFIER
->—0
Fig. 12-07 Block diagram -- Receiver

is 45-60kcps. The gain control is variable cathode-biasing applied to the RF ampli-
fier, converter andfirst two IF stages. The gain of the 3rd IF stage is gated in syn-
chronism with the two parts of the indicator display, so that different degrees of gain
maybe usedfor master and slave pulses in order that pulse amplitudes may be match-
ed on the display. The detector stage is a conventional diode with resistance-capaci-
tance load except that the input is to the diode cathode rather than to its plate, A high-
pass filter, which may be switched out, is provided between detector and video ampli-
fier. This is useful for the suppression of low-frequency components of noise. The
video amplifier consists of one (triode) stage of amplification, which gives limiting
action and feeds a cathode follower. A clamping diode is used at the grid of the cathode
follower. The DC power-supply for both receiver and indicator is at 260v, voltage-
regulated.
Indicator ID-6B/APN4
General Principles
Figure 12-08 shows a block diagram of the indicator circuits. Power supplies
are not shown. A linear sawtooth time-base voltage is applied to the horizontal de-
flection plates of the C,R. tube. The sweep-generator is of the triggered type, so
that different sweep speeds may be used. Video signals from the receiver, or alter-
natively time markers, are applied to one of the vertical deflection plates, and a
square-wave trace-separation voltage to the other. Since the repelition rate of the
entire display is 25 cps (on station-rate 0), the square wave must have this basic
frequency. Video pulses from the receiver, pedestal voltages and 10-microsecond
markers deflect the cathode-ray beam upwards; 50-microsecond and 500-micro-
second markers produce downward deflections, and 2500-microsecond markers de-
flect the beam both above and below the time base.
All timing operations are controlled by a 100-kcps crystal oscillator. This
is of the tuned-plate tuned-grid type, and its frequency is variable by + 35 cps by
means of two small trimming condensers. One of these constitutes the framing
control: if this condenser is adjusted so that the received pulses are stationary on
the display, the oscillator must then be in exact synchronism with the accurately
controlled crystal at the transmitter, and the various time markers will be accurate-
ly positioned. The other trimming condenser allows the pulses to be shifted to right
or left on the display (see Left-Right circuits, page 12.20).
Six counters follow for frequency division. The sixth counter is arranged to
divide by either 3 or 4 (High or Low prf) to accomodate the two basic groups of repe-
tition rates used, based on 25 and 33 cps frequency. The frequencies and repetition
periods of the pulses at various points in this divider chain are as shown in Figure
12-08. Signals from the crystal and from the outputs of the first and third counters
are used to form the 10-microsecond, 50-microsecond and 500-microsecond time
markersby way of suitable pulse-shaping circuits. 2500-microsecond time markers
are obtained from the output of the fourth counter.
12.14 LORAN
bfl
c
u
o
u
c
a
■ rH
CO
o
I
bfi
LORAN 12.15
Time-difference measurement is accomplished by bringing the pulses on the

upper (A) and lower (B) traces into alignment, and then counting time markers to
obtain the time interval through which the lower pulse (B) was shifted to attain this
result. For this purpose two pedestals are used. These are raised sections of the
main sweep traces and are obtained by applying rectangular pulses to the lower CRO
deflection plate. The A pedestal is delayed after the beginning of the main A sweep
by a fixed amount (2500 microseconds). The corresponding video pulse is made to
occupy a position on the A pedestal by momentarily changing the frequency of the
sweep, thus causing the pulse to drift across the display: at the same time the B
video pulse will of course move in the same direction on the lower trace of the dis-
play and by the same amount. Thisisaccomplishedby means of the Left-Right switch,
whose action will be described later. The B pedestal is delayed after the start
of the B sweep by an amount which is variable by coarse and fine controls: thus,
by the use of these controls, the B pedestal may be brought under the B video pulse.
Switching to a faster sweep speed, the two sweeps are of shorter duration
andare now initiated and terminated by the leading and trailing edges of the rectangu-
lar pulses which previously formed the pedestals. This amounts to spreading out the
time scale until tho pedestals themselves are the sweeps. The A and B pulses are now
accurately aligned by further use of ehe B pedestal fine delay control. The exact
sequence of operations, including counting, is given later.
As noted above, the A pedestal delay is fixed at 2500 microseconds. The B

pedestal delay is variable from 1700 to 13,200 microseconds, the coarse control
giving delays of 1500 to 12,500 microseconds in steps of 500 microseconds, and the
fine control being continuously variable from 200 to 700 microseconds. The dura-
tion of the pedestals is 250 or 750 microseconds, controlled by the setting of the
sweep-speed switch.
The six counters are of the step-counter blocking-oscillator type with grid
bias applied to the counter tube. A condenser in the grid-circuit is charged in steps
by pulses fed in from the preceding counter. The counter tube fires when i** grid
condenser has acquired a definite number of these "step" charges, the number de-
pending on the bias and circuit constants used. Thus the first counter fires every
five cycles of the 100 keps pulses, the second counter fires every other time
the first counter fires, and so forth. To secure the correct prf for the received
pulses to be used, feedback is taken from the output of the sixth counter to either the
second or third counter grid condensers, or to both. Likewise in order to move the
video pulses to right or left on the display, the feedback arrangements may be tem-
porarily altered. These processes and the circuits connected with them will now be
explained. No two counters have identical circuits, but all counters operate on the
same principle. The first and second counter circuits are shown here.
Figure 12-09 shows the circuit of the first counter. The 100 keps crystal
oscillator is followed by a limiter stage (not shown), in which a triode tube is driven
from cut-off to saturation. The resulting voltage waveform as shown is applied at
A to a cathode-follower buffer stage T], which drives the blocking-oscillator counter
tubeT2. The positive bias and the time constant in the grid circuit are so arranged
that To fires on every fifth pulse from Tj. The output at the plate consists of sharp
negative and positive pulses as shown at B.
The circuit of the second counter is shown in Figure 12-10. The diode Tj
clips the negative pulses, and T2 transmits the positive pulses. The 330 /i/tf, con-
denser is charged by steps, and the bias on T3 is so adjusted that this tube fires on
BBV^HIHHHaiaMBBIBîBMHBKm ■wr^nira imiiiiiiiiiiinininmiinun
■HHJMMaCKWBB
12.16 LORAN
+ 260v.
24)j|jf Marker
"shaper
|6SN7 82mjfi| 2nd ..
<22K LlßiJLßJ Counter
nnnnn5 II
82Üp)Jf
rr
T2 ,
bOK
M 50JJS (<■
lOjUS
Fig. 12 09 First counter circuit
the second step. When the tube fires, the 330/ûf. condenser is discharged via the
grid circuit and the cycle repeats. The output to the third counter therefore con-
sists of sharp negative and positive pulses as shown.
Itwill be observed that the 330 ^f condenser may also be charged (or dis-
charged) by feedback from the sixth counter. If an auxiliary charge of one step is
applied in this fashion, the result will be to eliminate one 50-microsecond interval
from the cycle of operations every time the sixth counter fires. This process is
further discussed under the heading of station selection.
The remaining counters differ mainly in the sizes of the components used,
and in the exact method of obtaining bias for the counter tube. The fifth and sixth
counters are coupled by a tuned circuit which "rings" when pulsed, and the sixth
counter is actually triggered by the first positive peak of the damped oscillation
thus produced. This introduces a constant delay of about 25 microseconds in the
firing of the sixth counter tube. The reason for this is to ensure that the auxiliary
step charges, placed on the second and third counter condensers when feedback is
used, shall not coincide with normal step charges from the preceding counter stages.
The sixth counter also has two possible values of grid bias, to allow division by 3
(output, pulses of 15,000-microsecond repetition period) or by 4 (output, pulses of
20,000-microsecond repetition period) for the 33 l/3cps or 25cps repetition rates.
Figure 12-11 shows the station selector and left-right circuits. It will be
LORAN 12.17
(.
V
82pjjf
0
> H f )
From " f
ist counter
Feedback
From 6th Counter
A ^l2?h
lOOps
_i
JLULA.
12 12
12 12
Fig. 12-10 Second counter circuit
recalled that Loran pairs operate on the same radio frequency but with different
pulse repetition rates which are as follows:
ii
Rate (station) p.r.f. Rate (station) p.r.f.
o 25 cps 4 254" cps

1
1 25rTj cps 5 25^ cps
or 3
1 2 25-g- cps 25-j cps
1
1 3 25^g cps 7 251 cps
A similar group of prf s, based on 331^ cps, may be used by allowing the sixth
counter to divide by 3 instead of by 4 (prf switch). In the explanation that follows,
only the 25 cps group is considered, for the sake of simplicity.
Station (Rate) Selection

Consider the change of frequency required in switching from rate 0 to rate
1. If this were done by changing the crystal oscillator frequency, the necessary
change would be 250 cps. This would introduce an error in the spacing of all the
time markers, and in addition, would seriously reduce the amplitude of the crystal
output. The change must therefore be made in the counter operations rather than
in the crystal frequency.
Referring to Figure 12-11, pulses from the 6th counter may be fed back to
either the second or third counters or to both. On rate 0 there is no feedback and
the prf is 25 cps. On rate 1, feedback is to the second counter only by way of
12.18 LORAN
Fig. 12-11 Station and Left-Right circuits
Ganged switches: sweep speed: Si, 84, S7

station: S3, SQ, Sg, S9
Left-Right: S2, S5
C4, 85, C3, S3, and the diodes T2 and T3 . Negative pulses are clipped by T2
andpositive pulses transmitted by T3. The magnitude of the feedback pulse is con-
trolled by C3, and is such that the firing of the second counter is advanced one step.
On rate 2, there is no feedback to the second counter (S3 being then grounded) but
feedback is applied to the third counter via C4, QQ and Cn in parallel, S3 and the
diodes T4 and Tr. T^ clips negative pulses and TV transmits positive pulses. The
magnitude of the feedback is such as to charge the third counter condenser by one
step, being controlled by the adjustment of C^ which is critical.
On rate 3, one-step feedback is applied to the second counter by way of C3

and S3, and at the same time one-step feedback is still applied to the third counter
since positions 2 and 3 on Sg are connected. The feedback to the third counter is
slightly augmented by C12 (which is in parallel with C\Q and Cu for position 3 of
Sg and Sg) to allow for the extra loading on the feedback source imposed by the sec-
ond and third counter circuits simultaneously absorbing pulse energy.
On rate 4, no feedback is applied to the second counter, but two-step feedback

is applied to the third counter via C., Cg and Cg in parallel, Sg, T. and Tg. The
necessary two-step magnitude is adjusted by Cg , the combined capacitance ot L'g
and Cg being greater than that of CIQ and Q] , Proceeding in this fashion, the appli-
cation of feedback to the second and third counters for the eight "station" switch
positions is as follows:
LORAN 12.19
Station
switch Feedback to Feedback to
position Second Counter Third Counter
0 none iione
1 one step none
2 none one step
3 one step one step
4 none two steps
5 one step two steps
6 none three steps
7 one step three steps
Considering now the effects produced, it will be seen that feedback is applied once
during each sixth-counter cycle. One-step feedback to the second counter causes
this and all succeeding counters to fire 50 microseconds earlier than would other-
wise have been the case, and therefore shortens the sixth counter period by this
amount. Since the square-wave generator which determines the frequency of the dis-
play is in effect a 2:1 frequency divider, the change in the display period (prf) will
be 100 microseconds (twice that of the sixth counter period).
One-step feedback to the third counter changes the sixth counter period by
100 microseconds, and the prf by 200 microseconds. The overall effect of the
feedback in various switch positions is therefore as follows:
Station Sixth Display

switch Change in Sixth Counter Repetition
position Counter Period Period Period
0 0 20,000 Microseconds 40,000 Microseconds
1 50 Microseconds 19,950 39,900
2 100 19,900 39,800
3 150 19,850 39,700
4 200 19,800 39,600
5 250 19,750 39,500
6 300 19,700 39,400
7 350 19,650 39,300

12.20 LORAN
Operation of the Left-Right Switch

Assuming that the crystal fine frequenc}' control has been adjusted to give a
stationary pulse display, it is still necessary to be able to move the pulses on to their
respective pedestals. This is done by momentarily changing the prf of the display,
causing the pulses to drift across it. Now if this were to be done by changing the
crystal frequency, the change required with slow sweep speeds would be inconvenient-
ly large for a reasonably rapid-rate of drift of the pulses on the display. It is there-
fore dene bothby a slight change in crystal frequency (effective at fast sweepspeeds)
and by applying either positive or negative feedback (in addition to any feedback
used for station selection) from the sixth counter to the second and third counters,
effective at slow sweep speeds only.
Referring to Figure 12-11, the cathode of T^ is normally at +92 volts (due to

Rj and R3) which is sufficient to maintain the tube in a non-conducting condition. If
S2 is moved to the "left" position, pulses from the sixth counter are applied to the
cathode of T, via Cj, and the tube therefore conducts during negative pulses. Each
timeTj conducts, the second counter condenser is discharged through it, so that an
extra 50 microsecond interval is added to the sixth counter period. This will cause
the frequency of the sweep to be lower, and the pulses will drift to the left on the
display. R2 serves to prevent the accumulation of d-c charge on Cj, also being so
large that negligible pulse voltage appears across R3 when S2 is at normal or in
the "right" position. S\ places the cathode of Tj at+2b0v in sweep-speed positions
2 through 7 so that the only adjustment of the pulse position possible on these speeds
is by slight changes in crystal oscillator frequency as noted above.
In order to move the pulses to the right on the display, the prf must be
temporarily raised. This is accomplished by feeding pulses from the sixth counter
through S5 ("right" position), S^ (positions 1 or 8), and Sg to either the second or
third counters, depending on the position of Sg. It should be noted that Sg and Sn
are not ganged together. Thus in station positions 0, 2, 4, 6, the second counter
(which is not used for normal "station" feedback in these positions) is accelerated,
whereas in positions 1, 3, 5 and 7 the third counter (already in use for "station" feed-
back in positions 3, 5, 7) is accelerated by an extra step, any feedback applied to the
second counter for "station" purposes being thereby transferred to the third counter.
This is possible in the case of the third counter because it is a five-step counter,
whereas the second counter uses only two steps. S7 disables the feedback right-shift-
ing function for all sweep-speeds except 1 and 8. On the fast sweep-speeds (2, 3, 4,
5, and 6) left-right motion is performed only by changes in crystal oscillator frequency
as already noted. Thus the function of the left-right switch comprises two operations:
(1) Changes in crystal frequency (operative on all sweep-speeds, but effective on
speeds 2through7only). (2) Changes in feedback arrangements (operative on speeds
1 and 8 only). The descriptions which follow assume that the L-R switch is in the
neutral position, and the station selector switch in position 0 (prf 25 cps).
Square-wave Generator
The square-wave generator is an Eccles-Jordan trigger circuit, triggered
in the cathode circuit by the output from the sixth counter, the positive pulses of
which have been clipped off.
Pedestal Delay Multivibrators

TheA-pedestal delay is a multivibrator, shown in Figure 12-12. The output
of the fourth counter is applied to Ti, which with its associated elements clips the
positive pulses and passes the negative pulses to the grid of T2, where they are mixed
with the differentiated output of the square-wave generator.
T2 and T3 form a one-shot multivibrator. T3 is normally conducting, and

LORAN 12.21
40,000-
jusec
Fig. 12-12 A-pedestal delay multivibrator
T2 cut off, due to the fact that the grid of T3 is returned to +260v and that of T? to
only +35v, together with the fact that both tubes share a common cathode resistor.
Positive pulses from the square-wave generator trigger the circuit, causing T2 to
conduct and T3 to be cut off. The next negative fourth-counter pulse triggers the
circuitinthe reverse direction, the grid-circuit time-constant of T3 being so chosen
thatTßis nearly conducting of its own accord at this time. Further negative pulses
have no effect since T2 is now again cut off, and the circuit is ready for the next
positive square-wave generator pulse. The output at the plate of T„ therefore con-
sists of rectangular positive pulses, of width 25Ö0 microseconds. The width of the
pulses is accurately controlled by the period of the fourth counter, and their recur-
rence rate by that of the square-wave generator. The B-pedestal coarse delay is a
one-shot multivibrator similar to that just described, except that the inputs are
from the opposite phase of the square-wave generator and the third counter respec-
tively, and that the grid return of the first triode section is to a point of variable
positive potential. As this potential is varied, the trailing edge of the multivibrator
pulse coincides in turn with any one of a sequence of third counter pulses. The width
of the output pulse is therefore variable in steps of 500 microseconds (on rate 0).
The B-pedestal fine delay is likewise a one-shot multivibrator, but in this

case there is only one input (the inverted and differentiated output of the B-pedestal
coarse delay multivibrator) and the fine delay is therefore continuously variable
since the termination of the output pulse depends only on the time-constant and grid-
bias voltage used. Note that the leading edge of the fine delay output pulse is locked
to the trailing edge of the coarse delay pulse. The total delay is therefore the sum
of the fine and coarse delays.
Pedestal Generator
This is a one-shot multivibrator similar to the preceding three. The outputs
hDMDnBMHHnMBanMBKSm
12.22 LORAN
J I
square-wave
(phase A)
differentiated
r
4ih counter
-I—}—/- output
clipped
2500 A-pedestal
delay m-v
1
(fixed) | output
1 square-wove
(phase 8j
differentidted JL
7 i
"TTTTTTTTTTTTT clipped
nnrrnTTrmTTT
B pedestal
;
coarse delay ^ adjustable
*in SOO^sec
im-v output
1 1 steps
I 1 inverted
1 1
1 1
1
1
i
i
differentiated A_
ad|d5Table
Bpedestal '
1 1
'me delay
1 ^m-v output
_J 'A-and B-
1 pedestal delays
1
differentiated
1 !
1
\
and clipped
1
AandB
pedestals
(TSOpsec'1
sweep circuit |
output |
i i I ]
I | 1
sweep inverter
output
| 1
i i
A delay ' total B delay

i i
1
i i i i i i i 1 i i i i i i i
time 0 2500 5000 20,000 22,500 25,000
(psec)
Fig. 12-13 Indicator waveforms

UK AN 12.23
from the A-pedestal delay and B-pedeM.il line delay circuits are differentiated and
then inverted by an amplifier stage m which the tube runs at zero bias so that the
original positive pulses are clipped, rtie output of this inverter (positive pulses
corresponding to the negative pulses from the A- and B-fine delay circuits) is the
input to the pedestal generator multivibrator. The output (pedestals) are therefore
positive rectangular pulses whose leading edges are delayed alternately 2500 micro-
seconds after the beginning of the A sweep, ind by a variable amount (coarse and fine
controls) after the beginning of the B sweep. The duration of the pedestals may be
either 750 microseconds (sweep-speeds 1, 2, 6, and 7) or 250 microseconds (sweep-
speeds 3, 4, and 5), controlled by the setting of a switch which changes the grid bias
applied to the second triode section of the multivibrator. The time relationships
between these different pulses are shown in Figure 12-13, in which some of the time
intervals are not drawn to scale for obvious reasons.
Sweep Voltage Generator

This circuit is shown in Figure 12-14. It is of the triggered type, and trig-
gering pulses are applied from either- the sixth counter, the fourth counter, or the
pedestal generator according to the positmn of the sweep-speed selector switch.
Referring to Figure 12-14, tubes Tj and T2 and switch sections Sj, S2 and
S3 are concerned with the selection and shaping of the sweep triggering pulses. In
positions 1, 7, and 8 of Sj, the outputs ..; the fourth or sixth counters are clipped by
Tj so that only negative pulses are transmitted to S2. $2 selects either these pulses
(positions 1, 7, and 8) or the output of the pedestal generator. The output from S2 is
clamped by T2 so that the negative vi-ltage excursions at the plate of this tube take
place from ground potential downwards. These triggering pulses are applied to the
suppressor grid of T3. S3 passes negative blanking pulses to the CRT grid by way
of C2for all switch positions except 8, and aiso connects C\ (220/i/Lf) in parallel with
the pulse input, broadening the narrow sweep trigger pulses sufficiently to ensure
stable action. Somedelayis thereby introduced in the initiation of the sweep voltage,
but since this is constant it is nut objeeMnnable.
From < T
1 t ped t
~-? 1
s t 'r=' :
TU r
'LJ -XU^-J f-
\
——r [ r
U I HP-
0 5uf
_a,"'
!-._<^„
rMcq
? ?' ■ '.-i Mm) 1 5 ','
Meq > • ' MRIJ ; ■ MHg V, K--1 . Vi',1 I
■-1- r
.WtM:|
i i i_ u L-l i
Fig. 12 1-1 bwci j) circuit

12.24 LOUAN
Supposing- that the suppressor grid of 1\ is at grounci putontiul, T3 i.s con-

ducting and its plate potential is low, The control grid of T3 is slightly above ground
potential and grid current is flowing, clue to the fact that the grid is returned through
a 100,000 ohm resistor to a point at some positive potential provided by the resistor
network controlled by S4. When a triggering pulse arrives, thes uppressor grid is
suddenly driven negative and the lube cut off. The plate voltage rises snarply, the
control grid remaining substantially constant in potential in spite of C3, duo to the
fact that grid current is flowing. Tins condition will persist as long as T3 is cut off.
When the suppressor grid is returned to ground potential, the tube again conducts
and the potential at the plate tendstofall. Due to the coupling action of C3 from
plate to grid, and to the large amplification of the tube, this fall is relatively slow
and extremely linear over most of its range, the control grid now being negative.
Suppressor 1 /
Grid of T3 /
-'.ate
T T3
20.00C u sec
i</' .O.V SWEEP
... 7
jpprei
iff nf
ped
:ote
' r3 \
N v a' a D e, Depending
! Iri M Delay Setting
'■50 -
" .•■50 p.-.
;
(/'> ^'VI swt Lh
i ^ ,r auu
Fie.. 12-lf) Triggering and sweep voltage.1

LORAN 12.25
If this condition were allowed to persist, the fall of plate potential would eventually
flatten out. The rate of fall is controlled by the positive potential to which the grid
is returned (S4 and associated voltage-divider networks). The values selected for the
various positions of S4 are such that for all sweep speeds the amplitude of potential
change at the plate of T3 is the same, and is not sufficient to extend into the non-
linear portion of the operating range.
Referring to Figure 12-15, which shows the triggering and output voltages
for either type of sweep, it is seen that the slow-speed sweeps are initiated by nega-
tive pulses from the fourth or sixth counters, and that the fast sweeps correspond
exactly in time with the tops of the pedestals used to produce them (250 or 750 micro-
seconds). Provision for changing the positive grid return potential of T3 must be
made for each different sweep duration, and a section of the pulse repetition rate
switch accomodates the 25 cps and 33 1/3 cps basic repetition rates.
T^ is a sweep inverter tube. By means of a suitable voltage divider and

negative feedback network, the output from its plate is arranged to be of the same
amplitude as that from the plate of T3, but inverted.
The two push-pull voltages so obtained are applied to the horizontal deflection
platesof the cathode-ray tube through suitable clamping circuits which ensure stabili-
ty in the horizontal position of the display. Clamping is also applied to the CRT con-
trol grid, so that the maximum intensity of any part of the display is the same for
all sweep speeds. The focus and intensity controls of the CRT, and the accelerating
voltage circuits, are conventional in design.
Signal-marker Mixer
Time markers are clipped and shaped, and are mixed with pedestal voltages
and video signals, in a network which is essentially a four-input vacuum-tube mixing
circuit, in which the four mixing tubes have a common plate resistor. Suitable switch-
ing arrangements enable video signals to be eliminated on sweep speeds 5, 6, 7 and
8, and markers on speeds 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Trace Separation and Amplitude Balance

For these purposes, outputs from both sides of the square-wave generator
are applied to a twin cathode-follower. A potentiometer connected between the two
cathodesof the tube enables a square-wave voltage of adjustable amplitude and either
sense to be applied to the cathode of the third I.F. amplifier tube for amplitude bal-
ance as between the A and B pulses. Trace separation voltages, different in ampli-
tude for different sweep speeds, arc taken from potentiometers connected across one
side of the push-pull square-wave output.
Feedback Alignment
In position 8 of the sweep-speed switch, the sweep generator is triggered by
the output from the fourth counter and the recurrence rate is therefore 400 sweeps
per second. The vertical deflection plates are connected to the grid of the third
counter, whose step-voltage pattern (2000 sequences per second) is therefore seen
on the display. The feedback trimmers, some of which are critical and may require
readjustment at varying operating temperatures, are conveniently adjusted with this
display.
The timing circuits used with the Loran indicator are complex but ingenious,
and may be said to represent a high degree of attainment in the art.
12.26 LCRAN
Summary of Displays and Sweep Speeds-
Sweep Speed Duration of each sweepi

Switch position (microseconds) Nature of Display
1 20.000 two traces, A and B pedestals,

A and B received nulses.
750 Two traces (tups of pedestals)

A and B pulses
250 two traces. A and B pulses.
!50 traces superimposed. Adjust

pulses to coincide.
250 (wo traces, video pulses replac-

ed by 10-microsecond and 50-
microsecond markers.
750 two traces, 10, 50 and 500-micro-

second markers.
20,000 two traces, pedestals. 50 micro-

second, 500 microsecond, and
2500 microsecond markers.
2.500 Third counter step waveform
includes fly-back time.

LORAN 12.27
Bibliography
JEIA 7292 Secret Report of Loran Tests on BBRL

8th Air Force Heavy
Weather Reconnaissance
Missions
ASE no. 223 Secret Trials of Loran Inter- ASE

ference with Port Wave
W/T and R/T Communi-
cation
IRPL-R7 Confidential Second Report on Experi- IRPL

mental studies of Iono-
spheric Propagation as ap-
plied to the Loran System
JEIA 6914-6915 Secret Effect of Loran Inter- British Post

ference on range of Office
radio signals
Loran Memo 116 aecret Flight tests over MIT

Bermuda
Loran Memo 122 Secret Report on three-line MIT

fixes
Loran Memo 28 Confidential Service areas of Loran MIT

pairs and chains
Loran Memo 134 Confidential Notes on 2 mc Loran MIT

Propagation
Loran Memo 137 Confidential Optimum bandwidth for MIT

Loran receivers
Loran Memo 26 Confidential Determination of errors MIT

in the Loran System
Loran Memo 138 Confidential Index of Loran Reports MIT

and Instruction Manuals
A WAS no. 17 Secret Notes on the Loran Sky- AW/ S

wave delay
Dwg. no. A-2693 Secret Block diagram, Indica- MIT

tor Timer and Receiver
LRN no. 1
Loran Report Confidential Elements of Loran MIT

no. 499
JEIA 8417 Secret Aids to Navigation Memo- Coastal

random no. 7 Command
12.28 LOHAN
Bibliography (cont.)
Identification Classification Title Issued bv
WA 993 2a(4) Secret lonoaphenc notes on SS A.r Ministry

Loran proposals
NAR: X5016 Secret Cunsulerafions of ihe ar.pli- NAR

cation of tiie SS Lorar
scheme in ETO by RAE
BDU/S. 566/1? Secret Trials of SS Loran Chain DDL', RAF
boran Report SS 1 Secret Proposal for a Loran MIT

System using sky-'-vave
synchronization
11-6/22/43 Secret Notes on the SS Loran. MIT

System
11-8/V43 Secret Flight of the Texan, July 20-MIT

26, 1943
JEIA 8816 Secret European and Eastern NAA London

Atlantic SS Loran Cham
Loga 0-392 Secret Proposed Antenna Design Chief Signal

for LF Loran Officer
WA-4052 5 Secret Proposals for European BBRL

and Eastern Atlantic SS
Loran systems
JEIA 10,001 Confidential Suggested Improvements NRL

for I oran system
JEIA 10,036 Secret Loran trials in Mosquito Naval In-

VI and Oxford aircraft telligence
NAVAER Restricted Locket handbook of air- CNO, U.S.

OO-oOV-48 borne Loran Navy
JEIA 9435 Report of Loran opera- BÜSHIPS

tional tests- aboard USS
Plunketl
AN 16-30 APN4-3 Restricted Handbook of Maintenance U.S. War

Instructions for Radio Dept.
set AN APN 4
AN 08-30 APN 4-2 Restricted Handbook of Operating U.S. War

Instructions for Radio Dept.
set \>\ APN 4
HO Muse 11,701 Confidential Report of All antic Loran Il.O.

Research Flight
WSBBäBSBaB^BBBBBBBa^mm^s
LORAN 12.29

S 67-5 Serial Secret Comparison of various (Letter:
001695/P20 navigational systems J.A.Pierce
to L.A.Du-
bridge)
Report 625 Secret The Future of Hyperbolic MIT
Navigation
LORAN 12.29
S 67-5 Serial Secret Comparison of various (Letter:

001695/P20 navigational systems J.A.Pierce
to L.A.Du-
bridge)
Report 625 Secret The Future of Hyperbolic MIT

Navigation
P
... a————— im ■"I'
Dccca N:n ;;r;ti..n,il ü\.i.'-m 13.01
Type of system
Differential disluncc ur hyptTbolic system,
yj,^H] ran
g6
Day - 1500 miles (estnnatedj
Night - 1500 miles (estimated).
Accuracy
Theoretica! accuracy:
Lateral error at 400 miles - .027 mik'S
,il 1000 miles • .068 miles
Practical accuracy:
Lateral error at 400 miles _r .05 niiles
at 1000 miles - no data available
Ambiguities: Complete ambiguity between closely spaced lines. Must have good
DF fix or know puint of departure. If meters are set at known point of departure
and continue to operate there is no ambiguity, A system of sector identification
has been worked out. No details of thi ■ system are available.
Frequency
20'kcps to 200 keps.
Wavelength
1500 meters to 15,000 meters.
Bandwidth
Ground station: Single frequency.
Receiver: Single frciuency. Three frequencies, two of them related to the
third by simple fractions such as 3 '2 and 1 '3 are required.
Presentation
Line of position (from one pair oi stations, master station and one slave)
indicated on dial-type phase meter (similar to a watthnur or gas meter). Second
line of position (from master and second slave station1 indicated ' n :-'-•-.rd f:ur •:■
meter. Meters give continuous indication and no adjusim; nis :\vv n-.-:- ; r;,y ■■ . -
readings. Both lines of position are avaihbh' . nuultaneously.
Skill
Ground: Well-trained operators to ma.ntam j.'.'iase lock ai s.'••■e stato-r.-
Craft: Little skill required, InteHigenl use niu.-t he mad'" ■■ ;rid]cati:v ;: ■
ambiguities can be resolved and blind faitn in indic;!t!.-'ns will nod i btain.
Equipment required
Ground: 2 C.W, transmitters for a line of po;d!: in and 3 P.IV. transmitters
for a fix. Master station relatively simple. Slave station; are rath« r - ( :::;o: ■.li'"',
andspecialized. Lowfrequencies used require large .md expensive ai.tenna.
Craft: Very specialized equipment inckulmg tw- dio-frequi ::s\ amp!
for line of position or three radio-frequency amplifd Two or r.-n,
quency multipliers and 'me or two integratinp [ihas'e re. ■ r. •.
Weight: 85 pounds - portable mod.d is being p lured lo u' .) O'W
Present status
Fxperimental.
Differential distance mav hi1 measured ! " m«
13.02 Decca Navigational System
4-*-
Fig. 13-01 Fundamentals of system

Decca Navigational System 13.03
timeof arrival of pulses from a master and a slave station. It may also be measur-
ed by comparing the phase of radio-frequency signals from a master and a slave
station. This latter phase comparison method is used in the Decca system.
A simple explanation based on Figure 13-01 may be used even though in

practice some complications must be introduced to make the system workable.
A is the master station and B is the slave station. For a simple explanation
we can assume that they both radiate a signal of 340 kcps (wavelength of 882.3 me-
ters) and that these two radiations are exactly in phase. At the point C, bisecting
the line between the stations A and B,the signals from the two stations travel an
equal distance and are therefore in phase when they arrive. This same condition
applies to any point on the line DCE, Let us now consider the point F. If this is assumed
to be 441.15 meters (one half wavelength) to the right of point C.the distance AF
will be one wavelength greater than the distance BF. The signals from A and B are
therefore in phase at F. The curve GFH is such that any point Y on it will be one
wavelength closer to B than to A. The areas between lines of zero relative phase
angle are called "lanes". If one moved from C to F along the line AB the relative
phase angle would go from 0° to 360° going through 180 at the point J. In moving
from X to Y the relative phase angle also goes from 0° to 360°, In this system an
integrating phase meter is used. If it were set to zero at X and then moved to Z
along any path it would read 720° phase shift. This integrating phase meter has no
spring return to zero and will therefore maintain its reading if the signal is inter-
rupted for any reason. This makes it possible for this system to function on very
poor signals. The signals may disappear completely for short periods but when
they reappear they turn the phase meter to the correct reading. If the phase meter
has been reading zero on the signals at point C and these signals are absent as the
craft moves from C to a point slightly to the right of ] the phase meter will indicate
0° instead of 360° when the point F is reached. In general if the signals are absent
during the time that the craft moves slightly more than one hali a "lane" the indica-
tion will be in error by one "lane".
Since it is impractical, and in fact almost impossible, to receive simultan-

eously, but separately, two signals of the same frequency from two stations,the
method used in the above simplified explanation cannot be used. Instead two dif-
ferent frequencies that are simply related to the 340 kcps may be transmitted from
two stations and received separately and simultaneously. The two frequencies used
could be 340/4 kcps - 85 kcps and 340/3 kcps - 113 1/3 kcps. (See Fig. 13-02). At
the craft the 85-kcps signal frequency may be multiplied by 4 to yield 340 kcps and
the 113 1/3 kcps yields 340 kcps when multiplied by 3. This method is exactly
equivalent in phase measurements to the simplified explanation above.
In order to obtain a fix two sets of lines of position are necessary so that
another phase comparison system is necessary. The frequency at which this com-
parison is made may be 255 kcps. Since this is 3 x 85 kcps the master signal fre-
quency of 85 kcps can be used to provide one of the 255-kcps voltages. The other
can be provided from a third station transmitting a 127.5-kcps signal. This can be
multiplied by 2 to yield a 255-kcps voltage.
Three fixed transmitters and their associated control circuits are required
on the ground. The equipment on the craft comprises three phase-stable amplifiers,
four frequency-multipliers and two integrating phase-meters.
The fixed ground equipment consists of a master transmitter and two slave
transmitters. The master transmitter A is crystal-controlled and special provision
Receive' 'nd'CO'or S^slflm
—r ■■■ 1
i \ j ■ Pf-iiE OF » and B
>^f:^.
.^-^
[
l', ^ .
1
'']■' ■"• r
[-
I , f
1 ■■ <-
Fig. 13-02 Diagram of triplet
is made for keeping the phase of the radiated signal constant with respect to the
crystal. The frequency of this master station A is 85 kcps. At slave station B
this 85-kcps signal from the master station is received and amplified and its fre-
quency is multiplied by 4/3 and the resulting frequency of 113 1/3 kcps is used to
drive the tr.msn.itter, A phase-locking system is used to compensate for random
phase variations in the transmitter and antenna.
At slave station C the 85-kcps signal is received and multiplied by 3/2 and
the resulting frequency of 127.5 kcps is transmitted. A similar phase-lock system
is used here.
Decca N'jvigational ■System 13.05
LU
I PH.V,F. STAHL 1
-j äMI'LII'IFH
[ 1131 kcps
N I'HASt DC
A ICKlMlNArOH AMP
M.li fiPl It« L-

A >,') 340 k <; n ', I
PHASt STABLf
AMP1 il ll H
K'i k i: () ;
,E
NAT0R AMP
/ L_ - _
PHASE STABI F I
/
AMPLIFICR
I?/', kc p 5
[—
H .^ 55 kcps
PHASf
R[l L'HfNI".!
OSC Li AFOR
11 166 kc D 5
EC-'VI "I h NC CECOMETFR NO I
Fig. 13-03 Block diagram of receiver-indicator
Figure 13-03 is a block diagram of the receiver indicator. The accuracy

of measurement depends upon the amount and constancy of the phase shift in the
various elements of the system. In order to provide a means for checking and ad-
justing the phase shift of the throe channels a phase-reference oscillator is provid-
ed. In the example given the frequency of this oscillator is 14.166 kcps. The 6th
harmonic is 85 kcps, the 8th harmonic ''- 113 1/3 kcps, and the 9th harmonic is
127.5 kcps. Since the 14.166-kcp.s output consists of very sharp pulses, all these
harmonics are inherently in phase when multiplied to a common comparison fre-
quency so that the two decometers should indicate zero phase shift. A switch is
provided to enable this check to be made whenever desired. The exact circuit of
the phase discriminator and decometers is not available but a possible circuit is
that of Figure 13-04. Two phase-discriminating rectifier circuits are used. The
output of each phase-discriminating rectifier controls two DC amplifier tubes.
The plate currents of these two tubes flow through two differentially-wound coils in
such a way that the field is zero if the plate currents are equal. If the phase-dis-
criminating rectifier supplies control voltages to the DC amplifier tubes the plate
current becomes unbalanced and a net field is established in the coils. The magni-
tude and sense of this field depends upon the relative phase of the two applied sig-
nals and is in fact proportional to the sine of the phase difference. The second
phase-discriminating rectifier and DC amplifiers control the field (if a second set
—■————■Ill I ———— lllllllllllllllllllMIHillimiW
of coils located at right angles to the first set of toils. The magnitude and sense
of the field in this second set of coils depend upon the relative phase of the signals
applied to it. The 340 kcps from the A station is applied to both phase-discrimina-
tors in phase. The 340 kcps from the Bstr-tion is applied to the two phase-dis-
criminators 90° out of phase thus producing a flux component proportional to the
cosine of the phase difference. These two rrossed sots of coils set up a field whose
direction indicates the phase angle between the signal;:: from the A and B channels.
A small permanent magnet is pivoted in this field and is geared to indicating point-
ers. This magnet indicates the direcuon cl the field and therefore the relative
phase of the A and B signals. The geared indicators integrate the phase shift.
Figure 13-05 is the block diagram of a typical slave station giving details
of the phase-lock system. An antenna or loop (a) picks up the 85-kcps transmission
from the master station. This is so placed und orientated that it has a maximum
response to the master station's signal and a minimum to its own transmitting an-
tenna. This signal is amplified by a phase-stable amplifier and is then muluplied
by 4./3 to yield the 113 1/3-kcps signal used to drive the transmitter. This can be
accomplished by dividing the 85-kcps frequency by 3 and then multiplying this re-
sultant 28 l/3kcpsby4. This 113 1 S-kcps signal is then fed through an electronic
340kC.p.S w -?-,A/-" !—j
rom A sfofion K
1 ■<
_1—1-+->
-O B +
Ufii'JlQJ
mmsn
__i__j I ) UA/J.—L-j
rig. i .Suguu-Ueii i'/hase meter circuit

Deccii NävigaticniU Svi:t 13.07
phase-shifter and then tc the tran.cjmiiter. In oraer K; nu^ntain the correct phase
of transmission an automatic phase-locking monitor is used. Two phase-stable
amplifiers are used. One amplifies ihi-: S5-kcps signal from the receiving antenna
A. The other amplifies the 113 1/3-krpG rigiTi) fr^rn n loop near the transmitting
antenna. The 85-kcps frequency is then multiplied by 4 and the 113 l/3-kcps fre-
quency is multiplied by 3 so that two 340-kcps frequencies are produced for phase
comparison. These two voltages a r'1 applied to a phase-discriminator similar to
that used in the receiver-indicator. A PC control voltage obtained from the phase
discriminator is used to control an electronic phase-shifter in the transmitter
channel. A decometer is also connected to this phase discriminator. The electronic
phase shift works in such a way that it tends to keep the decometer reading zero.
The phase of the 340 keps derived from the 113 1/3-keps voltage relative to the
340 keps derived from the 85-kcps voltage therefore depends upon the relative
phase shifts in the two channels of the phase-locking monitor. Since zero relative
phase between the 340 keps derived from the 85 keps and the 340 keps derived from
the 113 1/3-kcps transmission may not be that desired, it is possible to establish what-
ever phase is desiredby a manual phase control in the 113 1/3-kcps channel. This can
be set and checked by switching the inputs of the two channels to the phase-refer-
ence oscillator and adjusting 'he manual phase control for the proper decometer
reading. The electronic phase shifter is disconnected while this check is made
so that the transmitter phase will not be greatly disturbed, A manual phase cor-
rection control is provided in the transmitter channel to correct long term phase
shifts. Thus the electronic phase control only has to correct the phase shift due
to antenna sway, voltage variations, and so forth.
RTCEIV'NL AN'i'NN..
UJ nUNSMITTlNO
«NTENNä UJ
13-0: It l-Ml
JEIA 7080 Secret Investigation of Sonne and Decca Intelligence

Division
C.N.O.
JEIA 7081 Secret Further Notes on Decca Naviga- Intelligence

tional System Division
C.N.O.
—————
.._ - liimjni—■—""
PÜPI 14.01
POPI (Post-Office Position Indiciilor,
Type of system
Differential Phase (hyperbolic position lines).
Useful Range
Depends on siting andpower of transmitter and on height of receiver. A range
of 1500 miles over sea by day and by night is considered easily attainable.

The theoretical precision attainable depends on the antenna spacing used and
on the distance of the craf. from the transmitter. See Table 14-01, page 14.07. The
accuracy attainable in practice under full-scale operating conditions is not predict-
able, due to the tentative nature of present development.
Presentation
Several types of presentation have been proposed. One uses an adjustable
phase-shifter and a meter. The operator adjusts the piiase-shifter for a null on the
meter, and the line of position is then read from graduations on the scale of the phase-
shifter. Another uses two pointer-and-scale meters, which together give indication
of a line of position.

(a) If the direct-reading meter type of presentation is used, the only operations
requiredat the craft are the tuning 'if a radio receiver to the frequencies of the bea-
con transmitters used, (b) For ground-stations, monitoring is required.
Equipment Required
(a) Ground: Each beacon consists of four antennas driven by two transmitters,
spaced as discussed below. The transmitting equipment could be transportable. Two
beacons are required for a fix. (b) Craft: A normal communications receiver is
required. Automatic volume control and an IF crystal filter are desirable but not
essential. In addition, a special POPI indicator is required, This can be of the
direct-reading type (pointer and scale) and in its simplest form does not require any
additional tubes apart from those in the communications receiver. The indicator is
suitable for use by the pilot of an aircraft and is easily adaptable for homing and for
blind landing, (c) Monitoring: Fach beacon requires a monitor station, located near
the beacon. Control of the beacon transmission from the monitoring point could be
made fully automatic but this has not so far been attempted due to the limited scale
of the trials made.
Radio-Frequency Spectrum Allotments Required

This system has been tested on a small scale at a frequency of about 750 keps
(400 meters). The frequency used is not critical as far as the system is concerned,
and the choice would presumably be governed by the coverage required. Since the
transmissions are CW, with slow keying, the bandwidth required is of the order of
1 keps.
Present Status
This system has been tried out experimentally, on a small scale, the receiv-
ing equipment being in a road vehicle'. So far as we are aware, no full scale tests
have been carried out, nor has (he equipment been air- or water-borne.
Principle of Operation
The four antennas of a beacon an arranged at tin corners and center of an
equilateral triangle (sei1 Figure 14-01). Antennas A, H and C are fed from a central
■H^^MMl«CBBaBn»M«^HVH
14.02 POPI
Fig. 14-01 POPI beacon
transmitter through suitable keying, phase-shifting and power-amplifying stages.

