5.

2 - Information Processing

Assessment Statement Notes

5.2.1 Describe a simple model of Information processing is the system by

information processing. which we take information from our
surrounding environment, use it to make
a decision and then produce a response:
input–decision-making– output. All the
approaches are only models. Input and
output are assessable/observable, but
the decision-making process can only be
speculation

5.2.2 Describe Welford’s model of Welford’s model (1968) includes: (i) sense
information processing. organs (ii) perception (iii) short-term
memory (iv) longterm memory (v)
decision making (vi) effector control (vii)
feedback

5.2.3 Outline the components associated Consider exteroceptors, proprioceptors

with sensory input and interoceptors

5.2.4 Explain the signal-detection process Often referred to as the

detection–comparison– recognition
process (DCR). Limit to background noise,
intensity of the stimulus, efficiency of the
sense organs, early signal detection and
improving signal detection.

5.2.5 Distinguish between the Limit to capacity, duration and retrieval.

characteristics of short-term sensory
store, short-term memory and
long-term memory

5.2.6 Discuss the relationship between Selective attention (SA) operates in the
selective attention and memory short-term sensory store (STSS). Only the
relevant information is passed to the
short-term memory (STM) where it is
held for several seconds. SA ensures that
information overload does not occur and
prevents confusion as the brain would
not be able to cope with streams of
information. A filtering mechanism
operates, which separates the relevant
information from the irrelevant (noise)
 information so that athletes concentrate
on one cue or stimulus (for example, the
ball, position of player in a game of
tennis) to the exclusion of others. SA is
very important when accuracy or fast
responses are required and can be
improved by learning through past
experience and interaction with
long-term memory.

5.2.7 Compare different methods of Limit to rehearsal, coding, brevity, clarity,

memory improvement chunking, organization, association and
practice.

5.2.8 Define the term response time Response time = reaction time +
movement time. Aim 7: Use of online
methods of measuring response time.

5.2.9 Outline factors that determine Response time is an ability, having

response time individual and group variance (for
example, gender and age). Reaction time
includes stimulus transmission, detection,
recognition, decision to respond, nerve
transmission time and initiation of action.
Include consideration of Hick’s Law.

5.2.10 Evaluate the concept of the Include the single channel mechanism
psychological refractory period and how PRP helps to explain deception
in sport.

5.2.11 Describe a motor programme Defined as a set of movements stored as

a whole in the memory regardless of
whether feedback is used in their
execution.
Limit to: (i) a whole plan (executive
programme/motor programme) and
subroutines (ii) coordination of
subroutines (iii) relegating executive
programmes to subroutines.

5.2.12 Compare motor programmes from Include Adams’ concepts of memory

both open and closed-loop trace and perceptual trace.
perspectives

5.2.13 Outline the role of feedback in Limit to: (i) intrinsic, extrinsic (ii)
information processing models knowledge of results, knowledge of
performance (iii) positive, negative (iv)
concurrent, terminal
 5.2.14 Outline the role of feedback with