Figure 14-02 shows a block diagram of a suitable arrangement.
Referring to Figures 14-01 and 14-02, the A, B and C antennas radiate an un-
modulated signal at the frequency f]. These three transmissions are keyed at a
slow rate so that the sequence is as follows: transmission from A, transmission
from B, transmission from C, space. See Figure 14-03.
The rate of keying used is such that five complete cycles of the sequence
occur per second. Each individual transmission, and the space where no signal is
transmitted, would then be of 1/20 second duration. The keying is accomplished elec-
tronically, using a second oscillator (of low audio-frequency fo) followed by a fre-
quency divider (dividing by n) and pulse generator. The output of this same audio-
frequency oscillator is mixed with the output of the RF oscillator and selectively
amplified. The resulting signal, which is unmodulated but of frequency f| i (2 is radi-
ated continuously by the fourth antenna IJ.
The phases of the signals transmitted by antennas A, B,and C may have any
desired relationship, but it is assumed for purposes of explanation that the phases
are identical. Referring to Figure 14-01, a receiver situated at P, on the perpendi-
UBKlHBHBlHWi uTTfmrnmin—nnii—niininTr"iffTiii
POPI 14.03
UJ
iN.eyer Phase sMfter Power
(monitor controlj Amplifier
Master oscillator
crystal controlled
W ■r_r Fiv, ;•<■ shifter
('.•i '.-'.itor controlj
Power
Amplifier fl
fl
K-yer Piiase shii l er Pov.-er

(nioni Lor con *:: ■ ■■) Amplifier J
'l
Keying ti^nais f2/'n
UJ
ielective fl + fp
Audio-frequencj Amplifier
oscillator i
f? 1 Ul + f2)
-2
f2 Frequency -1 + f.
Divider" Pulse
f2/n Generator
Fig. 14-02 Block diagram—POPI beacon
cular bisector of the line joining B and C, will receive the B and C signal in phase
since the distances BP and CP are equal. The same will be true of points P' and
P1' if the transmissions from A and B and from A and C respectively are consider-
ed. At 0 there will be a phase difference between the received B and C signals.
The locus of all points for which this received phase difference is constant is the
hyperbolaqq. There is thereforea family of hyperbolae of constant phase difference
for the B and C signals. This follows from exactly the same fundamental reasoning
as that which applies to the Loran, Gee and other "hyperbolic1' systems, since time
difference in a pulse system and phase difference in a C W system are fundamen-
tally the same. Thus a craft equipped with a receiver and POPI indicator giving
the relative phase of the B and C signals can locate itself on one of these
hyperbolic position lines. Similar families of hyperbolae exist for the A and B
transmissions and for the A and C transmissions - three families of hyperbolae in
all. Sector ambiguity with regard to the B and C transmissions is solved by a read-
ing taken on either the A and B or the A and C positions. A unique position line with
respect to the site of the beacon is thus obtained.
kz^z2L
vm XI time
B C space A soace
Fig. 14 03 Transmission sequence

14.04 POPI
With the antenna spacing proposed, the three families of hyperbolae associated
with a particular beacon degenerate into radial straight lines (with negligible error)
at distances which are small compared with the maximum working range proposed.
For this reason, the loci of constant phase difference shown in Figures 14-04 and
14-05 are drawn as radial straight lines. It should be realized that these are actually
hyperbolic, and due attention should be paid to this fact in the layout of charts to be
used with this system in areas close to the transmitters.
If readings on a second similar beacon are taken, the intersection of the two
position lines gives a fix.
The problem at the receiver is therefore to compare the phase of two trans-
missions occurring on the same radio frequency but consecutively in time. The
radiation from the fourth antenna (D) is a continuous unmodulated carrier wave of a
slightly higher frequency. The audio output of the receiver will therefore be the
difference frequency, or f2 the original audio frequency. The phase of the carrier of
frequency f| will be preserved in the phase of the audio output f2. The problem at
the receiver therefore resolves itself into phase comparison of two audio-frequency
signals representing the beat signals irom B and D and from C and D respectively.
The fact that differences in RF phase are preserved as differences in audio

(beat note) phase may be proved as follows:
Let the received signals be given by:

E^ sin wj t from B
Er, sin (cOi t + 0) from C
4
Eo sin [ (w-i + o^H 91 from D
Assume also square-law detection. Then during the B transmission the out-
put from the detector will contain the signal
2
f
'■ E| sin w^ t + E3 sin [ (w-. + u-Û + 9] '
The audio-frequency term of this expression is given by
Ej E3 cos (w2 t + 6) (1)
During the C transmission the output from the detector will contain the signal
I En sin (u, t #) -i- Eq ">in [ (w^ +■ u^H + 8j f
And the audio-frequency term is given by
E2 E3 cos (^2 t +6 -6) (2)
It will be seen that the phase difference between (1) and (2) is* , and this is
the same phase difference as th'at between the original B and C transmissions.
Spacing of position-lines obtained

The configuration of the hyperbolic position lines (degenerating into radial
lines at a distance) depends on the antenna spacing. Four points are of interest in
this connection:
(1) If the spacing between antennas is greater than one-half wavelength, there is a
sector ambiguity. Consider lor example (lie case where the spacing is two wave-
lengths. The loci of constant phase difference are as shown in Figure 14-04, where
PUP! 14.05
PQ represents the line joiiung one pair of untcnnu^ ami Hie radial lines are loci of
constant phase difference. The choice of + or - idgn at any particular point depends
onwhether the phase of B is measured relative to that of C or vice versa. There is
ambiguity between the right-hand and left-hand halves of the diagram, but this is
present inall hyperbolic systems and it is assumed thai a navigator will knowwhether
he is east or west of the beacon location. However, in addition to this the following
ambiguities exist in Figure 14-04:
(a) It will be seen that any particular reading occurs twice in the right-hand
half of the diagram. For example, -240° occurs in both the sectors PR and
RS. (It is assumed that the indicator used will be able to distinguish between
+240° and -240°, i.e. whether B is leading C or C leading B. This is taken
care of in the indicator to be described in connection with POPI).
(b) There is also ambiguity as between -240° and +120° since the navigator
knows only the existing ptiase relationship and not the process by which it got
that way. Thus there is a four-fold ambiguity in Figure 14-04.
If the spacing is between one wavelength and one half of a wavelength, there
is still a two-fold ambiguity. If the spacing is reduced to one half of a wavelength or
ibC r R C
3J;.
■2?C
- ?AO
330
Fig. 14-04 Lines of cnnst mt ,R O PHA5t D'l i ERf MCE'
IN DEGRCf 5
phase-rlifferenco for sparing 2,*
!
0
14.06 POPI
0-
Fig. 14-05 Linos of constant + '8ü

phase-difference for spacing A 2
Q
less, there is no ambiguity. Figure 14-05 shows the phase loci for a half-wavelength
spacing.
(2) The accuracy of position discrimination for a given minimum phase discrimina-
tion is not uniform. It is greatest along the line OS which is the perpendicular bisec-
tor of the line joining the transmitting antennas, and least (zero) along the line PQ
joining the antennas. This is true for all antenna spacings. However, within an arc
60° on either side of OS the attainable precision does not depart too far from the
maximum value (one half). Exact figures on theoretical precision are given in Table
14-01.
(3) The maximum accuracy attainable (along the line OS) is greater with wide anten-
na spacing than with narrow spacing. Table 14-01 gives calculated results for various
spacings, both in the direction of maximum accuracy (OS) and also in a direction 60°
from this. It should be emphasized that these figures represent theoretical accuracy
only. In the interests of removing ambiguity, the system to be described further
assumes an antenna spacing of 0.5 wavelengths (line 1 in Table 14-01),
(4) At distances greater than about five times the antenna spacing, the hyperbolic
position lines are so nearly straight that negligible error is introduced by making
P0P1 14.07
Antenna Max. discrimination (on noimal) Discrimination (60° off normal)

Spacing for 2° phase discrimination for 2° phase discrimination
(Wavelengths)
Miles at ! Miles at
degrees azimuth 1000 miles ! degrees azimuth 1000 miles
0.5 0.636 11.2 1.272 22.4

-1--
1.0 0.318 5.6 0.636 11.2
2.0 0.::59 2.8 0.318 5.6
4.0 0.079 1.4 0.159 2.8

1
10.0 0.032 0.5G 0.064 M2 j
Fable 14- 01
this assumption. Figure 14-04 was drawn under this assumption, and also Figure
14-05, which shows lines of equal phase difference for a spacing of 0.5wavelengthbe-
iween antennas. The absence of ambiguity and the reduction in maximum accuracy
of discrimination will be noted.
Craft Equipment: The receiver is tuned to the frequency of the carrier. Since the
frequency difference between the D transmission and that from A, B, or C is small,
and the keying rate slow, the bandwidth required is small and a crystal filter might
be used if the signai-to-noisc ratio is poor. In the following discussion, the audio
frequency is assumed to be 80 cps and the switching rate 5 sequences per second.
After detection, the audio signal will consist of three consecutive dashes of
80 cps tone followed by a blank space. The relative phase of the three carriers re-
ceived will be preserved in the relative phases of the 80 cps dashes, as previously
proved. The problem is now to compare the phase of one 80 cpsdashwith that of
another 80 cps dash which occurs at a different time. To do this accurately does not
appear to be easy and in our opinion this stage in the operation of the system pre-
sents the greatest difficulty in regard to reliability, accuracy and simplicity. An
outline of the proposed scheme follows.
Referring to Figure 14-06, the audio output from the receiver is applied to a
rotating switch with four contact sectors. The rotating arm is driven (through reduc-
tion gearing) from a synchronous motor which is in turn driven by an 80-cps oscilla-
tor. This oscillator is synchronized through a phase-shifting circuit from one of
the 80-cps outputs from the rotating switch. The desired condition is that the four
contacts '.n the switch shall receive respectively the A, B and C signals and the no-
signal space; i.e. the periods of time during which the four sectors are successively
in contact with the rotating arm shall be synchronized with the four periods in each
received cycle of events, This condition is indicated by zero deflection of the meter
M which is a direct-current meter fed with the smoothed, full-wave rectified output
from the fourth sector. This indication is obtained by changing the adjustment of
the phase shifter and therefore the phase of the synchronous motor. The separated
A, B and C outputs are filtered and may then be amplified as indicated.
However, the authors of the original .cheme were anxious to preserve maxi-
mum simplicity in the additional indicating equipment required. For this reason
.-.■.J-WL..,-^.,.,^....— 11W;.|':-| ■
14.08 POPI
FILTER AMPLIFIER ->— A OUTPUT
FROM FILTER AMPLIFIER ->— B OUTPUT

RECEIVER
FILTER AMPLIFIER -^— C OUTPUT
FULL-WAVE M
RECTIFIER
FILTER y-{\)
/
VARIABLE -PHASE
OSCILLATOR
SYNCH SHFTER
SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR
Fig 14-06 Block diagram--received signal separation
they designed and used a type of phase-comparison indicator which requires no extra
tubes and no additional power supplies. Using this instrument the additional ampli-
fiers shown in Figure 14-06 would not be used. This type of indicator is illustrated
in Figure 14-07, and operated as follows:
PHASE-SENSITIVE RECTIFIER
Fig.14-07
::;. ;-;.;>_;-,•: '■■. .;: j- ■ ■, ■ , •.,■: '■ ;;■■■ V-// ■'■;■- :,
PC Pi
14.09
For phase comparison, one of the three outputs is selected and passed to a
band-pass filter tuned to 80 ops and having a bandwidth of 2 ops. This in effect con-
stitutes a ringing circuit and it is desired that the 80-cps output from the circuit shall
continue during the absence of an input signal. The phase of this output is dictated
by the samples of 80-cps signal periodically fed to the input. Another of the switch
outputs is applied to n calibrated phase shifter (not to be confused with the phase-
shifter of Figure 14-06). The output from the phase-shifter and that from the ringing
circuit are then compared by a phasemeter and the phase-shifter adjusted for zero
phase difference. The difference in phase between the two channels selected is then
read from the calibrated phase-shifter and a line of position thus selected, using
charts on which the lines of POPI equal phase-difference have been overprinted.
Referring to Figure 14-07, the calibrated phase shifter consists of a synchro

unit, whose three fixed windings are suitably fed, and from the rotor of which a vari-
able-phase signal is taken. This signal and the output from the band pass filter (or
ringing circuit) are supplied to the phase-sensitive rectifier shown. The meter M1
will read zero if the two inputs are 90° or 270° out of phase. These circuits are
•P
f7.^. 14-08 Pluisf (iiffrn ncej: a! receiver

■■■— I IllWllf
14.10 PO PI
taken from the proposals in the original paper in which the principal advantage
claimed was the absence of tubes and power .supplies other than those in the receiver
itself. The circuits do not necessarily represent the most efficient and accurate way
of accomplishingthe phase comparison; and it is our opinion that, should this system
be developed further, other phasemeters could be tried with advantage, for example
thatdescribedinthe report on the Decca system. It is also.desirable to use a direct-
reauing phasemeter which does not involve matching for a null reading on a meter.
Sector Identification
Assume now that this difficulty has been overcome and that a suitable direct-
reading phasemeter is available. The following discussion summarizes the original
proposals. Referring to Figures 14-06 and 14-07. it will be seen that there are three
outputs from the rotating switch and two inputs to the phase-comparing circuits. The
layout of the beacon antennas is such that there are three sets of hyperbolic position
lines (which degenerate into great-circle position lines at some distance out from the
beacon), one set for each pair of antennas. There is thus an opportunity to make use
of only the sector of maximum discrimination in each case.
Figure 14-08 illustrates the phase differences between pairs of received sig-
nals at 30° (azimuthal) intervals. The antenna spacing lor each pair is assumed to be
A/2. The numbers in the outer ring are arbitrarily numbered sectors. The next ring
(AB) gives the phase of B relative to A, the next ring (BC) the phase of C relative to
B and the inmost ring (CA) the phase of A relative to C. The phase of A relative to
B will of course be the reverse of AB and will be denoted by BA, the first letter in
each case giving the phase reference. An observer in sectors 1 should use the A and
B signals for maximum precision. Likewise an observer in sectors 2 should use the
A and C signals, and so forth, as indicated by the thick lines enclosing the sectors.
In either case the observed phase angle for the chosen pair lies between -90° and
+90°, i.e. in the first or fourth quadrants of a direct-reading phasemeter with 3(30°
scale.
Table 14-02 lists the quadrants in which the phase angles observed will lie
for any pair of signals.
Sectors AB BA BC CB 1 CA AC
i
4 or 1 i 1 or 4 2 3
L —I
1
2 3 1 or 4 4 or 1
4 or 1 1 or 4
l---
1 or 4 4 or 1
4 or 1 I 1 or 4
1 or 4
lablr 14-02
iiiiiiiiiiiiwiiMiiiiiMiwiiiiiiiii»iMmiîiiiiiiiiii»»M»iiMiiiimrrrM«^ IIHWIMIllllllllllllllliaHIHIllllll ' ::'.,. ;;i!M«^||^1M
PO 14.11
A six-position selector switch may be usrd which will allow any of the combinations
(AB, BA, BC, etc.) shown io bi .selected. If the phasemeter used is graduated in
quadrants 1 and 4 only, then a rotation of the switch until a reading is obtained ensures
thatthc correct pair of signals will be selected, bui ambiguity i.s now present as be-
tween ABand BA, BC or CB. and CA or AC. It is necessary to have all six combina-
tions available on account of the direction ol rotation of ihe meter. Consider a craft
navigatinga circular course starting from point P in Figure 14-08 and proceeding clock-
wise about the beacon as center. In sect .-rs i. the phasemeler reading changes from
-90 to +90 if the phase of B relative to A is measured (AB). In sectors 4 however,
if the same phase difference (AB) is measured, the meter reading will change in the
opposite sense, i.e. from -iDO0 to -90°. To avoid the necessity of having two phase
scales reading in opposite directions, it is therefore necessary to have all six com-
binations available.
The ambiguity between two of the six switch positions may be solved by having
a second or subsidiary phasemeter which indicates a reading only in the third (or
second) quadrant. This involves the use of a second six-position switch ganged with
Switch Subsidiary
Position Main Meter Meter
1 AB AC
2 AC BC
J
3 BC BA
4 BA CA
-i
CA CB
6 CB AB
n
Table 14-03
Switch Subsidiary
Position Mam Meter Meter
1 3 4
2 4 2
0
Li 2
2 : i
table 14-04
M'der indications for VITIDUS switch positions, observer
in sector [»b tpoioi (', Kss.re 14-08).
wiHifjaiaKuamsa .,.—— —1.~-..—
14.12 POP]
the first. The connections obtainable in the îx portions of the switch, ■c.r both mrun
andsubsKâryphasemeters, are indicated in Table 14-03. Consider now an observer
situated at (say) O in sector ßb. Thequadrants of the phase differences to be indicated
by the two phase meters for each of the six switch positions are shown in Table 14-04,
If the main meter is graduated in only the first and fourth quadrants, and the
sutndiary meter in only the third quadrant, it will be seen that only position 5 on the
selector switch will give a readable indication, and the ambiguity is resolved.
The physical connections from the selector switch to the phascmeters will
depend on the type of direct-reading phasemeter used. The procedure to be followed
in obtaining a fix would then be as follows:
1. Tune receiver to selected beacon frequency.
2. Adjust output level if necessary.
3. Adjust phasing of rotary switch until meter M (Figure 14-06) reads zero.
4. Rotate six-position selector switcli until a reading is obtained on both phasemeters.
5. Read main phasemeter, and note time,
6. The switch position gives the sector number (1 to 6, P'igure 14-08) and the main
phasemeter reading gives (by reference to a conversion table or chart based on
Figure 14-05) the azimuth angle within the sector, yielding a position line.
7. Repeat the above procedure using another beacon. The intersection of the two
position lines gives a fix.
It should be possible to make a good deal of the above procedure automatic

if suitable control circuits are used.
Since the two lines of position are not obtained simultaneously, running fix
technique will be necessary.
Bibliography
WA 781-6 Secret Post-Off ice Engineering Department British Post-

Radio Report No. 928 Office, London
WA 781-2 Secret No. 929

A-N IüH.UL Karn 15.Ül
The A--N type ot rauu rangi; aa:-. bi en wi) - .o.vly used in this country by
civil aviation.
Each ground station .s'.\:- ay four track;' or ranges. Th s is accomplished

by using a directional antenna system thai can emit two different patterns. In
Figure 15-0] these two patterns are indh'ated as the solid-line pattern and the
dashed-line pattern. Th» iran.,;: i"u r powa-r is k'ayed altrrnaiely from one
pattern to the oilier. The keying ij such as t" produce As (.-) from the solid-line
pattern and N's (-.) from ;IK riasnen-luu pattern. This keying is interlaced in
such a way that an aircraft uti the line OC would receive equal signals from the A
and N patterns ana a continuous tone would be hoard. An aircraft on the line OE
would receive an A signal proponional to the length OF nrui an N signal pro-
portional to the length OG. Tims the A signals would predominate and the pilot
would know that he was off course to the right if he is Hying toward 0,
The patterns of Figure 15-01 can be obtained b} using two loops at right
angles to each other. One loop will prnduce the "A' pattern and the otherwilipro-
duce the "N" pattern. Thesn patterns ma} also be obtained by using four tower
antennas located on the corners of a sqv.are, Thf diagonal of the square is small
compared to a wavelength, Diagi'iiaUy i-ppnsite iowers are fed 160° out of phase
from a common feed point. Each diagonally opposed pair of towers will give a
field-pattern similar to a loop. This system minimizes high-angle radiation and
will therefore considerably reduce tiie sky-wave errors experienced with the cross-
ed loops.
In Figure 1 5-01 the opposite cours( sar( 1 80( apart and the adjacent courses
are 90° apart. It is very seldom that four courses having this angular relationship
are desired. The 90° angle between adjacent, courses may be modified by attenuat-
ing the energy fed to one loop or pair of diagonally opposed antenna towers
thus yieldinga pattern similar to Figure 1.5-02, 1 he 1 B01! relation between opposite
courses may be altered by adding an omnidirectional vertical antenna to the crossed
loop system or at the center of the square of the 4-tower system to yield a pattern
as shown in Figure 15-03. By proper adjustment these four courses can therefore
be made to set up 4 airways leading from a city to other cities.
Most of the present A-N type ranges usethe five-tower antenna system. The
center tower is driven by a separate transmitter whose frequency is 1020 cps
different from the transmitter driving the four corner-towers. The transmitter
driving the central tower can b( voice modulated for transmission of weather
information. The voice-channel of the transmitter has a filler to eliminate fre-
quencies of 1020 eps. The radio-range receiver has a 1020-cps band-pass filter
which will discriminate agam.st the voice modulation rind give only the A-N signals.
A 1020-cps band-stopfilter in the receiver will reject the A-N signals andpermitthe
voice modulation to be heard. The pilot can thus choose either the A-N signals or
the voice modulation.
The radio "range" stations in the United States operate on frequencies between
200 keps and 400 keps. These stations are spaced approximately 200 miles apart.
Every 30 seconds a code signal identifying the station is sent alternately on the
A and N patterns. There arc approximately 200 of these "range' stations in the Uni-
ted States.
A-N liiiU.o i<ari.v 15.Ul
The A--N typo ut raf.au range iiao been voi) ...a^ly used iii this country by
civil aviation.
Each ground station sous ue four track;- or rnnges, Tii s is accomplished

by using a directional antenna system that can emit two different patterns. In
Figure 15-01 these two pa tic.;".1; are indicated as the solid-lint pattern and the
dashed-line pattern. Tim Lransn:!'u.T power is keyed altrrnaiely from one
pattern to the other, The keymg is such as m produce A's (.-) from the solid-line
pattern and N's (-.) from the dashed-hin pattern. This keying is interlaced in
such a way that ar aircraft un the line OC would receive equal signals from the A
and N patterns and a coniumous lone would be heard. An aircraft on the line OE
would receive an A signal proponionaJ to the length OF and an N signal pro-
portional to the length OC. Thus the A signals would predominate and the pilot
would know that he was off course to the right if he is flying toward 0.
The patterns of Figure 15-01 can be obtained by using two loops at right
angles to each other. One loop will produce the A' pattern and the otherwillpro-
duce the "N" pattern. These [jaiterns may also be obtained by using four tower
antennas located on the corners o! a square, The diagonal of the square is small
compared to a wavelength. Diagona'iy opMo.sitc lowers are fed 180° out of phase
from a common feed point. Each diagonally opposed pair of tower? will give a
field-pattern similar to a loop. Tins system minimizes high-angle radiation and
will therefore considerably reduce i he sky-wave errors experienced with the cross-
ed loops.
InFigure 1 5-01 the oppositecoursrs.irr I J'^^(, apart and the adjacent courses
are 90° apart. It is very seldoni that four cnur.^cs having this angular relationship
are desired. The 90" angle between adjacent courses may be modified by attenuat-
ing the energy fed to one loop or pair of diagonally opposed antenna towers
thus yieldinga pattern similai to Figure 15-02. 1 he 1 30° relation between opposite
courses may be altered by adding an omnidirectional vertical antenna to the crossed
loop system or at the center of the square of the 4-tnwer system to yield a pattern
as shown in Figure 15-03. By proper adjustment these four courses can therefore
be made to set up 4 airways leading from a city to other cities.
Most of the present A--N type ranges' use the five-tower antenna system. The
center tower is driven by a separate transmitter whose frequency is 1020 cps
different from the transmitter driving the four corner-towers. The transmitter
driving the central tower can bt voice modulated for transmission of weather
information. The voice-channel of the transmitter has a filter to eliminate fre-
quencies of 1020 cps. The radio-range receiver ii;.1.- a 1020-cps band-pass filter
which will discriminate against the voice modulation and give only the A-N signals.
A 1020-cps band-stop filter in the receiver will reject the A-N signals andpermitthe
voice modulation to be heard. The pilot can thus choose either the A-N signals or
the voice modulation.
The radio "range" stations in the united States operate on frequencies between
200 keps and 400 keps. These stations are spaced approximately 200 miles apart.
Every 30 seconds a CKI-C signal identifying the station is sent alternately on the
A and N patterns. There are appro.viinaiely 200 of these range" stations in the Uni-
ted States.
15.02 A-N Radio "Range"
Fig. 15-01 Radiated patterns
Fig. 15-02 Radiated patterns with Fig. 15-03 Radiated patterns with
course-shifting course-bending
The multiple courses, bent courses, and night-time sky-wave errors ex-
perienced with the LF type of A-N radio range prompted the development of
several VHF radio "ranges". Since the ground wave from a VHF radio "range" is
attenuated very rapidly, course bends due to diffraction of the ground wave in
passing over different terrain are no problem. Waves of this frequency are not
reflected by the ionosphere and therefore there are no sky-wave errors. Inter-
ference patterns caused by reflections from hills ond mountains are not as trouble-
some at these frequencies as in the LF system since the maxima and minima will
be only a few feet apart. They will show up merely as a modulation on the sig-
nal.
■ IIIIMIIIIIIIHIIMII
CAA VHF Radio "Hangrs' 15.03
As in the case of the VHF omnidirectional-beacon,horizontal polarisation

has been found to give the best results. Alfordloops are used as radiating ele-
ments.
A four-course aural VHF "range" has been developed. Figure 15-04 gives
the field patterns produced. These patterns are more efficient than the crossed
figure of S's produced by the LF "ranges" since the maximum energy is directed
near the useful equisignal courses. Figure 15-05 is a block diagram of the system.
The direction of the courses is shifted by rotating the whole array. The array is
mounted 5/4 of a wavelength above a counterpoise screen 35 feet in diameter. All
this is mounted on top of a 30-foot steel tower. The system operates on a frequency
between 123 and 127 meps with a power output of 300 watts. The transmitter is
modulated 100% by a 1020-cps audio signal. Some of these VHF "Ranges" were
installed on the New York to Chicago airway.
A two-course VHF radio range which gives visual indication to the pilot
has also been developed. The antenna field patterns produced are given in Figure
15-06. The signal from the solid-line pattern is modulated with a 90-cps frequency
and the signal from the short-dashed-line pattern is modulated with a 150-cps fre-
quency. The output of the aircraft receiver is passed through two filters which
select the 90-cps and 150-cps audio signals respectively. These two audio signals
can be rectified and applied to the two windings of a differentially-wound zero-
center meter to give course indication. Quadrant-identification is possible by
the use of the long-dashed-line pattern and the dot-dash-line pattern. A 1020-cps
signal is keyed to these two patterns in some specified code so that the pilot can
identify which side of the "range" station he is on. A filter in the output of the re-
ceiver rejects the 90 cps and 150 cps signals and passes only the 1020 cps signal.
The course indication can be used to operate an automatic pilot. It is proposed to
install two parallel lines of these "range" stations along busy airways to provide two
parallel courses for aircraft flying in opposite directions.
15.04 CAA VHF Radio ''Ranges"
Fig. 15-04 Four-course VHF aural "range'

aMMBMniawHHa waamKwmeamâi^mB^mtmaKmmmKa^mmmmmiBmaaa
CAA VHF Radio'Range" 15.05
U67*
/=/
/= /
1.1 67*
Phase
Troinsmifter shifter.
Keying
relay
Current-'
divider
Fig. 15-05 Loop array of VHF aural "range
iin)„ „„„ ii
15.06 CAA VHF Radio "Range
Fig. 15-06 Radiated patterns of two-course visual VHF "range'
CAA A-N Radio "Range"

Sandretto, P. C.: "Principles of Aeronautical Radio Engineering", pp. 24-
71, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
CAA VHF Radio "Ranges"

Sandretto, P. C.: "Principles of Aeronautical Radio Engineering", pp. 72-105,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
Mil—MBMBMMB
Aircraft Direction-Finders and Hutning Systems 16.01

There are numerous aircraft direction-Iindtrs and homing systems. While
these systems could be used on other types of craft they have been used principal-
ly on aircraft in the past.
Figure 16-01 illustrates the principle of a homing system. A loop and non-
directional antenna are used to give a cardioid response-pattern. The maximum
of this cardioid can be shifted from the right side of the craft to the left by revers-
ing the loop connections. The two response patterns obtained are shown as the
solid and dotted patterns of Figure 16-02 (a).
The cardioid pattern results from the addition of the signal from the loop-
pattern Figure 16-02 (b) and the signal from the non-directional antenna pattern
Figure 16-02 (c). However, the signal from the loop is 90° out of phase with the
signal from the non-directional antenna. In compensation it is necessary to intro-
duce a 90 o phase-shift in one of the channels.
In Figure 16-01 the loop signal is alternately reversed by the action of the
motor-drivenreversing-switch. The output of the receiver is alternately connect-
ed to the two coils of a differentially-wound zero-center DC meter in synchronism
with the reversing of the loop input. In Figure 16-02 (a) OA represents the longi-
tudinal axis of the aircraft. If the desired station lies along the line OB the signal
when the dotted pattern is switched on will be proportional to OC and the signal
will be proportional to OD when the solid pattern is switched on. Thus, a larger
signal is applied to one coil of the differential meter than to the other coil. The
connections are such that the rneter deflects to the right indicating that the desired
homing-station lies to the right of the heading of the ^raft and that the craft should
be turned to the right to home on the station.
If the loop is rotatable the system can be used as a manual direction finder
Non direcfional
"sense" antenna
Differential zero-
center meter
Fig. 16-01 Principle of switched-cardioid homing .-ystrm

-——-——■"-■--■"-——■■"■■■—»■^^^'■™™^"'^"^™'il"■l'■■^™™°™™^^
16.02 Aircraft Direction-f Inders and Homing Systems
A B
(c)
Fig. 16-02 Loop and antenna response patterns
byrotatingthe loop until the meter reads zero. "Sense" can be determined by not-
ing the relative motion of loop and meter pointer. If a bearing is taken with OA
pointing to the station a slight rotation of the loop to the left will give a meter de-
flection to the right. However, if the station is in the direction OE the pointer will
deflect in the same direction as the rotation of the loop.
In practice the mechanical switching-system of Figure 16-01 is replaced

by an electronic switching-system similar to Figure 16-03. The loop-signal is
amplified by a tuned radio-frequency amplifier. This amplified loop-signal is
then applied to a balanced modulator which performs the switching. This switched
loop-signal is combined with the signal from the non-directional "sense" antenna
which has been shifted 90° in phase and applied to the receiver. The output of the
receiver is applied to a directional rectifier (balanced modulator). This circuit
is also supplied with audio frequency from the same source that supplies the RF
balanced modulator. The output of this directional rectifier operates a zero-center
DC meter.
Figure 16-04 is the block diagram of a typical self-orienting automatic

direction-finder. The loop-signal is amplified by the tuned-RF loop-amplifier.
The amplified loop-signal is applied to a balanced modulator. The output of the
balanced modulator, which consists of only the two side-frequencies, is combined
■OSnWBMUWHB ]—l|y-r.^Trnn—nrrnifiiTtMT mamuKomaaKMaaBmaaamaeaai^^MamMsmaama^BamaamaK
Aircraft Direc'.ion-Finders and I' -ning Systems 16.03
Non-directior.c'
"Sense" ontenna
^0oPhase
Shifter
RF Balonceo
Receiver
Amp Mod A
On ectiona!
Audio Zero center
Rectifier
oscillator DC Meter
(Balanced ModBi—
Fig. 16-03 Block diagram of homing system
with the signal from the non-directional antenna which has been shifted 90° in
phase. The resulting amplitude-modulated wave is amplified and detected by the
receiver. The audio output is filtered by a bandpass filter to remove all modula-
tion frequencies but that produced by the balanced modulator. This is to avoid
overloadof the motor control circuit by audio modulation and noise. If either of the
nulls of the loop are pointing to the station the audio output will be zero. When the
loop swings through a null the phase of the audio signal reverses. The audio out-
put and the AC from the same source that supplies the balanced modulator are
applied to the motor-control circuit. An antihunt voltage proportional to the deriva-
tive of the error is applied in series with the audio voltage. This antihunt voltage
is obtained from an armature-reaction rate-generator. This motor-control cir-
cuit controls a reversible two-phase motor which rotates the loop. The direction
and speed of the motor depends upon the phase and amplitude of the audio signal
resulting from the loop switching. This motor will rotate the loop to a null. Only
one of the nulls of the loop will yield a condition of stable equilibrium. The loop
position is repeated to the instrument panel by a flexible shaft or synchro-mechan-
ism. This equipment may be used for homing by maintaining zero relative bearing
to the station.
Figure 16-05 is the block diagram of an automatic direction finder that em-
ploys a rotating loop or equivalent. The loop is rotated continuously by a drivnig
motor. This driving motor also drives a reference-phase generator, The signal
from the rotating loop is amplified by a tuned radio-frequency amplifier and is then
combined in the antenna coupling-circuit with the signal from the non-directional
antenna which has been shifted 90° in phase1. The signal from the rotating loop
will be amplitude modulated but will contain only the two side-frequencies. Instead
of a rotating loop two crossed loops and a goniometer may be used. The rotor oi
the goniometer is driven by the driving iiMtor.
* See Bond, D. S.: 'Radio Direction Finders", pp. 201 ff.

16.04 Aircraft Direction-Joinders and Honiing Systems
The carrier is re-supplied from the non-directional antenna. This is

equivalent to rotating a cardioid response pattern at driving motor speed. The sig-
nal supplied to the receiver is an amplitude modulated signal. The phase of the
modulation envelope depends upon the direction of the station being received. The
audio output phase is compared with the phase from the reference-phase generator
in some type of phase-meter or comparator.lt would also be possible to use two
crossed loops each feeding a balanced modulator. The modulating voltage would
be applied to these two balanced modulators 90° out of phase. This would give in
effect an electronic goniometer.
Two automatic direction-finders could be used to take continuous bearings

on two stations and this information might be used in an automatic computer to
give a continuous fix. A system of this type is described in Section 18.
Non-direclional
"sense" antenna
LOOP RF
AMPLIFIER
BALANCED
MODULATOR
ANTENNA
COUPLING CIRCUIT t=§
X RECEIVER
BANDPASS A F MOTOR CONTROL

FILTER AMPLIFIER
PHASE
SHIFTER
AC POWER
SUPPLY
Fig. 16-04 Block diagram of self-orienting direction-finder

IBMBWMHai
Aircraft Direction-Finders and Homing Systems 16.05
Non-directional
"sense" antenna
LOOP RF -j ANTENNA
AMPLIFIER "~| COUPLING CIRCUIT
MOTOR / Fig. 16-05 Block diagram of spinmng-loop direction finder
Aircraft Direction Finders and Homing Systems
Bond, D. S.: "Radio Direction Finders", pp. 117-149 and pp. 171-230,
Sandretto, P. C: "Principles of Aeronautical Radio Engineering", pp. 106-142,

■MiBIÄÄWi"" Ml 111111111 III»!»!
SONNE 17.01
SONNE (CONSOL)
Type of System
Azimut]!, giving radial lines of position.
Useful Range
Depends on transmitter power and location of craft. Figures based on a num-
ber of observations of German transmissions are:
"^ , JiJ: mi1es i transmitter power 1.5 kw, transmission over water.
Night 2000 miles '
Owingto the frequency used, there are no altitude limitations at a distance. However,
aircraft close to the source of transmissions will be subject to errors in position
due to geometrical considerations. (See Section 1)

The best theoretical precision is approximately 1/6° azimuth in a line of pos-
ition.
Results of a number of test observations indicate an average operational ac-

curacy of 1.7° by day and 2.3° at night, corresponding to errors of 15 and 20 miles
at 1000 miles range in a line of position. Ambiguity exists between alternate sectors,
and must be solved by an approximate knowledge of position obtained from dead reck-
oning based on previous bearings or from D/F observations. Large errors have
been observed at sunrise and sunset.
Type of Presentation
Aural. The operator counts the number Of dots and dashes during a one-
minute cycle.

A feature of this system is that the complexity of the operations and equip-
ment on the craft have been reduced to a minimum. No skill is required beyond the
ability to tune a communications radio receiver, plus the ability to listen, count, add,
subtract, and use charts.
At the ground installation, skilled monitoring is desirable.
Two minutes are required for determination of a line of position. A fix should
be obtainable in four to six minutes,
Equipment Required
At the ground station: Transmitter of about 1.5 kw, specialized phasing and
keying gear, two or three antenna towers of height 150 - 350 feet with the necessary
transmission lines, monitoring equipment. On the craft: Standard communications
receiver.
Frequency
"250 - 500 kcps (wavelength 1200 - 600 meters).
Bandwidth Required
Less than that of the usual communications receiver, 1 kcps per ground station.
Present Status
The Sonne .system has been used extensively by the Germans during the last
two years of the war. The Allied Air Forces have also found the system reliable and
—wwoMBn^««»»!«»!!——KM—E—^^M^»^—-AMM mma\ î^m^nMi^m*âmamtmimuaMmammaKmM^K3UM\ammrTMmaaKW^matmacmammmuaaaat^SKmSBâamKX^'.v
17.02 SONNF:
useful, bonne is cunsidered by many qualified peroons to be m certain respects

superior to Loran as a long-distance navigational aid for general use. British use
of German Sonne transmission is usually referred to as Consol. Prior to the Japan-
ese surrender a modified Sonne system (AN/ FRN - 5) was under development for
fighter navigation in the Pacific theater
Principles of Operation
A Sonne station radiates i multi-lobed pattern in which, by phase-switching
and phase-shifting of the transmissions from three spaced antennas, certain "equi-
signal" lines relative to the station are Mined. These lines move slowly in position
over a period of one minute. By counting the number of dots and dashes heard before
andafter the passage of the equisignal during this period, the operator at the craft is
able to locate himself with regard to the ground station, obtaining a line of position,
Another such observation yields a second line of position on a different station, and
thus a fix is obtained.
The ground station uses three antennas (A. B, and C in Figure 17--01). The
spacings between A and B, and between B and C, are equal and are usually of about
three wavelengths. A variety of arrangement;-: as to phasing and amplitude of antenna
currents is possible, but thai used by the Germans is illustrated in Figure 17-02 (a)
and (b). The amplitudes of the currents in antennas A and C are equal, and are one-
fourth (other fractions maybe use d) of n;at in antenna B. At the start of a one-minute
phase-shifting period, the phase relations are as indicated in Figure 17-02 (a). Tak-
ing the A current as phase reference, the C current has a phase of 180° with respect
toA, while Bis at +90°. At the end of the first 5/6 second of the phase-shifting cycle
thephasesof A andC are suddenly reversed. After an additional 1 '6 second the phases
of AandC are suddenly returned to Ira, rr original positions (ignoring for the moment
the relatively slow superimposed phase-sweep described below). This phase-keying
sequence is repeated at ono-secoad intervals throughout the one-minute phase-shifting
period. At the same time, the phases of A and C are moved slowly and uniformly in
opposite directions, so that after 10 seconds, the A and C phases would be as shown
in Figure 17-02 (b), andafter 60 seconds the A and C phases would each have changed
by 180°and would be reversed with respect to their initial positions in Figure 17-02
(a). At the be ginning of the next phase- shifting period (after a further interval of one
minute) the phases start again from the positions of Figure 17-02 (a). The complete
sequence of events in a two-minute cycle is as follows:
Pl/ase-shifting and keying in the inanner described for 60 seconds
Silent period (no transmission) for 1 second
Steady transmission from the center antenna alone
mcluding an identification signal for 56 seconds
Silent period (no transmission) for 3 seconds
120 seconds
The complete sequence therefore Lists for two minutes, and bearings cannot
be taken closer in time than tins intpivai.
Considering the radiation pallern at the start of the 60-second phasing period,
the current in antenna F! loads that in antenna A by 90°, and that in antenna C leads
by 180° (Figure 17-02 (a)). The tadadrd paücrn is then similar to Figure 17-03
which is drawn for an antenna a;.a ■.•■.-, 1 11 wavelengths, amplitude of A and C cur-
rents one quarter of amplitude of B c^rrrnt. If the phases of A and C were reversed
the pattern w"uidbe as shown in Funiri 17.04. ] will be seen that maxima in Figure
17-04 occur .-1 the same a/imuth in,.-): >■ ;.-; ni'mina in Figure 17-03 and vice versa,
The pattern is symmetrical vui' refrard to (he lino nf antennas, but not with regard
to a line perpendicular 'o 'V..-- if n w the ohase reversal of the A and C currents
SONNE 17.03
r r i
Fig. 17-01 Spacing
C(|sec) A{f sec)

v
c(fsec)
«s
A(fsec)
—^■
/so^^-
"-^ —
w
Al^sec) C(gsec)
(a) A(gsec) (b) c(^sec)
Fig. 17-02 Phasing

17.04 SONNE
were to take place without any change in the phase of B, the patterns of Figures 17-03
andl7-04would alternate. This is illustrated by Figure 17-05, in which the two pat-
terns are superimposed. (Figure 17-03 contributes the dashed line, Figure 17-04
the full line). Since Figure 17-03 would obtain for 5/6 second intervals and Figure
17-04for 1/6 secondintervals. Figure 17-03 will be referred to as the "dash pattern"
and Figure 17-04 as the "dot pattern".
An observer on a craft locatedat P (Figures 17-03, 17-04,17-05) will receive

stronger signals during the 5/6 second intervals when the dash pattern obtains than
during the 1/6 second intervals corresponding to the dot pattern. He will therefore
hear a series of dashes. An observer in the direction OQ will hear dots by similar
reasoning. In the direction OR, both patterns yield signals of the same strength and
Fig. 17-03 Dash pattern

i-lalu:'i..--;iiru^ ''''~'" «nil
iniiiiiinniiHiiiiiiiiHiii
in r\ r
SONNE 1 (.UJ
a continuous signal will therefore be heard. This is referred to as an equisignal. The

alternation of the two patterns therefore determines a number of equisignal lines
characterized by equal signal strengths from the dot and dash patterns. These equi-
signal lines are shown in Figure 17-05.
In this relatively simple form, which includes no phase-sweep, the system pro-
vides a navigational aid known as Elektra. Elektra was used by the Germans in 1940-
41 and Sonne was developed from it. The difference between Sonne and Elektra lies
in the slow progressive shifting of the phases of the currents in the two outer antennas.
The effect of this slow and uniform phase shift in the A and C currents is to cause a
rotation of the equisignal lines. Starting from the beginning of the 60-second phase-
shifting period, the equisignals are first as shown in Figure 17-05. The equisignals
R P
Fig. 17-04 Dot pattern

niiinMimiw i iiiiMiiiiiMMiiiiBiiiiiiiimmBiniiiimmnimiiiMMmwmiiniiaiT^^
17.06 SONNE
Fig. 17-05 Dot and clash patterns superimposed

SONNE 17. u (
in the top half of Figure 17-05 then move clockwise, and those in the lower half
counter-clockwise, until at the end of the 60-second period each equisignal now oc-
cupies the position originally occupied by the adjacent equisignal to the right. At
the left side of the dash pattern, the small lobe expands and divides; and at the right
side the two large lobes contract into one small lobe. Corresponding changes take
place in the dot pattern, so that at the end of the 60-second period the two patterns
have become interchanged.
Considering effect of these changes on an observer situated on (say) OP,

the sequence of events will be as follows:
(a) At the start of the cycle, dashes will be heard
(b) Dashes decrease in contrast (5/6 second and 1/6 second signals become
more nearly equal) until
(c) Equisignal is heard.
(d) After the equisignal, dots are heard, at first increasing in contrast and
then decreasing slightly until the end of the 60-second period occurs.
These changes are graphically represented in Figure 17-06, in which the time
intervals are not drawn to scale. During the 3-second silent intervals there is no
transmission from any of the antennas, and during the 56-second steady signal, only
the center antenna is used.
// /
\L
Steady signal — -f— Cycle

including identification starts
again
3 sec, equisignal i sec. 3 sec.
silent silent silent

17.08 yONNF
Provided the operator knows his approximate position, a knowledge of the num-
ber of cljaracters heard (dots or dashes) before the equisignal, and of the initial and
final positions of the equisignal concerned, together with suitable means for interpo-
lation, enables a line of position to be determined.
Since in general the equisignal will not be sharply defined, and may appear to
last several seconds, the operator counts both (a) the number of dashes (or dots) heard
before the equisignal and (b) the number of dots (or dashes) heard after the equisignal.
These are added and the total subtracted from 60 (the number of characters trans-
mitted) giving the apparent length of the equisignal. Half of this latter figure is then
added to the (a) count so as to determine as nearly as possible the true interval be-
fore the equisignal. For example, the observer at P might have counted as follows:
13 dashes
Equisignal
41 dots
The computation is then as follows:
13 60 = characters transmitted
41 54
54 = characters heard 6 = apparent length of equisignal
13 + n = 16 = true number of characters before equisignal.
Charts are provided on which position lines marked in degrees azimuth from Sonne
stations are overprinted in color. Keys or tables are also provided by means of
which the azimuth line of position corresponding to a given count within a given sec-
tor can be obtained. A sketch of the central portion of such a key is shown in Figure
17-07. The advantage of this procedure is that if it should become necessary to change
the phasing of the antenna currents in order to modify the pattern for security or
other reasons, only new keys and not new charts are required.
It will be seen that ambiguities exist. The above count could have been ob-
tained in any of the dash sectors of Figure 17-05. In the patterns shown, the mini-
mum angular separation between equisignals is 9.6 . The ambiguity is thus between
position lines whose minimum separation is 19.2°. It is therefore necessary for
the craft to know its bearing on the Sonne station to within 9.6° or better. This may
be done by a rough D/F measurement on the steady 56 sec. signal or the position
may be approximately found by dead reckoning, a knowledge of the existing course
and speed since a previous observation then being necessary. Regarding the extent
of the ambiguity, adjacent dash sectors (or adjacent dot sectors) are separated by
a minimum angle of about 19 . The maxinlum error permissible in the D/F measure-
ment used to solve the ambiguity is however only half this figure. A consideration
of Figure 17-07 will illustrate this point.
Suppose that a navigator makes a count of 40 dots preceding the equisignal

and 20 dashes following it. The fact that the dots were heard first locates him in a
dot sector. The fact that 40 dots were heard locates him at a particular azimuth with-
ma dotsector. This azimuth is read from a key or table attached to the actual chart.
The central portion of such a key, somewhat compressed in scale and with the finer
markings omitted, is shown in Figure 17-07 (b). On an actual key, azimuth angles
corresponding to the line of antennas of the particular Sonne station are read from
the angular scale direct. In Figure 17-07 (b), it is assumed for convenience that the
line of antennas runs from west to east, so that the central equisignal points due
north.
The count obtained therefore gives the navigator the following choices in line
of position on the north side of the pattern
.o
4, 26! ', 51 n, 267-'!, 3261°, 347-1
3' 3 ' ' 4 ' 4 ' 4
These lines of position are shown as dashed lines in Figure 17-07 (a).
MBIimiHWIMHi ■mimiiiiMmwTinTiiinni—mwiwinnmiiMWi ■BygBHHHHHHHnmanui^nBHiaHBMi
SONNE 17.09
signals at
Start- of Keying
Cycle
Line of Antennas
(a)
O 0 • • o • a « a • • a
60 20 40 60 E0 40 60 20 40 60 20 40 60 20 40 60 20 40
1330 33S 340 345 350 355 K) 15 20 25 30
t \ f
5
DF(i) v///////y///////////?m
DF(2)
(b)
Fig. 17-07 Sector ambiguity
Suppose further that the maximum error to be expected in the D/F observa-
tion is the same as the angle of ambiguity, i.e., 19°. Then the situation may be repre-
sented at (2) in Figure 17-07 (b), where the D/F reading might give an azimuth in-
dication anywhere within the shaded range. Remembering that the D/F reading may
give the extreme values of 3472° or 26-, and that the navigator has only one read-
ing at his disposal and will take the position line nearest this reading, it is seen that
he might easily choose 347T or 26^ as the final reading. If however, the maximum
error to be expected in the IVF observation is reduced to 9-°, the situation will be as
representedintheshadedareaof Figure 17-07 (a) or at (1) in Figure 17-07 (b). Even
an extreme D/F reading will indicate to the navigator that his correct azimuth bearing
is 6«°. The maximum allowable error in the D/F reading is therefore one half of the
minimum angle of ambiguity.
17.10 SONNE
Since observations cannot be taken closer in time than two minutes, running
fix technique may be necessary.
It should be noted that Sonne transmissions as here described are unmodu-

lated(C.W.). The receiver used should therefore include a beat-frequency oscillator.
If receivers without beat-frequency oscillators are to be used, then provision for
modulation at the transmitter must be made.
This concludes the general discussion of the system. Some notes on the
geometry of the radiation pattern, and on factors affecting it, will now be given,
together with information as to the transmitting equipment used, a discussion of
transmitter errors and tolerances, and an outline of a proposed two-antenna system.
Fig, 17-08 Three-antenna Sonne
1-.= + A sin (wt + 0) ^2 = "^ cos ^

iß = f A sin (wt - 0)
E/A = p spacing = nX
4) = (—)t radians, t measured in seconds
Field strength at a distant point P of azimuth angle 6

E = k.cos wt. [B + 2A sin (* - 2n n sin 9)]
where k is a constant determined by the distance of P from
the array and by propagation conditions.
The radiation pattern of Sonne

Many arrangements yield multi-lobed patterns of the type described. Two
basic arrangements are here discussed:
(1) three antennas, equally spaced, equal currents in the two outer antennas, phased
as indicated in Figure 17-03. This is the system used by the Germans.
(2) possible two-antenna arrays yielding the same results as (1).
Three antenna Sonne

Let the spacing d = nA. Note that n need not be integral. The currents in the
three antennas are i-. = ± A sin (wt +0); [2 :: B cos cüt; ig = ^ A sin (wt -<p). (See Fig-
ure 17-08). The + and - signs in ii and the - and + signs in io yield the dash and dot
patterns quoted previously if the upper sign obtains for 5/6 sec. and the lower sign
for 1/6 sec. The phase-shift c/i in the outer antennas is given by 0 = (än)i radians where
t is measured in seconds from the start of the phase-shifting period. The ratio of the
current amplitudes is denoted by B/A - p.
SONNE 17.11
There are two physical variables;

(1) n (2) p
The following factors relating to the pattern are of interest:

(1) total number of equisignals in the pattern,
(2) minimum angle of ambiguity. One half of this is the maximum tolerable error
in the D/F measurement required to solve the ambiguity of sector, as already
noted. It should be as large as possible, that is, a value of 360° would indicate
complete certainty of sector.
For most
(3) The ratio ^^^mm,'ff^fj =P. economical use of a given radiated
power to obtain large useful range, 0 should be as near unity as possible. This
ideal condition is not realizeable in practice with either two- or three-antenna
arrays.
(4) Absolute field strength at equisignal. This determines the maximum useful
range.
(5) Rate of change of field strength with azimuth in the region of an equisignal. This
is a factor in determining the discrimination with which a bearing may be ob-
served (that is, the theoretical accuracy obtainable).
o
(6) The number of db. difference in level between the dot and dash signals for 1 azi-
muth departure from an equisignal.
The way in which these five factors depend on the variables (current ampli-
tude, antenna spacing) is summarized in Table 17-01.
Table 17-01
Current Amplitudes Spacing
total number of equisignals no influence equals 8n (i:

in pattern (1)
minimum anele of ambiguity (2) no influence decreases as n increas-

es (equal to 2 sin" l/2n)
equisignal field (3) no influence

r
' maximum field P+2
absolute field strength at equi- proportional to no influence

signal (4) B only
rate of change of field strength proportional to proportional to n

with azimuth (dE/d9) at equi- A only
signal (5) also proportional to cos 0
db. difference ^'between dot and 1+ 0.22 (n/p) cos 9

dash signals per degree azimuth a- 20 log 101 _ 0.22 (n/p) cos 0
departure from equisignal = a
Equation determining equisignal sin 9, L (-L

(- t m* , where m is any inte-
Dositions 2n 60
ger including zero
17.12 SONNE
Notes on Table 17-01

1. I the.spacingd is an integral number of half-wavelengths (that is, if ii= 0,5, 1,0,
1.5, 2.0, 2.5, etc.), equisignals occur at 9 =± 90°, and by symmetry the number
of equisignals in the pattern is always even, whatever the value uf n. If n is some
other number (e.g. 2.3), the number of equisignals will be the next even number
above 8n (e.g 20). This is not however, the number of useful equisignals. In the
pattern drawn, it will be noted that the accuracy will be very poor near 6= ± 90°,
so that a safe rule for the number of useful equisignals is 8n - 2.
2. Theangieof ambiguity is the angle between the equisignal concerned and the next
but one adjacent to it. This is a minimum (requiring the greatest accuracy of
approximate D/F observation) at 9 = 0°. (Equisignals occur at 9 = 0° and 9 =
180° in all patterns covered by this analysis). Since equisignals occur where sin
(27m sm 0) = 0, the angle concerned is 2 sin -1l/2n for the first pair of equisignals
either side of 6 = 0°. In the pattern shown in Figure 17-05, n= 3 and p = 4, so
that there are twenty-four equisignals in all, occurring at the following approxi-
mate values of 6: 0V-9iO,+19-O,+30O, +41?V+565o,±90o, ±123^, ±1381°,
' 2' 2 4 2' ' 2 4
o o
1150°, 1160i , 1170i , 180°. The minimum angle of ambiguity is therefore about
19°
3. With the phase relationships here assumed, the pattern may be thought of as made
up of (a) a uniform component due to the central antenna, (b) a component due to the
two outer antennas which varies in phase and in magnitude as 9 is varied, causing
increments and decrements to the uniform component. Thus in the example given
B = 4A (p = 4) and the ratios of maximum field, equisignal field and minimum field
are as (B + 2A) : B : (B - 2A), that is, as 6 : 4 : 2 or as 3 : 2 ; 1.
4. Since at the equisignals the fields due to the two outer antennas exactly cancel,
the equisignal field depends only on that due to the center antenna.
5. Analysis shows that dE in the region of an equisignal is given by 4k7m A cos 9
units per degree azimuth where k is a propagation constant depending on the dis-
tance of the observer from the transmitter. This gives the slope of either the
dot or the dash pattern at the equisignal,
6. Of more interest than 41 is the number of db. difference in signal strength between
the dash and dot patterns per degree azimuth departure from equisignal. This is
" dE*
|E + -—j
C w!iere E
given by a(db) =• 20 log JQ !| . is the equisignal field (of magnitude
iF - -
kB) and 4? is measured in units per degree and is evaluated at the equisignal.
;i +0.22 ncos e|
This reduces to n-(db) = 20 log JQI 2 decibels per degree azimuth.
[l -0.22" cos e:
L p
This expression is characteristic only of the geometry of the radiation pattern
and does not depend on propagation lactors or on distance irom the array. Apply-
ing this result to the example previously used (n = 3, p= 4), the maximum change
in signal strength per degree is obtained at 9 = 0°, under which condition a (db) =
20 log 10 + O.lbb _ 2.9 decibels per degree azimuth. If it be assumed that an
1 - 0.165J
operator under average conditions can detect a 1 db. change in audible signal
level, then the position of the central equisignal (9 = 0°) can be observed direct-
ly to about± 1/3 azimuth. However, since the technique of counting dots and
dashes both before and after the equisignal is used, greater discrimination than
this may be obtained, and the limiting factor under these conditions is not in prac-
tice the change in signal strength per degree azimuth but is concerned with the
SONNE 17.13
number of characters transmitted per minute. This is further considered later

under the heading Theoretical Accuracy.
In general it is to be noted that the change in the signal strength per de-
gree azimuth at equisignals varies as follows;
Maximum at 6 = 0, decreasing to zero at Ö = + 90°
Increases as n is increased.
Decreases as p is increased.
Two-antenna Sonne
It has been pointed out that similar results may be had if only two antennas
are used. The spacing between antennas is n'A and the currents are ij = A sin (wt+0)
and i2 = ± B cos wt (Figure IT-Ctä), and0 = (^r)t. The equisignals occur at azimuth
angles where the magnitudes of the dash and dot fields are equal, that is, where sin
(0 - 2™' sin 6) = 0. Since this is the same equation as that which determines equi-
signals in the three-antenna pattern, the equisignals will occur at the same azimuth
angles if n = n1, and the 2 antenna pattern will be similar to the 3-antenna pattern.
Fig. 17-09 Two-antenna Sonne
ij = A sin (cot + <>)

i2 = ± B cos oot
~ = ratio of amplitudes = p1
A
spacing = n1X
0 ={JTJ) t radians, t measured in seconds
Field strength at a distant point P of azimuth angle 6
is E = kA^/l +pl2+ 2p' sin (0 - 2^' sin 6) where
k is a constant representing the distance of point P
from the array and the propagation conditions.
In Table 17-02 the features of the pattern and their dependence on physical
variables (p1 = B/A and n1 = d/X) are listed.
"——^"•—"—mnmwmvimrrrm
17.14 SONNE
Table 17-02
Current Amplitudes Spacing

i
total number of equisignals no influence equals 8n' (or next

in pattern (1) higher even number
if 8n' is not even)^
minimum angle of ambi- no influence decreases as n1 in-

guity [2> creases (=2 sin l/2n')
Q _ (equisignai field)^ ' H ^1 iP,'2 no influence

' (maximum field) / i + p■
absolute field strength a r k\/A2 + B2 no influence

at equisignai ^ or
kA\/l +p'z
Rate of change of field proportional to proportional to n'

strength wiüi azimuth at Ap1 AB
2 2
equisignai ^' Vl+p' " VA + B^
also proportional to cos 6
(6)
db difference between 1 +^2 + 0.11 p'n'cos 6
dot and dash patterns per « ' = 20 log
degree azimuth departure
10
.1 +pl2 _o.ll p'n'cos Sj
from equisignai = a '
equation determining equi- sin 6e = rj^1 (-mi ± m), where m is any inte-
signai positions ger including zero.
Notes on Table 17-02

1. Equisignai considerations follow from the same equation as for the three-antenna
case. The equisignals at 0 - 1 90° (in the case where n' A is an integral number
of half wavelengths) are not useful and in this case the number of useful equisig-
nals will be 8n - 2.
2,3 The same considerations apply as in the three-antenna case.
4. Since at the equisignals the magnitude of the field is unaffected by the choice of
+ B or - B, equisignals only occur at positions such that the received A and B
signals are in phase quadrature.
5. 4f- in the region of an equisignai is given by
_2kApl;Tnlcose radian or CllkApVcose units d azimuth
Vr~T Vl+p'2
where k is constant for any one position of the observer.
6. Analysis shows that, for any given value of n' and cos 9.0'' will have its maxi-
mum value when p' = 1, that is, when the amplitudes of the two antenna currents
are equal. Further, if p' = 1, and n1 = 3, and cos 8 = 1, rx' = 2.9 db per degree
azimuth. Comparing this with the result for the 3-antenna Sonne quoted on
page 17.12. it is seen that the two- and three-antenna Sonnen give very closely
corresponding pattern features.
■ IIIIIIIIIMBIIIIIIWIIIllll III Willi «III llll«l«l«ll»iniI1IIWlll»»IMWlMMTia~MllllTlMnMMirT~ll 1——""
SONNE 17,15
Theoretical Accuracy of the System

Assuming no errors in phasing at the antennas and no errors due to propaga-
tion conditions, the accuracy of a Sonne bearing depends upon the following:
(1) The rate at which signal strength changes with azimuth in the region of the equi-
signal. This has been discussed above.
(2) The effect of the counting technique used, which is to reduce (we hope) any errors
due to a slow rate of change in (1) above.
(3) The number of characters transmitted per minute. This is assumed to be 60.
It is doubtful whether this number could be increased without danger of errors
in the actual count. The cycle might be lengthened to (say) 90 characters trans-
mitted in 1= minutes, but this would involve either increasing the interval be-
tween possible readings, or decreasing the length of the steady transmission
available for D/F observations.
Three points may be noted with regard to the sizes of the errors due to
these causes:
(a) Since the count cannot in any case be made to within less than one character,
we are limited to an accuracy determined by the angle through which the
equisignai sweeps in 1 second. For the central sectors in the example given
in Figure 17-05, this is approximately 1/6 degree azimuth. In the same ex-
ample, the error due to a one-decibel limit of dot-dash discrimination> +
1/3 degree azimuth, when modified by the results of the counting technique,
probably amounts to less than this figure so that factor (3) above is likely
tobe the limiting one. These figures would of course be modified if the con-
stants p and n had been given different values,
(b) Errors due to factor (1) above increase as 9 increases, being inversely pro-
portional to cos 6. However, the increase will not be large until 9 approaches
75 - 80°, in which zone the utility of the system is not considered great.
(c) Errors due to factor (3) above also increase as 9 increases, since the angu-
lar separation of equisignals is larger at the sides of the pattern, causing
the angular speed of movement of the equisignals to increase also at larger
values of 9, The constants of the German system appear to have been well-
chosen since the errors due to both (1) and (3) are of about the same magni-
tude, and since a given Sonne beacon has a reasonable coverage arc over
which the maximum theoretical error will not exceed twice the value at 9=
0O.
German Transmitting and Phasing Equipment

Detailshave recently become available concerning the standard German phas-
ing equipment. A simplified circuit diagram is shown in Figure 17-10. The RF pow-
er from the transmitter (1.5 kw) is divided between the center antenna, which re-
ceives 8/9 of the total power (if B= 4A), and the end antennas. Switch S and the di-
vided primary of Tj allow reversal at 5/6 and 1/6 second intervals. The loop fed
from the secondary of T^ is tuned to resonance, as is the next loop including the
primary of T2. P is a phase shifter which is preset and controls the exact phasing
of the end antenna currents with respect to the current in the center antenna. The
loop fed by the secondary of T2 is also tuned to resonance and includes the rotor
coil (1) of the goniometer G. The two stator coils (2,3) are mutually at right angles.
The voltages induced in them have the same phase, but are of magnitudes proportional
respectively to the sine and cosine of the angle through which the rotor has turned.
Thus when coil 1 is parallel to coil 2, E2 will be a maximum and E3 zero. As the
rotor turns, E2 decreases and E3 increases, these voltages remaining in phase. The
primary of T3 being tuned to resonance, the voltage E^ induced in its secondary is
in quadrature with E3.
-..... mmiamemaMaâMmuM
17.16 SONNE
The voltages E2and E4, which are therefore in quadrature, are applied at ab
and cd respectively to the condenser network Q which functions as a mixer. All
eight condensers are of equal capacitance (about 1030/yjf), Outputs are taken at ef
(E5) and gh (Eg). E5 is therefore proportional to the vector sum of E2 and E4, and
E5 to their vector difference. These two output voltages, developed in loops which
are tuned to resonance, are applied to the 600-ohm open-wire transmission lines
which feed the two end antennas.
The phase-relationships at various times in the phase-shifting cycle are
represented in Figure 17-11. At t = 0, E2 = 0 and E^ has its maximum value, de-
noted by E. E5 and Eg are therefore equal to E in magnitude and are opposite in
phase. At t = 15 sec, coil 1 has rotated through 45°, E2 and E^ are equal in magni-
tude and are 0.707 E. E5 and E5 have therefore remained equal to E in magnitude,
but have shifted their phases by 45° in opposite directions. At t = 30 sec, E2 = E
and E4 = 0, so that E5 and Eg are now in phase. At t = 45 sec, E2= 0.707E and E4
has changed sign. It will be seen that the two output voltages are always of equal
magnitude and tiiat their phase shifts due to the rotation of the goniometer are equal
and opposite.
The effect of the keying at S is to reverse all phases, including that of the two
output voltages. During the second 180° of rotation of coil 1, no power is supplied
to the phase-shifting system (56 sec. omni-directional signal from center antenna
alone), and at the end of the two minute cycle the phases are again in their original
relationships.
Circuits of monitoring and protective equipment are not given here.
Two-antenna Sonne
Figure 17-12 shows a block diagram of a scheme proposed by Commander
E.N. Dingley, Jr., U.S.N.R.for the phase-shifting and keying of a two-antenna Sonne.
The crystal oscillator (1) of frequency f^ drives a phase-shifter of the three-

phase capacitor-goniometer type (2). The output from the phase-shifter is continu-
ously variable in phase and is applied to a mixer (6) by way of a buffer amplifier (3).
The other input to the mixer is from a second crystal oscillator (4) of frequency f2,
using a buffer amplifier (5). A band-pass filter (7) selects the output component at
the sum frequency (fj +f2). A relay (8) and adjustable attenuator (9) are inserted
between this output and the transmission line to one of the two antennas. At the
antenna mast, the frequency is divided by two (10) and the resulting signals drive
a power amplifier (not shown) and thence the antenna (11).
The second antenna is fed in the same way, except that the input to the buffer
amplifier (16) is taken direct from the crystal oscillator (1) and not from the out-
put of the phase shifter.
The outputs from the two antennas are therefore of frequency-1-^-*-, and
the signals passed over the transmission lines are of twice this frequency. By this
means it is expected that the effect of radiation from the transmission lines upon the
main radiation pattern will be reduced. Furthermore, the phasing of antenna no. 1
with respect to antenna no. 2 is 9/2, if 9 is the phase-shift introduced by the phase
shifter (2), This makes it possible to use one complete rotation of the phase shifter
(6= 360°) to produce a phase shift of 180° as required in the transmission from
antenna no. 1.
Keying and phase-shifting are accomplished by a synchronous motor which

SONNE 17.17
O a.
o T
u o
t
* - ' i
- UJ - H
^traw^
Hl-Ht
a
c
bß
'wcwrtr-
I''
HHHh-i
IT
^
17.18 SONNE
EotPASH)
Eg (DASH) E5(DASH)
E2--0
>
-ENCASH E4(DASH)
E6:-E E5=+E
E4(lD0T) E4CD0Tj
EgCDOT) / b
E2tDOT)
t=0 1= 15 see.
e rE:
5 6 = E2=E(DASH)
E02(OASHj
E5mSH)\ k ' ' yE6(DASH)
E4 = 0 -E4(DASH)
E4(D0T)
E^(DOT)^ XE
E9(DOT) 5^
t E
5 = E6 = E2=E(DOT3
t= aosec t- 45 sec
E5=E2tE4
E6=E2-E4
Fig. 17-11 Vector diagram illustrating German method of phasing

■■HanannaB^^B
SONNE 17.19
(\J w
4-
tt
< + (M (.CD CO w
z
z
tu
h-
"+- 2
o
Ken
13
UJ —i
z
< © z
>-
UJ
UJ Q
3 -
O >
ÜJ
Q; 5
u.
17.20 SONNE
is made to oppratp the phase shifter (2) through reduction and differential gearing,
and also operates relays (8) and (19). The following cycle is proposed;
0-60 sec. both relays closed
60-64 sec. both relays open
64-116 sec. relay (8) open, (19) closed
120-180 sec. both relays closed
184-236 sec. relay (8) closed, (19) open
repeat cycle
At all times the phase-shifter (2) rotates at a uniform angular speed of 360
per minute. Itis assumed that (he phase-shifter is so constructed that 1° of rotation
produces 1° of phase shift at all angles. Further, there is a phase-reversing relay
(which reverses the polarity of the leads) connected between the output of the frequency-
divider and the input to the transmitter at antenna no. 2. This relay is operated
(5/6 sec, in one position and 1/6 sec. in the other) over a control line from a contact
controlled by the same synchronous motor.
It will be noted that the omnidirectional signal radiated during the 52 second
period is transmitted alternately by the two antennas. This permits the current
amplitudes tobe checked, by means of a monitoring receiver fitted with a calibrated
output meter and located exactly mid-way between the two antennas. This also allows
the monitoring operator to check the time-position in the cycle of the equisignal. If
this is not correct, or if it is to be altered, the setting of the rotor of the phase-
shifter (2) relative to the driving shaft is changed by means of the differential gears.
Theumformity of the change of phase with angle of rotation is checked by the record-
er (15) operated by the mixer (13) and low-pass filter (14). This is arranged to give
a record (on a moving tape) of the cosine of the phase angle 8. This record is com-
pared with a standard cosine curve.
Another advantage claimed for this arrangement is that the crystal oscillator
(1) and phase shifter (2) are standard equipment for all Sonne stations, the oscillator
being of standard frequency and the phase shifter of standard design. Sonnen of
different frequencies are accomodated by choosing different values for f2, the fre-
quency of the oscillator (4).
Transmitter errors and tolerances-

Errors in the magnitudes or phasing of the antenna currents will distort the
Sonne radiation pattern. The results of this may be classified under three headings:
(1) Actual shift in the angular positions of the equisignals at the start of the phase-
shifting cycle. The navigator determines his apparent line of position by refer-
ence to a key or table on which the azimuth positions o.i equisignal lines at the
s*-art of the cycle are shown. If the equisignals do not lie in the marked posi-
tions, there will be a corresponding error in the line of position obtained. This
error will be of the constant type, predictable if the nature and extent of its
causes are known.
(2) Loss of discrimination. If the change in signal strength per degree azimuth
angular shift from an equisignal becomes smaller for any reason, the theoreti-
cal precision of a reading decreases. Such errors will be of the random type,
averaging out among a very large number of readings.
(3) Loss of uniformity in the speed at which equisignals sweep in azimuth during
the phase-shifting cycle. To obtain a line of position, the navigator refers to
the table or key which shows the relation between the number of dots (or dashes)
^—» ■—■— ■«■MO—il^M—i——mii^ 1^^—————.
SONi 17.;
preceding the equisignal and the correspnndin,'.', '^ anng on the Scinnc transmittei
within the sector on tho chart identified by D/F or dead reckoning. This table or
key is based on the fact that sin (^ I - 2^n sin ti) 0 at equisignal.-i. The relatif'ii
between t (time in seconds from start of phase-shifting period) and 9 (azimuth of
equisignal at any instant] is therefore sinusoidal. \ny error;-; m phasing which
result ina departure from this sinusoidal relationship amount to errors in posi-
tion-line interpolation in time within the sector usi ., -'ven though die initial and
final values of 0 which determine the sector nuy themselves be correct.
The most serious error is thai identified in (Ij above. In general, most effects
which produce appreciable errors of the second and thicd types will also produce
much more serious errors of th^ first type. A number of possible departures from
ideal conditions at the transmitter will now be mentioned for both two- and three-
antennaSonnen, together with then effect (if any) mi the angular positions of the equi-
signaisatthestartof thephase-shiftingperiod. F.i r.s !ue to propagation conditions
are not peculiar to the Sonne system and are separately discussed elsewhere (see
Section 1). It is tobe noted that each possible cause of error is considered separately.
The simultaneous consideration of two "r mo v sources of error cannot be general-
ized, and the number of possibilities is therefore too large for inclusion here. A
factor which by itself does not produce am equisignal shift may operate to increase
or decrease errors due to some other factor. Two factors which separately produce no
appreciable error may give rise tu considerable errors when combined simultaneously.
(a) Three-antenna Sonne

1. Currents in the outer antennas are not equal in magnitude. '1 Ins condition is repre-
sented, 20 seconds after the start of the keying cycle, in Figure 17-13 (a), which
shows the current vectors at tht1 transmitter. Figure 17-13 ib) shows the compon-
ents of the received field at a point whosf azimuth angle corresponds to the first
equisignal, at this particular instant. The effect of placing the receiver at some
azimuthother than zero is that the distances from the receiver to the three anten-
nas are not equal, This is illustrated in Figure 1 7-1 3 (d). Considering the B
component of the received field (Figure 17-13 (b)) as phase reference it will be
seenthatthe A component is made to lag by an amount proportional to Ap and the
C component to lead by the same amount since the antenna spacings are equal.
If 0 is suchthat the lag and lead thereby introduced in the received field components
exactly compensates for the bâd and lag introduced by phase shifting at the trans-
mitter, the field components at the receiver will be as shown in Figure 17-13 (b)
for a dash, and in Figure 17-13 (c) for a dot. It is seen that the resultant field R
is equal in magnitude for ehe dot and dash fields, although the dot and dash phases
are not the same.
The equality in magnitude of the dot and dash fields is not affected by in-
equalities of the A and C antenna currents. Therefore equisignals are observed
atthe same positions and times no matter whether the A and C currents are equal
or not, and no errors result. If the A and C currents had been equal, the phases
of the received fields would also have been identical. The relative magnitudes of
the current vectors in Figure 17-13 are purposely not drawn to scale.
2. The phase-shifts of the currents in the outer antennas are not equal. This is illus-
trated in Figure 17-14 (a), in whichthe phase-shifts are </)] and ^ for the A and C
currents respectively. Toobtain an equisignal, the observer must shift to an azi-
muth such that the lag and lead thereby introduced into the A and C field compo-
nents is -ll.t?'2. This is illustrated in Figure 17-14 (b) (dash) and Figure 17-14
(c) (dot). Since the A and C fie:ds cancel, ..u equisignal is obtained. This equi-
signal would have occupied a slightly different posuunif o\ had been equal to 4>2-
The difference is small if (.')] and o^ a re not loo unequal. \ difference of 10° between
(L and ön shifts the position uf il niral equisignal by only 16', if n ■ 3 (see
Figure 17-05).
17.22 SONNE
■'dash dash
(d)
Fig. 17--13 Vector diagrams illustrating incorrect amplitude
I——1—WH
SONNE 17.23
B::R
dash
dash
dash
(a) (b)
B=R
(c)
Fig. 17-14 Vector diagrams illustrating incorrect phasing

17.24 SONNE
Change in frequency or in antenna spacing. These are equivalent as far as the

radiated pattern is concornod, since the pattern geometry depends on nX. A change
in frequency will of course have profound effects if the antenna tuning circuits
(and any other tuned circuits) have not been realigned, but it is presumed that this
has been done and that the frequency change was made for some definite reason--
e.g. to avoid jamming. Small errors in siting the transmitting antennas are also
covered under this heading.
Analysis shows that the center equisignal will not be shifted at all by such
a change or error, and the others slightly. The shift increases as 8 increases,
being proportional to tan 9. Taking n 3 and the least favorable case (fifth equi-
signal at 6 -■ 561°), this equisignal is shifted by only yn0 or by 51 for a 0.1% fre-
quency change or a 0,1 - error in antenna spacing.
4. The phases of the A and C antenna currents are correct, but that of the B antenna
current is incorrect. This is equivalent to inequality of phase shift of the outer
antenna currents, discussed under (2) above. The central equisignal will be shifted
by 16' if the phasing of the B antenna current is incorrect by 10°. Other equi-
sienals are shifted bv proportional amounts, the shift being proportional to -.
n
. i ■ cos a
5. The magnitude of the B antenna current, or of the A and C antenna currents, de-
parts from its assigned value. This amounts to a change in the value of p = E-,
and it will be noted from Table 17-01 that the number and disposition of the equi-
signals is not affected.
6. The phase-shift applied t'i the outer antenna currents is not linear with time. The
effect of this error is that the actual phasing of the transmitted signals at some
instant t seconds after the start of the phasing cycle is that which should have
existedata different instant t1 seconds after the start of the phasing cycle. Tins
is the same effect as would be produced by an error in the counting of dots and
dashes. The error in azimuth angle thereby introduced is a minimum for the
central equisignal at 6 - 0°, for which a phase departure of 10° from the proper
value corresponds to an error of 3 characters in the count, which in turn produces
an error of 29' in the line of position obtained. For other equisignals the error
is larger, being proportional to -_ .
cose
ib) Two-antenna Sonnt
1. The magnitudes of the currents in the two antennas depart from their assigned
values. This is a change in the value of p - B/A. From Table 17-02, it is seen
that although such an error will affect the sharpness of discriinmalion, the num-
ber and position of the equisignals will not be affected.
The phase of the P antenna current during a dot (or dash) period departs froni
its assigned value. This results in a shift of the equisignals. U the phase is in
error by A.<i> degrees, the equisignals are shifted by an amount AH (degree^ •
r '--—„■ For the central equisignalandanantenna spacing of three wavelengths
2/m cos 9
a 10° phasing error produces an equisignal shift of 32 . Other equisignals will be
shifted further, the shift being p 'opnrtional to —.
cos 6
Change mfrequency or antenna spacing. Assuming the phasing of all currents to
remain correct, and considering only the change in n.\ as it affects the radiated
pattern, the effect of this change is precisely the same as m the three-antenna
case. That in. a 0.11 change in frequency or in spacing shifts the fifth equi-
signal by 5' for n - 3. the central equisignul not at all.
SONNE 17.25
4. The initial phase of tho A antenna current departs from Us assigned value. That
is, <f)4 0 at t = 0, The effect of such an error with the 2-antenna Sonne is the
same'as an inaccuracy in the phasing of the dot or dash B-antenna current, dis-
cussed under (2) above.
5. The shift in phase during the cycle is not linear with time. The same remarks
apply here as in the three-antenna case. (See (a), 6 above.)
Comparison of two - and three-anten na Sonnen

1. Siting. The site of a Sonne station should be free from directional non-uniformities
over a considerable area, and should also be flat. Other conditions being equal,
a two-antenna Sonne should be easier to site than a tiirce-antenna Sonne.
2. Cost. In any low-frequency system, the outlay on antenna-towers and on the

ground system represents a sizeable part of the capital cost. This consideration
therefore favors a two-antenna design.
3. Power rating of transmitters. Using the numerical values for spacing and
current ratio already taken as typical (n - 3, p 4 for three-antenna Sonne and
n' = 3, p" = 1 for two-antenna Sonne) the equisignal field strength at the same
distance in the two cases is proportional to B for the three-antenna station and
to V2B1 for the two-antenna station. If these equisignal field strengths are to be
equal B' should equal 0.707 B. The total power radiated is proportional to
B2 + 2A2 = -| B2 for the three-antenna case and to 2B1 2 = B2 for the two-anten-
o
na case. Therefore, it the two-antenna and three-antenna designs are to produce
equal equisignal field strengths at equal distances, the three-antenna Sonne
must radiate 12^0c, mure power than the two-antenna Sonne.
4. Power-Handling capacity of phase shifter andkeyer. With the two-antenna design,

one-half of the total power must be keyed 'for dot and dash patterns) and phase-
shifted (for pattern rotation), if the antenna currents are equal and if the phase-
shifting and keying is done at high power-level. Under the same conditions, only
one-ninth of the power must be keyed and phase-shifted with the three-antenna
design. If high-level keying and phase-shifting are used, this point appears to be
a conclusive argument infavor of three antennas as opposed to two, and probably
represents the main answer to the question of why the Germans used the three-
antenna design.
5. Key clicks. Witti the throe-antenna phasing and keying arrangement used by the
Germans, there is no change of RF phase at equisignals between the dot and
dash fields, since the equisignal field is due to the steady current in the center
antenna alone. With the two-antenna design, the RF field changes phase by 90°
at the equisignal if the antenna currents are of equal magnitude. Using a receiver
containing high-Q RF circuits, key clicks would probably be more severe with
two-antenna transmission for this reason,
6. Sharpness of equisignal discrimination. Using equal currents in the two-amenna

Sonne, a current ratio p = 4 with the three-antenna Sonne and equal antenna spac
ings of throe wavelengths, it has been already noted that equal discrimination is
obtained in the two cases.
7. Susceptibility to errors in the phasing and keying circuits. From the considera-
tions of transmitter tolerances and errors already given, it may be seen that the
two-antenna system is slightly more susceptible to equisignal shifts than is the
three-antenna system. Exact comparison under this heading will of course de-
pend on the circuits used to realize the required results
waBmaatiz
BIWHMWMMB^KHB
17.26 SONNE
Bibliography
JEIA 8416 Secret Aids to Navigation Memo no, 8 Coastal Com-

Consol plotting chart, Faeroes mand
JEIA 6826 Secret German Long-range Navigational Intelligence Div.

system: Notes on Sonne Naviga- C.N.O,
tional beacon system: Consol as
an aid to Navigation
G ':0984 Secret Observations of the German Toronto Confer-

Sonne system ence
JEIA 7072 Secret Instructions for plotting radio Intelligence

fixes by the C.A.F. Radiobeacons branch, O.C.S.O.
"Elektra Sonne".
S67-5 Secret M.I.T. comments on the Sonne N.L.O. Div. 14
(Consol) Navigation System NDRC
JEIA 7080 Secret Investigation of Loran, Sonne Intelligence Div,
and Decca navigational aids. C.N.O,
8-935-17 Secret Sonne BUSHIPS
WA-4099-3 Secret An investigation to find a suitable P.O.E.D,, Lon-
method of checking the stability don
of the position-line given by Sonne
JEIA 7944 Secret Theoretical comparison of the two-• O.C.S.O,

and three-aerial Sonne systems Washington
WA-4312-3 Secret German Sonne navigational air C.I.O.S,
radio station, investigation of, SHAEF
12/14/44
JEIA 2809 Secret Consol Range and Accuracy Intelligence Div.
Trials CNO
VA 2/5260 Secret Circuit diagram of German phas- Watson Labs
ing equipment for Sonne trans-
mitters.
Report no. 9 Secret Interim report on the Sonne Watson Labs

(Consol) Navigation System
JEIA 10908 Confidential 'Elektra-Sonne" (Translation of Air Ministry,

Lorenz description and Operat- London
ing Instructions for Sonne 8
HF-Rack 111)
rmrT^"'"—™*™'1
MKBBVBBBBtanmW9
BENDIX 18.01
Bendix Automatic Position-Plotter

Type of system
Azimuth

Depends on power of ground beacons, also on height of navigated craft.
Accuracy
The accuracy of a fix obtained by this system is limited by the accuracy of
the automatic direction-finders used. A fairly conservative estimate would be ± 3°
azimuth in either of the lines of position which yield the fix.
Visual. Continuous and automatic indication of position is given visually on
a chart.

(a) Craft: Two automatic direction-finders of standard type, flux-gate com-
pass, specialized computer (automatic in operation), plotting board with special
attachments, (b) Ground: Two beacons requiredfor a fix. For coverage of a large
area, a number of beacons would be required.
Radio-frequency spectrum allotments necessary

Each beacon transmits on a different frequency. The automatic direction-
finder as at present used covers the frequency range 100 kcps - 1600 kcps. unless
other information were to be transmitted by the beacons, no modulation would be
necessary and each beacon would require only a single frequency.
Present status
The specialized computer and plotting board attachments are now being de-
veloped experimentally and a working model is expected to be in operation at the
Bendix Company's development laboratory in a few months. Flux-gate compasses
and automatic direction-finders are standard equipment already.
Principle of Operation
Referring to Figure 18-01, suppose that the craft is at R and the two ground
beacons at P and Q. The craft is headed in the direction RH, and RN represents
magnetic north. The flux-gate compass on the craft provides continuous readings
of the angle A between the heading and magnetic north. The two automatic direction-
finders give continuous indications of Band C, the angles of the beacons Q and P with
respect to the heading. The computer therefore receives three channels of informa-
tion: A, B and C. It performs two functions:
(a) By means of differential synchros, the angles ^ and 09 are computed. These
are the magnetic bearings of the beacons with respect to magnetic north. The
magnetic deviation is set into the computer as a constant, so that from these
angles the true bearings are obtained. In Figure 18-01, no distinction has been
made between true and magnetic north, for the sake of simplicity.
(b) If the positions of P, Q and R are specified by rectangular coordinates with res-
pect to axes OX and OY, then it will be realized that by the application of trigo-
nometry, the coordinates x and y of the craft can be computed in terms of the
constants x-^yjyn and the observed angles </<, and *„. This the computer does.
■n——————»««■ mimLm JMTrwr—T""''"' '■"l—'■■Wl1 mmuiu.nmmmavmwxâmmix
18.02 BENDIX
The plotting board has a small carriage ("bug") to which may be attached a
pointer, source of light or recording pen. This carriage is supported on, and moved
by, a framework running on two long threaded lead screws parallel to OX and OY.
The lead screws are rotated by means of small motors driven by suitable amplifiers,
into which are fed error voltages which represent the differences between the out-
put of the computer (x, y) and "position" voltages which are proportional to the
coordinate distances by which the carriage is displaced from the origin of coordi-
nates. These "position" voltages are obtained from long wire-wound potentiometers
supported below and parallel to the threaded lead screws, contact springs being
mounted on the screw heads which propel the carriage in the x and y directions.
The block diagram of Figure 18-02 illustrates the method by which these re-
sults are obtained.
Referring to Figure 18-02, the two automatic direction-finders provide data

as to the angles B and C in Figure 18-01. The flux-gate compass gives the angle A.
By means of differential synchros, the angles a and ß are fed to the computer, in the
form of physical rotations.
ß= A + C
a= A + B
Fig. 18-01 Angular relations

■BHMMMHHM
BENDIX 18.03
It may be shown that the coordinates x, y of the craft are given by the follow-
ing equations, in which the quantities Xj Xgy, y*01 ^^ ^ 'iave ^c significance indi-
cated in Figure 18-01.
SI" i3 r / N / ; •
x = x +
i sin(a-AT f (Xl
-x2)cos(y +
(y2-yi)si110' (1)
= +
y yi1 ,c°s ^ [ (x,I - xo) cos cv+ (yo - yO sin a (2)
sm{a - ß) ^ / J
Assuming that voltages proportional to x and y could be generated, and that

voltages proportional to x' and y', representing the actual position of the cursor at
any time, are obtained from the long wire-wound x and y potentiometers, then x1 -
x and y' - y would represent error voltages which, when suitably applied to the x
and y driving motors, would correctly position the cursor so that x' - x = y' -y =
0. However, the operation of multiplying by 1 'sin [a - ß) cannot be adequately per-
formed since this quantity varies between 1 and co . Therefore the above equations
are multiplied by sin {a - ß), giving
x sin {a - ß) = xj sin {n - ß) + sin ß [ (x. - xj cos n + (y2 - y.) sin a ] (3)
y sin {a - ß) = y^ sin [a - ß) + cos ß [ (x^ - xj cos a + (y2 - y.) sin a J (4)
Fig. 18-02 Block Diagram

18.04 BENDIX
This means that the voltages x' and y' must also be multiplied by sin {a - ß), The
error voltages which drive the x and y motors will then be given by
x1 sin {a - ß) - (xj sin {a - ß) + sin ß f (xj - x«) cos a + (y - y ) sin a (5)
y' sin {a - ß) ~ ^ sin (rv - ß) + cosß [{x^ - x^) cos a + iy^- Vj) s in rv (6)
These therefore are the operations which must be performed by the computer. It
should be noted that when {a - ß) = 0 or 180 (on the line joining the beacon trans-
mitters and on the extensions of this line) the error voltages will be zero. There
is therefore a region of low accuracy adjacent to the base line and its extensions.
Furthermore, if the aircraft crosses the base line, sin {a - ß) will change sign. If
the error voltages are to maintain the correct direction of drive, both driving motors
must be reversed at this point.
(</)
Sv-
DC
Urn),
\
Motors
:6)
Fig. 18-03
BENDIX 18.05
y ^ ^ ^ x W
Y output Xoutput Il5v, 400~
Fig. 18-04 Computing circuits

18.06 BENDIX
Referring to Figure 18-03 (a), the differential drive shown makes the angle
(a - ß ) available as a physical rotation. The switchS, which is closed when 0<(a' - ß)
<180o and open when 180o< {a - ß) <360o, performs the required reversal of the
motor drive as indicated in Figure 18-03(b), where AC motors are used and the
sense of the stator fields is reversed by the reversing switch R.
Referring now to Figure 18-04, AC voltages at 400 cps frequency are taken
from the secondaries of the eight transformers at the right and are applied to eight
potentiometers Pj - Pg. The x., x y* and y? coordinates (constants for the two
beacons and particular chart used) are preset into Pj, P2, P3, P4, P5, and P^ as
indicated. It is suggested that this operation might be ganged with the tuning con-
trols of the two automatic direction-finders, so that push-button station selectors
could be used to cover the area within which this type of navigational coverage is
provided. Pg and Pg are the "position" potentiometers parallel to the x and y axes
on the plotting board.
The outputs of Pj and P2 are placed in series with the stator of A-,, which is
a goniometer so constructed that the output from its rotor is proportional to the
cosine of the angle through which the rotor has been turned. Since the rotor is dri-
ven from the a angular data shaft, the output from it will be a 400-cycle AC voltage
whose magnitude is proportional to (xj- x^) cos a.
In a similar way, Po, P4 and Ao yield an AC voltage whose magnitude is

proportional to (y« - y^) sin a, the A^ and A« rotors being at right angles and both
driven from the a angular data shaft.
These two voltages are combined in series and applied to the 6V6 torque am-
plifier. The rotor of A7 therefore receives a current proportional to (xj - Xo) cos a
sin a/
+ (72 - Yl) -
An, A^, Ac and Ag are all driven with their stators attached to the a angular
data shaft and their rotors to the ß shaft. Each of them therefore multiplies its
input voltage by a factor sin {a - ß). The outputs of A3 and A4 are placed in series
and applied to one stator coil of Ar-,. The rotor of Ar, is driven by the ß angular data
shaft. The current in the x output circuit is therefore proportional to
x1 sin (a - ß) - ix\ sin (rv - ß) + sin/? ["(xi - xg) cosa' + (y2 - y^sinaH
which is of the required error form.
The second stator coil of A,, is at right-angles to the first, and therefore
multiplies the rotor input by cos ß. The y output is therefore proportional to
y1 sin (a - ß) - jyj sin (a1 - ß) + cosßf (xj - X2)cos^ + (y2 - yi)sina]|
which is also of the required form.
Thus if the cursor is not at the correct position, it will be driven there by two
error voltages (or currents) whose magnitudes decrease as the correct position is
approached. Anti-hunt features are not included: it is presumed that they will not
be required.
IIIWIIIIIWIIIII«! »II
CAA VHF Omnidirectional Beacon 19.01
T.ype of system
Azimuth (radial).
Useful range
50 miles at 1000 feet. Coverage area - 50-mile circle around station.
Accuracy
(a) Ideal or best theoretical + 2.8°.
(b) Actual + 5° (may be improved).
(c) 180° ambiguity easily resolved.
Right-left zero-center meter and azimuth selector. Neon light indicates
180° error.

(a) At ground installations: May operate unattended. VHF transmitter, side-
frequency generator and control equipment to be serviced.
(b) In navigated craft: Very little skill required.
(c) Time to obtain a fix: 20 seconds.
Equipment (Complexity and Weight)

(a) At ground or control point: Transmitter and antenna system, fairly complex.
Weight not in excess of 1000 to 2000 pounds.
(b) In craft: Receiver employs standard VHF practices. Converter faii'ly com-
plex. Weight about 25 pounds.
Frequency
125 mcps.
Wavelength
2.4 meters.
Bandwidth
About 24 kcps.
Present status
Experimental.
This system is based upon the use of a rotating horizontal-antenna directivity
pattern. This pattern which is a limacon is produced by an antenna array consist-
ing of four elements mounted at the corners of a square and a fifth element located
at the center of the square. The center element is fed with 125-mcps energy which
is amplitude modulated with a 10-kcps frequency. ThelO-kcps frequency is frequency-
modulated by 60 cps from the power line. The 125-mcps energy supplied to the cen-
ter element can also be voice-modulated for communication purposes. The other
four elements are fed with energy in the following manner. Diagonally opposed
pairs of elements are connected to a common feed point but with different lengths
of transmission line so that one element is 180° out of phase with the diagonally
opposite element. The second diagonally opposite pair are phased in the same way.
Each diagonally opposed pair is fed from a side-frequency generator. The modula-
tion envelope of one pair of elements is 1/4 period different in phase from the mod-
ulation envelope of the other pair of elements. The side frequencies produced are
(125 mcps - 60 cps) and (125 mcps + 60 cps). No 125-mcps carrier voltage is pro-
19.02 CAA VH.F Omnidirectional Beacon
Beacon
Reference phase Voltage

From Frequency
Modulated 10 K, c. P. s.
variable Phase voltage

At Po;nt x prom
Rotating pattern
a sec
Fig. 19-01 Principle of operation of omnidirectional beacon

nOBMMBM
CAA VHF Omnidirectional con 19.03
duced by the side-frequency generators. These side-frequency generators may be

either balanced modulators or a rotating-capacitor modulator. At any given point
in space one will receive a 60-cps-modulated 125-mcps signal. The absolute time
phase of the 60-cps modulation depends upon the azimuth angle with respect to the
beacon of the receiving point. As one moves about the beacon in azimuth the phase
of the 60-cps modulation changes. It is thus possible 10 determine azimuth if some
phase reference voltage is available. This reference phase is provided by the 60-
cps frequency modulation of the 10-kcps sub-carrier.
Figure 19-01 illustrates the operation of the system. It is here assumed

that the amplitude of the reference voltage passes through a maximum at the same
instant that the maximum of the rotating pattern passes through North. At the
point X the variable-phase voltage passes through a maximum 90° later than the
reference-phase voltage. This indicates that the point X is at an azimuth angle of
90°from the beacon. Thus azimuth angles are presented as a phase angle between
the variable-phase voltage and the reference-phase voltage.
Two radiating systems have been tried. One consists of five vertical half-
wave dipoles placed over a circular metal counterpoise. The other radiating sys-
tem consists of five "Alford loops"*placed above a circular counterpoise. These
loops are placed in a horizontal plane to give horizontal polarization. It was found
that reflections from trees, telephone poles and so forth interfered with the accuracy
of the radiated pattern when the vertical dipoles were used. This distortion of the
radiation pattern was minimized by using horizontal polarization. The only prac-
tical omnidirectional elements that can produce horizontal polarization and can be
closely spaced arc Alford loops. Surrounding this array of loops is a vertical
polarization filter consisting of a cylindrical cage of vertical wires.
iSiOEFREQUEMCY
\ GENERATOR
e+i80o
r 125 mcps
EXCITER
CARRIER
MODULATOR
0+180°
1
Radiating
SIDEFREQUENCY
elements
j GENERATOR
eocps
PHASE
SHIFTER 90°
>-t
lOkcps
FM DCS
mic
Fig. 19-02 Block diagram of system using electronic side-frequency generators
*See Figure 19-08

19.04 CAA VHF Omnidirectional Beacon
Figure 19-02 is a block diagram of the beacon transmitter using electronic

side-frequency generators. A 125-mcps exciter supplies energy to the two side-
frequency generators and to the carrier modulator. The modulating voltage for
the two side-frequency generators is supplied from the 60-cps power line. The 60
cps supplied to the one side-frequency generator is shifted 90° with respect to that
supplied to the other side-frequency generator. The modulation envelopes of these
two side-frequency generators are thus 90° out of phase. The carrier modulator
is supplied with a 10-kcps signal which is frequency-modulated at 60 cps to a devia-
tion ratio of 8. Inotherwords, the frequency swings between 9520 to 10480 at a 60-cps
rate. It was found that frequency modulation of the 10-kcps sub-carrier gave better
results and less cross modulation than when amplitude modulation of this sub-car-
rier was used. A speech amplifier and microphone are used so that the center ele-
ment can also be voice-modulated.
To one diagonally
opposed pair
of elements
9 Q
r.-: 1 1^- <r< 1
2^
•::y^7//^v///////////m///rt
125 meps
C eocps
excitation
Fig. 19-03 Electronic side-frequency generator
Figure 19-03 is a simple diagram of one of the side-frequency generators.

It is a balanced modulator using parallel input of the 125-mcps to the two tubes.
The plates are connected to the output circuit in push-pull and the 60 cps is applied
to the two plates and screens in push-pull.
Figure 19-04 is a diagram of the 10-kcps sub-carrier generator. It is a

delay-line or phase-shift type of oscillator using a 6SG7 amplifier followed by a
6J5 cathode follower. The output of the cathode follower is fed back to the input of
the 6SG7 amplifier through a four-yection delay line. One of the shunt elements of
the delay line is made electronically variable by being connected to the two 6J5s
connected in series. The effective resistance of the 6j5s is varied by the 60-cps
input.
Figure 19-05 is a block diagram of the beacon transmitter using a rotating-

capacitor side-frequency generator. Both the carrier modulation and the side-fre-
quency modulation are done at the final output level. The rotating-capacitor side-
frequency generator is driven by a synchronous 60-cps motor running at 3600 rpm.
CAA VHF Omnidirectional Boacon 19.05
6SG7 6J5
CATHODE
AMP
FOLLOWER
,+ 48
6J5
6J5
rVWW--
Fig. 19-04 Frequency-modulated oscillator
This motor also drives a two-pole AC generator which supplies the 60-cps reference
frequency to the 10-kcps FM oscillator. The carrier modulator is a A/4 line type.
Figure 19-06 illustrates the principle of the rotating-capacitor side-frequency

generator. It has a rotoi consisting of two electrodes supplied with energy from
the transmitter and two stators mounted at right angles to each other. The rotor
electrodes are half-cylinders with the ends tapered off. When rolled out flat the
shape of each side is a double half-sine-wave. Each stator consists of two half-
cylindrical shells. The two sets of shells are mounted so that the slits are at right
angles.
Figure 19-07 is a developed (rolled-out-flat) diagram of the side-frequency

generator.
Figure 19-08 (a) shows the design of the Alford loops used. The current
distribution on two sides is also shown.
Figure 19-08 (b) shows the top view of the array of five loops.
Figure 19-08 (c) is a side view of the array of loops.

Carrier Modulator
VOICE AND
REFERENCE
MODULATOR 9+180°
I25mcps
TRANSMITTER
60 C pS
0+180°
60CpS 60 Cps ROTATING
R£F -9- SYNC ^ CAPACITOR
SIDEFREOUENCY
GEN MOTOR GENERATOR
IQkc ps SPEECH
FM DCS AMP
mic
Fig. 19-05 Block diagram of system using rotating-capacitor side-frequency

generator
SHELLS A SHELLS B
To one diaqonoily To other diagonally
opposed pair of opposed pair of
elements elements
SHELLS A SHELLS
split in r^ Split in
horizontal plane vertical plane
Rotor (side view)
6 0
From transmitter
Fig. 19-06 Rotating-capacitor side-frequency generator

To One D'ngonally Opposed

Pair of Elements
SHELLS A
___
y\
i
/ ^v y \
/ \, / \
/ / \
r
/ // \
v "-TV- /
?\ -rv /v-- /'>
? ^ ,/ i
/ // \ /
iHELLS B / /
/ /
/ /
/ ^
To Other Diagonally Opposed

Pair of Elements
Fig. 19-07 Developed diagram of rotating-capacitor side-frequency generator
Figure 19-09 is a block diagram of the converter used in the receiving in-
stallation. A 125-mcps superheterodyne receiver is used to receive the transmis-
sions. The converter consists essentially of two channels, a phase shifter and a
phase comparator. The upper channel contains a high-pass filter and amplifier to
select and amplify the 10-kcps sub-carrier. This frequency-modulated sub-carrier
is then applied to a discriminator (shown in Figure 19-10) which recovers the 60-
cpsphase-reference voltage. This 60-cps voltage is applied to a phase splitter and
then to the two stators of a goniometer-type phase shifter. The lower channel con-
tains alow-pass filter and amplifier to select and amplify the 60-cps variable-phase
voltage. The output of the phase shifter and of the lower channel are applied to a
Current Distribution
0 0 i i
0 0
Single Alford Loop Top view Side view

Of Array Of Array
id) (b) iC)
Fig. 19-08 Alford loop and loop array

imimrgBTwmiinniiimBrfi'TTfr'
. nv^^niKVHBamiMBWBK^mB^KBraKiBai
19.08 CAA VHF Omnidirectionai Beacon
phase-comparator circuit. This phase-comparator circuit (shown in Figure 19-11) is

a wattmeter circuit. The zero-center meter will indicate zero current when the
voltages are 90O out of phase. This allows a 180° ambiguity,so an ambiguity-re-
solving circuit is used. The output from the phase shifter is shifted 445° in one
phase shifter and the output of the variable-phase channel is shifted -45° in another
phase shifter. These two voltages are applied to a mixer amplifier and then to a
neon lamp. When the phase shifter is adjusted to give a zero indication on the left-
right meter the voltages applied to the mixer will be either in phase or 180° out of
phase. The correct setting is that which gives in-phase voltages and therefore
lights the neon lamp. Thus the lamp serves to indicate ambiguity, the beacon code,
and proper operation of the system.
Figure 19-12 is a complete circuit diagram of the latest model of azimuth

converter.
60CPS PHASE REFERENCE

/ VOLTAGE
/
DISCRIM - n PHASE
NATOR 1 SPUTTER
-45° +45
GONIOMETER
/PHASE SHIFTER
FROM l25m.Cp.S.
^mr^' rw^-! AMPLIFIER
RECEIVER
60cp S VARIABLE
PHASE VOLTAGE -
\
L.P FILTER AMPLIFIER PHASE RIGHT-LEFT
:OMPARATOR
ZERO CENTER
CIRCUIT
METER
+-45 PHASE
SHIFTER
MIXER
AMPLIFIER
-45 PHASE
SHIFTER NEON LIGHT
AMBIGUITY
INDICATOR
Fig. 19-09 Block diagram of azimuth converter

iw-m nm—w^Mirww ■■■ ■irMMT—MMMi——a———i
■BBMnaEomBnMKua
8.25kc ps
nmw
60c p s
OUTPUT
lOkcps
♦ ♦'
FM
INPUT
4 ii 5kcps
X.
ÖB'
Fig. 19-10 Discriminator
9B + 9B +
eoc.p.s. variable
Phase input
eoc.p.s.
Reference
Phase input
Right-Left
Zero Center
Meter
Fig. 19-11 Phase comparator

IIIMIIIIiWIIBIIlMllll
w—i ii i^—————■
nmnm
4——Jl
N
2
i—v^/w^—,
vVVVv^
^1 1
-vöflfiiMiL-i-o i
r^müMT-i
'TRftftyOTTT-VWW-o i
O 3. ^
v\AA/V 1
KJiMaaa^-1—o
f—OSOTOTffü^-
-VV\AA^
Fig. 19-12 Circuit, diagram of azimuth converter

; —-iiiiiiTm- MiiM «■iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinnrrninnniiramiWi
1 1
■■■■■II^WIIWHIIWIIII" —""~
CAA LF Omnidirectional Beacon 20.01
The Civil Aeronautics Authority is constructing an experimental low fre-

quency omnidirectional beacon. The principle of operation is the same as that of
theCAAVHF omnidirectional beacon described in Section 19. Five tower antennas
will be used instead of the Afford loops used in the VHF version. The frequency
will be somewhere between 200 kcps and 400 kcps. Because of the low frequency,
the sub-carrier on the center antenna will be 1000 cps rather than the 10,000 ops
used on the VHF beacon. Since a rotating-capacitor side-frequency generator is
not practical at this low frequency it is proposed to use a rotating inductive-gonio-
meter type of side-frequency generator. The azimuth converter used with the VHF
beacon can also be used with this LF beacon if the discriminator is changed.
Federal Long-Range Navigation System 21.01
Type of system
Azimuth.
Useful range
Day - 1500 miles
Night - 1500 miles.
Accuracy
Ideal - Calculated accuracy assuming attenuator accuracy of 1 %.
Accuracy in best direction
1/5°= 5.2 miles at 1000 miles
Accuracy 10° from direction of least accuracy
1-1/2° = 39 miles at 1000 miles
Actual - Not known
Ambiguities - Unresolvable ambiguity between sectors spaced equi-angular
from 90° and 270°. Accuracy in 90° and 270° directions is very poor, therefore am-
biguity between closely spaced sectors on either side of 90° or 270° is not serious
since system is not useful there anyway.
Presentation
Visual (meters and control knobs). Knobs must be varied to give specified
meter indication and then line of position is read from dials. Line of position can
be obtained in 1/2 to 1 minute.
Skill
Ground: Operator to check phase and amplitudes of currents fed to twu
antennas.
Craft: Intelligent use to avoid blind faith to readings.
Equipment required
Ground: 65-kw (max.) CW transmitter, phase-shifting equipment, two high
and expensive antennas spaced X/2 apart. Relatively simple and could be automa-
tically monitored.
Craft; Receiver and indicating equipment. Fairly complex. Special charts.

Frequency: 70 keps to 76 keps
Wavelength: 4280 meters to 3950 meters
Bandwidth: Receiver - 15 cps
Transmitter •■ 70 cps,
Present status
Proposed,
This system is based upon the use of a fixed station which transmits energy
infour different directivity patterns in succession. The signal received at the craft
will have four amplitudes corresponding to these four directivity patterns. By pro-
per interpretation of these values, the azimuth from the fixed station may be deter-
mined. Letusfirst consider only two of the four radiated patterns as shown in Fig-
ure 21-01. Pattern X— is obtained when the two antennas A and B are driven in
phase. Pattern Y— is obtained when two antennas A and B are driven 180° out of
phase. If the craft wert1 located al ihr- point f along the line ad the X and Y signals
would be equal. This would be called an oquisignal path since the X and Y signals
would both correspond t^ Lin length :ui. Let us now consider the craft at the point
HMWMMW
21.02 Federal Long-Range Navigational System
Fig. 21-01 Radiated patterns for 0 and 180 phase of antennas
eon the line abc. The Y signal will correspond to the length ac and the X signal will
correspond to the length ab. If the equipment in the craft can measure the ratio of
the X signal to the Y signal (X/Y = ab/ac) then it has determined the fact that it may
be on the line abce. It might also lie on the lines ag, ah, or ak. This ambiguity can
be reduced from 4 possible lines to two possible lines by making use of the other
two radiated patterns. In the above case the ratio X/Y would be measured by gat-
ing the Y signal (ac) through a calibrated attenuator and reducing its amplitude to
equal that of the unattenuated X signal ab. The value of attenuation necessary may
be read from the attenuator thus giving the line of position on the special chart.
nc^Hraunia ■SBtf^HBBflH
IM»h.nv»JBM>.nillll „
Federal Long-Range Navigational System 21.03
Fig. 21-02 Radiated patterns for 90° and 270° phase of antennas
In the simplified explanation given using only two antenna patterns,a limited
number of azimuths in four general directions can be determined since the X/Y or
Y/X ratio cannot be measured accurately if the weaker signal is too weak. In order
to overcome this fault four antenna patterns are used. Figure 21-02 gives the two
additional antenna patterns that are used. Pattern M is obtained when the cur-
rent in antenna B leads the current in antenna A by 90°. Pattern N--- is obtained
when the current in antenna B leads the current in antenna A by 270°. Thus all
four of the patterns given in Figure 21-01 and Figure 21-S2 may be obtained from
the two antennas by supplying them with currents of equal magnitude and varying
the phase of one current in four steps of 90° with respect to the other. Ir order to
be useful in measuring azimuth,some means of synchronizing the ratio-measuring
circuit in the receiver must be used. In order to accomplish this an omnidirection-
al signal is transmitted once each cycle of four directivity patterns.
I
Fig. 21-03 Cycle of system

M«manwiiMiMiii—iwMii
Federal Long-Pange Navigational System V 05
Figure 21-03 is a diagrammatic presentation of the currents supplied to each antenna

and of the directivity patterns that result. The first line represents the current
supplied to antenna A. This current is constant in phase but varies in amplitude
as shown. The second line shows the current supplied to antenna B. Its amplitude
and phase v^ry as shown. The phase angle indicated is taken with respect to the
current in antenna A. The third line indicates the antenna directivity patterns
obtained with the indicated phases. The fourth line indicates the signal that would
be received along the line ax. The synchronizing signal S is received equally well
in all directions. This cycle has a period of approximately 1 second.
The upper part of Figure 21-04 is a rectangular plot of the four radiation
patterns of the ground antenna system. The bottom part of this figure is a plot of
the X/Y, Y/X, M/N, and N/M ratios, From this it can be seen that a ratio less
than0,4 need never be used. Between the two plots the useful ratios and the sector
symbol assigned to them are given. It will be noticed that there are two sectors in
which the sameX/Y ratios occur. This ambiguity can be resolved by use of the M/N
or N/M ratios since they will not be the same for these two ambiguous sectors. The
ratios used for sector resolution or check are shown above the sector symbol. It
will be noted that sectors equi-angular distant from 90° and 270° are ambiguous
and that this ambiguity cannot be resolved.
Figure 21-05 is a block diagram of the receiver-indicator system. Only the

IF amplifier of the receiver is indicated. An auxiliary detector is fed from the out-
put of the IF unit. The output of this detector corresponds to the entire cycle of
signal strengths. This output is fed to the synchronizing-signal selector which se-
lects only the synchronizing signal. This signal (pulse) is used to synchronize a
stable sine-wave oscillator. This oscillator serves as a time base to operate the
gating circuit. The output of this sine-wave generator is fed to a phase-shifting
circuit. The output of this circuit consists of two sine waves that are roughly 90°
out of phase (the actual phase relation proposed is 113°). One of these sine waves
is used to control a gating-pulse generator. These gating pulses gate an IF ampli-
fier stage and therefore pass only part of the X and Y signals, or the M and N sig-
nals. The other sine wave is fed to a half-wave rectifier. The output of this recti-
fier energizes a nonpolarized relay. The rectifier can be switched to pass either
the positive or the negative halves of the sine wave supplied to it. As a specific
example, let us assume that the sine wave of the correct phase to gate the X and Y
signals to the detector is used. The other sine wave is half-wave rectified and the
pulses operate the relay. The relay can thus be pre-set, by the rectified pulses of
current, to pass the X signal through the attenuator and released to pass the Y sig-
nal direct. The actual duration and timing of the X and Y signals is not determined
by the relay timing but by the gating pulse generator. By reversing the direction
of the relay rectifier the Y signal may be passed through the attenuator and the X
signal passed directly. This permits either the Y/X ratio or the X/Y ratio to be
measured. By reversing the roles played by the two out-of-phase sine waves the
M signal and N signal may be gated to the detector and the relay rectifier switch
permits one to select either the M/N or the N/M ratio. The attenuated and unat-
tenuated signals are applied to a differential zero-center meter through two revers-
ing switches and a damping filter. Since this system may be used for homing.one
reversing switch is used to reverse the sense of the meter indication depending upon
whether the craft is moving toward or away from the fixed station. The second re-
versing switch is used to give the correct sense of indication when the ambiguity
check is made. This second reversing switch, the relay rectifier reversing switch,
andthephasedistr;butfr swuch are all ganged together an'! called the sector selec-
tor switch. This switch has eight positions, two for each of the following ratio
1
M X N Y
Y
10
-~~ "•■N
^ ^
9
/
/
y
/ \
>v^
' \
^>"-"
/
1
/ \ / \ / \
f -A
/ \ / / N
7 . ■"
^ \/ \/ \ i/
1
\ 1 / ^
u 6
\ / \ 1 \ / \ /
1 /
o \ 1 \ /
\ /
\ >/ 1 \ \ /
N
-I 9
\
3 /
i\
/ \/
A VA /\
/
\ 1
r \ \
\ / \ / \v
2
/ / \
y
/
\
\ /
/
\
\
1
1
\ 1 \
^ 1
\ 1 \
0
I r i i
X Y M £. Ratio used for

Y )' N Y Sector Check
■ ■■- —v v v v •
A B CDEFG H sector Symbol
-- s
N V
X V
Y V
N V
.M Li ' M
useful Ratio
M Y X M N
1
X
1
r N
< V f V 1 * \
1.0 ' 1
NN 1
1
V /
/s
1 /1 /
/
8
\
V
\ 1
1
1
1
1
1V !// '',
>
!
/ \
\
\ /
/
/
*
1 ! V \ v
o \ \
5er g \ i / / \ 1
i 1
/ \ 1
i j i\ y \ 1
\ \/
3
\
y \
1
A i
i t ! / \
i
1 i
\
\
J
i J \ j
i 1
/ \ / \\
/ \ I\ /
i ' 1
\ Y
t
N,
N , N | X Y M
Y X
x N N
Y
.1
270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
270 260 250 240 230 220 210 200 190 180 170 160 150 140 150 I«) 110 100 90
Fig. 21-04 Radiated patterns and ratios used for measurement

Federal Long-Range Navigational System 21.07
X!
■u
a
N
cd
s
■rH
T3
O
O
r—I
CQ
m
o
4 UJ U
CE V) (T
T a. a
a
L^ Ui
lUJO«
10.-1
(/i ü' w 5
m*
=rw
«5.0
21.08 Federal Long-Hange Navigational System
measurements:X/Y, Y/X, M/N, N/M. For a given value of any one of the four ra-
tios given there exist four radial lines of position. By checking the value of the
ratio obtained from the other pair of patterns this ambiguity can be reduced to two
lines of position equi-angular distant from the 90° - 270 axis. By referring to
Figure 21-04 it can be seen that a given value of Y/X ratio can be obtained in sec-
tors C and F. The N/M ratio in sector C is less than one and is greater than one
in sector F thus permitting the ambiguity between sectors C and F to be resolved
by a check on the N/M ratio. On the indicating panel a push button is provided to
do the necessary switching to make this check. This irreducible ambiguity is not
too serious since the system does not give accurate lines of position close to this
axis anyway. It is suggested that this ambiguity could be reduced by taking bear-
ings from other stations or by use of a DF system on the craft.
The calculated accuracy assuming an attenuator accuracy of 1 % is;
Pattern Azimuth dar error Lateral error at

1500 miles
M-N 0° (180°) 1/5° 5.2
M-N or X-Y 150(345°, 165°, 195°) 1/30 8.7
X-Y 30° (330°, 150°, 210°) 1/4° 6,5
M-N or X-Y 50O (310°, 130°, 230°) 1/20 13
M-N 70° (290O IIOO 250°] 5/8° 16
M-N 80° ( 280O, 100d, 260O) 1-1/2° 39
M-N 90° (270°) 6° 157
Some errors might be caused by the fact that the ratio of the field strengths
is not measured instantaneously but the two fields are sampled in succession. The
presence of noise or rapid fading would require a very long time-constant in the
meter damping filter to average out such effects.
Bibliography
Proposal No, Confidential Universal Communications, Federal Tele-

235 Airport Control, Traffic phone and Radio
Control, and Aerial Naviga- Corporation
tion System (Part III - Aer-
ial Navigation)
^HBK^^HHBH^HIHM
Airborne Radar 22.01
There are a number of airborne radar sets which are designed to perform
one or several different functions such as: search, general navigation (by beacons,
landscape, etc.), bomb release, identification, interception, early warning, gun-
laying, collision prevention, measurement of altitude, etc. Brief descriptions of the
various pieces of radar equipment which are available to perform some of the
above functions maybefoundinSectionl of the U.S. Radar Survey. H2X (AN/APS-15
or AN/APQ-i3) equipment is among the most useful airborne radars for purposes
of general navigation, and has been in operational use for several years. AN/APS-15
is typical of H2X equipment. The following pages of this section contain a descrip-
tion of the AN/APS-15 set and the NOSMO attachment to it. The Micro-H attach-
mentfor H2X is described separately in Section 5. AN/APS-15 is X-band airborne
radar equipment with PPI presentation and facilities for making accurate range
measurements to range-coded beacons.
Description of Radar Set AN/APS-15 (H2X)
Type of System
Combination of range and azimuth.
Useful Range
0-90 miles for search operation, 0-250 miles for beacon operation (radar
line-of-sight), 1000-36,000 feet for precise altitude measurement. Battleships can
be detected at a maximum reliable range of 60 miles, destroyers at 45 miles, sur-
faced submarines at 10 miles, and ground targets such as cities at a maximum range
of 30-60 miles.

(a) Range accuracy: For beacon interrogation, + 200 yards; for high altitude
bombing + 200 yards; for normal search operation, + 500 yards on 5-mile sweep,
+ 5,000-10,000 yards on 90-mile sweep; for high altitude search, + 200 yards on
computer, + 500 yards on 5-mile sweep, + 2000 yards on 20-mile sweep.
(b) Azimuth-angle accuracy, + 3°; azimuth-angle accuracy with azimuth
stabilization, + 6°.
Visual on PPI.

One skilled radar-operator and possibly also a navigator in the aircraft.
Ground beacons are unattended. Time for a navigational fix with beacons: less than
a minute.
Equipment Required
WeightofH2X aircraft equipment is about 370 pounds. An X-band beacon
such as AN/CPN-6 or equivalent is suitable as ground beacon equipment for use with
H2X.
Radio-Frequency Spectrum Allotments Required

Aircraft Radar, f = 9335 to 9415 mcps X = 3.2 cm. B.W. = 2.5 mcps.
Ground Beacons, f = 9310 mcps
Present Status of Development

Fully developed, in production, and in operational use.
Brief Non-Technical Description of H2X Equipment

Although the primary use of H2X equipment is to locate land objectives and
to time the release of bombs for area bombing, it is also an extremely useful aid
22.02 Airborne Radar
for general navigation. H2X equipment provides means for:

(1) Bind navigation and homing through beacon reception.
(2) Normal radar search operation with PPI presentation.
(3) Control of high-altitude bombing.
(4) Determination of altitude.
(5) Instantaneous determination of true or relative bearing,
(6) Determination of drift angle,
The essential components of the set are shown in the block diagram of Fig-
ure 22-01.
PULSE
TRANSMIT-
CONTROL
CONTROLS TING
IMTENNA
SYSTEM
TARGET
¥
/
0> DISPLAY
'*\ RECEIVER
ELEMENTS
Fig. 22-01 Simplified block diagram for H2X radar set
The PPI gives a map- like presenta-

tion of a large circular area (or sector
thereof) of the earth's surface, and super-
imposed upon this may be indications of
\\
other aircraft in the vicinity. During navi-
gation by beacons, only beacon response
signals and an adjustable range marker
RANGE
appear on the PPI screen. MARKER
CIRCLE
The map-like character of the PPI
presentation makes it extreme y useful as
a general navigational aid especially near
coastal regions where characteristic ir-
regularities of coastline are easily recog-
nizable. The top of the PPI screen may be
chosen to represent either true north or
the heading of the aircraft. ,<^'
The altitude of the aircraft is ob-
tainedfrom the time required for a pulse Fig. 22-02 Example of beacon
signal to travel from the aircraft to the code signal
ground and back. Two signals must be
aligned visually on a separate cathode-ray-tube indicator (A-scan) with the aid of a
variable time-delay circuit the adjustment of which controls the position of a direct-
reading altitude-indicator.
aflHBOIfflBaHBa
Radar responder beacons (racons) may be interrogated from the aircraft,

and range-coded response signals observed on the PPI screen as illustrated by
Figure 22-02. The beacon response signals arc coded for the purpose of beacon
identification. The range ô any beacon may be obtained from dial indications after
setting an adjustable slant-range marker circle for coincidence with the first (in-
ner) beacon response on the PPI. From the altitude and slant range, and ground
range may be easily determined. (See Figure 22-03). Ground range determinations on
two beacons enable the navigator to deter-
mine a fix (See Figure 22-04).
The PPI may be set so that the top

of its screen represents the heading of the
aircraft. It is then a simple matter for the
pilot to direct the craft so as to "home" on Fig. 22-03 Range and altitude
a beacon. relationships
The stationary circumference of the PPI screen is marked off in degrees
with zero at the top. A fine ruled line on a transparent rotatable cover may be set
to any desired azimuth. When the flux-gate compass and associated azimuth-stab-
ilization equipment is used to keep the true-
north direction at the top (0° position) of the
PPI screen, the adjustable azimuth line on
the transparent cover may be conveniently
used to obtain the true bearing of any tar-
get appearing on the screen. A bright radial
line on the PPI is available if desired to
indicate the heading of-the aircraft. If the
azimuth stabilization equipment is not used,
then the top of the PPI image represents
the heading of the aircraft; and the adjust-
able azimuth line may then be used to deter-
mine the relative bearing of any target with Fig. 22-04 Navigational fix
respect to the heading of the aircraft. The obtained from range
use of the adjustable azimuth line to deter- measurements to two
mine drift angle will be discussed later.
beacons
Although this survey is not primar-
ily concerned with bombing-run procedure, in the present instance an outline of the
high-altitude bombing operation provides a convenient illustration of techniques
which are also applicable to general navigational problems. In this operation, a pre-
liminary determination of wind velocity must be made early in the mission before
the start of the actual bombing run. This may be accomplished by determining the
air velocity and ground velocity during a short straight flight. The air velocity is
obtainedfrom the direction of flight (PPI indicator) and an air-speed indicator dial,
the reading of which must be corrected for altitude and temperature. The ground
velocity may be most easily determined with the aid of ground beacons. Two suc-
cessive navigational "fixes", taken a short time apart, will give the ground velocity
(ground speed and course bearing). A vector diagram such as that shown in Figure
22-05 enables the navigator to determine the wind velocity.
As soon as the target is located (within 50 miles of the aircraft) the pilot
heads the aircraft toward the target and the navigator calculates as quickly as pos-
sible what the air speed and heading should be in order that the plane's course pass
directly over the target. This trigonometric calculation is simply a second applica-
äm^mwnvâamm
tionof a vector diagram similar to that of

Figure 22-05, except that now the desired
ground velocity toward the target is known;
and from the predetermined wind speed
the navigator can calculate the required
air speed and heading of the aircraft.
Temperature and altitude corrections must
be applied to the true air speed in order
to obtain the indicated air speed to which
the pilot must hold the aircraft.
If the center line of the sector scan

corresponds to the heading of the aircraft
then the top of the PPI screen indicates
the craft heading; and the adjustable azi-
muth line if set at the proper drift angle
indicates the aircraft's course over the
PPI map. All objects on the PPI screen
tend to drift parallel to the adjustable azi-
muth line underneath which the target
should appear. However, during the bomb- Fig. 22-05 Determination of
ing run it is more convenient to have the wind velocity
top of the PPI screen correspond to the
aircraft course through the target as shown in Figure 22-06. An azimuth adjustment
is therefore provided so that the center of the sector-scan may be displaced from the
heading of the aircraft.
For a given type of bomb, corresponding altitude and slant ranges have been
determinedfor several values of ground speed. This information is presented graph-
ically upon a drum chart, the vertical and horizontal scales of which are altitude and
slant range. Adjustment of a slant-range cross hair for coincidence with an inter-
section of an altitude cross hair with the chosen value of aircraft ground speed, auto-
matically places the adjustable slant-range marker-circle on the PPI at the proper
slant range required for bomb release. The bombs are released at the instant
that the target crosses tne slant-range marker-circle.
Brief Technical Description of the

AN/APS-15 (H2X) Radar Set
The type AN/APS-15 radar set

has been chosen as typical airborne
equipment. A brief description of
the type and function of each com-
ponent is presented first. Then a number
of more specialized functional block-dia-
grams with some waveforms and time
charts are discussed. A few circuit dia-
grams of special interest are given; but
for detailed mechanical and electrical in-
formation the reader is referred to the
Handbook of Instructions for Radio Set
AN/APS-15 (H2X) prepared by the MIT
Radiation Laboratory. Space does not
permit a detailed description of each and
every circuit of the H2X system. More
space is allotted to the description of the Fig, 22-06 Setting of precise
timing circuits than to more standard slant range marker
components such as IF amplifiers, wave
ULI
INDICAIOH
WAiiNElRON R-T BOXi T-R a OX TARGET

rRANSMITTEH "STOP" '
ASSE MBLV
R F
SIGNAL
ECHO
1 AZIMUTH
SEARCH
U IX tR SWEEP TORQUE
L o a
SrNCHRO
BEACON SYSTEM AMPLIFIER
10. (slobilued)
1 F *
SIGNAL
l
DFFLfCTION FLUX-GATE
AMPLIFIER COMPASS
.^^ Sl&^
SIGNAL
^'
Fig. 22-07 Functional block diagram of the AN/APS-15 equipment

guides, etc. For a description of the more or less standard radar-set components
and special UHF techniques involved in the operation thereof, the reader is referred
to any of the Army or Navy radar instruction manuals or to other similar books such
as "Principles of Radar" by the staff of the MIT Radar School.
Figure 22-07 is a functional block diagram of the AN/APS-15 equipment.

Referring to Figure 22-07, the timer or control central, the computer, and the range
unit are the components of greatest interest in a discussion of the functional oper-
ation of H2X equipment. The consideration of these timing circuits is postponed
until a brief description of the other components of the system has been completed.
Sweep Circuits
The "A" scope may be used for a variety of purposes such as checking the
dividing ratio of a frequency-dividing circuit, checking signal strength and overload
of the receiver, or other alignment problems; but the operational use of the "A"
scan is primarily for matching a delayed marker pip with the first ground-return
signal for the determination of altitude. The sawtooth voltage sweep generator for
the "A" scope is a conventional RC hard-tube circuit in which the desired sweep is
generated while a normally conducting tube is cut off by a negative gate from the
timing oscillator. The same negative gate is used to "unblank" the "A" scope dur-
ing the sweep.
The trapezoidal voltage necessary to cause a sawtooth current-wave in the

magnetic deflection coils of the PPI tube is generated by a circuit very similar to
that of the "A"-scope sweep-generator. The required trapezoidal voltage is fed
through slip rings to the rotor of the sweep synchro which rotates in synchronism
with the antenna system (See Figure 22-08), Two mutually perpendicular sets of
secondary stator windings each pick up a trapezoidal voltage and apply it through a
push-pull synchronized clamping-circuit to a correspondingly oriented set of mag-
netic-deflection coils on the PPI tube. The rotary motion of the synchro rotor is
relatively slow, so that its change in angle during the short time of any one trape-
zoidal sweep voltage cycle is negligibly small. Consequently the voltages induced
in the two mutually perpendicular sets of secondary stator coils are in time phase
with one another, but in general differ in magnitude, depending upon rhe position of
■BBRBBHMBRBWSSSCzss
£
i^-Magnetic flux lines
\ cathode ray lube-
-#
To verticol deflection Gi.6 \ Defecting Yoke
amplifiers
r£—£
i ' StolwD'
I ImoJ
rÂ//V^
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I centering
"^ Sweep Selsyn 4—'
Rotor phased with anfenno sprnner
"? Synchrontred clumping -./6SN76T

CuTOfF
-Jvvw
-!^ Vertical deflecting coils
not shown
6lh SEL
J.
Fig. 22-08 Horizontal deflection amplifier with synchronized clamping
A similar circuit connected to stator II provides for vertical deflection.
The normally conducting tubes VI and V2 act as a voltage divider to clamp the con-
trol grid of V5 to a definite potential except during the time of the sweep when a neg-
ative gate cuts off VI and V2 allowing the tropezoidal signal to be amplified by V5.
The lower half of the push-pull circuit acts in a similar manner. Horizontal center-
ing is accomplished by balancing the DC plate currents of V5 and V6.
the rotor. The magnitudes of the two secondary voltages vary slowly throughout the
cycle of rotation of the antenna spinner (12 or 24 r.p.m.); the magnitude of one vary-
ing sinusoidally and that of the other cosinusoidally with respect to the angular posi-
tion of the rotor. These voltages provide a radial sweep (from the center to the
outer edge of the screen) the azimuth of which changes in synchronism with the
direction of the antenna beam. The top of the PPI presentation corresponds to the
heading of the aircraft unless azimuth stabilization is used, in which case the position
of the sweep-synchro stator coils relative to the aircraft heading may be oriented
by means of a flux-gate compass and servo-system (including magnetic deviation
correction) so that the true north direction appears at the top of the PPI screen.
RF Components
The modulator, transmitter and receiver-preamplifier (converter) are locat-
ed in a pressurized chamber directly above the radome. The input pulse to the
driver or pulse-forming circuit is shown
in Figure 22-09 and has a peak amplitude
of about 120 volts. This voltage is divid-
ed between an artificial line, a transform-
er secondary S, and the grid-cathode
space of the pulse-forming amplifier tube
shown in Figure 22-10. The transformer
lias three suitably damped windings with
the primary and secondary windings re-
generatively connected. The tube is
normally biased beyond cut-off, but upon 10 JU SEC. TIME
application of the positive pulse, the
regenerative action turns on the plate
current suddenly. The rise of plate Fig, 22-09 Input pulse to the driver
current is, however, quite linear, result-
ing in constant secondary and tertiary

voltages. The uniform rise of plate cur-
rent continues until the input pulse returns
as an in-phase reflection from the end of
the artificial line, at which instant the grid
is driven negative and regenerative action
abruptly stops the flow of plate current.
A typical rectangular output voltage pulse
of the tertiary winding is shown in Figure
22-11. The time width of the output pulse
of course depends upon the delay introduc-
ed by the artificial line. Three artificial
lines are available for generating 0.5, 1,
and 2 microsecond pulses.
Application of the positive, rectang-

ular pulse to the grid of a power-amplifier
Gnd Bias
830 V
and B'as voltage
Plate Supply For Pulse
Forming Amplifier a stage, delivers a 14,000 volt negative
For power screen volloge For
voltage AfTpii'ie' S'cge power Amplifier pulse to the cathode of the magnetron
Fig, 22-10 Transmitter driver oscillator, the plate of which is at ground
pulse forming potential.
circuit
The short train of SHF electro-
magnetic waves constituting a signal
pulseis transmitted from the magnetron to the antenna through the radio-frequency
system, consisting of the magnetron coupling unit, T-R and R-T boxes, several
lengths of rectangular waveguide (1" x 1/2'), azimuth-rotating and tilt-rotating
joints. The antenna consists of the antenna feed system and specially-shaped re-
flector. A block diagram of the pressurized RF system is given in Figure 22-12.
The function of the T-R box is to protect the crystal of the sensitive receiving-sys-
tem from the high-power transmitted pulse. The output circuit of the magnetron
MAflNCTHON
C0UPLIHÖ UNIT
TIME
Fig. 22-11 Driver output pulse

during beacon
operation
when inoperative is prevented by the R-T

box from absorbing much energy from the
weak radar echo signals.
The wave guide terminates in two

"windows" at the focal point of the reflec-
tor. The radiation from the windows is
gathered by the reflector and focused into Fig. 22-12 Block diagram of the
a narrow, fan-like beam of about 3° angu- RF system
lar width in the horizontal plane, and about
mnr™"""'""'''*"'"
^p^-fs
" A - The orta within Itiii

curvi ncvivis th» moximum il-
luminotlon «itfi very flight vor-
iahon
0 — Th« area batvaan rh'i
curva and in« A curvs r*cwM
illuminotian dtcrooirng to ''Zmox-
imum volus (*3Jb down") ot thu
Fig. 22-13 Perspective drawing of antenna beam pattern
60° angular width in the vertical plane (assuming the aircraft in level flight). Figure
22-13 illustrates the illumination of the ground when the reflector is in its normal
position with the aircraft in level flight. The small area within curve A receives
the maximum illumination with very slight variation. This small area is at an angle
of depression 9 of about 10o from the horizontal (See Figure 22-14). The illumina-
tion decreases gradually between curves A and B until at curve B it has fallen to one-
half of its maximum value (3 db down). This type of beam pattern is sometimes re-
ferred to as a "cosecant squared" type, since over a considerable range of 9 the
field strength in a vertical plane containing the aircraft and its line of flight is
directly proportional to cosecant20, The reflector may be tilted in the vertical
plane by + 20 degrees from its normal position in order to permit a more favorable
illumination of a particular target area. The antenna system may be rotated contin-
uously to provide for a 360° PPI presentation, or it may be wobbled back and forth
to provide for a 56° sector scan.
Echo signals may be received only from the direction in which the reflector
is "looking". Reflected wave trains are collected by the reflector and focused upon
the windows in the end of the wave guide which act as a receiving system to driv.
the wave guide. Such a reflected signal traverses the RF system in the opposite
direction from that of the transmitted pulse. At the junction leading to the T-R box
however, the received signals are diverted through the T-R box to the converter of
the receiving system.
Flux-gate Compass System

The heading of the aircraft relative
to true or magnetic north is determined by
the gyro flux-gate compass system which
depends for its operation upon the hori-
zontal component of the earth's magnetic
field. The flux-gate element consists of
three soft iron cores, each carrying pri-
mary and secondary windings and arranged Fig. 22-14 Approximate antenna
as the legs of an equilateral triangle as in- radiation pattern for
dicated in Figure 22-15, It is located out constant target contrast
in one wing of the aircraft, as far as pos-
sible from any ferrous-metal parts, and is
Sweep Selsyn wifh Adjuslable

azimutn sioior Coils
Fig, 22-15 Schematic diagram showing essential elements of azimuth

stabilization system
stabilized in a horizontal plane by a vertical-seeking gyroscope, the electric driv-

ing-motor of which is powered by the 400 cps supply of the aircraft.
A 2.5 volt sine wave from the 487.5 cps oscillator is impressed upon the
primary winding of the flux gate. This signal is sufficiently large to saturate the
cores so that the only significant rate of change of flux occurs twice a cycle when
the primary current is near zero. The primary current which saturates the cores
serves to gate the effect of the earth's magnetic field in such a way that the earth's
field can exert its influence only during two short periods in each cycle, hence the
name "flux gate". If the earth's magnetic field were non-existent, the three second-
ary voltages would all be identical, and would consist of alternate positive and nega-
tive pulses occurring whenever the primary current passed through zero. The
presence of the earth's magnetic field or a component thereof parallel to one of the
cores will cause an increase in the secondary voltage pulse of one polarity and a
decrease in the size of the pulse of opposite polarity. The presence of alternate
positive and negative pulses of unequal magnitude is essentially equivalent to a
large second-harmonic component in the secondary voltage. The second harmonic
content of the voltage pulses in the three secondary windings will in general be dif-
ferent for each of the windings, and will depend upon the direction of the earth1 s
horizontal field relative to the fixed orientation of the flux-gate element in the air-
craft. If the earth1 s magnetic field were non-existent, the equal secondary voltages
of the flux gate applied to the stator of the autosyn would produce no resultant magne-
tic field to act on the rotor; but with the earth's field acting on the flux gate, the
unequal voltages applied to the stator of the autosyn produce an alternating field
having a definite direction dependent upon the direction of the earth's field linking
the flux gate. The rotor of the autosyn picks up a voltage, the 975 cps component
of which is selected by an amplifier and band pass filter and applied to one phase
of a two phase induction motor, the other phase being fed by a 975 cps signal from
a doubler oscillator. The motor turns until the rotor of the autosyn reaches a null
position in which no voltage is picked up to drive the motor further. The rotor is
geared to a dial pointer which indicated the heading of the aircraft. Provision is
made so that the magnetic variation may be set in manually so that the dial pointer
of the master indicator reads the heading of the aircraft relative to true north
insteadof magnetic north. Mechanical screwdriver adjustments are provided every
15 degrees around the circumference of the dial to correct the pointer reading for
errors introduced by the distortion of the earth's field due to magnetic material in
the aircraft. The calibration adjustments are made at a selected ground site
after installation of the equipment.
In order that the top of the PPI screen shall always represent'the north
direction, as the aircraft heading changes, the movement of the sweep-synchro
stators must follow the rotation of the autosyn rotor. This is accomplished by
means of another servo link. A permanent magnet rotor of a transmitting magnesyn
is geared to the pointer of the master indicator. 400 cps power is fed to the satur-
able core stator windings of the transmitting magnesyn and also to one phase of a two
phase induction motor M2. The voltage distribution in the three stator windings of
the magnesyn as determined by the position of its rotor is transmitted to the stator
windings of the torque synchro and sets up an alternating field in a direction corres-
ponding to the position of the permanent magnet rotor of the transmitting magnesyn.
The rotor coil of the torque synchro picks up an error voltage which is amplified by
the torque amplifier and applied to the second phase of the motor M2. The motor
runs, rotatingboth the sweep synchro stator assembly and the rotor coil of the torque
synchro until the coil reaches a null position in which no voltage is picked up to
drive the motor further.
il
I «Ali ft»"] l«ac-7| I »«I I ; l6u«|
D vtDfö
■ ro Gain CORTISOL c STRIP
CIRCUIT rod i
AuTDMAfIC 1
CRfQurKiCV 1
COWTPOL 1
NATbR.
TO TARGET ELECTRODE OF LOCAL OSC.
CCKA'EßTFP CflV-tP
Fig. 22-16 Block diagram of the receiver showing signal path
Receiver Components
A block diagram of the receiver is shown in Figure 22-16. The frequency
used for the beacon reply signals is slightly different from that of the magnetron
transmitter, and it is convenient to provide two local oscillators, one for use in
normal search operation and one for use in beacon navigation. The receiver is
divided into two main parts as indicated in the figure. The T-R box, converter, and
first two IF amplifier stages are located near the antenna system in the same pres-
surized container which houses the transmitting magnetron and pulse-shaping com-
ponents. The receiver proper is located in the Receiver-Indicator unit in front of
the radar operator at some distance from the antenna system. The receiver proper
contains five IF stages, 2nd detector, two video-stages and also a circuit for auto-
matic frequency-control of the local oscillator.
RF and local-oscillator signals are fed into the converter or mixer which
is a section of wave guide terminated by a crystal. Both echo and beacon local-oscil-
lators employ the 723-A Shepherd-Pierce tube, a velocity modulated tube of th& re-
flex type. The local oscillator frequency is 30 meps higher than the RF frequency and
O'V
Airborne Radar
is maintained at the correct frequency by an automatic frequency-control circuit

which feeds back a DC control-voltage to the target electrode of the local oscillator
tube.
A typical IF stage is shown in Fig-

ure 22-17. All IF stages are of the "sin-
gle-tuned" type with slug tuning of the in-
ductors in the grid circuit. The input and
output capacitances of the tubes comprise
the major part of the circuit capacitance.
A conventional diode-detector and

two video-amplifier stages are used, the
second video-stage being a cathode-follow-
er, controlling the PPI beam intensity.
Range-marker pips may be mixed with the
signals at the input to the first video stage. Fig. 22-17 Typical intermediate-
frequency stage
Timing Circuits
Referring to Figure 22-07 the timer, or control central, is that part of the
radar set which initiates and controls the timing of pulse transmission, indicator
sweeps, gates, range markers, etc., that is, it acts as the stop watch of the system.
The main component of the control central is a master multivibrator or timing
oscillator which may be either "free running", or synchronized by every 70th or
320thpulseoriginatinginacrystaloscillator running at 80.86 kcps located in the range
unit. The repetition rate of the synchronizing pulses is stepped down from that of
the crystal oscillator by two frequency-dividing circuits of the blocking-oscillator
type in steps of 10:1 and then either 7:1 or 32:1 depending upon whether the set is
beingusedfor high-altitude search or beacon navigation. During beacon observation
the pulse repetition rate must be low in order to allow sufficient time for a beacon
response to return from a distance which may be as great as 250 nautical miles.
Three separate gate-signals are taken from the multivibrator to initiate

and control certain system functions to be described shortly. The frequency or over-
all period is constant, but four choices of relative conducting times of the two
triode-sections of the multivibrator are available for the 5, 20, 50, and 90-mile
sweeps. The timing circuits of the range unit are each described in turn before
any functional block diagrams of the system as a whole are described.
Figure 22-18 is a block diagram of the control central and indicators. A

few typical voltage waveforms are shown for the 20-mile sweep. Gating voltages
from the timing oscillator (master multivibrator) simultaneously initiate and con-
trol the time duration of the "A" scope sweep generator, the "A" scope unblanking
circuit, and the PPI sweep generator circuits. Due to time delays in the sweep
synchro, the unblanking of the PPI sweep must be delayed by 12 microseconds in
order to allow time for the sweep to get started. The delay and pulse forming is
accomplished with two triodes shown in Figure 22-19. A negative exponential grid-
waveform from the master multivibrator cuts off one tnode which is normally
conducting. A capacitor C^ connected between its plate and ground charges toward
B+ through an adjustable plate load resistor. The plate of the first triode is direct-
ly connected to the grid of a second triode which is normally cut off. The grid
voltageof the second triode rises exponentially and reaches cutoff in about 12 micro-
seconds. The exponential change of grid voltage is amplified and the plate voltage
used to gate both the PPI unblanking circuit and the ringing circuit of the range-mark
generator. The initial rate of change of plate voltage on the second triode is suf-
ficiently great so that it may be differentiated by RoCo to form a pulse. The pulse
is then amplified and coupled through a cathode follower tc trigger the modulator,
^MKHMIWMnHBB«
ALTITUOC MADKED FROM DANCE UNIT.
TIMING VIDEO SIGNALS

rnou
RECEIVEK
OSCILLATOR -•I
v- 11«
MAVEfOflUS SHOWN
FOR 20 MILE SWEEP
TIME iC»U HAINIFICO AMUT 'OKHII
Fig, 22-18 Block diagram of control central and indicators
the operation of which has already been covered. As described later, the modulator
may also be triggered off by a pulse from the range unit whenever the sweeps are
delayed by the altitude delay circuit, or by both the altitude and beacon delay cir-
cuits.
Fig. 22-19 Delay control circuit
The range-mark generator shown in Figure 22-20 employs a conventional

ringing circuit. During the quiescent period near the end of each cycle when the
grid of the first triode is at ground potential, it conducts a steady plate current
TB.16GCR.
FROM PULSt
4.1 M
^. FEOM I.F.F; TO
(IMPUCIEß.
Fig. 22-20 Range mark generator and amplifier
which passes through the inductor of any one of four available tuned cathode cir-
cuits. No oscillations can take plate at this time because the tuned circuits are
highly damped by the very low output-impedance of the first tube. Upon the applica-
tion of a negative gate (from the pulse-delay circuit previously described) to the
grid of the first triode section of the range-mark generator, the plate current is
cut off; and the energy stored in the inductance of the tuned circuit initiates a train
of damped oscillations. The damped oscillations appearing at the cathode of the
first triode (see Figure 22-21), are amplified, clipped, and differentiated in the
remaining triode sections of the range-mark generator, the differentiation occuring
in the inductive plate-circuit of the last triode section. The range-mark pips are
amplified in a single stage and mixed with the echo signals in the video amplifier
which feeds the intensifier grid of the PPI tube.
The negative gate from the 12-microsecond pulse-delay tube is used to un-
blank the PPI during the sweep period. The unblanking circuit and PPI operating
circuits are shown in Figure 22-22.
Figure 22-21 shows the time coincidence of some of the more iffiportant
Ml^^gB»mffFB^Mrwii—M
HMWBHBHHMKHHMV^BBMH^nnHyHaMa^Bia
~1 I I I I I I I I T" Time in microseconds

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Grid wave form in

timing oscillator
r
(master multivibrator) (compressed time scale)
soyu sec
Total periodI660JU sec-

Transmitted
pul
"-^(expanded scale)
PPI sweep triggered

\ ,PPI sweep gets started
12/jsec-
w—PPi unblanked during this time interval-
Range mark
generator
triggered
Cathode wave form

in ringing circuit of
range mark generator
12.4/J SBC—*[
One mile
Range mark pips
12.4;U sec
"A" sweep triggere
-"A" sweep unbtanked during this intervol-
Fig, 22-21 Time diagram for five mile sweep

mMMMM*^™»** _. .-Ä.
2nd Anode
+3800V
Deflecting Yoke
,+ 200V
+ 250V
FOCUS ^S R268
coil ^ Focus control—/^5 |0K
( :
J6SI\I7GT
Delayed Negative
Gate From Pulse I5'Anode:: C?47-=-
+240^- fea .Grid
Delay Tube •—
Cathode.
>R269
, I0K
Local vernier Brilliance

If
r ^ ^Remote vernier Brilliance
, A/VW—
P|
R275 * P ' Brilliance
l0 v
AW/ 0
I00K
Fig. 22-22 FPI operating circuits
events occurring in normal search operation. The five-mile sweep was chosen for
convenience in plotting. 5, 20, 50, and 90-mile sweeps are available. Figure 22-23
is a "stop watch" diagram showing for the 90-mile sweep the sequence of events
occurring in normal search operation.
With the aid of the ordinary equally-spaced range- marks on the PPI, measure-
ment of range can be interpolated with a precision of + 500 yards. The precision
of range measurement is increased to + 200 yards by the use of a precise range-
marker of adjustable range. The additional timing-circuits necessary to control
the precise range marker are contained primarily in the range unit, but partly in
the computer and control unit.
The period of an 80.86 kcps signal corresponds to the time required for an
electromagnetic wave to travel one nautical mile and return. An 80.86 kcps triode
crystal oscillator (V-l of Figure 22-24) is the source of all timing pulses in the
range unit. The operation of the crystal oscillator is class C, and the plate current
pulse serves to trigger the blocking-oscillator pip-generator. The phasing of the
pulse is such that the oscillator plate-current-pulse causes the grid of the blocking
oscillator to swing in the positive direction and the plate to swing in the negative
direction. The natural period of the blocking oscillator is of course slightly longer
than that of the crystal oscillator so that the blocking oscillator grid potential will
not have risen to cut-off potential by the time the triggering pulse arrives.
WWmMKMWWI HMIIH—■M—MMWIMlUMIlfr: ItlWI
SO MILE SWEEP IS SHOWN

ALL TIMES IN MICROSECONDS
CYCLE STARTS AGAIN TRANSMITTER PULSE

SAME ASV ON THE - STARTS-(STOPS AT 1.0)
STOPWATCH"
INDICATORS ARE BLANKED SWEEP AND MARKERS

START(SOME WITH DELAY)
ALL GATES CLOSE
- SWEEPS STOP
RECEIVER SENSITIVITY
IS RESTORED
FINAL(60MILE)
RANGE
MARKER
ECHO SIGNAL RETURNS

FROM TARGET 78 MILES
AWAY
Fig. 22-23 "Stop-watch" diagram of operating sequences in normal search

operation
+250
w Trigger to
~ phantastro"
Modulat;.:
trigger
PIP I0:l 7=1 OR 32:1 CATHODE

GENERArOR DIVIDER TRIGGER DIVIDER FOLLOWER
Fig. 22-24 Crystal controlled timing circuits

Ill IWMIIIIM
The negative output pulse from the pip generator serves to trigger the 10:1
frequency-dividing circuit which is also of the blocking-oscillator type. The output
of the 10:1 divider feeds 10-mile pips to a gated amplifier yet to be described and
also triggers the final frequency-dividing circuit which divides in either a 7:1 or
32:1 ratio depending upon whether the bottom resistor in the grid circuit is shorted
or not. The output of the final frequency-divider is coupled through a cathode fol-
lower to a cable leading to the modulator in the transmitter unit. A voltage divider
from Bf to ground through a portion of the cathode circuit provides sufficient bias
to keep the cathode-follower tube cut off until the pulse from the frequency-divider
circuit reaches a certain level. This arrangement eliminates the first, slowly rising
portion of the applied signal and results in an output pulse with a much steeper wave-
front. A negative pulse to trigger the phantastrons is taken from the plate of the
combination amplifier and cathode follower stage.
The Phantastron Delay Circuits

A phantastron delay circuit is a voltage-controlled, medium precision,
aperiodic delay-system designed for range measurement. The control voltage is
effective over a 200 volt range, and the time delay or "gate width" introduced by the
phantastron is accurate to within 0.1 microsecond corresponding to the time requir-
ed for an electromagnetic wave to travel about 30 yards. This is equivalent to 15 yards
of measured range (allowing for go-and-return). The accuracy of range measure-
ment is about +15 yards + 0.1 percent of the range measured as far as the phan-
tastron circuit alone is concerned; but the full capabilities of the circuit are not
realized in the H2X system in which the operational accuracy of range measure-
ment is considerably less than the above figure because the signal matching for range
measurement is done on a rather limited PPI sweep. The output of the phantastron
is free from jitter to within + 5 yards for delays less than 200,000 yards, the delay
time being practically independent of the repetition frequency as long as the delay
does not exceed 90 percent of the period.
The advantage of the phantastron over a multivibrator is that the delay time
is almost independent of the supply voltage, and depends instead upon a ratio of
voltages determined by the setting of a potentiometer connected across the supply
+ 250v
Fig. 22-25 Phantastron delay circuit

_BII. imiianMHIIIHIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIlMlir

+ 2 50V
TO A BLOCKING
OSCILLATOR
OR GATE
FROM THE
CATHODE OF
THE PHANTASTRON <
240K5
Fig. 22-26 Pulse amplifier used between a phantastron delay circuit and a circuit
to be triggered by it
voltage. The delay time also depends upon one temperature-controlled RC time
constant. However, the phantastron does not turn off as sharply as a multivibrator
and so the output must be amplified in order to obtain an output signal useful for
triggering.
A phantastron delay-circuit is diagrammed in Figure 22-25. It may be trig-

gered in several different ways, but the input triggering-pulse is usually applied to
the number three grid as a positive pulse. The output voltage, taken from the
cathode of the 6SA7 phantastron, is used to control a pulse amplifier of the type
shown in Figure 22-26. The amount of time delay introduced by the phantastron is
determined by the setting of the control-voltage tap on the potentiometer at the left
of Figure 22-25. The triode cathode-follower on the right is used to provide a path
for the quick charge of condenser C at the end of the delay cycle, thus shortening
the recovery time so that the circuit may accept another triggering impulse. Since
the gain of the cathode follower is essentially unity, the phantastron circuit is equi-
valent to the simplified diagram of Figure 22-27 which is convenient for visualizing
the circuit operation.
+ Plate
Supply
+ Screen
Supplyl RL Rr
G2 G4,
Screen Grid
I
Fig. 22-27 Simplified phantastron circuit
MtamaaBmummmaaûa
For purposes of explanation, the operation of the circuit may be convenient-

ly divided into six stages. A few typical voltage wave-forms are given in Figure
22-28.
Stage VI is the quiescent stage in which the phantastron circuit is waiting

for a triggering impulse to start a cycle of operations. In this stage there is consi-
derable screen current (mainly from the inner screen G2) and very little plate cur-
rent. During this stage the plate potential of the phantastron (6SA7) is determined
DEMOTES TRIOOER APPLIED SIMULTANEOUSLY TO PLATE AMD FIRST ARID.
Fig. 22-28 Waveforms of phantastron delay voltages with respect to ground

Mm^SVUWHMB
by the setting of the control voltage potentiometer tap. Grid current flows through
Rg and keeps the potential of G^ approximately at cathode potential which is about
40 volts above ground for the case illustrated in Figure 22-28.
Upon the application of a positive triggering pulse to G3 or a negative trig-

gering pulse to the plate or to the plate and Gj, the current flowing to the
screen grids (G2, G^) is suddenly shifted to the plate circuit. The plate potential
drops by some 30 or 40 volts during stage I due mainly to the increase of plate
current through resistor RL, and the left-handdiodeof Figure 22-25 stops conduct-
ing. The voltage on capacitor C does not change appreciably during this period,
and the amplification ratio of the cathode follower is very nearly unity; so that the
potential of Gj follows quite closely the change in plate voltage during stage I, and
the grid current to Gj stops immediately at the start of stage I.
During stage II the potential of G^ rises slowly toward Bf potential, and
woulddo so with a time constant of R^C if the tube were not present. However, the
voltage amplification from Gi to the plate causes the rise of Gj potential to be very
much slower than it otherwi',:; would be. The rise of Gj potential results in a fall
of plate potential which is transferred by means of capacitor C back to the grid, thus
reducing the net amount of its potential rise. The discharging of C through Rg takes
place with an effective time-constant of approximately/jRgC where fi(of the order
of 1000) is the amplification factor of the phantastron tube. During stage II the
plate potential drops quite linearly until at a certain point there is a rather sudden
loss of amplification in the tube. Although the loss of amplification occurs sudden-
ly enough to produce accurate timing of the cycle of events, the end of the cycle
(which takes place in stages III, IV and V) contains no abrupt voltage changes com-
parable to those in a multivibrator circuit.
After the loss of amplification, the potential of Gj rises toward Bf potential

with unhindered, simple time-constant, RgC. The cathode potential follows the
rise of grid potential with the screen grid taking most of the additional space cur-
rent. The drop in screen grid voltage does not divert current to the plate circuit
because the increasing negative bias of G3 offsets this effect. Finally (at the end of
stage III) the increased bias on G3 starts to shut off the plate current quickly and
causes the plate potential to rise.
During stage FV the plate potential rises and the grid and cathode voltages
also rise rapidly due to the regenerative effect. The screen-grid potential drops
sharply since it takes the additional space current, and finally drops so low that th;
screen current no longer increases. At some point during stage IV the rise in
cathode potential triggers the pulse amplifier of Figure 22-26.
Stage V is the recovery stage in which the plate potential rises with time
constant Rj^Cstray until it is caught by the left hand diode at the control voltage
level. The circuit is then ready to be triggered again.
Delayed Sweep for Beacon Observation

Inorder to avoid the use of an excessively long sweep when viewing responses
from distant beacons, it is necessary to delay the start of the PPI sweep until the
beacon signal has nearly arrived. With a shorter sweep length, it is possible to
obtain greater precision of setting the adjustable slant-range marker to the beacon
response signal. During beacon operation it is usually most convenient to use the
20-mile sweep, the start of which is delayed from the triggering of the transmitter
by a time interval corresponding to any desired integral number (0 to 23) of ten-
mile distances. The necessary wide-range time-delay in 10-mile steps cannot be
determined to the desired accuracy by means of a phantastron circuit alone A
■IH^H^HHUHBaMH»
phantastron and gate generator are used

to produce a voltage gate 8 to 12 miles in
Oufpuf id range width and centered as nearly as possibh
and altitude
dolay f ircuits at a time corresponding to the desired
range-delayof n x 10 miles after the trig-
gering of the "main bang" by one uf the
10-mile pips from the crystal oscillator.
In normal beacon-operation the trans-
mitter is triggered by every 32nd 10-mile
pip. The delayed gate from the phantas-
tron and the output of the 10-mile pip gen-
erator are applied to the grid and cathode
respectively of an amplifier tube biased
well beyond cut-off (See Figure 22-29).
Fig. 22-29 Gated amplifier Neither the positive gate on the grid nor
coincidence circuit the negative pulse on the cathode is alone
and trigger blocking sufficient to cause conduction of plate cur-
oscillator rent. However^ 10-mile pip occuring at
any instant while the 8-mile gate is on the
grid will cause a pulse of plate current
through the tube. The negative pulse at
the plate of the gated amplifier serves to trigger the "single-shot" blocking-oscil-
lator, which in turn triggers off the range and altitude delay-circuits.
The 8-mile gate is generated in a multivibrator circuit similar to that des-

cribed previously for obtaining a 12 microsecond delay time. The circuit with wave-
forms is shown in Figure 22-30 along with a triggering circuit controlled by the
cathode-output voltage of the phantastron circuit.
Combined Functioning of the System Components

The combined functioning of the componentpartsof the system will now be
discussed with the aid of block diagrams and timing diagrams. Figure 22-31 is a
time diagram for the events in the range unit, transmitter, and indicators when the
system is used for high-altitude search or bombing; and Figures 22-32 and 22-33
are functional timing and block diagrams respectively of the range unit, also for
the case when the system is used for high-altitude search or bombing. Referring to
Figure 22-33thel0:l and 7:1 frequency dividers following the one-mile pip genera-
tor controlled bv the crvstal oscillator,
allow every 70th one-mile pip to initiate
a transmitter pulse. The repetition period
is about 865 microseconds correspond-
ing to a pulse-repetition-frequency of
about 1155 cps. Since during high-alti-
tude search or bombing, the PPI sweep
is delayed by an amount corresponding to
the altitude of the aircraft, the modulator
Input gate (rom beacon <£
stQp-c!(,lc;/ Dântost'on is triggered by the cathode follower at the
end of the chain of frequency dividers in-
stead of by the delayed output of the timing
oscillator. The instant at which the output
Fig. 22-30 Delayed trigger of the cathode follower triggers the modu-
amplifier and lator is taken as zero reference time lor
selector-gate Figures 22-31 and 22-32. In order to de-
generator lay the PPI sweep by an amount corres-
ponding to the altitude the adjustable-
delay-phantastron shown in block dia-
-VARIABLE DELAY SET EITHER BY DIRECT RANGE MARKER «

COINCIDENCE ON THE PPI SIGNAL
/ALTITUDE
/ DETERMINATION
OR BY COMPUTER PR 0H ART FOR

^3CMB TYPE
AHÜ GROUND
SOEED USED
■VARIABLE DELAY SET OURIHO CONSTAKT—t*.

ALTITUDE OCTERUINATION IJ^SEC DELAY I
RANGE
PIP
0UTPUTS0F;
ORANGE
MARKER)
1TRIO6ER PULSE
iTO MODULATOR
Fig. 22-31 Timing diagram for events in the range unit, transmitter, and
indicators, when the system is used for high altitude search and bombin(r
HTHHTim"
80.66 KC
( I NAUTICAL MILE )
PIPS FROM CRYSTAL
OSCILLATOR AND PIP
GENERATOR
8.086 KC
(10 NAUTICAL MILES 1
PIPS FROM ic; I OIVIDiß.
ENLARGED
FIRST IS MILES
ALTITUDE PHANTASTRON
DELAY GATE
1,000 TO 36,000 FT,
INDICATOR TRIGGER
12 MICROSECOND DELAY
ALTITUDE PIP
RANGE PMÄNTÄSTRON (
DELAY GATE _J
(0.6 TO IS. MILES)
PPI UNBLANKING
GATE
RANGE PIP TO PPI
RAHSE IN MIL£3
Fig. 22-32 Timing diagram of range unit as used in high-altitude search and
bombing
ALTITUDE CHANNEL
IMOiOTON »LTIlUOt
0tL
BLOCliNO *' BLOCilMO
ost'Li.«ro»
—*- Kf\ unbionhing

PIP GtNERATOfl AND DIVIDER
T: mdica'o mgatr
gicilialof
«tuati»' rll Doth
ircuili
MY«7*L
OSCU.LATOH
- OlviDt«
RANOE CHANNEL
««pLirttii NiMBt
B»HQl 0« ^ PI»
otmio BLOOINC
»wLsi OSCILLATO«
CiAnvmo
oiscoHircioit
OIOOI
Fig. 22-33 Functional block diagram of the range unit during high-
altitude search or bombing
gram form in Figure 22-33 delays the triggering of the timing oscillate* and
sweep circuits by an amount which is 12 microseconds less than the time re-
quired for an electromagnetic signal to travel from the aircraft to the ground
andreturn. Although the "A" scope sweep starts immediately upon being triggered,
20 MILE SWEEP IS SHOWN

TRANSMITTER PULSE
STARTS "(STOPS AT 0.3)
SWEEP AND MARKERS

STARTISOME WITH DELAY)
CYCLE STARTS AGAIN
SAME AS VON THE
"STOPWATCH- RECEIVER SENSITIVITY
IS RESTORED
ALTITUDE ECHO SIGNAL

RETURNS FROM 20,000 FT
ECHO SIGNAL RETURNS

FROM TARGET IS MILES
AWAY
INDICATORS
ARE BLANKED FINAL(20MILE)
RANOE
MARKER
ALL SATES CLOSE

-SWEEPS STOP
Fig. 22-34 "Stop-watch" diagram of operating sequences in high-altitude search

and bombing
the PPI sweep does not get started until 12 microseconds after triggering as illus-
trated in Figure 22-31. An altitude marker to be matched to the first ground return
is generated 12 microseconds after the triggering of the sweep circuits and corres-
ponds in time to the effective starting point of the PPI sweep (See Figures 22-31,
22-32, and 22-33). A gate from the 12 microsecond delay circuit unblanks the PPI
after the 12 microsecond delay. In Figure 22-31 both indicator and respective
sweep signals are superimposed schematically on the vertical scale. The pip which
marks a portion of the precise slant-range marker-circle, at a given instant in each
sweep, is generated in the range-pip blocking-oscillator, which is triggered by the
adjustable 0.6 to 16 mile, range-delay phantastron.
Other timing diagrams which may be helpful in visualizing the operating

sequences used in high altitude search and bombing are shown in Figures 22-34 and
22-35.
RANGE UNIT
PIP
s\ A
GENERATOR
DIVIDER
s
\\V£-
\\sz RANGE
t
\i DELAY
BEACON
DELAY
CHANNEL
(b) HIGH-ALTITUDE BOMBING
Fig. 22-35 Block diagram of "stop-watch" correlation with the basic timing
functions in high-altitude search and bombing
Figure 22-36 is a functional block diagram of the range unit during naviga-
tion by beacon, and Figure 22-37 is the corresponding time diagram. Figures
22-38 and 22-39 are "stop-watch" and block diagrams respectively for the basic
timing functions during navigation by beacon. The pulse repetition frequency is of
necessity much lower than that used in high-altitude search and bombing because
of the large time-delays required when observing beacons which may be as far
üEACOV DEL" CHANNEL

►
ei.OCKiHG
C'NCUif OSCILLATOD
ALTITUDE CHANNFL
»UPtllltN iNI)(f.«IOH
J OF J DNGGt« |>- 4l1iludl mo'k
utinfu BLOCKINC IfiOl ul.J.n
btucon navigoncm)
PiP GENERATOR 1N0
.înijicaloi Ingg«^
L:.„_J L
RANGE CHANNEL
,!
' U-i ' " I ►■ »ang» or:it
Ltil *'ID
| DiODt"
Fig. 22-36 Functional block diagram of the range unit during navigation
by beacon
distant as 250 miles. 10:1 and 32:1 frequency dividers following the crystal oscil-
lator allow every 320th one-mile pip to trigger the modulator. The PPI sweep
is delayed a suitable number of ten-mile intervals by the trigger step-delay phan-
tastron. The 10-mile pips (output of the 10:1 frequency divider) and the selector-
gate output of the trigger-delay phantastron are mixed in the coincidence circuit in
order to obtain crystal accuracy in the beacon delay time. The output of the coin-
cidence circuit initiates the operation of both altitude and range channels as shown
in the block diagrams. The calibrated range phantastron in the range channel
allows the pip for the adjustable range marker circle to be delayed by an amount
suitable for matching to the beacon signal. When the range marker circle is proper-
ly matched to the beacon response signal, the range to the beacon is the sum of the
ranges corresponding to the delays introduced by the beacon step-delay channel and
the range channel. During navigation by beacon, the setting of the altitude phantas-
tron is of no consequence since the matching of the range marker circle to the
beacon echo does not depend upon the time at which the sweep starts. The operation
of the altitude channel is the same as previously described except that during bea-
con navigation, no use is made of the altitude mark appearing on the "A" scope.
Bibliography
135-c Confidential Handbook of instructions for MIT Rad. Lab.

radio set AN/APS-15 (H2X)
AN-05-15-16 Restricted Gyro-Stabilized Flux-Gate *see below

Compass System
* Joint authority of Commanding General Army Air Forces, the Chief of the
Bureau of Aeronautics and the Air Council of the United Kingdom.
320
80.86 KC
(| NAUTICAL. MILE)
PIP8 FROM CRYSTAL
OSCILLATOR AND PIP
GENERATOR
0.083 KC
(10 NAUTICAL MILES)
PIPS FROM IO:i DIVIDER
ENLARSED
FIRST 80 MILES
BEACON PKANTASTRON
DELAY GATE
8 MILE
SELECTOR OATE
DELAYED TRI80ER
RANOE PHANTASTRON
DELAY 8ATE
(O.S TO 18 MILESU
RAWSE PIP
TO PPI
ALTITUDE PHAHTASTROM PREVIOUSLY SET AT PLANES ALTITUDE - I 2 >J SEC. —I

DELAY OATE ( HEREJJ NAUTICAL |MILES—l2iySEC.)
1 r
37-12-25 uSEC
(10,000-38,000 ?TT
INDICATOR TRIGGER
12 MICROSECOND DELAY
Jl
PPI SWEEP PPI SWEEP STARTS-,
^
Fig. 22-37 Timing diagram of range unit as used in navigation by beacon

190 MILE DEL AY') TRANSMITTER PULSE

20MILESWEEPJARE SHOWN
STARTS"(STOPS AT 2.0)
CYCLE STARTS AGAIN

SAME AST) ON THE
STOPWATCH"
RECEIVER SENSITIVITY
S RESTORED
ALTITUDE SIGNAL RETURNS

FROM 20,000 FT. BUT
IS HOT DISPLAYED
ALL GATES CLOSE

— SWEEPS STOP
INDICATORS ARE
FINAL (20 MILE) BLANKED
RANGE \
MARKER
SIGNAL RETURNS
FROM BEACON EXACTLY
200 MILES AWAY
(SLANT RANGE)
INDICATOR TRIGGER FORMED

SWEEP AND MARKERS START
Fig. 22-38 "Stop-watch" diagram of operating sequences during navigation by

beacon
RECEIVER
CONTROL CENTRAL
TIMING
OSCILUVTOR
Fig. 22-39 Block diagram of "stop-watch" correlation with the basic timing
functions during navigation by beacon
The H3X attachment for airborne radar
H3Xis an H-type system similar to Micro~H. It is an X-band radar attach-

ment that provides automatic range-tracking of two beacons giving out continuous
range information. The computing circuits permit the flying of either a hyperbolic
course or a cat-mouse course. H3X has been developed but since it is more compli-
cated thanMicro-Hand gives accuracy not significantly greater than that of Micro-H,
it is no longer being worked on.
Bibliography
71-7/19/44 Confidential H3X (Centimeter-H): A MIT Rad. Lab.

Beacon Blind Bombing Attach-
ment for Airborne X-band
Radar
The N06MO Attachment for AN/APS-15
TheAN/APA-46(NOSMO) equipment is an attachment for AN/APS-15 or-15A

airborne radar sets although it can also be used with AN/APQ-13 if a special con-
trol-box is provided. By means of this attachment it is possible to use the radar
information of target range and bearing to synchronize the Norden bombsight in
range. This permits bombing with the Norden sight either in case the radar target
echo should break up before reaching the bombing circle, or possibly to take advan-
tage of any last minute visibility in which there would be insufficient time to syn-
chronize the bombsight by normal optical methods. As a navigational aid, the NOSMO
equipment provides for pulse-Doppler drift determination, which allows a quick deter-
mination of drift angle and ground track without the use of a reference point and
without turning the aircraft. Only the navigational function will be described here.
In general, whenever an observer and a source of wave motion are either

approaching or going away from one another, the number of waves received per sec-
ond by the observer (i.e. the frequency of the received waves) is increased or de-
creased respectively. The change in frequency is proportional to the relative velo-
city between source and observer.
In the case of a moving aircraft transmitting and receiving radar signals, the
change in frequency is multiplied by a factor of two because the waves make a round
trip. The frequency received by an aircraft from radar echo-points lying anywhere
along a line passing through a point directly beneath the aircraft and making an angle
2v cos 9
0 with the aircraft' s ground track is given by ft + r where ft is the trans-
X
mitted frequency, X is the wavelength corresponding to the transmitted frequency,
andVgis the groundspeed of the aircraft along its ground track. The radar beam is
of finite width (about 3° for H2X sets) and each transmitted pulse has a finite dura-
tion. Due to the very slow variation of the cos 0 function about 0 = 0, radar echos
from all points lying within the 30 beam near 0 = 0 have approximately the same fre-
quency; and hence the output of the non-linear frequency converter contains frequen-
cies which produce a vei-y low beat or rate of flutter of the video signal. On the
other hand when the radar beam is at an angle with respect to the ground track, the
variation in cos 0 within the 3° width of the radar beam is considerably greater than
when 0 = 0 so that the composite radar signal returned to the aircraft will contain
components having a greater spread of frequencies. The eye can detect rapid flue-
tuations in intensity at frequencies below about 20 cps, above which frequency the
image appears blurred. The flutter of the video signals due to the Doppler effect is
visible within a sector of about seven degrees on the PPI screen. Since a yellow
filter makes it difficult to observe rapid variations in signal strength, a sector or
wedge-shaped blue filter is used in order lo eliminate the persistence of the tube
in the region within which the Duppler measurements are being made. During the
Doppler measurements thf anttnaa spinner may be aimed or "search lighted" in any
desired azimuth. If the radar beam is slowly and smoothly positioned in the vicinity
of the ground track, it is possible to locate with an accuracy of + 1° the position of
minimum beat frequency or rate of flutter of the signal intensity. The effect is most
clearly seen on homogeneous ground clutter and optimum sweep length is about 15
miles. The appearance of the null varies somewhat with the terrain, and is not suf-
ficiently clear cut for measurement over water.
The position of the antenna spinner which gives the minimum amount of
signal flutter indicates the direction of the ground track of the aircraft. Either a
dark or light line may be caused to occur on the PPI screen at this ground track
azimuth. The drift angle is then the angle between the ground track indicator and
the lubber line which gives the heading of the aircraft, and this angle may be read
directly upon a drift angle dial on a control box.
The NOSMO attachment contains computing equipment necessary to provide

for measurement of groundspeed by synchronous tracking of a clear-cut echo on the
ground track of the aircraft. The AN/APA-46 (NOSMO) equipment, provides for a
highly accurate determination of wind velocity by means of a double drift, double
groundspeed, or drift and groundspeed diagram plotted on an army type E6B pocket
computer. From about 30 seconds to a minute is required for this determination.
The NOSMO equipment weighs about 50 lbs. installed.
Bibliography
M-227 Confidential Preliminary Handbook of Oper- MIT Rad. Lab.

ating and Maintenance Instruc-
tions for Model AN/APA-46 Air-
craft Radar Equipment
63-2/17/45 Confidential Recommended Operational MIT Rad. Lab.

Procedure for use of Nosmo
Over a Complex Target
Airborne Radar for Navigation
An airborne radar set such as AN/APS-15 is suitable for navigation either

by means of beacon reception or through recognition of familiar radar echos from
the landscape below. Attachments such as NOSMO, Micro-H, and GPI increase the
usefulness of an airborne radar as a general navigational aid; but undoubtedly lighter
and more efficient airborne radar equipment could be obtained by an entirely new
design incorporating all of the features of the above mentioned attachments. Naviga-
tion by radar is simplest over terrain containing railroads, large steel structures,
land-water boundaries, etc., which provide easily recognizable echo patterns. Navi-
gation over very flat inland terrain from which few strong echos are obtained is in
general difficult without the use of responder beacons or suitably positioned corner
reflectors. The details of Map-PPI Superposition (Radar mapping) are discussed in
Section 26. The accuracy, range, usefulness for special services, etc., of airborne
radar is compared with that of other types of navigational aids in Section 31.
wu^mm^^mmm ■iiiiiiHiir—■—'"' MB««*™
Search Radar as a Navigational Aid 23.01
High-definition ground (or ship-based) search radar may be used as a

navigational aid since it will give the position of all craft within range. It is possible
for any craft within range to get a fix by communication with the radar station.
Identification of the particular craft requesting a fix is somewhat of a problem.
There aro several ways that this identification can be accomplished. One of the
simplest methods and one that requires no additional equipment is for the craft
to execute a specified maneuver that the radar operator can identify. This is slow
and inefficient and not workable when many craft are requesting fixes. In many
applications this is not a serious problem since the craft is continuously tracked
or the track of many craft may be plotted on a plotting table. If the craft carries
a responder beacon the problem of identification is somewhat simpler since some
type of beacon coding may be used to identify the craft requesting identification.
It appears that the most satisfactory coding is range coding. The beacon in the
craft gives the further advantage of greatly increasing the range of the radar set.
Two other systems that are covered elsewhere in this report are possible. One
involves the relaying of the ground PPI presentation to the craft within range. Thus
the navigator or pilot in each craft sees the same PPI presentation that the ground
radar operator sees. He can identify his own response on the oscilloscope by any
of the methods mentioned above. This system is described further in section 25
on the Federal Traffic control system. The second method involves the
transmission of the ground PPI presentation to the craft by television. In this
system it is also possible to transmit a map of the region and much additional
information to the craft. This system is further described in section 27 on the
RCA Televised Radar System.
It is the purpose of this section to describe briefly two of the typical radars
that are suitable for navigational purposes. The most successful radars to date
for the purpose are the MEW (AN/CPS-1) and SCR 584. Of these two the MEW has
the greatest range and versatility. The MEW was originally designed as a micro-
wave early-warning radar. Its great range and high definition have ideally fitted it
for navigation and fighter-direction purposes.
MEW (AN/CPS-1)
Type of system
Combination range and azimuth system.
Useful range
Maximum range (theoretical 266 miles).
Single large aircraft at 20,000 to 30,000 feet - 175 miles.
Single small aircraft at 10,000 feet - 100 miles.
Smallest aircraft can be seen up to radar horizon if equipped with beacon.
Minimum range - 1/2 mile.

Range + 1 mile
Azimuth + 1°
Resolving power
Range 1/2 mile
Azimuth 1/2°.
23.02 MEW (AN/CPS-1)
Presentation - visual
PPI scope, B scope, off-center PPI.
Operating skills required

Trained operators to interpret scope presentation. Time required to get
fix - Position available continuously on long persistence scopes but is only correct
when beam swings by aircraft. Rotational speeds of beam of 1, 2, and 4 revolutions
per minute are available.
Equipment required
Weight - about 66 tons (crated for shipment).
Complexity - This is one of the most complex radars made, both as to the
complexity of individual circuits and the number of circuits used.
Service and maintenance requirements - highly trained personnel.

Frequency - 2700 to 2900 mcps.
Wavelength - 10.3 to 11.2 cm.
Bandwidth - 3 to 4 mcps.
Present status
Operational.
The MEW is a long-range microwave search-radar system. Its high angular

definition is obtained by the use of a very large antenna system. The antenna
system consists of two cylindrical parabolic dishes placed back to back. These
are fed by arrays of 106 dipoles fed by a wave guide. One of these dishes gives
a low-angle beam for detecting low-flying aircraft or aircraft at long ranges. The
other dish gives a high-angle cosecant-squared beam for detection of near, high-
flying aircraft. The half-power beam-width of both beams in the horizontal plane
is 1.5°. The low-beam dish is 25 feet long and 8 feet high and the high-beam re-
flector is 25 feet long and 5 feet high. Experimental dishes 50 feet long have been
bu:lt. Each dish has two transmitters and receivers. Each transmitting magnetron
is on a slightly different frequency. The two transmitters in use are driven in
parallel by a single modulator.
The indicating equipment normally furnished consists of five 12-inch PPI

scopes and five 7-inch B scopes. One 5-inch expanded A range scope mounted on a
dolly is provided. This can also be used for general servicing.
The PPI scopes have 60; 80; and 100-mile sweeps and have a variable delay
adjustable from 0 to 200 miles. 10-mile range circles with every fifth one being
intensified and 10° azimuth markers with every third one wider are provided. A
recent modification is the provision for off-centering the presentation. It can be
off-centered by as much as 2 radii.
The B scopes can cover an azimuth sector of 40° to 100° and have 10°
azimuth markers. The sweeps cover 30, 80, and 100 miles with a delay from 0
to 200 miles. 10-mile range markers are provided.
The A scope has sweeps of 5, 50 and 200 miles. Any of these scopes can
present the signal from either the high-beam antenna or the low-beam antenna.
HU îllHi"""—,^^[^^"^*M'MM,^M—'™™*°—lnrJ,™°'
MEW (AN/'CPS-l) 23.03
Ground clutter (the reflections from fixed reflecting objects on the ground)
is always a problem in any microwave radar using a low angle beam. A method of
decreasing this ground clutter has been devised. Mil (moving target indication)
lessens ground clutter by suppressing the responses from fixed targets. Targets
having a radial component of velocity will produce a doppler-effect change of
frequency in the reflected signal. In order to make practical use of this effect
(which is quite small), a beat method is used. The radar receiver must employ a
very stable local oscillator. A beat oscillator working at intermediate frequency
is used. This is rephased by every transmitted pulse. This is necessary since
there is no consistent phase relation botween successive transmitted pulses. With
these modifications the response from stationary targets will be constant and those
from targets with a radial component of velocity will flutter. That is, the pulses
will vary from positive to negative at the beat frequency rate. In order to make
effectiveuseof this moving target flutter some sort of storage device is necessary.
A liquid delay line has proven very effective fur this purpose. Electronic storage
tubes may also be used to store the responses from a transmitted pulse. The de-
lay of the line is made equal to the pulse repetition period. The delayed signal
from this line is mixed in opposite phase with the output from the receiver. The
response from a fixed target will therefore be cancelled out since it is of constant
amplitude. The response from a moving target will vary from pulse to pulse and
will therefore not be completely cancelled out. An MTI mudification kit for the
MEW is being developed.
Two new methods have been developed which deal with the method of
presentation. Photographic Projection PPI (called PÎ) consists of photographing
the PPI scope, developing the film and then projecting an enlarged image on a
screen from the film. This process has been developed to the point where the film
can be exposed for one revolution of the PPI and then processed and be ready for
projection in 10 seconds. If the antenna is making one revolution per minute
an exposure can be made for each rotation. The film provides a permanent minute-
to-minute record. The film may be projected in reverse on an 8-foot translucent
screen. It can therefore be viewed from the side opposite from the projector. Plot-
ting may be done directly on this screen.
In many applications it is desirable to have a simple map or check points
superimposed on the PPI presentation. This has been done by marking directly on
the face of the scope with a china pencil. This method has the disrdvantage that
the scale or sector cannot be shifted Avithout voiaitig the marking. An electronic
method of superimposing a map and reference marks on the PPI presentation has
been developed. The map to be superimposed is scanned radially by a beam of
light in synchronism with the radar pulse rate and antenna rotation. The reflected
light is focused on a photocell and the signal from this cell is amplified. This
signal is mixed with the video signal from the radar receiver. After the initial
registration has been made.change of ^weep r^nge. centering, or sector presentation
will not affect the map superposition since it will move with the scope presentation.
In effect this is really a television technique.
?CR J^1
Type of system
Combined range and azimuth.
23.04 SCR 584
Useful range
Maximum search range - 40 miles.
Maximum tracking range - 18 miles,
Minimum range .28 mile.

Automatic tracking accuracy
Range +15 yards (.0085 mile)
Azimuth + .034
Elevation + .034°
Search accuracy
Range + 1500 feet.
Azimuth + 2°.
Presentation
Search - Visual PPI
Tracking - Azimuth and elevation dials.
Aided manual range tracking on J-scope (circular sweep), dial indication.
Operating skills required

TFained operators.
Time required to get fix: time to read PPI when searching. Time to read
dials when tracking.
Equipment required
Weight - 10 tons (installed in trailer)
Equipment is quite complex.
Service and maintenance requirements - highly-trained personnel required.

Frequency - 2700 to 2900 meps
Wavelength - 10.3 to 11.2 cm.
Bandwidth - 3 to 4 meps
Present status
Operational.
The SCR 584 is a microwave radar designed for anti-aircraft gun-laying.

It automatically tracks an aircraft in elevation and azimuth and has aided manual
tracking in range. It can also be used for general search. It is not very well
suited for general search since its beam is very narrow in a vertical plane as
well as in a horizontal plane. It scans a 20o-elevation sector by using a helical
scan. In other words, the elevation angle of the beam increases as the antenna
rotates through 6 revolutions. It takes about one and a haif minutes to make one
complete scan. If it is desired to automatically track a selected echo the automatic
search is stopped and the antenna is set on the echo manually by watching the PPI
scope,
TheSCR584isnotwell suited to following the movements of many individual

aircraft or groups of aircraft but it is well suited to tracking one aircraft or group
of aircraft.
SCR 584 23.05
The indicating equipment consists of one 7-inch PPI with sweeps of 35,000
yards (20 miles) and 70,000 yards (40 miles). Range-marker circles spaced
10,000 yards (5.7 miles) apart are provided. An azimuth scale is provided around
the edge of the PPI tube face. Range is measured accurately by the use of two 3-
inch J scopes. One of these is the coarse range scope. One turn around the circle
on it equals 32,000 yards (18,2 miles). One turn around the fine range scope equals
2,000 yards (1.14 miles). The azimuth and elevation angle of the beam is indicated
on two respective dials.
An MTI modification kit is being developed for the SCR 584,

23.06 Search Radar as a Navigational Aid

TM11-1544 Confidential Radio Set AN/CPS-1 War Dept.
Service Manual:Theory,
Trouble-Shooting, and
Repair
TM11-1524 Confidential Radio Set SCR-584 War Dept.

Service Manual: Theory,
Trouble Shooting, and
Repair
Radar No. 10 Secret Off-center PPI pp.20 OSRD under

30 June 1945 and 21 direction of the
Kits for the MEW Air Communi-
pp. 55-57 cation Officer
AN/APN 34 (Short-Range Approach) 24.01
Type of system
Combines range, azimuth and DF (homing) on aircraft.
Useful range
100 miles (line of sight).

Not known.
Presentation
3 meters indicating range (distance), homing and track.

(a) At ground or fixed installation; can operate unattended.
(b) In the navigated craft; very little skill required.
(c) Time to obtain readings: instantaneous
Equipment required
(a) At ground beacon: Fairly complex transponder beacon and two-lobe
antenna system. Highly trained personnel to service beacon.
(b) In the navigated craft: Fairly complex interrogator-responser; highly
trained personnel to service equipment.
Radio-frequency spectrum allotment required

Frequencies around 220 mcps. About 4 or 5 mcps bandwidth required for
interrogator and beacon.
Present status
Experimental.
This equipment supplies three types of information. It measures the range
(distance) from the aircraft to the beacon, it determines if the aircraft heading
points to the beacon; and it determines if the aircraft is on a given track.
The equipment on the craft is essentially an interrogator-responser using

a two-lobe antenna system and lobe switching. The equipment on the ground is a
responder beacon feeding a two-lobe antenna system. The beacon responses are
switched from one lobe to the other at a switching frequency of 10 cps. The pulse
length is varied for the two lobes, long pulses being sent out from the right lobe
and short pulses from the left lobe. In the aircraft equipment the responses from
the right and left lobes may be separated by two pulse-length discriminators. These
pulses may be integrated and applied to a left-right meter to indicate track. An
automatic range-tracking follow-up system will stay locked on to the returning res-
ponses and provide range information. A manual range-search must be used ini-
tially to lock the follow-up on the desired beacon response. The lobe switching at
the aircraft is done at a much higher rate than at the ground beacon. The output
of the receiver is switched in synchronism with the lobe-switching and applied to
a differential meter which indicates homing angle.
Figure 24-01 illustrates the system. Aircraft 1 is headed toward the bea-
con and therefore the amplitudes from its two lobes are equal. It is not on the
trackhowever and therefore the long pulses have a greater amplitude than the short
pulses. Aircraft 2 is on track so the long and short pulses have equal amplitude.
The aircraft is not headed toward the beacon though, and therefore the amplitude of
the response from the right lobe is greater than the amplitude of the response from
the left lobe.
MMHHHMM .^■---■M-f r- .-■ ■ ■.:i---,.-- . -.: :..■. i iîl.
24.02 AN/APN 34 (Short-Range Approach)
Ground Beacon
Long Pulses
- Short Pulses
10 Switches per second
Aircraft l
Aircraft 2
Fig. 24-01
nr '—-—■——■—
Federal Airport Traffic-Control System 25.01
Type of system
Combined range and azimuth (Radar).

Line of sight.
Accuracy
Not known.
PPI presentation on cathode-ray tube centered about ground installation.
Self-identification of craft provided; PPI presentation on ground.

At ground station: Highly trained operators to maintain search radar plus
additional complex equipment. On craft: Operational training in interpretation
of PPI presentation. Little technical skill required. Time to obtain a fix: Instan-
taneous.
Equipment required
At ground station: Microwave search radar, UHF pulse transmitter and
receiver, and fairly complex control circuits. In craft: Microwave receiver, UHF
receiver, UHF pulse transmitter, cube-law sweep-curving circuits and cathode-ray
tube circuits.

Frequency: Microwave channel - 3,000 to 10,000 mcps.
UHF channel - 500 to 1,000 mcps.
Wavelength: Microwave channel - 3 cm. to 10 cm.
UHF channel - 30 cm. to 60 cm.
Bandwidth: Microwave channel - 6 to 8 mcps.
UHF channel - 4 to 6 mcps.
Present status
Proposed.
This system makes use of two different types of radar systems, simultan-
eously. Since these systems could work separately it is simpler and more convenient
to describe them'separately. The two systems used are the three-path radar, here-
after referred to as 3PR and the rotating lighthouse system, hereafter referred to
as RLS.
In the 3PR system a powerful microwave search-radar transmitter and

antenna are used. All planes are assumed to be equipped with responder beacons
consisting of a microwave receiver and an UHF pulse-transmitter. As the micro-
wave search-radar beam sweeps past a given plane its beacon responds to each
microwave radar pulse by transmitting an UHF pulse. At the ground station this
UHF pulse is received by the UHF receiver. The output of this receiver triggers
off the microwave pulse-transmitter which radiates these echo responses omni-
directionally. Transmitted simultaneously with each directional radar pulse is
an omnidirectional UHF synchronizing pulse. Figure 25-01 represents the ground
station and two aircraft. At the moment represented the search-radar antenna
is directed toward aircraft 2. Let us consider the signals that are received at
aircraft 1. At the ground station the microwave radar pulse and the omnidirec'tion-
25.02 Federal Airport Traffic-Control System
Aircraft l
^ Omnidirectional
^^ Microwave Pulse
esponse
Ise
Ground
Station
Fig. 25-01 Principle of three-path Radar
al UHF synchronizing pulse are simultaneously transmitted. The omnidirectional -

UHF pulse travels the distance d-^ and arrives at aircraft 1 at the time ti.. The
microwave radar pulse travels the distance d2 to aircraft 2. * The beacon in
aircraft 1 responds with an UHF response pulse. This UHF pulse travels the
distance d2 back to the ground station and arrives there at a time t2; at the
ground station the UHF response is retransmitted as an omnidirectional micro-
wave pulse. This experiences an additional d'elay and arrives at aircraft 1 at
a time ti + 2t2. Thus the difference ia time of arrival at aircraft 1 of the UHF
synchronizing pulse and the omnidirectional microwave pulse is (tj + 2t2) - tj =, ^
2t2. This is the same delay that is observed at the ground station between the
directed microwave radar pulse and the UHF response pulse. If the cathode-ray
sweep in aircraft 1 is started by the UKF synchronizing pulse then the omnidirec-
tional microwave pulse will be displayed at the correct point to form, a PPI presen-
tation centered about the ground station. One other requirement must be met to
produce a true PPI presentation on aircraft 1. The rotating deflection system of
the cathode-ray tube must be synchronized with the rotating radar antenna at the
ground station. This is accomplished by having the UHF synchronizing-pulse trans-
mitter transmit a special pulse of different width as the radar antenna „Swings through
north.
Since this radar system receives beacon responses on a different frequency

than its own pulses it will "see" only responder beacons. Natural obstacles, run-
way ends, etc. can be indicated by the use of ground beacons. All aircraft within
range including aircraft 1 itself will be shown on aircraft 1's PPI. Since there is
no difference between the aircraft1 s own response and that of other aircraft on the
PPL self-identification is not provided. It would be possible to identify your own
plane by interrupting your beacon response for a few seconds and noting which
spot disappears from the PPI.
In the RLS (Rotating Lighthouse System) a high-powered microwave pulse

transmitter feeds a rotating directional antenna. This can be the same combination
as used in the 3PR system. The function of this microwave system is to illuminate
all objects within range of the ground station.
In Figure 25-02 the ground station, two aircraft, and a natural obstacle are
represented. The omnidirectional UHF synchronizing pulse and the microwave
Omnidirectional UHF
Synchronizing Pulse Aircraft I
Ground
stati
owove Echo
Microwave/ d3 Natural
Radar Pulse Aircraft 2 Obstacle
Fig. 25-02 Principle of Rotating Lighthouse System
radar pulse are emitted simultaneously. The UHF synchronizing pulse travels the
distance dj to aircraft 1 and upon arriving there starts the sweep. The micro-
wave radar pulse is assumed to be directed out toward aircraft 2 and the natural
obstacle at the instant represented. The microwave radar pulse travels the dis-
tance dQ to aircraft 2 and triggers off the responder beacon which radiates an
omnidirectional UHF pulse. This pulse travels the distance d^ to aircraft 1. The
microwave radar pulse also travels the distance d3 to the natural obstacle and
some of this energy is reflected to aircraft 1 along the path dg. Thus at aircraft 1
beacon responses may be received on an UHF receiver and direct reflections may
be received on a microwave receiver. This system is therefore equivalent to a
radar system in which the receiving equipment is at a distance from the transmitter.
If the rotating deflecting system of the cathode ray tube of aircraft 1 is kept syn-
chronized with the direction in which the radar antenna is pointing then the angular
indication on aircraft 1' s PPI will be correct if this PPI is centered about the
ground station. The directional indication will be correct since only those objects
in the path of the radar beam can produce responses. In order to give correct dis-
tance indications a nonlinear sweep must be used on the cathode ray tube in aircraft
1. The shape of this sweep is a function of the distance d^ and the angle p. The
angle p may be determined from the time when the microwave radar beam sweeps
past the aircraft. The distance dj may be determined by the three path radar in-
dication. For a small angle p as shown the sweep would move the cathode ray spot
very rapidly at first and then slower. (See Figures 25-03 and 25-04), The fact
that dj and p must be known to give a correct RLS indication means that the self-
position of the plane must be known. By combining this RLS with the 3PR system
a valuable check is obtained since the 3PR system does give a presentation correct
in azimuth and range. It is proposed to use alternate pulses of the microwave radar
transmitter for the RLS and 3PR functions. The two presentations would be super-
imposed on, the same cathode ray tube. Figure 25-05 gives the appearance of the
RLS display. Self-position is indicated by the ellipse. The end of the ellipse at the
center of the PPI indicates the ground station and the outer end indicates self-
position. The ellipse is a blind area. No objects can be seen in it by the RLS
function. This is not serious however sinfp the 3PR system will give indications
of planes in this area.
r
25.04 Federal Airport Traffic-Control System
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287 System for Airport Control ephone and
Radio Corpor-
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■"-"""■■■liiMriiwwiii ■■■I mi ■ iiiT'Miirwiifwinp^""""-^"*"^'»™"™^«"'" ■ ———
Map-PPI Superposition (Radar Mapping) 26.01
Part I General Information

The signal pattern on a PPI is a map-like presentation of echo signals re-
ceived from surrounding artificial and topographical features of many kinds. Even
though the radar set be located at a considerable altitude above the earth's surface,
by proper design and adjustment of the PPI sweep circuits the echo signals may,
with a high degree of accuracy, be made to appear at the correct ground range and
azimuth from the radar set. With the possible exception of a small area at the cen-
ter, the relative positions of all signals with respect to one another are shown on a
PPI with sufficient accuracy to enable a chart of the same territory to be fitted by
superposition to the PPI signals. A navigational fix is thus obtainable from the posi-
tion of the center point of the PPI upon the superimposed chart.
Direct superposition in the form of an overlay is undesirable because of par-

allax (due to thickness of the glass in the tube face) and distortions produced by
electrostatic charge on the operators hands. Successful superposition may be accom-
plished by an optical method which produces a virtual image of the chart in the plane
of the cathode-ray tube face. One of the simplest forms which the apparatus may
take is shown in Figure 26-01. Such an arrangement is called z. Virtual PPI Reflect-
oscope, usually abbreviated as VPR. The VPR apparatus does not make use of any
lenses and it is enclosed in a frame which
also acts as a light-hood. The map or
VPR Tube-
chart to be used is placed upon the illum-
inated chart table at P, Rays of light from
cathode
Ray Tube
the chart are reflected from the mirror
at R, and at D from the unfilmed side of
-•-^-viiiuol the glass plate G. The operator sees the
1 Image
chart as a virtual image in the plane of the
Contour of - -
Light Hood cathode-ray tube face (distance PR + RD +
DC is equal to the distance PE). The ob-
server also sees the PPI tube face through
the filmed glass without loss of clearness.
Chart Table
The chart which is prepared with
white lines on black is readily shifted
Fig. 26-01 Essential parts of the VPR about by hand, and the chart table is also
movable in its plane by two screws at right
angles to one another.
In some types of shipborne radar equipment 6 and 12-mile sweeps are avail-
able on the PPI tube and two corresponding sizes of charts must be provided for
superposition. The charts to be used are prepared in advance of their operational use
and may have characteristics and markings of special usefulness for matching pur-
poses.
35 mm. microfilm may be used instead of a paper chart. The NMP (Naviga-
tional Microfilm Projector) apparatus is similar to that of the VPR just described
except that the chart table is replaced by a diffusing screen which receives the image
of the map by optical projection from below.
Another type of projector called the Autofocus Microfilm Projector has an

adjustable range of magnification. This arrangement enables a chart to be matched
to the sweep length of a number of different radar sets. The essential parts of the
Autofocus Microfilm Projector are shown in Figure 26-02.
As manufactured by the Spencer Lens Co., the apparatus has a few additional
features. For measurement of azimuth, the shadow of an adjustable protractor may,
26.02 Map-PPI Superposition (Radar Mapping)
if desired, be cast upon the projection

screen with red light which does not ap-
Mirror
^'a-- Mirror
preciably dilute the normal white light il-
Condensing
Ädiusloble Lens lumination of the map. The relative posi-
Lens —
Projection Screen tion of the PPI screen and the superimpos-
ed chart is adjustable in the north-south
^<i£
Film —
prism- and east-west directions by means of two
Cathode micrometer screws carrying reset counters
Ray Tube
which can be set to zero at any convenient
reference point on the chart which may be
desired as an origin of coordinates. The
counters read the x and y coordinate dis-
tances to the nearest hundred yards, with
the possibility of estimation to the nearest
50 yards. The information on the counters
Fig. 26-02 Essential parts of the is given by the radar operator to the navi-
Autofocus microfilm projector gator who works on standard size naviga-
tional charts.
Still another type of projection sys-

tem somewhat similar to the VPR is under development in which the image of the
PPI scope is projected onto the table top upon which the navigator works.
In the various types of Map-PPI superposition equipment, azimuth

stabilization is almost always used so that true north is as the top of the PPI screen.
After the radar operator has matched the chart to the PPI pattern in a manner con-
sistent with the topography of the area and straight line propagation of the radiation,
a navigational fix may be obtained by any of several methods. With the Spencer
Autofocus type of equipment, a navigational fix may be obtained with the shadow
protractor alone by taking bearings on any two known points of the chart. Alter-
natively a fix may be obtained by measurement of both bearing and range of a sin-
gle known point on the chart with the aid of the protractor and range marks. A fix
may also be obtained from the readings of the north-souüi and east-west counters,
In the VPR system a fix may be obtained by reading off the position coordinates of
the center of the PPI scope upon whatever grid of coordinate lines is reflected with
the chart upon the screen of the cathoda-ray tube.
Television techniques are utilized in a new electronic method of Map-PPI

superposition. The map and reference marks to be superimposed upon the radar
signals are scanned radially by a beam of light which is synchronized with the
radar pulse rate and antenna rotation. The reflected light is detected by a photo-
cell and amplified. This signal is then mixed with the video signal from the radar
receiver and the two sets of signals appear superimposed upon the PPI. After the
initial registration has been made, change of sweep range, centering, or sector
presentation will not affect the map superposition since it will move with the scope
presentation.
For presenting a scope picture to a large number of people, a Photographic

Projection PPI (called P4I) has recently been developed The P n method consists
of photographing a PPI presentation, developing the film, and then projecting an
enlarged image upon the back of a translucent screen. Plotting may be done direct-
ly on the front side of the translucent screen. This process has been develop-
ed to the point where the film can be exposed for one revolution of the PPI, and
then processed so as to be ready for projection in 10 seconds. The processed film
provides a permanent record of the operations.
A PPI pattern may not bear too great a resemblance to a map because of
Map-PPI Superposition (Radar Mapping) 26.03
antenna beam width, shadowing, 1/R4 effects, etc. Greater definition may be obtained
by using narrower beams and shorter pulses. The gain of the receiver may be var-
ied throughout the sweep so that equal targets at different ranges produce approxi-
mately equal signals. The use of improved sweeps (linear for surface craft and hy-
perbolic for aircraft) and either rotating coil or electrostatic PPl's help to eliminate
map distortions. Little can be done about shadowing effects except to become fami-
liar with expected PPI patterns, through previous experience and study of stereo-
pair photographs or model relief maps. A good indication of expected PPI patterns
may be had through a preliminary study of a model relief map, which may be illumi-
nated from different angles with special flash lights.
A number of topographical features show up on radar PPI scopes. Some of

the features which are most useful in radar mapping are shorelines, islands, hills,
etc. Groups of tall buildings have corner-reflector characteristics and give good
reflections from all directions. Large lakes, lagoons, valleys, and rivers give use-
ful blanks.
The advantages of Map-PPl Superposition are:

(1) The amount of quantitative information which can be presented graphically upon
a small area is very great.
(2) Appraisal by eye is quickest means of comparison of two sets of data of this type,
(3) Radar signals cannot in general be effectively camouflaged or damaged. The
navigator is not depcr.i"ut up'', the proper functioning of any person or appara-
tus not aboard his own craft.
Several sources of data for radar mapping are available such as the 1:80,000
UJS. Geodetic Survey navigation charts (local mercator projections) and U.S. Geo-
logical topographic maps. The best source of data for radar maps is an up-to-date
aerial survey with complete "stereo-pair" coverage. The stereo-pairs show height
on an exaggerated scale. Standard methods of photogrammetry are employed to pre-
pare a radar map showing the features in their correctly projected positions. For
sweeps of 12 miles or less the distortion of the mercator charts is not appreciable,
but whenever possible, conic projection should be used. All charts issued by the
UJS. Hydrographie Office are also available on microfilm.
Part II The NALOC (Navigational Aids to Landing Operations Committee) System

of Map-PPI Superposition
Type of System
Combination of range and azimuth (PPI presentation).
Useful Range
Approximately 10 miles for accurate radar mapping.

The location of the craft is known to within about + 100 yards.
Visual presentation on PPI.

A radar operator trained in Map-PPI Superposition (Radar Mapping).
26.04 NAÔC
Time for Fix

Several minutes for an independent fix starting from scratch, but as many
as 3 fixes per minute are possible when navigating on a course.
Equipment Required on LCC

(1) ShipliorneX-band or K-band radar set with gyro compass for stabiliza-
tion of PPI, VPR or NMP mapping equipment.
(2) QBG sound head (underwater sound directional receiver).
(3) Marine Odograph with re versed plotting head (dead reckoning recorder).
(4) Recording Fathometers - types NK-2 and NJ-8.
(5) Three type TCS radios fur romniumcations.
(6) Type ZB/RU short wave radio directional receiver.
(7) Miscellaneous equipment such as magnetic compass, clocks, etc.

K-band or X-bancT. Bandwidlhs about 1-2 meps.
Present Status
Operational.
The NALOC system of navigation has been designed primarily for naval
landing operations in which a highly technical vessel manned by skilled navigating
personnel leads a wave of troop carrying vessels to within a few hundred yards of
a target beach. The problem is to direct the wave of landing craft so that a landing
maybemade within + 200 yards of a target point on the beach in zero-zero visibility
and with a range accuracy corresponding to an error of + one minute in time of
arrival.
The landing control craft is equipped with a number of navigational aids so

that several methods of navigation are available for use in any landing operation.
One of the most commonly used systems makes use of optically superimposing a
map upon a PPI presentation. The details of this method have been discussed ear-
lier in this section. As the superposition technique is used in NALOC, a fix is
determined from the position of the center point of the PPI presentation upon
the superimposed map. If VPR (Virtual PPI Reflectoscope) type of apparatus
is used, two sizes of charts are provided to match the 6-mile and 12-mile
sweeps of the PPI tube. The charts used are prepared in advance of the land-
ing operation and usually contain only information which is useful for matching it to
the PPI pattern. As previously mentioned, the NMP (Navigational Microfilm Pro-
jector) type of equipment uses 35 mm. microfilm instead of charts.
There are several types of coordinate systems which may be more conven-
ient to use in landing operations than ordinary latitude and longitude. The terminal
objective or target point on the beach is often a convenient origin of coordinates.
Two typical coordinate systems are shown in Figures 26-03 and 26-04. The range
in Figure 26-04 designated in minutes is of course the actual distance divided by the
normal speed of the operation. The particular network of coordinate lines used in
an operation is laid out both upon the chart or film used in the projection system
and upon the larger charts used by the navigator.
For security reasons it is sometimes necessary to observe complete radar

silence during all or the greater part of a landing operation, so other means of navi-
gation must also be provided. The LCC (Landing Craft, Control) is equipped with
an underwater-sound directional receiver (QBG sound head) to provide for navigation
by means of sonic buoys. For landing operations, sonic buoys are laid one to two
NALOC 26.05
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o c c
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er i 1
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Ql "O >p
. w o a1 a
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23.06 NALOC
miles apart in a straight line about 10 miles offshore. The buoys are laid by sub-
marine one to three days early and are timed so as to transmit coded signals for an
eight hour period centered on H-hour, and then scuttle themselves. They are anchor-
ed at least 126 ft. below the surface of the water and are designed to keep within a
radiusof+200 yards of the anchor. The sound gear along with a recording fathometer
and odograph (dead-reckoning tracer) may be used for the entire landing operation,
but they are more commonly used while navigating seaward of the buoy line, and the
radar mapping method is then used for the final 10-mile run to the beach.
Although the sonic buoys may usually be heard up to 10 miles or more, under
very adverse conditions it may be impossible to hear the buoys at distances greater
than 1500 yards, or roughly one mile. It is also difficult under some conditions to
lay a line of buoys by submarine with very great accuracy. In such cases it may
therefore be desirable to navigate entirely by radar.
Since the range of some Map-PPI Superposition equipment is limited to about

12 miles, navigation by suitably positioned corner reflectors may be used during
the early part of a landing operation. Boats with coded corner reflectors may be
anchored at suitable positions off the coast line. With the aid of such reflectors it
is possible to navigate by means of "backward ranging" radar and thus preserve
radar silence toward the shore until the last 10 miles of the operation wnen the radar
may be beamed shoreward for navigation by radar mapping.
Bibliography
503 Secret Precise navigation by means MIT Rad. Lab.

of a radar map superposed on
the PPI
658 Confidential A microfilm chart projector MIT Rad. Lab.

for radar navigation
No. 10 Secret "Radar" magazine, page 57 OSRD under the

June 1945 direction of the
Air Communica-
tions Officer
NALOC Pro- Secret Progress Report, NALOC MIT Rad. Lab.

gress Reports to Chairman NDRC
No. 1 - No. 7
RCA 27.01
RCA TELEVISION-RADAR SYSTEM
Type of system
Combination range and azimuth.

Approximately 200 miles, depending on height of craft (Line of sight). Day
and night coverage identical.
Accuracy
The accuracy of position indication is that given by the type of ground search-
radar used.
Visual, (a) At ground station, several PPI indicators, each covering a pre-
determined altitude range; also inserted information including maps of airways,
airports, data regarding weather, etc. (b) At craft, a televised image is presented
whichreproduces the ground PPI picture corresponding to the altitude range desired,
superimposed on the inserted information.

This system is intended for traffic control, collision prevention, blind-landing
approach and general navigation, (a) At the ground station, a permanent staff in-
cluding traffic controllers, PPI and television operators, power plant attendants, etc.,
would be required. The skill required is determined by the function of each member
of the personnel, (b) In the craft, the only operations required are the tuning of a
television receiver to the desired channel, the normal adjustment of intensity required
with any cathode-ray indicator, and ability to interpret the composite picture seen,
(c) A fix is indicated continuously and automatically by the position of the craft as
given in the picture with respect to fixed ground objects, airport runways, etc.
Equipment required
(a) At ground station: ground search-radar set (MEW or SCR 584 and/or
GCA), a number of PPI indicators, optical projection systems, television cameras,
televisiontransmitters,plottingfacilities, telephone and radio communications gear,
etc. (b) In craft: beacon transponder with adjustable code, barometric altimeter
(standard equipment), television receiver. Normal VHF communication equipment
is a useful adjunct.
Frequency requirements
Two S- or X-band radar channels are required. The band-width depends on
the degree of oscillator stabilization realized in the craft beacon transmitter and in
the ground search radar transmitter. Several television channels are also required.
Present status
RCA has made proposals which outline the scheme, but so far as we are
aware complete equipment design has not been worked out. Inasmuch as the system
uses components which have already been developed, the amount of new circuitry
to be developed is not too large.
Principle of operation
The block diagram of Figure 27-01 is functional only, and does not indicate
a specific arrangement of the equipment. The ground search radar transmitter
presents a PPI picture which is televised and transmitted to the craft where it is
received and displayed. A second television camera enables a chart to be super-
27.02 RCA
imposed on the presentation, so that airways, information as to wind direction and

velocity, traffic control and other special instructions, data as to obstacles etc.
may be temporarily or permanently superimposed on the pattern. It will be seen
that this arrangement is extremely flexible and that a pointer might momentarily
be used to designate pictorially areas or objects which are the subject of conversa-
tions over the VHF communications equipment. It is understood that television
from ground to plane is well established and that the weight of an airborne television
receiver may be kept within a reasonable limit. It is proposed that a projection-
type PPI display be used on the ground, and an ordinary CRT display in the craft.
RADAR
Ground TRANSMITTER '' LJ Radar
u Antenna
Search 1 "
DELAY
LINE
f < RADAR
RECEIVER
t
MIXER CLIPPER
[PPI) CAMERAh
TELEVISION
LL) Television
SWEEP Antenna
MIXER TRANSMITTER
CHART
sCAMERA LP
(a) Ground equipment
BEACON RECEIVER
UJ L_ DELAY
,
LINE
BEACON TRANSMITTER
/\LTIMETER
Hi TELEVISION
RECEIVER
(b) Craft equipment
Fig. 27-01 RCA Televised radar system--Block diagram

RCA 27.03
Separation of different altitude levels

The beacon receiver in the craft picks up the search pulses from the ground
station, and the beacon transmitter radiates its response. This consists of two
pulses. The first of these is assumed to be radiated with negligible delay. The
second is coded by the plane1 s barometric altimeter. That is, the time interval be-
tween the first and second beacon pulses is controlled by a delay-line which is inter-
locked with the altimeter, the length of the delay time being a function of the height
of the craft. It is proposed that the delay should be variable in steps, each step rep-
resenting a certain range of altitude. The altitude ranges would overlap slightly.
At the ground receiver, an identical delay-line is used, and signals with and
without delay are mixed and clipped. This results in the automatic selection (at
the ground station) of responses from all craft in the altitude range for which the
Ground Search
Pulse <■
Tinne(psec) a X 20 40 60 80 100 l?0

Sweepl
Starts
A Beacor pesoor sc
Croft A(üA=i5|jsec)
{ Â
;raft B (AB = 20psec) 102
ÜB
C
craft c (flc = 25,usec) I 2
i
Time(psec) WO 160 180 200 220 240 260
k A;
IB? iC2
Received Signals
I A« ■ A
Received and (ü = i5ju5ec)

Delayed Signals Y AA ►(*--■ A A H AB -►(B;
<
AB, BC, BC,
Clipping Level
Added and clipped I T"
J 1_
Time(psec) 280 300 320 A 340 f 360 3801 400
i ^
selected
Spurious Returns
Signal
indicated 177^
Ranges(psec) 160 167^ 165
A B C
Actual ISO 175 185
Ranges(psec)
Fig. 27-02 Time relationships

27.04 RCA
ground delay-line is set. This principle is illustrated in Figure 27-02, in which a

time scale startingfrom the emission of a ground pulse is shown. It is assumed for
purposes of illustration that the coding time (A) for the particular altitude of craft
Ais 15 microseconds and that the distance of the craft from the ground station cor-
responds to a one-way transit time of 160 microseconds. At 320 microseconds and
335 microseconds the return pulses are received. The delayed received pulses occur
at335and 350 |j sec. The second direct pulse and the first delayed pulse coincide in
time and add up, so that after clipping, the 320 and 350 microsecond pulses will not
appear, the only signal transmitted to the PPI being at 335 microseconds. It will
be seen that there can be no coincidence between the direct and.delayed pulses from
any one craft unless the delay time at the ground station is the same as that at the
craft. Thus by selection of the appropriate delay line on the ground, responses from
planes in a given altitude layer are selected and displayed on a particular PPI.
In order for the correct range to be indicated, the sweep at the ground sta-
tion indicator must also be delayed. This is easily accomplished by triggering the
sweep with that part of the ground search pulse which has also traversed the delay
line. Thus the range indicated for craft A would be p—- = 160 microseconds.
However, there is a possibility of spurious responses. Craft B (range 175

microseconds, delay 20 microseconds) and craft C (range 185 microseconds, delay
25 microseconds) produce overlapping returns as illustrated by the dotted lines.
It is seen that there are three spurious returns from the two extra craft: two of
these returns give incorrect ranges and all three give incorrect altitude layers. This
condition will only arise if a number of craft happen to be within the same cone (as
seen from 'he gruund) corresponding to the dimensions of the search beam, at the
same time; and unless these craft maintain the same spacing for a period of several
search sweeps, the returns will be erratic, fading and changing position. This con-
dition corresponds to dense traffic, would be relatively rare and could probably be
recognized; nevertheless it appears to be a disadvantage and will no doubt be elimi-
nated by careful design if this system is to be developed.
Disposition of ground stations

In regions where this type of control and navigation is to be utilized, ground
stations would be established in suitable locations, perhaps 100 - 200 miles apart.
The overlay or chart televised at one station would include printed instructions at
appropriate points at its outer edge for retuning the craft receiver to the frequency
used in the next area of control. The pilot of the craft sees his position in relation
toother craft, in the same altitude layer and to ground terrain. It would appear that
heavy traffic under conditions of zero visibility might be handled by this method.
Identification
In order that the craft pilot may identify his own craft on the display, it is
proposed that the pulses from the craft transponder be made to brighten the craft
television display for a time corresponding to one or two television frames. This
will in effect brighten the televised image of the PPI sweep while it is pointing in the
direction of the craft. Thus the pilot will see a bright line pointing at his position.
If there is only one craft response along this line, he has identified himself. If there
are several craft at the same level and azimuth, several responses will be visible
along this line and in this case more distinctive identification such as momentary
transponder ending by depressing a push-button switch, might have to be provided.
Adaptation ol the system in blind approach

Where facilities must b;1 provided for giving a pilot a precise indication of
glide path, a modification is proposed. The craft equipment remains as before, the
RCA 27.05
display being televised. The ground station consists of a GCA (ground-controlled

approach) radar set, or simplified GCA omitting the "talk-down" feature, located
justtooneside of the far end of the runway. Azimuthand elevation sector-scan PPI
indicators are necessary, as well as television cameras and transmitting facilities.
The normal displays on the separate azimuth and elevation indicators fed
from the GCA radar are shown in Figure 27-03. GO is the desired line of azimuth
G Fig. 27-03
(a) Azimutu scan (b) Elevation scan
X»
\
/ ■■■\ \ \
\
/ ^ M
Fig. 27-04 Fig. 27-05

Modified elevation scan Azimuth und modified elevation
scans superimposed
, —-. mmimw
27.06 RCA
approach, QP is the projection of the desired glide path in a vertical plane. The
craft A is correctly navigating along the glide path; at a later time it will have ar-
rived at A'. The arcs xx and yy in Figure 27-03 are drawn for illustration only and are
not part of the display. Craft B is too far to the right and too high, although at the
same range as A.
In Figure 27-04 is shown a modified elevation display, wherein the amplitude

of the sweep is modulated by the magnitude of the angle of elevation of the search
beam at any instant in such a manner that the arcs xx and yy in Figure 27-03 now
become the straight lines XJXJ and yjyi in Figure 27-04. That is, the length of the
sweep trace in Figure 27-04 is larger than in Figure 27-03 when the sweep is above
QP, and smaller when it is below. It is presumed that suitable circuits can be de-
signed to perform this modulation. Note that the distance between a response pip
and the apex of the elevation display will now be equal to the corresponding distance
in Figure 27-03 (a) or Figure 27-03 (b) only if the craft has the correct elevation.
By suitable rotation of Figure 27-04 about its apex (in the plane of the paper),
and by superimposing Figure 27-03 fa) with Figure 27-04 (rotated), Figure 27-05
(which is the display as seen by the pilot in the craft) is obtained. The display of
Figure 27-03 is scanned by one television camera and that of Figure 27-04 (rotated)
by another. Between the display of Figure ^7-04 and its camera there is placed a
cylindricallens, soorientedthatpoints in Figure 27-04 appear as horizontal straight
lines in Figure 27-05. Point A in Figure 27-04 gives rise to the line X2X2 in Figure
27-05, and point A' to the line Y2y2- The "on course1'indication is therefore the
coincidence of the "elevation1' line X2X2 and the "azimuth pip'' A with a point on the
glide path GO. If the pilot navigates in such a way that this coincidence is always
maintained as A proceeds through A1 towards O, he will remain on the desired glide
path. Plane B, which is too high, will give rise to the line zz and the response B in
Figure 27-05. The pilot, identifying himself with the response B, sees that he is
too high (above the horizontal line zz) and too far to the right. As he approaches
the correct glide path, B will move to the left towards OG and will continue to rise,
but zz will rise faster, coincidence being obtained as for craft A. The pilot therefore has
continuous indication of his position in space relative to the desired glide path and in
relation to the airport, and may navigate accordingly.
This system is not a full blind-landing system. If visual contact is obtainable

at (say) 50 to 100 feet altitude, the blind approach procedure is followed until this
'drop-out1' level is reached. Otherwise some other scheme adapted specifically for
blind landing must take over after the approach has been completed. The indication
is like that of a crossed-pomter meter except that the 'crossed pointers'' move up-
wardon the'meter''as the airport (top of the 'meter") is approached. Furthermore
the positions of other aircraft making blind approaches are always shown. Also pic-
torial transmission of airport runways, obstructions, etc., can easily be added to
the picture as transmitted from the ground. A number of aircraft can be making
approaches at one time and all can be correctly indicated.
The two modifications here described (control in the vicinity of large air-
ports, blind approach) seem well adapted to handle large amounts of air traffic if
they can be realized effectively. The considerable expenses involved should be
justified by the volume of traffic that can be controlled under any conditions of visi-
bility.
RCA 27.07
Bibliography

Eng. Memo Confidential Preliminary Analysis of
PEM-16C RCA
Radar Navigation Aids
Eng, Memo Secret Memorandum on Radar- RCA
PEM-17C Television System of Air
Navigation
fe
■
SPERRY 28.01
Sperry Omnidirectional Range and Distance Indicator
Type of system
Combined azimuth and range (radial lines of position combined with circular
lines of position).
Useful Range
Azimuth: 100 miles at suitable height (line of sight)
Range: 24 miles without ambiguity

(a) Azimuth measurement, about i 3 (estimated).
(b) Ambiguity in range at over 24 miles. No ambiguity in azimuth.
Presentation and use of data

Altitude and range would be given by dial indication. Electrical data would
also be available for automatic navigation on a preselected course.

(a) At-rround installations, where all cnuipment is automatic, only monitoring
and occasional checking would be required, (b) In the cralt, the only operations
necessary are the tuning of azimuth and range receivers, (c) Since continuous in-
dications of distance and azimuth are given, a fix is constantly available when the
craft is within 24 miles of the ground station. Between 24 and 100 miles, azimuth
only is available.
Equipment required
(a) At ground station: 50 - 100 watt C-band transmitter for rotating beacon
transmission, antenna with dish reflector. Rotation or phase-shifting gear. Omni-
directional transmitter and antenna for nhase reference. Beacon transponder for
distance indication, (b) At craft: C-band receiver and specialized timing circuits
and indicator for azimuth. Transmitterand receiver with specialized phase-match-
ing and indicating circuits for range.
Radio-frequency Spectrum Allotments Required

One C-band channel (5000 mcps) for azimuth measurement and two other
channels (frequency undetermined) for range. Frequency stabilization of transmitters
and receivers is proposed, so that the bandwidth required for the C-band channel
would be of the order of 250 kcps; for the range channels considerably less.

TheSperryGyroscopeCompany has made proposals which are here outlined.
Although various units in the system have been developed to the flight-testing stage,
the system as a whole has not been integrated, nor have methods and equipment been
frozen to a particular design.
Principles of Operation
1. Azimuth Indication: ThegroundC-bandtransmitter is to be crystal controlled, fre-
quency- multiplier klystrons being used in the final multiplier stages. A frequency
stabilityof IpartinlO is thereby obtained. This means that many channels can
be used within a small part of this band. Part of the energy from this transmit-
ter, modulated at 3 or 4 kcps, is radiated from the omnidirectional antenna and
is keyedat some definite repetition rate. The remainder of the energy at this fre-
quency is transmitted as a fairly wide beam from the directional antenna. This is
28.02 SPERRY
arranged to give a directional pattern consisting of two intersecting lobes, modu-

lated at different audio frequencies. The directional beam is caused to rotate
uniformly in azimuth at a speed of perhaps 2 revolutions per sec, by mechani-
cally rotating the antenna and dish. Alternatively, some scheme of electrical
rotation may be used (phase shifting), in which case the rotation could be some-
what faster. The keying of the omnidirectional transmission is synchronized to
the rotation of the directional pattern, so that pulses from the omnidirectional
antenna constitute a definite azimuth reference.
At the craft, the indicator essentially measures the time interval between
the arrival of the omnidirectional azimuth reference pulse and that of the rota-
ting directional beam, which is marked by the sharp change in modulation fre-
quency as the intersection of the two differently-modulated lobes sweeps by the
craft. This time interval characterizes a definite line of position in azimuth.
The method by which the time intervals are measured and translated into a meter
indication has not been definitely determined. Several mechanical and electronic
timers are available.
2. Distance Indication: The craft transmitter sends out a signal modulated at 3750
cps. This is received in the receiver section of the ground repeater and retrans-
mitted (on a different frequency) by the transm'tter section, the modulation being
preserved. At the craft, this ground repeater response is received and the phase
of the modulation in the received signal compared with that of the modulation in
the original transmitted signal. The difference in phase gives information as to
the distance from craft to ground station.
Since a change in phase of 360° at the modulation frequency of 3750 cps

corresponds to a craft-ground station distance of 24.8 miles, there will be an
ambiguity in the indicated range at distances larger than this. The method of
phase comparison proposed is by synchro, with a suitable error-voltage and
follow-up system.
It is proposed that this modulation and phase comparison should be effected

for shortperiods of 1/50 second, once every second. Thus by means of suitable
switching and filtering circuits, the same channel could be used for communica-
tions purposes.
It is understood that the various units involved in these proposals have

been developed and tested. Detailed circuits and methods for integrating the
system are, however, not available. The basic idea in the thinking of the Sperry
Company regarding this and other electronic communications and navigation sys-
tems is that of narrow channels, with transmitters and receivers accurately sta-
bilized in frequency to permit multi-channel operation and to improve signal-to
noise ratios. The system described is intended to be of moderate range, filling
the gap between long-range systems (such as Loran) on the one hand, and special-
izedglide-path and blind-landing systems on the other. It is understood that the
equipment used would be closely coordinated with other communications and
navigational-aid equipment carried by aircraft at the present time, or.proposed
for future use.
The AN/A.PA-44 Ground Position Indicator (GPI) 29.01
Type of System
The GPI is an automatic dead reckoning computer the operation of which is
checked by the tracking of a reference radar echo appearing on a PPI scan. The
auxiliary radar system is a combination of range and azimuth prototypes.
Useful Range
Up to+ 1000 miles from a reference point.

The accuracy of the AN/APA-44 ■. "d Position Indicator attachment for
X-band or K-band search radars is + 3%
North-south and east-west rectangv: iv coordinate information of position
relative to a fixed ground reference point is presented on dials provided that pre-
vious adjustments have been made to cause an electronic crosshair to stay on a refer-
ence radar echo appearing on a PPI.

Unless a separate radar operator ed, the navigator must be skilled
in the interpretation of a radar PPI pres The GPI dial indicatiuus give an
Instantaneous navigational fix.
Equipment Required
The AN/APA-44 ground position indicator attachment for AN/APQ-7 or
AN/APQ-34 search radars weighs about 175 lbs,
Radio Frequency Spectrum Allotments

The GPI attachment is designed for either X or K-band search radars.

In production.
The AN/APA-44 ground position indicator is a radar navigational aid and

blind-bombing device with which one may (1) navigate with precision to a predeter-
mined reference point or target; (2) approach a target from any direction taking
evasive action if desired to within a few seconds of the time of bomb release; (3)
bomb a target whether or not it can be seen on the PPI screen. It is essentially an
automatic dead-reckoning device which provides for a step-by-step method of navi-
gation.
The equipment consists of a combination of computers, a pilot direction in-

dicator (PDI), a "time-to-go" meter and other supplementary apparatus designed
for use with the search radars AN/APQ-7 and AN/APQ-34. This combination of
units illustrated by the block diagram of Figure 29-01 provides an electronic index
for the PPI (the intersection of a circular slant range marker and a radial azimuth
marker) such that the index automatically follows a radar echo across the face of
the PPI once the index is set on the echo by means of "fix" knobs. Any easily
distinguishable radar echo of known location may be used as a convenient reference
point for ground position coordinates. The aircraft's airspeed vector is resolved
into north-south and east-west components to which are added the corresponding
componei.ts of wind velocity. The resulting components of ground velocity are in-
tegrated with respect to time and added to the initial settings of the GPI to give the
N-S and E-W position coordinates of the rpference point relative to the aircraft.
The Dosition coordinates are indicated on counter dials. These coordinates are
29.02 Ground Position Indicator (GPI)
AN-S (FIX KNOB)
□
WN-S
AIR COM- -a
SPEED PASS
/^N-S MILEAGE DIAL

II v
SLANT RADAR
GROUND POSITION RECTANGULAR RANGE INDICATOR
TO CIRCUIT
INTEGRATORS
POLAR
FOR N-S AND COORDINATE AZIMUTH
E-W COMPONENTS KESOLVER MARK
CIRCUIT PPI
E-W MILEAGE DIAL ^^
-an
Ê-W
A E-W (FIX KNOB)
Fig. 29-01 Functional block diagram of the GPI as used for navigation
converted into polar form to give the ground range and true bearing of the reference
point from the aircraft. The ground range is combined with altihrdajnformdtion to
control a slant range ring on the PPI. The true bearing information controls an azi-
muth mark on the PPI. If the correct wind data are set in, the electronic index will
follow the reference radar echo on the PPI. If the marker drifts off the echo, the
wind and position controls can be used to reset it at any time up to six minutes after
the first fix. Thisautomaticallycorrects the wind data, and the marker index should
thereafter follow the radar echo unless there is a change inwind velocity. Even
after the index and radar echo have moved off the face of the PPI (+ 20 mile limits),
the dials continue to indicate the position of the reference point relative to the air-
craft up to + 1000 mile limits.
For step-by-step navigation, the electronic index on the PPI may be shifted
to a new known reference point by proper resetting of the dials. The process can
be repeated until the destination or target area is reached.
For bombing, the index may be set either on the target or on a predetermined
reference point for offset bombing. "Time-of~fall" and "trail" dials are adjusted
for the proper altitude. Thepilot flies on two meters--the "pilot direction indicator"
and the "time-to-go" meter. Evasive action may be taken until the "time-to-go"
meter approaches zero. The bomb release may be automatic or not, as desired.
The fundamental principles of operation of the Ground Position Indicator

as used for navigation are discussed briefly. A block diagram of the GPI as used
for navigation is shown in Figure 29-02, and one component circuit of the GPI is
Ground Position Indicator (GPI) 29.03
TRUE
AIRSPEED
UNIT ^ro'r soeed
proportional to
the Oirrro*! ■.
'rue airspeec
Vo cos 6c
NOR S. E OR W
N-S
TRAVEL RATE N OR S TRAVEL
WIND
SERVO WIND POT
DISP. MAGNETIC
CLUTCH
FIX AND WIND
n
DISPLACEMENT DISPLACEMENT
PROPORTION TRACKING PROPORTION !
POTENTIOMETER CONTROLS [> POTENTIOMETER'
N.-S E.-w
NOTE ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS SOLID

MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS DASHED
Fig. 29-02 Block diagram of the GPI as used for navigation
illustratec^nFigure 29-03. Referring to the diagram of Figure 29-02, a DC voltage

which is proportional to the craft1 s true airspeed is impressed upon a sine potentio-
meter. The position of the rotor shaJt of the sine potentiometer is determined by
the heading information from a gyrosyn compass system. The output of the sine
potentiometer therefore consists of two DC voltages proportional respectively to the
north-south and east-west components of airspeed.
To each of these airspeed-component voltages is added a corresponding

voltage proportional to the north-south (or east-west) component of the wind velocity.
The two resulting voltages are thus proportional to the north-south and east-west
componentsof ground velocity. These two ground-speed component voltages are fed
to rate-servos each of which yields a shaft speed proportional to the applied DC
voltage. Ideally in a given time interval the amount of rotation of one of the rate-
servo shafts is proportional to the net north-south ground travel of the aircraft,
and the amount of rotation of the other rate-servo shaft is proportional to the total
east-west ground travel during the same interval. In practice, minor corrections
are introduced by the "displacement generator" described below.
Figure 29-03 illustrates the addition of the east-west wind-speed to the

east-west air-speed. This component circuit is a dirert-current series loop, in-
cluding a sine potentiometer, a wind-component potentiometer with its own floating
voltage-source, a displacement generator with its shunting potentiometer, and a
IMBBa3MaBHMH«»BBHMaBKlKnfflH«UB
FIX AND WIND

TRACKING
N.^WIND POT. KNOB
TRACK
i,SWITCH
— ^-CONTACT
-«-?-MOTION
I , MAGNETIC
L^-J CLUTCH
1177 RPM = 60MPH
Fig. 29-03 One component circuit of the GPI
rate-servo amplifier for the motor control circuits. The rate-servo motor drives
the rate-servo generator at such a speed that its output voltage is just equal and
opposite to the sum of the sine potentiometer, wind potentiometer, and displacement
generator output voltages, to within a few millivolts. This small residual voltage
appearing at the input of the servo-amplifier serves to control the speed of the motor-
generator combination. If at any time the voltage across the input terminals of the
servo-amplifier exceeds a few millivolts, the motor rapidly accelerates or decelerates
(depending on polarity) until the generator voltage is again almost equal to the sum
of the other voltages in the loop. Thus the speed of the motor-generator combination
is very nearly proportional to the sum of these voltages. Omitting, for the moment,
consideration of any correction due to the "displacement generator", the motor-
generator speed is therefore proportional to the east-weot (or north-south) com-
ponent of the aircraft's ground velocity, and mechanical counters run by the motor-
generator combination integrate the ground velocity to indicate the ground mileage
from the reference point.
At the beginning of a flight the operator may know the approximate wind data.
However, the components of wind velocity are seldom known with sufficient accuracy
to enable the apparatus to correctly compute the aircraft's ground position to the
desired degree of precision. Therefore, some means must be provided for check-
ing and correcting if necessary the setting of the wind dials and simultaneously correct-
ing the integrated reading of the ground-position indicator dials. This is accomplish-
ed by tracking a reference radar echo with electronic slant-range and azimuth
markers which are controlled by circuits in the ground position indicator. If the
electronic index drifts off the reference echo due to incorrect wind data, the amount
of drift in a given time interval is indicative of the error in wind velocity and may
be utilized to correct the error.
"Memory-point tracking" is used to facilitate the correction of wind error

so that the electronic index can be made to properly track a chosen reference radar
echo. A manually-rotated DC generator (referred to as a "displacement generator"
in Figures 29-02 and 29-03) is in each of the two component circuits, While being
rotated, its output voltage adds algebraically to the ground-velocity component vol-
tage, thus momentarily changing the rate-servo speed, resulting in a small correction
of the electronic-index displacement and a corresponding change in the readings
of the GPI dials.
For convenience in the following discussion it, is assumed that the setting of
only one of the two component wind potentiometers is in error. When correcting for
wind error, the amount of correction-shift introduced in a position component is
proportional to the number of volt-seconds obtained from the displacement genera-
tor during its rotation, and is therefore proportional to the amount of rotation.
Across the terminals of the DC displacement generator is connected a linear

potentiometer, the moving contact of which may be driven slowly away from its
position of zero output by means of a constant speed motor. A given amount of
generator rotation occuring at some time after the moving contact has left its zero
position, produces an output in volt-seconds which increases linearly with the time
elapsed since the potentiometer motion was initiated. Since the electronic index is
drifting away from the reference echo at a rate proportional to the error of setting
of the wind potentiometer, the total drift during a time interval is proportional to the
interval. The amount of ground position shift (amount of rotation of the rate-servo)
required for correction of the GPI mileage dials and the position of the electronic
index, is proportional to the time elapsed since the moving contact left its point of
zero output. This volt-second output, proportional to the elapsed time, is available
at the output terminals of the attenuating potentiometer shown in Figure 29-03. A
fixed amount of rotation of the displacement generator is required to produce the
above mentioned output. Therefore, if the wind potentiometer is turned along with
the displacement generator, at an appropriate ratio, the wind error may be elimin-
ated by this rotation of the displacement generator. Therefore, further drift of the
electronic index away from the reference radar echo will not occur unless there is
a change in the wind velocity. Six minutes are required for the constant speed
motor to drive the potentiometer contact over its entire range, so that a wind cor-
rection may be made at any time up to six minutes after making a setting upon a
reference radar echo.
When the "memory-point tracking" function is not being utilized, the circuit
remains in its normal condition with the constant speed motor turned off and the po-
tentiometers at their points of zero output. The track switches, however, are open
(see Figure 29-03), so that the displacement generators offer maximum voltage, when
required, for quickly setting the electronic index to a new radar reference-echo, a
procedure which is carried out about every 15 to 20 miles during step-by~step navi-
gation.
Although the dials of the GPI read to+ 1000 miles from a chosen reference
point, the electronic index on the PPI has a range limited to ± 20 miles.
The electrical connection from the GPI to the PPI index is controlled by 10-
turn helipots (helical potentiometers) which are turned through reduction gears by
the rate-servos. The rectangular-coordinate outputs of the GPI must be converted to
polar form in order to control the range circle and azimuth marker comprising the
electronic index which appears on the PPI. The rectangular to polar coordinate re-
solver circuit is illustrated in Figure

29-04. It receives two AC voltages pro-
portional to the rectangular coordinates,
400 Tj
(380 JO SOO-V) and delivers the polar coordinate informa-
tion both in electrical and mechanical form,
the radius or range information appearing
as an AC voltage and the angle or azimuth
data being given by the angular position of
a rotor shaft. The GPI helipots are sup-
plied with constant-magnitude 400 cps AC
voltage of very low harmonic content.
Transformers with grounded center taps
are used so that the central or zero posi-
tion of each helipot gives zero output vol-
tage with respect to ground. North and
/ south (or east and west) distances are dif-
i it". ferentiated from one another by signals of
opposite phase. Voltages proportional to
the north-south and east-west position
coordinates are applied to the stator wind-
ings of an Arma resolver which is a synchro
having two windings in space quadrature on
both rotor and stator. The stator voltages
Fig. 29-04 Rectangular to polar produce in this machine an alternating mag-
coordinate resolver circuit netic field of strength proportional to the
radial component and direction equivalent
to the angle component of the desired polar coordinates. The voltage induced in one
of the rotor windings is amplified and fed to a motor which turns the rotor until the
coil is at right angles to the magnetic field andthe voltage picked up by it is zero.
The other rotor coil is then aligned with the magnetic field and the magnitude of the
voltage induced in it is indicative of the desired radius coordinate. The angle is
accuraletov/ithin-0.6oand the radius or range voltage is accurate to within -40 yards
in range measurement.
The azimuth marker system illustrated schematically in Figure 29-05 com-

bines information from the compass system, from the radar antenna spinner, and
from the GPI resolver in such a way as to provide an azimuth mark with each ro-
tation of the spinner. The following information is provided mechanically on shafts;
(a) from the compass system: the true heading of the aircraft, (b) from the
radar antenna spinner: the relative bearing of the spinner, (c) from the GPI re-
solver: the true bearing of the electronic index. These three shafts are located in
different parts of the aircraft, and electrical interconnection is accomplished by a
differential-synchro system as illustrated in Figure 29-05 in which the dotted lines
indicate mechanical couplings and the solid lines indicate electrical connections.
Information from the compass and spinner is electrically combined to give the
instantaneous true bearing of the antenna spinner. This information is compared
with electrical information from a synchro on the GPI resolver giving the true bear-
ing of the desired electronic index. When the above two directions coincide (i.e.,
whenever 0^ = ec - 9s), a radial azimuth marker is placed on the PPI screen. This
occurs whenever the voltage from one of the terminals of the resolver synchro be-
comes zero as at points A and C in Figure 29-05. This null is used in the azimuth
marker circuit to produce an intensification of the oscilloscope beam. Another null
in the voltage occurs at point B when the antenna spinner is pointing opposite to the
desired direction. The different phase properties of the voltage output from another
terminal of this autosyn are utilized in an appropriate circuit to suppress undesired
ambifinmus ;orre.' :ing to p. (see lower wave form of Figure
29-05.
RGdar Re^cence Tnrge'

(as compu'ert iy Gf-i 'jr.a resoiveM
s?-f-^ ky^ py^
To PPI -*" iMjik «Tie';

0,, - b, H, ;
•■■ ■ i- t -I-,' . ,11.ige i't- ;• .-.i •■
Fig. 29-05 Synchro sv.stcm fur coordination of azimuth data
The range marker consisLs of a momentary oscilloscope intensification for

all spinner azimuths and occurs simultaneously with the radar returns from objects
on the ground at the same ground range as the reference point upon which the elec-
tronic index is set. The range marker is controlled by a triangle solver containing
circuits similar lothobe used m the GPI resolver to convert rectangular coordinates
to polar coordinates. Two AC voltages differing m phase by 90°, and proportional
to altitude and ground r uigi respectively are combined to yield a resultant, the am-
plitude of which is proportional to ihr slant range. This AC voltage is rectified, and
the resulting DC voltage is used in control the delay introduced by the range marker
circuit.
"™~,*™° mimiiiyiM

Bibliography
Identification Classification Title Issued By

S-19 Confidential Ground Position Indicator for MIT Rad. Lab.
Radar Navigation and Bombing
Section 4 Secret U.S, Radar Survev Div. 14 NDRC
Navigational (pages 4-1 to 4-4)
Radar
Miscellaneous Enemy Navigational Systems 30.01
This section contains brief descriptions of some of the lesser known German
navigational systems. Much of the information has been obtained from prisoners of
war, and hence is of questionable accuracy.
Electra is a German navigational system of the azimuth type employing

radio beacon stations each of which maintains a fixed multi-lobe pattern of adjacent
dot and dash sectors. The transmission consists of unmodulated CW dots and dashes
at a frequency between 290 and 480 kcps. The azimuth indication is of the aural
dot-dash variety with a steady tone for the on-beam indication. The navigating craft
carries DF equipment in order to resolve sector ambiguities in the beam pattern.
The on-course beam width is about 0.3° giving a theoretical bearing accuracy of
+ 0.15°. The maximum usable range is claimed to be of the order of 1500 miles. The
Electra system is also mentioned in the discussion of the German Sonne system in
Section 17. The Electra field pattern is given in Figure 17-03.
The German Benito system may be used to control both the range and azi-
muth of an aircraft from a ground installation. The range to an aircraft is deter-
mined at the ground station by a phase-shift method and the range information is
relayed to the aircraft over the radio communications channel. The ground-station
carrier is amplitude modulated with a 3000 cps tone which is received by the air-
craft and retransmitted on a different carrier-frequency. The range to the aircraft
is obtained at the ground station by comparison of the phase of the modulation enve-
lope of the received aircraft transmission with that of the original tone modulation
of the carrier transmitted from the ground station. The fine range measurement
contains a range ambiguity of some integral number of 50 kilometers. This ambi-
guity is eliminated by a course range measurement using a tone modulation frequency
of 300 cps. When used for the control of bombers, the azimuth information is ob-
tained at a ground station by direction-finding on the reply signal of the range mea-
suring channel. The azimuth information is then transmitted to the aircraft by cod-
ed keying of the same transmission which is used for range measurement.
Benito transmitters and receivers

operate at frequencies in the 40-50 meps
band, with an average carrier power of
about 0.8 kw. The maximum useful range
is between 100 and 200 miles depending to
a great extent upon the altitude of the air-
craft. The accuracy of range measure-
ment is reported to be about +50 yards
with a skilled operator.
Knickebein is a German navigation

al system used primarily for blind bombing.
It is an azimuth type of system employing
fixed radio-beams with a rather complex
arrangement of the dot and dash areas as
shown in Figure 30-01. Details concern-
ing the unused back nortion of the beam
pattern are not known. Either meter-
indication or aural dot-and-dash signals
areusedfor the on-beam indication, and no
range information is provided. Two beams
may be crossed over a desired target. The
angular spread of the equisignal Knickebein
beam is about 0,3 degree which is suitable
Fig. 30-01 The Knickebein beam
30.02 Miscellaneous Enemy Navigational Systems
for bombing a target the size of a town.

Knickebein stations operate at a radio
frequency between 30 and 33.4 mcps with
an average power of about 1 kw. The max-
imum usable range is claimed to be of
the order of 250 miles, and the claimed
bearing accuracy is about + 0.15°.
Ruffian is a blind bombing system

using a complex arrangement of radio beams
each beam operating on a slightly different
frequency in the region of 80 mcps with an
average power of about .8 kw. The system
utilizes both coarse and fine beams, the
Fig. 30-02 Coarse Ruffian beam characteristics of which are illustrated in
Figures 30-02and 30-03 respectively. The
equisignal zone between dot and dash areas is 4 wide in the coarse beam, and 0.1
wide in the fine beam. The fundamentals of the Ruffian system are illustrated in
Figure 30-04. The bombing aircraft flies with constant speed toward A along a beam
emanating from the beacon transmitter at T^. Beams from stations at T2 and T3
intersect the aircraft course at points P and Q which are spaced 15 kilometers apart.
PQ
The height of the aircraft and the ratio px are set into an automatic clock mechanism.
Keys are pressed when the aircraft passes points P and Q, and the clock mechanism
automatically releases the bombs at the correct point R, the location of which de-
pends upon the time required for the aircraft to pass from P to Q. As actually used
station Tj transmits a coarse beam in addition to a fine beam so that the pilot can
fly the coarse beam during the early part of the flight in order to avoid fatigue. Sta-
tionTsalsotransmitsa coarse warning beam which the aircraft passes through short-
ly before reaching point P. Two extra emergency transmitters are also available
one near Tj and the other near T2 and Tg in case the regular transmitting stations
should be either jammed or otherwise not functioning properly. Under ideal condi-
tions the bombing accuracy is reported to be of the order of + 80 meters at the maxi-
mum range of about 200 miles.
Hermine is a VHF German naviga-

tional system in which no special electron-
ic equipment other than an ordinary com-
munications receiver is required aboard
the navigating craft. It operates on a fre-
quency between 30 and 33.3 mcps. At the
ground station the Hermine rotating bea-
con transmits a continuous tone upon
F;nc inti Beam which is superimposed a speaking clock
Fine Right BecJfn which counts from 1 to 35, each figure re-
presenting tens of degrees in azimuth
angle. A beacon-identification code-name
is spoken in place of the figure 0, and the
entire cycle of events takes place in one
minute. The continuous tone partially
masks the voice modulation except in a
small sector of about 15° within which
the masking tone gradually falls to zero
and rises again so that Lite voice mudulaliun
Fig. 30-03 Fine Ruffian beams momentarily becomes more audible. Pre-
A
/I
E
D
0)
CQ
+-
Bomb
Release -Target
Vor
signai
T2
Fig. 30-04 Elements of the Ruffian system
sumably the field pattern of the masking signal is a rotating cardioid. The null in
the masking tone moves uniformly through the 360° of azimuth and an observer can
estimate the position of the null to within 3° to 5°. A navigational fix is obtained by
taking bearings on two Hermine stations. Although its accuracy is not very great,
the Hermine system has the advantage of great simplicity.
Ruobezahl (or Egon) is a German bomber-control navigational system in

which one aircraft is controlled by two Freya radars. The position of the aircraft
is continuously plotted from Freya data, and course corrections are transmitted to
the aircraft by either code or voice signals on a radio communication channel.
Either aural or visual indications may be used. One Freya plots the course of the
aircraft until it is quite near the target and then a more accurate Freya takes over
for the bomb release instructions. In the Ruebezahl or Egon system, IFF responses
from equipment in the aircraft greatly increase the range of the Freyas. The air-
borne equipment operates on a frequency of 116 to 146 mcps with pulses of 2 to 3
microseconds duration, and with a peak power of from 15 to 20 kw. The aircraft
may be controlled in range to within + 100 yards and in bearing to better than + 1°.
Bernhard- Bernhardine is a German navigational system used by night fighters

for the interception of an enemy bomber force. Bernhard is the ground station and
Bernhardine is the aircraft installation used with Bernhard. The ground station
(Bernhard) is a very large rotating antenna array 34 meters in diameter and mak-
ing two revolutions per minute. It operates on a wavelength of between 7 and 9 meters
with a power output of the order of 1 kw.,and is essentially a ranging and direction-
finding set. In the night-fighter aircraft the Bernhardine equipment gives a contin-
uous indication of the bearing of the Bernhard station, and also gives the location,
course, altitude, and approximate strength of the enemy bomber force which the
nightfighter is trying to intercept. All of this information is printed on a tape once
per minute, the printing requiring 10 seconds. The printing on the tape appears as
shown in Figure 30-05. In the case of Figure 30-05, the azimuth or bearing of the
Bernhard ground station from the night fighter aircraft is 90° as indicated on the
scale directly below the V-shaped notch in the printed lines. The bearing is accurate
lu Lii
IIIII IIIMMM II M 1111 lllh 111 | ii ill I IMI IMI j I Ml llln IIMM |iin|iMi|iiii|Mii|ini|iiii[iiii{iiii{ ini|iin|iiu|iiii{
6X 7 8X 9 IOX II I2X 6X 7 8X 9 IOX II I2X
+ 40 KA 27 100 +40 KA 27 100
Fig. 30-05 Typical Bernhardine printed tape presentation
towithin0.5o. The figures appearing below the horizontal azimuth scale form a cod-
ed message. The + sign indicates the start of the message. The figure 40 indicates
the height in hundreds of meters of the leading enemy bombers in the formation
being attacked. The letters KA indicate a coordinate grid position of the night-fight-
er at the head of the attacking stream. The figure 27 indicates in tens of degrees
the azimuth of the enemy bomber formation under attack, and the final figure 100 is
an estimate of the number of bombers.
Hyperbol (or Hyperbel) is the German copy of the British GEE system which
is discussed in Section 11.
Truhe is a German navigational system very similar to Hyperbel.
Zyklop (or Cyclop) is a German navigation beacon similar to Knickebein.

The radTo "Transmission is in the 30-33.3 mcps band, and consists of intermittent
CW with sine-wave modulation. The indication is of the dot-dash variety, either
auralorvisua],onakicking-typemeter. Zyklop is believed to be mobile Knickebein.
Dora is a German rotating radio-beacon with a figure-eight field pattern. A

bearing on one beacon is obtained by measuring the time interval between a minimum
signal and a fixed marker signal. Dora beacons operate in tue 30-100 meter band
with a power output of about 1.5 kw. The maximum usable range is of the order of
1000 kilometers.
Erika (and New Erika) are beacons giving a beam pattern which makes detec-
tion of an intended target extremely difficult. It is similar to Knickebein but there
is no single beam upon which a bomber aircraft attacks a target, and hence, night
fighters cannot attack by flying on the beam. It is based on the principle of a VHF
(30-33 mcps) beam oscillating rapidly over a segment of about 60° - 90°. The beam
has a different phase in different sections of the segment and the phase of the re-
ceived signal is compared with that of a standard phase producer in the aircraft.
Six dials automatically indicate zones, and fine zones do not have to be flown until
just before dropping the bombs. Its main disadvantage is its vulnerability to jam-
ming.
Diskus is a German radar navigational and bombing system in which an air-

craft flies a circular course at constant range from one ground station A and releases
its bombs upon reaching the proper range from a second ground station B. A pulse
transmitter is located in the aircraft, and responder beacons are located at the
ground stations. It is similar to the Micro-H system as used to fly a cat-mouse
course (See Section 5).
Schwanboje beacons are German floating target beacons operating on fre-

quencies between 42.1 and 47.9 mcps. A navigating craft may home on the target
beacon by direction-finding on its radiated signal.
The German Nachtfee system is a method for transmitting fighter direction

commands over the beam of the controlling radar by space (phase) modulation of the
Freya pulses within a repetition cycle. In order that a number of fighters may be
controlled from a single Freya ground station, the airborne equipment is built in
10 different models with crystal controlled repetition rate oscillators operating at
frequencies grouped around 15 kcps. Fighter direction commands are indicated by
the angular position of pips appearing on a circular sweep CRO trace.
Bibliography
Secret Notes for Pilots, Observers, Headquarters of

and special W/T operators on North 80 Wing,
enemy radio aids to navigation RADLETT
and accurate bombing under
blind conditions.
WA-2266-12 Secret German bombing and Naviga- ETOUSA, OCSigO,

Loga Z 34? tional aids. RCM division
No. 357/1945 Secret Radio and radar equipment A.D.I.(K)

Loga L-2641 in the Luftwaffe-II
JEIA 10784
Loga L-2520 Secret BHF Rundschreiben Nos. 3, OC Sig O Headquar-

JEIA 10555 4, 5; 9 July 1945 ters U.S. Forces
European Theatre
Loga F 1583 Secret German "Nachtfee" system U.S. Naval Techni-

of control of night fighters cal Mission in
Europe
Loga L-873 Secret Extract from USSAFE Air U.S.S.A.F.E.

JEIA 7887 Intelligence Summary 66
Report No. 33 Secret Air Scientific Intelligence Air Ministry,

20.4.45 A.D.I. (Science)
Companson.s, ConcJusionis and Rpcümmondations 31.01
Comparison of Naviâtlonaj SysI ems

Any universal comparison of the various electronic navigation systems here
described must necessarily be inadequate because of their widely differing objectives.
Thus a short-range high-precision system such as Shoran may not properly be com-
pared with a long-range system such as Sonne. The following comments are how-
ever of a general nature, and are sufficiently fundamental to warrant the attention
of anyone interested in electronic navigation.
1. Pulse systems, in which the received signals are displayed on a CRO, are not
nearly so susceptible to meaconing, or to hidden errors produced by varying pro-
pagation conditions, as are continuous-wave systems. The reason for this is
two-fold. Firstly, any irregularity in received pulse signals (such as spurious
pulses, distortion of pulse shape due to plural-path transmission) is visible to
the operator on the CRO trace. (Cathode-ray indicators have produced misgiv-
ings among uninitiated personnel, due to a natural distrust of glassware and hid-
den wires, but they have an enormous versatility compared with meters, audible
indicators or automatic-control systems.) Secondly, a pulse system offers the
possibility of separating ground-wave and sky-wave returns. As pointed out in
connection withSS Loran, the minimum delay between sky-wave and ground-wave
signals is of the order of 65 microseconds at 2 meps (possibly lower at LF Loran
frequencies), so that if the rise-time of the pulses (as seen by the navigator) is
short enough, the leading edge of the pulse represents ground-wave transmission
only and is therefore dependable. In continuous-wave systems however, the trans-
mission is not broken up into discrete pulses so that ground-wave and sky-wave
returns cannot be separated.
2. Pulse systems require a larger band-width than CW systems and are therefore
more easily accomodated at high than at low frequencies. However, the use of
high frequencies would impose a limitation on ground-wave range, and the ten-
dency with long-range Systems of any kind is therefore towards the use of lower
frequencies. With pulse transmission, this leads to two difficulties; wide-band
transmission produces considerable adjacent-channel interference, and the attain-
ment of the required band-width in the radiating system is difficult even with
very high antennas. The total spectrum allotment required for a pulse system
may be kept down to a reasonable figure by "stacking" a number of transmitters
(using different pulse repetition rates) on the same frequency as is done in the
case of Loran.
3. Provided that sufficient ingenuity is exercised and that there are no restrictions
on weight and space, any given system can be made to present its final indication
in any desired form. Automatic piloting, applied to either aircraft or guided
missiles, could presumably be realized with Loran transmissions. At the other
end of the scale, the Sonne system probably requires less additional equipment
on the craft than any other.
4. The comparative value of radar as a navigational aid

(a) Airborne Radar. Any general navigational system must make use of a chart.
In the case of non-radar systems, the chart usually exhibits a number of lines of
position, each corresponding to a particular indication given by the craft equip-
ment. These lines of position may be of a special nature, as in the case of Loran
hyperbolae, or they may be merely spherical coordinates of latitude and longi-
tude. Ineither case, the navigator determines his position by identifying lines of
position on the chart.
A Radar system giving a PPIpresentation is different in that the navigator
now has two charts, one of which is his PP1 presentation. Superposition of the
two (either actually, as in NALOC, or mentally as in ordinary use of a PPI pic-
31.02 Comparisons, Conclusions and Recommendations
ture for navigation) gives the navigator's position.

The Radar method has the advantages of displaying the positions of other
craft (and even of storm centers), and of requiring no ground station transmission
over areas where natural Radar landmarks exist: it can be used MI areas where
Loran coverage is not provided or is unreliable. Radar, being a versatile tech-
nique, presents 'jportumties for other specialized uses: for example, collision
prevention, Raaar mapping, communication by pulse-time modulation, retrans-
mission of an airborne PPI display to a ground or shipborne information center.
Disadvantages are that oversea navigation is not possible at distances from Radar
landmarks greater than the Radar range, that over land a number of landmarks
having a particular disposition is necessary for certain identification of position,
that there is distortion in the PPI picture at close range due to slant range data
being presented instead of ground range data (unless a hyperbolic sweep is used),
andthe additional weight, complexity and cost of the equipment as compared with
(say) a Loran receiver and indicator.
The use of beacons or corner reflectors with airborne radar provides a
system of identification of a particular course, airport or natural hazard. These
are problems of restricted or special navigation and as such are very elegantly
handled by radar means.
Unless beacons are used, the accuracy of a Radar fix may not be equal
to that of a good Loran fix, but it would appear to be more constant over a large
area if available at all, and is probably adequate for purposes of general naviga-
tion.
(b) Ground Radar. In situations where the emphasis is on ground control of air
traffic rather than on the presentation of individual fixes to pilots of aircraft,
ground radar may well become the accepted solution to the control problem. Any
complete control system must include some communications link so that coor-
dinated information and specific instructions can be transmitted to the pilot of
the craft. Such a system is expensive to install and maintain, and would only be
justified at airports, control points, and possibly at major hazards. Several close-
ly coordinated schemes have been proposed, such as the RCA system and the
Federal traffic-control system. A disadvantage is that such systems must be
used by all of the traffic if true ground control and collision prevention are to be
obtained with zero visibility, requiring certain equipment to be compulsory on
all craft. Such a coordinated system requires careful design if the problem of
identification is to be fully solved. Unless identification is provided for, the
function of control cannot be exercised fully on individual craft. Such systems
may be designed so that the craft equipment may also be used for blind approach
andpossibly blind landing techniques. Such extensions are essential if all-weath-
er commercial air traffic is to become a reality.
Regarding accuracy and precision of position-line determination, the following

general statements may be made:
(a) Range-measuring systems have the same position-line precision at all ranges,
since the separation of the circular position lines in miles per microsecond
is constant. This statement neglects errors in crystal control, which are
usually very small. Hyperbolic and azimuthal systems give a precision in
line of position which varies inversely as the range, at distances greater
than about five times the base line.
(b) Azimuthal precision is uniform at all azinuths with systems using rotatable
antennas, such as radar systems. It is not uniform with hyperbolic systems,
being greatest along the perpendicular bisector of the base-line.
(c) Continuous-wave systems such as Decca offer great accuracy at short ranges
if the ambiguity involved can be tolerated. This great accuracy arises from
Comparisons. Cunckusions and Rpcomnioudations 31.03
the precision resulting from phase measurement at radio frequency. Pro-

portionately good accuracy at groat ranges is claimed if a long base-line is
used. However, a long base-line means that the system can be of only limit-
ed range for reliable results, because the use of signals containing any
appreciable amount of sky-wave return, or consisting solely of sky waves,
is ruled out. Consider for example a base-line of 300 miles. Using sky
waves for phase comparison, the distance between the points where ionospheric
reflectiontakes place for tiiaster and slave transmissions to the craft will be
of the order of 150 miles. Since there is no reason to expect that ionospheric
conditions at these two widely-separated points will vary in a sufficiently
similar way over a period of lime, the phase difference measured at the
craft will show wide variations with corresponding uncertainty in the line of
position obtained.
A similar argument applies to signals composed of a mixture of
ground- and sky-wave returns, Variations in the phase and amplitude of the
sky-wave component will produce variations in the phase of the resultant.
Assuming for the purpose of illustration a Decca system working on a fre-
quency of about 200 keps, a complete reversal in phase of the sky-wave sig-
nal (180° phase change) represents only 2.5 microseconds change intime
of travel. Studies of the variations in sky-wave delay which have been made
in connection with Loran pulse transmissions show that short-period varia-
tions of several times this amount may easily occur and are not at present
predictable, In the case of mixed sky- and ground-wave returns, the maxi-
mum difference in phase (in degrees) between the resultant signal and the
ground-wave signal is the angle whose sine is the ratio of sky-wave ampli-
tude toground wave amplitude. This maximum difference will be encounter-
ed when the phase of the sky-wave is approximately in quadrature with that
of the ground-wave (if the sky-wave amplitude is not too large a fraction of
the ground-wave amplitude). Thus, if the amplitude of the sky wave is as
muchas one-sixth of that of the ground wave, a maximum phase shift of about
+ 10 in the resultant signal will be encountered as the phase of the sky-wave
component fluctuates about its average value, and changes in amplitude will
also occur. Since the accuracy of the Decca system depends on phasemeters
which are sensitive to a 2° phase change, it will be seen that the amount of
sky-wave return which can be tolerated is very small. Thus a cuutinuous-
wave system depending on phase comparison is essentially limited to the
area within which pure ground-wave reception is obtainable.
The extent to which the above considerations may be modified by using
a lower frequency cannot be accurately foreseen, since data on propagation at
such frequencies is lacking at the present time.
(d) Where extreme range and good precision are both desired, LF Loran (with
cycle matching) appears to be an attractive possibility.
Sky-Wave errors. In addition to the fluctuations in position-line reading mention-

edabove in 5(c), which will be evident to the operator and therefore not dangerous
(eventhough they limit the useful range of a system), large and relatively consis-
tent errors in line of position may result from sky-wave propagation in systems
depending on radiation patterns (radio "ranges1', Sonne, Federal long-range sys-
tem). Consider as an example the Federal system, in which a sequence of two
pairs of directional patterns is radiated by changing the relative phasing of the
currents in two antennas spaced one-half wavelength apart. At the receiver, the
stronger signal from each of the two pairs is attenuated to give output signal
ratios of unity, and a line of position is then obtained from the attenuator settings.
(It may be remarked in passing that transmitter and receiver band-widths must
be considerably greater !!ian the values quoted to reproduce adequately the modu-
lation envelope shown.) Now if sky waves are used, the difference between the
transmission paths from the two antennas to the receiving point at some given
azimuth will no longer be the same as it would have been for ground-wave pro-
pagation at the same azimuth, being a function of the angle at which the radiation
leaves the ground station to reach the point of ionospheric reflection. Thus the
position-lines will be skewed by an amount which depends on the transmitter-re-
ceiver distance and also on the azimuth of the receiver with respect to the trans-
mitter. If this were all, the necessary sky-wave corrections would be calculable
and could be applied by means of appropriate markings on the charts used. Vari-
ations in effective point of reflection, and in the relative magnitudes of returns
from different ionospheric layers, will still produce a range of uncertainty in
the readings. However, a much more serious consideration is that ground waves
and sky waves are not separated, so that the percentage of sky-wave return pre-
sent and the magnitude of the correction to be applied are unknown and inconstant
factors. This is the fundamentai argument which rules out the long-range use of
such systems and will continue to do so until a great deal more is known about
ionospheric propagation in general.
7. Range-measuring systems usually require transmission from the craft (an ex-
ception would be in the case of a ground-radar display which is communicated
to the craft by audio or video signals). Range-measuring systems are saturable:
hyperbolic and azimuthal systems are not.
8. It may be said that the subject of frequency and band-width allocations is very
intimately connected with the development of long-range navigation, and such
allocations will be a deciding factor in the effectiveness of any systems which
may be developed. In this connection, what is important is the bandwidth required
for a complete navigation system. With most systems, received signals are be-
low the local noise level beyond a radius of about 3000 miles from the transmit-
ter, sothat channels assignedfor (say) North Atlantic coverage may be used again
in the Pacific or over Asia. Thus a pulse system, such as Loran, may cover the
North Atlantic with a 50-70 kcps bandwidth allotment since the use of different
pulse repetition rates allows the stacking of as many as 16 stations at the same
frequency. A continuous-wave system such as Sonne, requiring about the same
number of stations to give the same coverage, will need about the same bandwidth
allotment for the complete system. The apparent advantage claimed for narrow-
band systems is thus largely illusory. In addition, a Decca system to give the
same coverage has the further complication of requiring a number of frequencies
so spaced that the necessary numerical relations exist between them.
A chart showing the frequency-distribution of the various systems is given on page

31.05, and a table summarizing their principal characteristics appears on pages
31.06-nd 31.07. Tabulation is useful only in so far as it presents unambiguous data,
and for this reason the table of principal characteristics does not attempt to sum-
marize the facts concerning such matters as siting requirements for transmitters.
Four aspects of siting may be mentioned:
(a) The degree of accuracy required in the triangulation of proposed sites varies
with the accuracy of the system. For Shoran, the triangulation must be extremely
refined if the full capabilities of the system are to be realized.
(b) The size and expense of the ground system required is greater at low frequencies.
(c) The elevation of the transmitter site above the local horizon affects primarily
the range attainable with ground waves.
(d) The flatness of the site, and the absence of non-uniformities, are factors of
prime concern in systems such as radio ranges, Sonne and the Federal long-range
system which depend on radiation patterns. Nnn-uniformities in the ground may atten-
uate the radiation in some directions, thereby modifying the theoretical radiation
pattern.
Comparisons, Conclusions and Recommendations 31.05
10 30,000 Bi-llOO 3m
kcps meters mcps
— CAA VHF OMNI-RANGE
1 .CANADIAN
el 1 ^/
K+AN/APN 34
20 I 200
SHORAN
DEGGA N-
50 500
3 FEDERAL B "
LONG RANGE
100 N[ liooo 30cm

kcps mcps
Nc
r L.F. LORAN
200 2000
r AN RANGE
1 > AND CAA 1 F 1 ]S-BANDpRW584
N
I1 !
OMNI-RANGE N
1^
'j SONNE
- —■
500 Nc 5000
B — POP!
IC R0 H
N[ 1x-BANDfc
J tH Xy
-
2
i ADF AND
imcps 3oom BENDIX 10,000 3cm
mcps
Y
5 LORAN
NC TA Mn ft n n inn AM
2 20,000
s- -K-BAND
1
_i
< —
H
S- Z
5 LÜ 50,000
18=
— UJ
CL
—
IR X
UJ
lomcps 3om 100,000 3mm
IB—
S-
IB
i —
s-
IB-
20 1 T 200,000 !
No useful
s- sky waves
obove N= Navigational Aids
somcps
GEE | B= Broadcast
50 500,000 S= Standard frequency
broadcast
B
- IB= International
1
00 3m broadcast
mcps 1
31.06 Comparisons, Conclusions and Rocomnu-ndalions
1 " 1
Type of Maximum useful range 1 Unceltainty in 1 nt' of pnsilum Presentation i Special skills | Craft
| Systfm (statute miles)' lo navigator (craft) | Equipmenl
1 Min. Theoretical Ambiguities 1
i
t 25 yard« 300 lbs.

Obor Range Radar llne-of-sighli none Aural
I raining I specialized
no less Trained . 232 lbs.

Shoran Range 180 (at 12,000 ft.) ._ 50 fl. tha.i 100 Lli0
; Operator 1 specialized |
mi. apart
Trained 1 15 lbs. plus

Mlcro-H Range Radar llne-ol-sighl» 1 50 y.:rds non • PPI Operator : lUX equlpmen
I
36-mtle
I
ARL Intermitlent specialized
Range 36 not known intervals Meier very little
Phase-Comparison
1 i
V rd r
ARL One-Shot Range 100 nol known none 1 r " 1" veryhltle , specialized
Counter
1 specialized
Canadian Range 100 1 1 mile none Meter | very little
GE Random 1 Veeder
1 1
Interrogation Range 100 not known none very little specialized
Counter
GE Time- Range 100 nol known none Meter j very little , specialized
Rationing
I 1
400 (at 30,000 ft.) t 0.062 mi. I Trained i 92 lbs.
Gee Hyperbolic (see page 11.01) = 327 feet none CRO Operator j specialized
Day: 850(G) S 0.093 ml. Trained 1 specialized

Loran (standard) Hyperbolic Nighf f 600(C, • 492 feel j none CRO
N1Bnt (l600(S) 1 Operator equipment
70 Ihq
* 0.093 mi. with small

Loran (SS) Hyperbolic 1600 (S) (night only ran ' Trained
none CR0 frequency
no day-time trans- = 492 feet j Operator
mission) J converter
1 if used
Loran (LF) Hyperbolic 1 500 lo 2000 (?)
'2000 ft.'51 Trained : forLF
•50 11. (:,
l none CR0
! Operator | Loran
1
i ]
1500 (?) (Limited
Decca Hyperoolic 140 feel I?) multiple Meters very little specialized
to ground wave)
(Limited to giound standard

POPI Hyperbolic wave if gross errors 0.636° azimuth none Meiers very little rec. with
avoided) ! POPI ind.
AN "Range" Azimuth 200 ±5° two or four very little low-freq.

Aural
receiver
Automatic
Direction Azimuth 200 to 400 ±3° none Pointer i specialized
none
Finding and scale 1
Day: 1000 multiple
low-freq.
Sonne Azimuth Night: 2000(S) il'60 (solve by Aurat very little receiver
UP. or DF) with BFO
Automatic 2 ADF's,
BendU Azimuth 200 to 400 ±3° none plotting very little compass,
on chart computer
CAA VHF Meter and
Omni-"Range" Azimuth 100 ±3° none very little specialized
Dial
CAA LF (serious sky-wave 7 Meter and

Omni-"Range" Azimuth none very little specialized
errors probable) Dial
Federal 1500 (?) (serious sky- ' two:

Azimuth Meter and
wave errors probable) ±0.2 to 1.5° solved by very little specialized
Long-Range Dials
DF
Airborne Radar Range and 250 (beacon) + 1-3 azimuth Trained 370 lbs.
(H2X) Azimuth 90 (search) + 50 yds. range none PPI
Operator specialized
SCR 584 Range and 40 < 0.034°+ 15 yds. none via communi-
Ground Communica-
cation channel none
Radar MEW Azimuth 250 none tion, beacon
± 1 mile 1 from ground
Range, j j
AN/APN 34 Azimuth, 60 to 100 ±2°+ 1/2 ml. none Meters very little specialized
Track
Federal Range and
TraJ/lc- 50 to 100 7 none CRO very little specialized
Azimuth
Control
Map-PPI Range and j 1-3°. Radar set,

10 to 100 i 200 yarda Skilled
Naioc Azimuth none PPI projection
approx. Operator
equipmenl
Range and equal to that television
RCA identi- Television Interpretation
Azimuth 200 (line-of-sight) of ground Radar rec, beacon
fication^) 1 image of PPI
used transponder
Sperry lange and | I0Ü azimuth + 3° azimuth 1 R,mge over

\zimuth 24 range Meters very little specialized
1 400 ft. range | 24 mi.
AN, APA 14 Range and ' 1000 ml. from last + 3 70 of range 1 reference
from reference [ Radar echo j PPI and : Skilled | 175 lbs.
OPI Ulmulh [ reference point dials ! Oj"ef3tor plus Radar |
1—... .,. i
point | recognition j
• figurr .-j assume average r-) nvetopc matching

noise level I tentative figure
cycle ma'chlng
(G) = ground wave
(S) = sky wave I approximately 250 miles ;i! .10.000 ft. altitude
Frequency Band- Type of | Ground wave and Meaconlng Status Salur:)ble Transmission Instantaneous
width transmission sky wave separated Recopilzable required 1U with single
from Cnft equipment
1 Yes- one
Helease point
S-tand 8 mcp£ Pulse (1-3 ps) {No sky wave) - Uun 1
Yes Indicated
* a time
210 - 320 4- 5 Pulse Opera- 1 Yes
mcps (0.5ps) (No sky wave) Yes Yes Yes
mcps tional ] (20cra(l)
2.5 Pulse Opera- Yes

X-tand (2psand0.5^s) 1 (No sky wave) Yes (60-100 Yes Yes
mcps tional
craft)
VHF or Intermittent i Develop-
6 kcps (No sky wave) , No Yes Yes No
above Continuous Wave ment
VHF or not Develop-

Pulse (No sky wave) No Yes Yes No
above known ment
I
202 - 220 3- 4 Develop-
mcps Pulse (No sky wave) No Yes Yes No
mcps ment
VHF or not
above known Pulse (No sky wave) No Proposed Yes Yes No
VHF or not
Pulse (No sky wave) ■ No Proposed Yes Yes No
above known
20 - 86 Pulse Opera-
mcps I mcps {No sky wave) Yes No No Yes
(2 - lOps) tional
1700-2000 50-70 Opera-

Pulse (40^s) Yes Yes No No No
kcps kcps tional
1700-2000 50-70 Yes Yes Opera-

Pulse (40^3) No No No
kcps kcps tional
i
10(?) Yes, idronl edge |
180 kcps Pulse {300^s) cs Trials No No No
kcps of pulse used
three
20 - 200 No No
single Continuous Wave Trials No No Yes
kcps
freq.
750 kcps 1 kcps Continuous Wave, Small-

NO No scale No No No
(trials) or less slow keying
trials
1
200 - 400 Continuous Wave, No No Opera- No No No
3 kcps
kcps slow keying tional
Continuous Wave, Opera-

100-1600 single No No No
no modulation No No
kcps freq. ] tional
necessary
260-500 1 kcps Continuous Wave, Opera-

Nu NO No No No
kcps or less slow keying tional
two Continuous Wave,

100-1600 No No Proposed No No Yes
single no modulation
kcps
freqs. necessary
double No Trials No No No
127 mcps 24 kcps (No sky wave)
modulation
1 Develop-
200 - 400 double No No No
3 kcps No
kcps modulation ! "0 ment
Continuous Wave, {
70- 76 70 cps No
switched radiation No No Proposed No No
kcps (V patterns
2.5 Opera- Yes

X-band (0.6^3^2^) (No sky wave) Yes Yes Yes
mcps tional
I No (unless
3 - 4 P"136 (No sky wave) I Opera- Yes Ves
S-band beacons
mcps (i ;JS) tional are used)
210 mcps 3 - 4 Experi- Yes Yes Yes

Pulse I (No sky wave) No
approx. mcps 1 mental
|
9 9 Pulse (No sky wave) Yes Proposed Yes Yes Yes
j
S-,X- that of Opera-
or K- Pulse (No sky wave) | Yes No Yes Yes
Radar tional
band
S- or X- hat of Pulse, television ',,.,, ,

(N Proposed Yes Yes Yes
band Radar signal i " ^mv)
—1 , 1
250 l Modulated and 3
roposed Yes Ves Yes
(No sky w:ive)
':-band j kcps | keyed
Opera- Yes Yes

*' °r K" ' mcps Pulse (No sky wave) No
band tional i
i(X-band| i i
1
Note: Transmission over sen-water is assumed where the ra Transmitter siting requirements: see separate
rjuoteJ involve ground-wnv transmission note in Section 31.
■ Illl HIMIMII"!»!!'!!"1"'"1!'!"1"11^
31.08 Comparisons, Cunclusions and Recommendations
Coordination of navigation requirements

Inviewof the number of electronic navigation systems which are or have been
proposed, developed or operational, and considering the increasing importance of
such systems in both military and civilian applications, it is evidently desirable to
evolve a standard system which will meet the largest number of requirements with
the maximum of reliability and the minimum of cost and complexity. It is therefore
of interest to exair.ine the requirements of a navigation system, and to attempt to in-
dicate the extent to which a single airborne equipment might meet them.
A general navigation system must provide indication of position while allow-

ing the pilot free choice of course. Restricted navigation systems, which define a
number of definite courses, have been successfully used in commercial point-to-
point scheduled flying; but both military and civil interests require the fullest de-
velopment of truly general systems. Any such system may of course be used in
the more limited way; homing along a Loran hyperbola is a well accepted technique.
Since the ability to navigate under poor visibility conditions is one of the
prime features of electronic systems, and since the lack of adequate blind approach
and blind landing systems constitutes the chief obstacle to fully reliable air travel,
it is assumed for purposes of this discussion that no land objects are optically vis-
ible to the navigator.
The ideal airborne electronic system must perform the following functions;
(a) long-range general navigation
(b) traffic control in the vicinity of airports
(c) blind approach
(d) blind landing
The distances or time intervals to be measured for each function are not the same:
they decrease in the order given. Position determination within two or three miles
is normally sufficient for long-range navigation: for blind landing the accuracy re-
quired is of the order of feet, corresponding to time intervals of the order of 0,001
microsecond.
For long-range navigation, ground-wave attenuation indicates the use of a

lowfrequency,andthe uncertainties inherent in the use of skywaves call for a pulse
technique. Since the accuracy required is not of the highest order, long pulses with
relatively long rise-times may be permitted.
As the range of operation becomes shorter and the required accuracy higher,
the use of higher frequencies becomes desirable since advantage may then be taken
of directional transmission and since the shorter pulses required for the increased
accuracy are more readily usable at high radio frequency.
At very short ranges and where very high accuracy is required, the contin-
uous-wave phase-matching technique might be considered. However, even if time
intervals as short as 0.01 microsecond were to be measured by such means, the
accuracy of distance measurement would still be barely sufficient for the blind-
landing function. The limiting factor here being the high speed of propagation of a
radio wave, it is natural to consider the use of sonic or supersonic methods for
localizing a craft within such narrow limits. Since a discussion of blind-landing
techniques is specifically excluded from this report, this subject will not be pursued.
Radar techniques are the obvious solution to the control and blind approach
problem: LF Loran is attractive as the primary long-range system. The design
of a suitable ground-based short-range system using radar is largely a matter of
deciding upon standardized control locations, identification methods and the prin-
ciple of communication to be used. Two such coordinated systems have been des-
cribed: RCA proposes to televise the information from ground to craft while Fed-
eral would retransmit the video PPI signal directly.
A general long-range navigation system over sea is entirely feasible, using

Loran orSonne. Over land, however, the number of ground stations required appears
to be impractical owing to the reduced ground-wave range. The use of airborne
radar with a combination of natural landmarks, beacons and corner reflectors is an
alternative possibility although not too attractive. If any extended use of sky-wave
transmissionis to be made, further investigation into the properties of the ionosphere
is very necessary.
From what has been said, it is evident that a single equipment to meet all
four requirements is not practical. It appears that the problems of long and short
range navigation require fundamentally different techniques for their solution.
The fact that a general over-land navigation system using LF Loran would
require a very large number of ground stations may be seen by considering the pro-
blem of an all-weather New York-Chungking air route by a great-circle path. Such
a path passes close to the North Pole (see Fig. 31-01), and this route is not neces-
sarily advocated as an economically workable proposition: it is chosen merely as
an illustration for navigational discussion.
The problem of providing polar Loran coverage is not easily solved if sta-
tions are to be located in even semi-accessible areas. The distances are too great
for a quadrilateral of the SS Loran type. The only solution appears to be a ring
type of network, with a master station A controlling slaves B^ and B2, which in turn
control "sub-slaves" Ci,C2, etc. Such a chain lends itself to extended coverage
and to the provision of multiple-line fixes, but the number of sub-stages of control
would be limited by the accuracy of synchronization attainable. Double-pulsing of
certain slave stations would be possible, but since a number of stations would have
to use the same repetition rate, pulse identification (by means of double pulses or
pulse-blinking) would have to be provided.
Assuming for purposes of discussion that in polar regions synchronization

would be obtainable at 1000 miles, and reception sufficiently reliable for position-
line determination out to 2000 miles from any one station, it can be seen from Fig.
31-01 that polar coverage may be provided by such a chain if suitable locations can
be arranged and if difficulties of supply and maintenance can be overcome. Such a
polar chain constitutes a separate unit, giving navigational facilities for all polar
routes. The advantages of combining meteorological stations with navigational
radio stations are apparent. Considerable data on ground-wave and sky-wave trans-
mission in polar regions would be needed if such a scheme were to reach the stage
of practical planning.
Considering now the problems of navigation over the large land-masses

adjacent to the polar regions, one must of course assume that the location, control
and maintenance of Loran stations on any desirable territory by an international
authority is realizable. Further, since any particular station must clearly be so
situated as to be part of a coordinated system giving coverage for a number of re-
gions or proposed air-routes, the locations shown in Fig. 31-01 probably do not
represent a desirable solution to the general problem. Supposing the locations of
the stations E, F, G, H, I and J (southern Greenland, Belle Isle, Nantucket, Charles-
ton, Milwaukee, Port Nelson) to be so selected that coverage is given not only over
the New York-Chungking polar route but also over the western Atlantic on one side,
and the central United States on the other, it is seen that no less than six stations
are required for this coverage alone, if the figures previously given for base-line
and for range are retained. If sky waves are to be used, these figures might be
realized over land, but difficulties would then be encountered with the cycle-match-
ing technique. If ground waves only are to be relied upon, the number of stations
required for this coverage might be more than doubled.
Turning now to the problem of navigation over north-eastern and eastern

Asia, the difficulties arc similar but greater. To the east, there is a temptation to
follow the coastline (stations K, L, M, N, 0 and P)* but if this is done coverage over
the Chungking route would probably depend on sky waves. Stations Q, R and S do not
appear to fit in very well with other possible Asiatic air-routes, and the present
state of development of this territory is certainly not such as to justify the outlay on
a general navigat;onal system to cover this region.
The above discussion is only too inadequate, but perhaps enough has been
said to illustrate the d'fficulties to be encountered in planning any general navigation-
al coverage over land masses. If Standard Loran techniques and frequencies are
considered, any such scheme is highly impractical if not impossible. Further re-
search on propagation at LF Loran frequencies is required to determine whether or
not such service could bo realized using LF Loran.
Recommendations for further research

1. Basic research is required to determine all relevant information regard-
ing the properties of the ionosphere, with particular attention to the lower fringe of
the E-layei. For example, data on reflection coefficients and on the size, density
and motion of ionic clouds would b? of fundamental interest. Present ionospheric
observations should be expanded to meet such needs.
. 2. The research indicated above should be accompanied by a basic study of
actualpropagationpaths, including studies of the plane of arrival of reflected signals,
the nature of their polarization, variability in time of arrival and in signal strength,
and modification of pulse shapes due to ionospheric transmission. A comparison
should also be made of signals received simultaneously at receivers spaced a few
hundred yards apart. Basic research is also required on ground-wave transmission
over sea and over land, and also on at least one sky-wave transmission path such
that detailed ionospheric data are obtainable at the mid-point of the single-hop path.
3. A basic study should be made of the ideal specifications for pulse mod-
ulation, and of the practical means for approximating this ideal, with special atten-
tion to the low-frequency end of the spectrum.
4. Concurrently with the basic studies outlined above, it would be desirable
to continue operational tests on LF Loran and on Sonne, while employing standard
Loran (for the present) for the relatively long-distance overseas navigation.
A - Grant Land F - Belle Isle M- Korea

B-[ - Victoria Island G - Nantucket N - Formosa
B2 - Spitzbergen H - Charleston 0 - Hainan
Ci - Pt. Barrow I - Milwaukee P - Rangoon
C2 - Taimir Peninsula J - Port Nelson Q - Lhasa
Dj - Pokhodsk K - Kamchatka R - Barkol
E - Greenland L - Hokkaido S - Krasnoyarsk
The dashed circles indicate approximately areas within 1000 miles and 2000 miles
of station A. Such areas are not accurately represented by circles, since the pro-
jection used distorts east-west distances. The distortion is however not serious in
polar regions.
Appendix A 32.01
A short glossary of terms used in this report
Accuracy refers to the degree of concordance between a given measurement and the
true value (which is assumed known).
Azimuth angle or "Azimuth" is an angle measured in the horizontal plane. True

bearing is an azimuth angle measured east (clockwise as seen from above) from
true north.
Craft is here used to designate surface vessels, aircraft, land vehicles, and guided
missiles,
A fix is defined as the point determined by the intersection of two or more lines of
position.
An interrogater is a pulse transmitter used to emit a signal which elicits an auto-

matic response from a transponder.
An inversion layer is an atmospheric layer in which the vertical temperature gra-

dient, normally negative, becomes positive.
A line of position is a line such that some point on it is the instantaneous position
of the navigated craft. This line may or may not lie on the surface of the earth.
Meaconing is the act of falsifying by radio means, the indications given by enemy
radio navigation systems. The object of meaconing is to mislead enemy navi-
gators by causing a false indication of position to be obtained without the know-
ledge of the navigator.
Navigation is the science of guiding a craft from one position to another by any
chosen path. It includes the determination at any time of position, course bear-
ing, etc. Various special navigational operations such as homing, flying fixed
courses and vectoring is considered as limited or restricted navigation.
A navigation aid is a device which provides the navigator with some or all of the
following information:
(a) present position
(b) course heading
(c) speed (ground or relative)
(d) location of geographical surroundings
(e) location of other craft in the vicinity
(f) right-left steering directions or automatic steering control
(g) altitude (not covered in this report)
The phase aspect of two or more antennas refers to the relative phase relations
existing, at a given point in space, between the electromagnetic fields produced
at that point by radiation from the individual antennas. The reference point
chosen is at a distance from the antenna array which is large compared to the
dimensions of the array itself. The phase aspect will depend on the relative
phases of the currents in the various antennas, the spacing between antennas,
and the azimuth and elevation of the reference point with respect to the array.
This appears to be necessary on account of the diversity of meaning of many new

navigational and radar words.
+ The "navigator" may in this case be a robot.
1
32.02 Appendix A (cont' d)
As an example, consider two antennas driven in phase and separated by a dis-

tance equivalent tob electrical degrees at the frequency of operation. The phase
aspect referred to a distant point, whose elevation angle is 0 degrees and whose
azimuth angle is 9 (measured from the perpendicular bisector of the base line
of the array), will then be b cos 0 sin e electrical degrees.
The precision of a measurement is the numerical measure of its reliability, making

allowance for all known e.rors and uncertainties. (The true value is not actually
known.)
A racon (RAdar beaCON) is a radio beacon employing radio pulse signals.
The word radar is used in this report to describe equipment with which a distance
is measured by recording the time taken by an electromagnetic disturbance to
travel from one point to another and return. The returning disturbance may be
a simple echo or a beacon response. Radar measurements are not necessarily
restricted to pulse transmissions.
A radio beacon is a radio signal station. Radio beacons are used for determination
of azimuth and range, or for identification.
Range means distance. This is common usage among ordnance, gunnery and radar
personnel. The word range has also been used to designate a line defined by two
fixed landmarks such as lighthouses or other easily visible markers. The word
is used with this connotation in the expression radio-'range" to mean a line de-
fined by radio signals from an antenna array. Whenever the word is used in this
latter sense in the present report, attention is called to the usage.
Relative bearing is an azimuth angle measured clockwise from above from any ar-
bitrary reference direction, as for instance the craft heading.
A responder beacon is a pulse-type receiver-transmitter used to receive an inter-

rogating signal and to transmit automatically an identifiable reply signal. Re-
sponder beacons used for IFF purposes are commonly referred to as transpond-
ers.
A responser is a receiver used to accept the reply from responder beacons.
The word synchro is used here as a generic name for all such devices, including
those having other names such as selsyn, autosyn, magnesyn, etc.
wwwHwmMwrwiBiiiiiiiiiiniiiiwwwiiiiifili i>i"rr
H L!
Appendix B "sM >'

Probable values of some physical and geodesic constants
Velocity of electromagnetic waves in vacuum v0 = 2.99778 x 10^ meters per second.
Refractive index of air at standard temperature and pressure n = 1,000294

o
Velocity of electromagnetic waves in air (S,T.P.) v = 2,99690 x 10 meters per second
= 186,218 statute miles per second
= 161,711 nautical miles per second
1 nautical mile - 1,15155 statute miles
Microseconds per statute mile 10^ = 5,3700

186,218
Microseconds per loop statute mile 10.7401
Microseconds per nautical mile 10^ - = 6,1839

161,711
Microseconds per loop nautical mile = 12,3678
Frequency for X = 2 statute miles = 93,109 cps
Frequency for A = 2 nautical miles - 80,850 cps
One microsecond is equivalent to 299.7 meters

or 0.1862 statute miles
or 328 yards
or 984 feet
or 0.1617 nautical miles
1° azimuth at 100 miles = 1.75 miles

at 1000 miles = 17.5 miles
1 mile at 100 miles = 0.573° azimuth
1 minute of azimuth at 100 miles = 158.5 feet
Equatorial radius of earth = 3963.34 statute miles
Polar radius of earth = 3949.99 statute miles
Radius of a sphere having the same volume as the earth = 3958.89 statute miles
1° latitude along a meridian = about 69.1 miles

= 1° longitude at the equator
1000 statute miles along a meridian = about 14.5° latitude
Distance d along a parallel of latitude for 1° change of longitude:

Latitude d Latitude d
(statute miles) (statute miles)
0° 69.1 50° 44 4
10° 68.0 60° 34.6
20° 64.9 70° 23,6
30° 59.8 80° 12 0
i a i ■■■■
40o 52.9 90° .':"jrpi ? !■ ■
gi
. •< r, i\>t
LIST OF MICROFILMED REPORTS
DIVISION 13 «VOLUME 2-B
1941 M7 Radio and radar. SS loran. (Report Xo.
Ml Notes (and diagramsj for pilots, observera and NAR;X-501G.) (n. a.) [IS Xavy
special W/T operators on enemy radio aids lo Department, Intelligence Division, Great
navigation and accurate bombing undu blind Britain.) December 17, 1943.
conditions. (n. a.) [Royal Air Force)
Headquarters, No. SO Wing |Groat I'ritain].
1944
July 21, 1941.
Ml Some notes on 2-mc loran propagation. (Divi-
sion 11. Loran Memorandum Xo, 134.)
1942 David Davidson. [MIT, Radiation Laiio-
Ml How GEE works. (Report No. 08-13530- ralory.) January 1, 1944.
Tels-1A.) (n. a.) OSRD Liaison Of- M2 Optimum band width for loran receivers. (Divi-
fice No. WA-116-36. Air Ministry [Great sion 11. Loran Memorandum No. 137.)
Brilainj. May, 1942,
David Davidson. [MIT, Radiation Labo-
M2 Block diagram. Indicator limor and receiver. ratory.) January 27, 1944.
(Drawing No. A-2t;03.) A. Fringelin.
M3 Index of loran reports and instruction manuals.
MIT, Radiation Laiioralory. October 10,
(Division 11. Loran Memorandum Xo. 138.)
1942.
David Davidson. MIT, Radiation Labo-
M3 Flight tests over Hermuda. (Division 11. ratory. February 10, 1944.
Lonm Meraoranduiii Xo. llü.) Fletcher
M4 Consol range and accuracy trials. (Report Xo.
Watson. (MIT, Radiation Laboratory.]
iXovember IS, 19-12.] CCDr-41'13.) R.P. Anstead. Royal
Air Force, Coastal Command Developmeni I'nit
M4 Throe-line fixes. (Division 11. Lonm Mem- [Great Hritaiiij. February 20, 1944.
orandum Xo. 122.) Fletcher Watson.
M5 Elements of loran. (Division 14. Report
[MIT, Radiation Laboratory.| December
10, 1912. Xo. 499.) li. W. Sitlerly. OLMsr-
202, MIT, Radiation Laboratory,
March S, 1941.
194:;
Ml Service areas nl [nraii pairs and chains. Di- M0 Radio set SCII-5SI, service, Thenry, ipi'iMr-
vision II, Loraii Hcpnri \o. 2,S.) .1. \. shoniiiig and impair, with pans list. Tcclmical
Pierce MIT, Uailiaiina Laboratory. Manual No TM-ll-152t.l ■n a.)
March (i, l!)i:i. i'S War Department. March 10,
Kill.
.M2 Determnialion of iTiors in lire lonin system.
(Division 11. Loran Hepnrl No. 2ti.) .M7 Trial- uf luran interfereiu'e »ilh port wave W T
Donald G. Fink. MIT, Radiation Labora- and R T e.oniiniinieation [oil] IIMS Scott [during
tory. April (i, 1943. 'he period from] February 15 [tOj 22, 1944.
II. \,. Scott. Admiralty Signal Kstablish-
M3 Some ionospheric notes on SS loran proposals.
meni [Great Britain), March 14, 1944.
Edward V. Appleton, R. Naismilh and W. R.
Piggott. DSRD Liaison Odiee No. WA- MS Precise navigation by means of a radar map
993~2a. Operations and Technical Radio superposed on the plan position indicator.
Conimittee, Sub-C'ommilUv on SS Loran [Great (Division 14. Report Xo. 503.) Fd-
Britaini. August (i, 1913. ward 10. Miller and 1). B. McLaughlin.
M4 Comparison of vector and dot-dash met hods in OEMsi-202, MIT, Radiation Laboratory,
the Oboe steering problems. (Division 14. April 7, 1944.
Report Xo. ()3.) A. C. Hughes, MIT, M9 [Chart oil] German bombing and navigational
Radiation Laboratory. September 18, aids. (n. a.) [May, 1944.]
1943. M10 Revised notes on Sonne. (Report Xo. S-3000/
Mö Examination of SW-GKE chain. (Report Xo. 19/Sigs.) (n. a.) Royal Air Force,
CCDl'-ia'tio.) R.F.H.Stead. Royal Headquarters, No. SO Wing [Great Britainj.
Air Force, Coastal Command Development t'nit May 10, 1944.
[Great Hritaiiij. November -i, 1913. Mil Video stretching as a method for improving
M6 Rebecca and Eureka equipment, Australian. N-band beacon reception. (Division 11. Re-
(Report Xo. RP-193.) E. M. Mulholliind. port Xo. 91.) T. H. Waterman and S. D.
OSRD Liaison Ollice No. 11-0-5721. Council Bennett. [MIT, Radiation Laboratory.)
for Scientific and Industrial Research, Radio- May 20, 1944.
physics Laboratory iAiistra!ia|. December M12 Siting and range of microwave beacons. I Divi-
7, 19.1.3 sion 14. Report. No. 590.) \V. M.
(CONFIDENTIAL .54.01
;w.02 LIST OK MICROFILMED REPOKTS
Picston. ()i':Msi-2()2. MIT, Hiicliu- gi'iice Objccti'.es bub-Con;mitlce. Decem-

lion liiibonilorv. July 5, li)-t4. ber 14, 1044.
M13 P.inoiplcs (il'nui/ir. Kcluard W. Kimbark, M27 Radio set AX/CPS-1 service manual. Theory,
.lolm C. Malchclor and ollicrs. MIT, Kn- trouble-shooting and repair. (Technical Manual
dai- School. ScpU'mhcr, 1944. Xo. TM-11-IÖ44.') (n. a.) L'S War
M14 GJvlvll mi'lxmip ('(|uipineiii, AHI-;M25. Deparlment. Deeember 15, 1944.
(Hrpori No. ("0-0808.1(2).) (n. a.) M28 Comparative survey of long distance radio navi-
ÜSHI) Liaison Odico Xo, VVA-329(i-ll. Air gational aids. (Paper Xo. 2.) Obscrva-
Ministry |Gr«il Hrilaiiij. Scptcinhcr, t ions on the German Sonne system. (Paper Xo.
111 14. li.) C. G. Phillips. October (i, 1944.
Ml") SCCDIIII report uri cxpci'inu'Uial Mmlics of iono-
sphcrii' propiigillioil as applicii to the loran lüfä
syslrm (IJcporl Xo. U-7.J (n. a.) jyji Theoretical comparison of the two- and three-
Xalional Hurcau of Standards, IiitcrscrviOf Ra- aerial Sonne systems. (Technical Xote Xo.
dio PmpaKntion I .a bora lory. October II, RAD-2li;j.) A. H. Brown. OSUD
li)44. Liaison Ollice Xo. WA-3S44-1. Royal Air-
Mio rTranslaiiohs of:| Bid'' Kuiidsclircibcn Xos. craft L'sialilishment (Great Hritaim. Jan-
3, I and .'i jbyi Straimcr. (n. a.) Oclobcr uary, 10-10.
21, l!)44. M2 An investigation to find a suitable melhod of
MI7 C'onsoj as an aid lo navinalion. (licpnit cheeking the stability of the position line given
Xo. ('{' S-DOO.') 12 S XAV i X. Ward. by Sonne. (Radio Report Xo. 1273.) 11. T.
Royal Air Koiw, Coastal C'oinnmnd, Ilcad- Mitchell, T. Pilling and K. II. Ferguson.
quartcrs |Grt'al Britaiii,. Octobci^S, 1!)44. OSRD Liaison Ollice Xo. WA-4090-a. Post
MUS liadar transniillcr. Type T-l.'ilM. (Re))orl Xo. Ollice Kngineering Department Îreat Brilain|.
t'l)-0S!),r)-D.) Hamid Scott. Air January 14, 194,").
Ministry iCireul Hrilaim. Xovcinlicr, I!I44. My Sonne. (Report Xo. S-935-17, Serial 001)04.)
MI» Trials ofloi'an SS chain. (Pari III. Report \'.. X. Dinglcy, Jr. CS Xavy Department,
Xo. HI)r-59.) P. Speaic. Royal Air BuShips, Radio Division. January Hi,
Force, Bombing Development I nit (ireal 1040.
Britain,. Xovemlier 1, 1044. .M4 Handbook of operating instructions for radio set
M2I) Insinirtioas for- fjlottiiiK radio fixifs by the OAF AX APX-I. (Report Xo. AX-08-30APX4-2.)
i'adio-beacon> Klektra-Sniine. Translation of: (n. a.) FS War Deparlment, I'S Xavy
Merkblatt für die praktische aiiswerlinifr von Deparlment and Air Council (Great Britain(.
I'nnkorllinken nach hifll'unkfeiiei- Klektra-Solinc. Revised: January 21, I()4.:i.
(Reji. No. F 0772 XID.l (n. a.) M,5 A microfilm chart projector for radar navigation.
((b-ea! Britain.: Xovembec II, ]i)44. (Division 14. Report Xo. 6Ö8.) D. B.
M21 Letter to Dr. I.. A. DnHridge. Subjccl: Mclaughlin and C. A. Smith. OEMsr-
German Sonne system. ,1. A, Fierce. 2(12. MIT, Radiation Laboratory.
Xovembcr 28, 11)44. January 23, 104.").
M22 Decca navifrator. (n. a.) [DecRi M'i Loran tests on Sth Air Force heavy weather re-
Radio and TnJcvision, Ltd., Great Britain.i connaissance missions. H. Dorr. (Feb-
iDeceniber, 1044.| ruary (?) 194,").;
M23 (Radar; GKK-R, ARI-Ö.,J42. ( Rep.m Xo. CD- M7 Lecture notes [on, SS loran. (Aids lo Xavi-
0808-1).) Harold Scott. Air Minis- gation Memorandum Xo. 7.1 George II.
ti-y (Great Britain|. Deeembei', 1044. Trow. Coastal Command (Great Bri-
M24 i'reliminarv analysis of radar navigalion aids. tain. February, 104').
fHiiRineering Meinorandtun Xo. PJ'.'M-IfiC'.) ^'s German night fighter electronic aids. Notes on
F. ■!. Herbst, Radio Corporation of enemy aircraft and armament. (n. a.)
America. December I, 1011. (February, 104").(
M2ö Comnmmcalion radio and radar. Investiga- "'" The statistics of beacon interrogation. (Divi-
lion of Sonne and Dccca navigational aid. sion 14. Report Xo. (102.) II. H,
(n. a.) I'S Xavy Department, lnlellif>;encc Bailey. OKMsr-2(12. MIT, Radia-
Di\'isioii .Great Brilain;. December 14, tion Laboratory. February 5, 1040.
1044. Mil) Three-path rotating lighthouse system for air-
M2(} Itivesiigalion of German Sonne navigational air port controi. (Proposal Xo. 2S7.) (n. a.)
radi<. station. (Alsos Xo. 42.) K. X. Federal Telephone and Radio Corporation.
Dingey, Jr. USHI) Liaison Ollice Xo. February ti, 104").
\\ A-i;il2-;i. SlIAl'F, Combined Inielli- Mil Recommended operational pn lure tor use of
•('(MFtDlCNTIAL
■IHK^VHVMW1 _.:. ^mmmmmKmamm^mMKSaamm
LIST ()l MICKOl ILINIEI) REPORTS 31.03
Xusmo over a nninplox target. (JJivision H, Air Force, Central Fighter EsiabJishmenl (Jreat
Report No. 63.) R. X. Close. MIT, Britain). May 29, 19!5.
Radiation Laboratory. Febnairy 17, 1945. M23 The Sonne (Consol) navigation system. (Re-
M12 Radar television system of air navigation. port Xo. 9.) Max 1, Rothman. Wat-
(Knginecriiig Memorandum No. PEM-17C.) son Laboratories. June, 1945.
P. .1. Herbst. Hadio C'orjwration of M24 US radar survey. Section 4, Xavigational
America. I'Vbruary 17, lil-l"). radar. (Division 14.) (n.a.) June 15, 1945.
M13 Trials of Gil, Mark II. (Pari I. Report M25 Suggested improvements for loran system.
Xo. HDU-fi5.) P. Speare. Royal Air Problem (No.) S752R-C. (Report Xo, C-S67-
Force, HombiiiR Developmenl Inii (Great 0/10-357.) C. A. Miller, Jr. US
Briluiii). I'Vliniary 27, HMö. X'aval Research Laboratory. June 25,
M14 Allaiitic loran research flißlit |of| Uctober, 1944. 1945.
(n. a.) I'S Xavy Doparlmcnt, Aviation M26 Radar. ((Issue; Xo. 10.) (n.a.) US
Training Division. March, 1945. Army Air Forces, Ollice of the Air Communi-
MI." Leller to The Under-Secretary of Stale, Air cations Oflicer June 30, 1945.
Ministry. Subject: Proposals for the M27 Elektra-Sonne. Translation of Lorenz' descrip-
European and Küstern Atlantic SS Inrnii sys- tion and operating instructions for Sonne 8 HF,
tems. R, H. Woodward. OSRD Rack 111. (Report Xo. 10.) (n. a.)
Liaison Office Xo. WA-40Ö2-5. British Air Ministry (Great Britain]. July 17,
Branch Radiation Laboratory |Grcat lirilain;. 1945.
March S, 1945. M28 Radio and radar equipment in the Luftwaffe.
M16 European and eastern Atlantic SS loran chain. (iPart, fl. Report Xo. 357.) S. D.
(Report Xo. CMS-107/R-3c.) (n. a.) Felkin. OSRD Liaison Ollice Xo. \VA-
Air Ministry (Great Britain]. March 20, 5076-3. Assistant Director of Intelligence
1945. (K) (Great Britaini and I'S Air Inlcrrogation.
Juh 25, 1945.
M17 Pocket handbook of airborne loran electronic
navigation. Receivers and indicators, M29 The future of hyperbolic navigaiion. (Division
(n. a.) I'S Xavy Department, Aviation 14. Report Xo. 025.) .). A. Pierce.
Training Division. April, 1945. OEMsr-202; Service Project Xos. SC-50 and
AX-IS. MIT, Radiation Laboratory.
M18 I'S radar survey. Section 2, Shipborne radar. August 18, 1945.
(Division 14.) (n. a.) April 1, 1945.
M19 Loran operational lests aboard VSS I'lunktU, NO DATE
DD.'fll (from, HI February to 21 February, 1945. Ml Proposed antenna design for low-frequency
(Report Xo. M-9:]5-1570b.) Robert L. loran. (Report Xo. ORS-P-22-2.) E M.
Frank. I'S Xavy Department, HuShips. Johnson arrd Carl K. Smith. ;US Army
April 2, 1945. Signal Corps] Operational Research Staff.
M20 Handbook of maintenance instructions for (n.d.)
radio set \X APX-4. (Report Xo. AX-lli- M2 X'otes on Sonne navigation beacon system.
30APX4-3.) (n. a.) I'S War De- (Technical Minnie Xo. RAD-OO.) ('. Wil-
partment, I'S Xavy Department and Air liams and (.'. D. Smith. (Royal Aircraft
Council [Great Brilaiiij. April II, 1945. Establishment, Great Britain.( (n. d.)
M21 Benito control of fighters and Egon control. M3 Universal communication, airport control, traf lie
(Report Xo. 33.) (n. a.) DSHD control and aerial navigation system. Part
Liaison Ollice Xo. WA-4327-3(2). Air III, Aerial navigation. (Proposal Xo. 235.)
Ministry, Air Scientdic Intelligence (Great (n. a.) Federal Telephone and Radio
Miiiairi; .\pril 20, 1945. ( orporation. (n. d.I
M22 Trials of loran in Mosquito VI and Oxford air- M4 Sonne (diagram, with translation of German
craft. (Report Xo. 34.) (n.a.) Royal technical IcrniSj. (n. a.) (n. d,!
% f, :f
CONFIDENTIAL h i
^-^
C'OXTR.UT NTMHKHS, CONTHACTOKS, AM) SUBJIOCT OF OONTRAGTS
Cunlrnrl XiimJwr Xante ami Aililrexs i>f Cnnlrarlnr Subject
OKMsf-1-llI ('cnlral ('oinimmiciiiioiLs Reênrcli, Analysis of Available Methods of Xiiviîlioa

Cnifl l.alidr.'ilorv, IInrvnrd Cnivcrsit.y,
(';iiiil)J'idg(', Mass.
a »•?■
CONFIDHXTJAL .■iS.o i
V
SKRVICK PROJICCT NUMBERS
The projects Hated below were transmitted to the Executive Secretary,

National Defense Research Committee [NDRC], from the War and
Navy Department through either the War Department Liaison Officer
for NDRC or the Office of Research and Inventions (formerly the Co-
ordinator of Research and Development), Navy Department.
Service Project Number Subject
AX-31 Analysis of A»; ilable Methods of Navigation
« -<««
OXKlDKXTiAl, :!(..() i
INDEX
Air traflic control syutcm (radar), 27.01 AN/PPN-8 (transponder beacon), 2.20 Micro II, 5.01
Airborne Bups, 2.19 Antenna array, transmitting, 1.41 Oboe, 3.01
Airborne radar for navigation, 22.01- Antenna pattern for azimuth naviga- Ruffian, 30.02
22.30, 31.01; see also Radar tion systems, 1.15 Shoran, 4.01
beacons, Radar mapping Anti-aircraft gun-laying radar (AGL), Blind landing system (radar), 27.01
Aircraft direction-finders, automatic, 23.04 Blind navigation with M2X, 22.02
16.01-16.05, 31.06 .Anti-hunt devices, 7.06 Bomber-control navigational Hysleiii,
Alford loops, 19.03, 19.05 AN/fJPN-l (RUPS-D.C.), 2.19 (Ruebezahl), 30.03
Amplifier; D. C, 8.06 AN/uPN-2 (1UJPS-A.G.), 2.20 Bombing from high altitude wit.h H2\',
delay trigser, 22.21 AN/nPN-3 (HUPX-A.C), 2.20 22.03
gated, 22.21 A.V/lIPNT-4 (BUPX-D.G.), 2.20 Bombsight, Norden, 22.29
phase-stable, 13.05 A.R.L. intermittent phase-comparison BPP(AX/PP.V-2), 2.19
A-N radio "range," 1.22, 15.01-15.06, distance-measu ring system, 6.01- EPS (AN/CPN-S), 2.18
31.06 6.04, 31.06 British airborne interrogators, 2.18
AN'APA-Q (Aspen), 2.19 A.R.L. one-shot distance-measuring British "Penwiper" receiver, 3.05
ÄN/APA-40 (Micro H Mark II), 5.01 system 7.01, 31.06 British "Pepperbox" receiver, 3.05
AN/APA-44 (GPI), 29.01-29.08, 31.06 A-scope, 22.05 British responder beacons, 2,18
AN/APA-4Ö (Nosmo), 22.29 Aspen (AN/APA-9), 2.19, 3.04 British Sonne system (Consol), 17.02
AN/AFN-2 (interrogator), 2.18 Aural presentation of navigational in- BUPS (AC) (AN/UPNT-2), 2.20
AN/APN-2A (interrogator or trans- formation, 1.37-1.38 BUPS (DC) (AN/UPN-1), 2.19
ponder), 2.18 Aural V1IF "ranges", 15.03-15.05 BUPX (AC) (AN/UPN-3), 2.20
.,.:\ /APN-2Y (interrogator), 2.18 Autofuous Microfilm Projector, 26,01 BFPX (DC) (AN/UPN-4), 2.20
AN/APN-10 (Rosebud), 2.19 Automatic aircraft direction finders,
AN/AFN-29 (Roscbups), 2,19 16.01-10,05, 31.00 CAA LF Omnidirectional Beucoii,
AN/AP\-34 (short-range approach), Azimuth navigation systems; aircraft 20.01, 31.06
24.01, 31.06 direcuon-finders and homing CAA VIIF Omnidirectional lieacon,
AN/APQ-7 (search radar), 29.01 systems, 10.01-16.05 19.01, 31.06
AN/APQ-13 (H2X), 22.01, 22.29 AN Radio "Range", 15.01-15.06, CAA VHF radio range, 15,03
AN/APQ-34 (search radar), 29.01 31.00 Canadian distance-measuring system,
AN/APS-15 (ir2X), 5.01, 22.01-22,30, Renriix automat ie position plotter, 8.01-8.09, 31.00
31,06 18.01-18.06 Cat and mouse stations, 3.01
accuracy, 22.01 C'AA Li' omnidirectional beacon, Circle blanking, 4.09
antenna, 22,08 20.01 Circuits, electronic; amplifier, I). C,
A-scope, 22.05 GAA V1IF omnidirectional beacon, 8,06
delayed sweep for beacon observa- 19.01-19.10 amplifier, delayed trigger, 22,21
tln, 22,20--22.21 CAA VIIF radio "ranges", 15.03- amplifier, gated, 22.21
flux-gate compass system, 22.08- 15.0o amplifier, range-mark, 22.13
?2.10 Flectra, 30.01 computing circuits for position plot-
functioning of system, 22.21-22.28 Federal long-range system, 21.01- ter, 18.05
Nosmo attachment, 22,29-22.30 21.08 counter circuits for frequency di-
plmni,, itron delay circuits, 22.17- Knickebein, 30.01-30.02 vision, 12.13
-.2.20 Sonne, 17.01-17.26 CRO sweep, 12.23
receiver components, 22.10-22.11 Azimuthai navigation systems, general Eccles-Jordan trigger circuit, 12.20
RF components, 22.00-22.08 discussion, 1.13-1.17 frequency divider, regenerative type,
sweep circuits, 22.05-22,06 4.06-4.07
timing circuits, 22.11-22.17 BÄBS (AX/CPN-7), 2.19 gate generator, 22.21
AX/CPN-3 (responder beacon), 2.19 Balloons for carrying radio antennas, Hartley circuit, 11.08
AN/CPN-f)(BGX), 2.08-2.18 1.41 Miller Rundown, 8.03
antennas, 2.10 Bandwidth requirements for electronic multivibrators, 12.20
codes, 2.15-2,17 navigation systems, 1.41-1.51 phantastron delay circuits, 5.02,
IF amplifier, 2.10-2.14 Beacon (AN/GPX-0) 2,08-2.18 22.17-22.20
oscillator, 2,10-2,14 Beacon codes, 2.03 -2.04 phase comparison indicator, 14.08,
pulse-width discrimination circuit, Beacon measurements, accuracy of, 19.09
2.14-2.15 2.05 phase discriminating rectifier cir-
receiver components, 2.13 Beacon response signal, 2.04 cuits, 13.05
RF linns, 2.10 Beacons and interrogators; see Radar phase locking circuit, 13.05
transmitter components, 2.17-2.18 beacons and interrogators phase meters, 13.03, 13.06
AN/CPN-7 (BAUS), 2.19 Bendix Automatic Position-Plotter, phase sensitive motor control circuit,
AN/CPN-S (BPS), 2.18 18.01-18.06,31.00 0.03
AN/CPN-13 (transponder lieaeon), Benito, 30.01 phase shifters, 13.07, 17.17
2.20 Bern hard-Bern hardino, 30.04 pulse coding, 2.16
AN/CPN-15 (transponder beacon), BGX (AN/CPN-ß), 2.08-2.18 pulse selectors, 4.07
2,20 Black Maria, 2.19 pulse shaping circuits, 2.17, 22.07
W/CI'S I (MKW), 23.01-23.02 Blind bombing systems; Knickebein ''pulse width discriminator circuit,
AN/PPN-1 (respond,';- beacon], 2.19 2.14-2.15
37.01
ONFIDENTIAL
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. MfiMriMiii lyi«', 11.02 l„ IM I .I'M , ;• ;, . JJ '.'l
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Kcdi —■Inrilaii Iri^rr circuil, \'1:.'J[ i nil n'r i Hi I', Ml H II | In I., MM.M. . j Jll
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I'lrci i-..iiir iiavi(?;itiiiii systems, are il .... .... .1 |I:IIIM,|II-I-, I'J i:.
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n- 11 Iclny mitllivilwiilnis, 12.2(1 .MniDi-CDiilnil Hiiuit, plmso sensitiv. "Punwip»!!-" ,1 ', iver, 3.On
^'iicriiliir, i'2.2i "h'ppevhov ' receiver, 3.0'
1
■ ■ si'lcriiim, 12.17 12.Ill MTI (in iv'inn i.irgcl iiKiieatioii), 23.03 Phaiiiii.slron delav cireuils, n.02, 22.17-
■i |' Uw Kcnri'iitnr, I2.2:i MTl inmiihciiliuii kit, 23.05 22.20
n n pliiisr ini'liT, l.'t.dlt Multivilirutors, pmicstal (icliiy, 12.20 Piiase migle nicasureinenl devices, 1.21
!• iIM|, -; MI UMIIIII' lii'jiruiis mill Phase oninparison dislanec-meter, fi.04
inaiiii-s Piia.se eompm'isdii indiealni-, 14.OS,
Naclill'iT, 30.0:i
-r ill, l.iil) 10.00
N'AI.OC syslrin (Xiivixitliiinnl aids In
l.aiiiliiiK ()|i(irali(iiis Cnminit- Phase ilisfirimilintiliR reetiliei- eircnil,
.nli'l-.' tn.tll Krl, 2(1.03 2(1.0(1 13.0.")
Navlualiini liv aiilinriic rudill", 22.30 Phase lix'kirij; eirauit, I3.Ü")
\11vinali11i1 liy si'iirrli I'mlar, 23.01 Phase iiie,.'i' eircuil, 13.0(1
mil m • iiinii iinvitfiiMiiii"! I'IIII-
NnvlKiiliiiii liv mi'iins nf Minie liiiuys, I'ln.si vilaled pulses, 3.02
mil .ii.ni ■ I'l'ii-." sensitive nmlnr ciinirnl eircnil,
i ( I ■imi H I'nii'l, ( nlilnill, 2li.l)| 20.01
\a'. il/iilinii nf liuliler eral'l, 1,37 0.03
I I i run, 1 '(12, I2.I1S, HI.mi
riiii.-e shil'ler, servo ineelimiisiii, 1.07,
I ■ i in "i Ifr," I.VIVJ \.'i\ iKiilinll l'|.||llll'i'liieiil-, enniiliiiiiliiiii
1 if, 31.1 IS 0.02, 14.03
: lull!, rinn \ ill', 1.1S
\11\iKi1li11ll sy.slem- eji'i'iltinie; [mi-
Pha.se shift er circuits, 13.07, 17.17
I mi; iiri livily inillrni, 111.Ill
ll. Il.llil fur hslimi 'if /1//11M Phase stalile amplifier, 13.0.')
I OIL; I iii«r iiivinniiun sysli'lib; sw
iieeiiiaey nl', I IS 1,31, 31.02 Ml,03 Phiitournphic prueessing in lOseemids,
"nil i i, Smiiii', Sliiiuiniil l.iirnii
niiiiliiii'iMMi nl', 31.01 31,11 23.03
- ..I m, I.2'', .12, 12.Ill 12.211, MI.IMI;
enverane, 1,17 I'hriiiiijraphie project ion i'Pl fP'l),
ii ii 'I 1,1'' l.iiiiin, SS l.nr.iii,
i'i|lll|illieilt l'|.||iill|.||, I. Ill 1,11 23.03, 211.02
Mh I'll 1,1111111
eiTnl's line In lllli'MKIlllies uf piKllinli, i'llni direi [ion indiealor (Pl)l ),,,^).01
IIIIIHI nil li i'iiuiri'iiK'iils, 1.12
1,311 1.33 j'Ol'l i r..:-l-Olliee Position Imiicator),
.■UM i in' mi i-, rj,(i:i r.Mi'i
;t."i 11.12,31.0(1
r ■ I'Jd 12.12 I'leiiueiiev mill limiilu nil li, 1,11 ' nl,
31.01, 31.On ne'i'Me . spneiiiHi 14.07
in.Iir i m-, i M:i I2,2il i ii'ii-imeiil leiinired, |-1.(11
iiMJif.'i i w ,i .•I'i'iii'iii-, 12 22 llllllle reiinireiiirnl-, 31 .OS 31.11
n|ie|'illillH -kill ie,|iiiiei|, 1.311 I HI
II ii.i'iples of operation, 14.01 14.01
in I\III HI ' nur. 12.111
|irii|iiiUiii mn puili, 1.23 1.311
proeedure for ohtainitiK a fix, 14.12
i u.h 1.1 i|ii'i'iiiiiiM, 12 112 IJii.'l
rei'nninieinliiliiiii^ I'nl' I'lllliei' le-emeli, sector identification, 14.10 11.12
|iill-i- i I.. , J.IV.I
31.11
spaeinK of positinn-lines, 14.04 -14.07
iii'iiM '.''.' i2.i;(
-kv-wave eiTnr-, 31.03 31.01
I'l'l Dperating circuits, 22.1.")
I,III.III , i;: ; 12.1111
-111111.ev nf el Inl', I , I S I'l'l scope, 1.22, 22.01-22.30
I ...» In i| 11 , r illlllillilrl'l llllllli llrlll nil,
lime nieiiMiieiiienl, 1,211 i 23 Projectors for Map-PPl superposition,
.'Hill
I lan-inil ler -II nsiileralliin-, 31 (II
20.01
I "111, 2 « Propagation path for radio Iniusmis-
I Vpe nl' presenliiliiill, I, tl 1,311
iypi.> nl' syslein-, ueiie'nl ill-i'U^nni, sion-', 1.23
I,On 1 17 I'nlse coding circuits, 2.1(1
\1 m 1 .i .1 .rii limli'i. Ill (II
\;i\ mn. Inn \\ Il Ii I lie mil nl I'lil'lier le-
1'nlse dnppl -drift deleriniiiiitinn, 22.20
\1 iji i'l'l ii'.. Hi-iiiini, 211,(11 2(1(1(1,
lleelnrs, 2(1.011 Pulse forms, 1.42
ill I.'.
\IM\ Ijlkn, 311,On
Pulse modulated iiiivij;aliiiii system,
ill', mi 1 ;i-. '. Hi
SMI1 (S'avinnlmiml Miemlilin I'rn- 1.30
■\ \1 111 ■' -ii .1, 2li.(i:i 2(1.(1(1, HI nil Pulse aeleclnrs, 1.07
jeelnl'l, 211,01, 2(i,OI
h ll\ I I.. Irri. Ill|l|l'-, 2(1.(12
Xnl'ilell IHIIII'IISIKIII , 22,20
I'ulse shaping circuits, 2.17. 22.07
M ill,1 1 nil . 'in 1 . I,in
Xni'iiiii'- I'linunlii, i .13 Pulse width discriininntor circuit, 2.14-
M nlvi 1 im ■-, l n;i 2.1.)
\II-IIIII allai'iiiiieiil I'm \\ U'S In,
\|. ,11'. .1,111.,.; 1 ;(!(
22 20 22 3r Pure range uaviKalion systems; «re
M. .'Ii ■ iinl iii.r- I'm II:I\ mnl mn Uanne navifjalion systems
eiinipnl inn eiiii'.piiiiMil, 22.30
ml..'nil , I .ItS
ilnpplei elTeel, 22 30
Mini. , , HI 1 •' I'klim", 2,.l.ll"i
hnieliiiii-, 22 2!i
Hacniis; HIT Uiidai' beacons and iaterro-
Ml \\ \li 'i. '.. i'iill\ ».IMIIIII; in Kators
.1 .1 , ..':', (I J.'MI'.!, .11 in. Kadai', airborne, 22.01 22.3(1
in. 1,11 1 ■ .-in 2:ni2
llliiir niiuuii i 'y>lelii, 3.01 3.On, Kadiir, value as a navigatioietl aid,
mill 1 ' , .' 12
31.00 31.01 31.02
;.. iml . i Mi'l 2'l.ll.i
\-peM I nl I".I lie ripupnielil ), 3,01 • Hadar beacons and inlerrojrators. 2.01 -
30n
milliMliMl. i|.i ...ini'., 2.111:: 2.21
HI " tm ii. il ■ ii nii'i'iiiji inn, 2:1 ii:i
niiiiM' ili ieiinliialinn, 3,01 accuracy, 2.0.")
Min,, II, ,"1 il "1' . 22 :iii. :il mi umiiinl ■■i.iiinn-. 3.01, H.O.'i AN CTX 11; 2.OS 2.IS
Min.. II M nl, 1 .(II
I laekina nil rial 1, 3.0.') codiiiK, 2.03 2.04
( iiimnliii einuial licacniis, 10.01 20.01 iulerrngaloi'-i'csponsers, 2.IS
Mn ... II M .il, li .Kill .■..01
due -hi! ilifiaiice-mcnsiiring miviga- overinterrofiiition, 2.04 -2.00
MirimA iM !•' in 1 \\ ( I'N 11; 2 ll.'l
M in..-., r.i i iriiii inliKliii! iiinj NII inn;
1 mn sy-lein, ".01 -7.0(1 rnngiiiR and silinv;, 2.0: 2.OS
u-eilln'-rnpe iinlii'aliirs I'm- iiavinalinnul
nl .'1 ■ 2 11^ respnnders and lralls|yondeiv, 2.1S-
l mim inaliiiii, 1.3.S 1.30
l w irmni,' i.nl.ii' 2.20
I Ivellllrl Innallnll, 2.01
Ml nl , 2.1(12, 111 (111 response signals, 2.04
•1 nnl -iiiiinn, :: (in triggering rciuirciuenls. 2.01, 2.03
. MI 1 ii. SOU 'I'I .1. - 1.1I-" m I .uraii •.vi-lein, I 2. In uses, 2.01
T W5' ' CONKIDKNTIAI.

' X1 ".
.'' 1' ■'
;{7.ot INDEX
Kud'ir litirizun range aileulafion, 2.05 Rectifier circuits, phase discriminating, Iransmitter errors and tolerances,
Radar mappiiiR, 26.01-20 06 13.05 17.20-17.25
Radial lines of position, 1.1;") Roflcx-oRcillator clmracteristics (Type (wo antenna systems, 17.13-17.14,
Radial navigation syfVmR, 1.13 723), 2.13 17.1«, 17.10-17.20
Radiation patlcrns, 10.01, 1(1.01, 17.02, Refraction of radio waves, 1.23, 4.03 Spencer Antofoens Microfilm Projector,
10.02, 21.02 Rcsolver circuit, rectangular to polar 20.02
Radio luaron, 2.01 coordinates, 29.0() Sperry omnidirectional range and dis-
Radio \)]iUt\ shape of, 1.4-1 Responder beacons, 2.01, 2.18 tance indicator, 28,01-28.02,
Radio "lallte" navi^.ilion system, 1.38 RLS (Rotating Lighthouse System), 31.00
Ranife and aziinulh eoniposilr navi- 25.01 Spinning-loop direction finder, 10.05
L'alion systems; A\ APS-lö Rooster beacon, 2.18 SS Loran, 12.02, 12.0(1, 12.08, 12.10,
112X i, 22.01 22.28 Rosebud 1 AX Al'X d!>), 2.10 31.00
I'.enito, :i().(ii Rosebu|.s(A.\/AP.\-20), 2.19 Standard l.oran, 12.02, 12.03-12.07,
l-MJeial airport tlailie-conlrol ,20.01- Rolaling liglilhouse system, 25.01 12.00,31.0(1
2,i.():i Ruebezalil, 30.03 Strobe sweep, I1.ÜÜ-1IJ2
(ii'l, 2!i.()l -2!!.ON Ruflian, 30.02 Strobe timing pulses, 11.12
MAP I'l'l superposilioii,2fi.0l-2n.nf) Sub-carrier generator, 10.04
.Mi:\\, 23.01 23.02 Sawtooth voltage generator (precision), Switched-eardioid homing system, 1(1.01
IK'A icievi.-ioii-nid.'ii'svslem, 27.01- 8.04, 22.05 ■■'
27.07 Sealing f'ircuil«, 12.13 Television-radar navigation svstem,
8( I,' ÖXI, 23.03 23.Or,; Schwanboje beacons, 30.05 27,01 27,07
■Ipeiry nmniilireelion.ii i-angi' and SCR 021; 2.1!) Three-antenna Sonne, 17,10, 17,21-
dislanee indicator, 28.01-28.02 SCR-584; 2.10, 23.03-23.05, Sl.Ofl 17,2-1
Ranire and siting of miciowave beacons, accuracy, 23,0-1 Three-pat Ii radar, 25,01
2.05 indiealing equipireiit, 23.05 3PR system, 25,01
Rang", a/imuth and Hack f'olubinalion use-, 23.04 Time measurement with electronic
liavitcation system fAX APX SCR 72li; 2,IS, 2,10 navigation system, 1,20-1.23
3-11, 21.(d-24.02 Scrambling (in Shoran), 4.10 Tracking and release stations, 3,01
Rangi' coding, 2.03. 23.01 Search radar as a navigational aid, Transmit ting antenna arrav, 1,11, 1(1,03
Range mark genemtor am! amplifier, 23,01-23,0(1 Transponders, 2,01, 2,18
22.13 Search radar system .MKW, 23.02 Trigger circuit, Kccles-Jordan, 12.20
Ramre nav'igaiioii systems; A.R.L. Secloi' ambiguity, 1.30 Trigger requirements of radar beacons,
iiitermilteiit pliase-eomparison Sector identilicalion with POPI, 2,01, 2,03
disiance-measiii'ingsvslem, 0.01- 14.10 Truhe, 30.04
0,04 Self-orienting automatic dirociion- Two-anlenna Sonne, 17,13, 17,1(1,
A,R.I,. one-shot [listanee-measuring linder, 1(1.02, 111.04 17,24-17,25
system, 7.01 7,0(1 Sequence coding, 2.03
Canadian distance-measuring s\'s- Shoran, 1.22,-1.01-1.13,31.0(1 Inderwater-sotind direction receiver
iem, 8.01 S.Oil componenis, 4.00 (QHC) sound head), 26,04
CI'. random inierrngalion ilislance- errors, 4.04
measitring system, i),01-ii,()2 performance, 4.11-1.12 Velocity tnodulaled (Type 723) tube
(II. time-rationing distance-measur- principles, 4.01-1.03 characteristics, 2.13
ile- svslem, 10.01 10.02 scrambl ng, -I. lo I.II Velocity of light, 1.18
II3.\, -2.20 Shoran distani" -1,03 4.0-1 Vllf navigation systems; CAA VliF
Micro II, 5.01 5.01 uses, 1.01 radio "ranges," 15.03-15.0(1
Ofme, 3.01 3.05 Sliorl-range appi lach navigation sys- 1 lei mine, 30.02
Shnnin, 4.01 4.13 tem, 2-1,01 21,02 VI1F omnidirectional-beacoi:, 15.03
Rantre naMgation systems, general Side-frei)uency generator, 10.0-1 \ IIF radio "rang!'", 15.02
discussion, 1,05 1,0(1 Siling re(|iiirenienis for transmitters, Video gales, S.03
Range-tiMfking eircuii, mitnmnlie, 8,01 31.0-1 "Video sirelc.hing", 2.04
R " \I'N I i l.oran receiver!. 12.12 Sk\ wa\f(, si paralion from ground \isual \ 1111' "ranges", 15.03 15,0(1
wave, 1.27 VPR t Virtual 1TI Rellectoscope),
"Ibue" ;im] ' drii'l" st.i'ions, 1.02 Sky-wave d: lay time, 1.2(1, 1.20 20.01, 20.04
Ran-i:i ii 'nitor for anti-lmnl control, Sky-wave errors, 31,03
Hl.OM Sky-wave propagation, 1.23 1.20 Wave propagation in the ionosphere,
Rao -ot-.-ipproêli meter, S.()7 "Snaps" eircnits, SOI, s.i)3. S.05 1,21
Rt ' \ '■ !i'\ Mdii-r.-Mi.-ir ,,-> îi'.'n, 27,01 - Some buoys, 2(1.0 I Wave propagation oversea watoi, 1,24
27.07, 31.0(1 Sonne (! 'onsoli, 17,01 17,2(1, 31,0(1 Width-niodulated pulses, 3.01
aiii'nde range. 27 03 aceiiracy, 1 7,15
C'liili-'il in dense trallie, 27.01 banihvidl b re(|iiireiiienls, 1,42 X-band radar; AX/APS-15, 22.01-
idenlilie.'ilioti, 27.01 comparison of livo-aiiteima and 22.28
principle.- uf operation, 27.01 27.02 Ihree-anicnna systems, 17,25 il3.\', 22.20
n.-i' \( uli blind approach, 27.01 ei|itisignal, I 7.05 X-band radar responder beacon, 2.08,
us--, 27,01 errors, 17,15 2.18
Rebecca, 2,I,S priihipli- of operation, 1 7,02 -17, Ml
Reei'ju i bl.-iiiking, 1,011 radiation pattern, 17 02 17,10 VII (responder beacon), 2.10
Reeojiimendadons for fmaher research sector ambigmly, I 7.OS V.I (responder beacon I, 2.10
in electronic navigalion svstems, i luce aiileiina systems, 17,10 -17.13
31.11 l ra'isinission se(|llelice, I 7,07 Zyklop. 30.04
'" it 'N CONKIDI'iNTML

M ii % '■:
eoMPisaKWOflo, 0-3-3-9
U.S. Office of DIVISION: Electronics (3)
Scientific Re- SECTION: Navigational aids (3)
search and CROSS DEFERENCES: Navigation systems, Electronic
Development. (6650S); Navigation, Radio and radar
j AUTHCCTS) (66101)
IAMEQ. TITLE, Electronic navigation systems
FCOON. mi&
OOfOtMATtXG AGENCY: O.S.R.D., N.D.R.C, Div. 13, Washington, D. C.

TOANSLATION:
COUNTRY LANGUAGE pORG'NOASf U. SjOASS. | ILWS. FEATURES
D.3. Oonfd'l 161 I tables, diagrs, graphs, dregs
A descriptive and critical survey is presented of a number of electronic navigation
systems developed during the war, both ill the U. S. and in Europe. Some of the systems
considered are or were operational during the war, while others are merely proposed.
The principles underlying the three basic types of navigation systems are analyzed, and
several systems are compared regarding their operational characteristics. Conclusions
are draon from tills comparison. Recommendations are made for further research.
T-2. KS, An MATEKa COMMAND ZSaVeowicAi ONDSI WHISHT FCHD. OHIO. USAAF '•, I

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UNCLASSIFIED

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ARMEP SERVICES TECHNICAL INFORMATION AGENCY

NOTICE: When government or other drawings, speci-

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This volume i.s classified CO.XKIDKXTIAl, in accordance with security regula-

Distribution of the Summary Technical Report of NDRC has been

JOINT RKSKAKCII AM) DKVELOPMK.NT liOAUD

OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

NATIONAL OFFENSE RESEARCH COMMITTEE

NATIONAL DEFENSE RESEARCH COMMITTEE

James B. Conant, Chairman

NOTES OX THE ORGANIZATIOX OF XDh'C

SECTION I'A (IK

33 Appendix B — Probabk; Values of some Physical and

In Sections 2 to 30 inclusive, we have attempted to summarize available

The authors consider an important, part of their contribution to be the col-

In order to conserve space we have excluded from our descriptions certain

Accordingly, our treatment of "navigation" includes the location of military

One additional comment on the word "navigation" may be useful by way of

Following the numerous descriptions of specific systems we have included

Electronic Navigation Systems 1.03

1. Type of System (How the information is obtained)

(a) Pure range system (circular lines of position)

ä. Useful Range (Over what coverage area the information is obtainable)

(a) Dependence on transmitter power

3. Accuracy and Precision (Errors in the results obtained)

(a) The time measurement. Maximum theoretical precision obtainable with

4, Presentation or Use of Data (How the information is presented to the navigator)

5, Operating Skills Required (Training and experience)

(a) At ground or fixed installation

6. Equipment Required (Weight, complexity, service and maintenance requirements)

(a) At ground or fixed installation

7. Radio-frequency Spectrum Allotments Required (Frequency, wavelength, band-

8. Present Status of Development

I. Types of Navigation Systems

a. Pure range systems

It is implicit in the pure range or distance measurement type of system that

b. Differential range systems

Fig. 1^01 Construction of hyperbolic lines of position

600 JJS roops /eoops /900pS /looops

Pulse transmissions have to be repeated with a known repetition pattern,

As a second example of a hyperbolic system suppose that the transmissions

Fig. 1-05 Similar to Fig. 1-04, but with base line = X

c. Azimuthal or radial systems

1.14 Electronic Navigation Systems

Electronic Navigation Systems 1.15

tiple transmission paths). As an example of an azimuthal system, suppose that the

Uncertainty in miles Overall uncertainty in electrical degrees

(a) Spacing A/2, phasing 0° (b) Spacing X/2, phasing 180°

(c) Spacing X, phasing 0° (d) Spacing A, phasing 60°

(e) Spacing A, phasing 120° (f) Spacing X, phasing 180°

II. Useful Range

(a) Dependence on transmitter power

The signal strength necessary for satisfactory reception depends on local

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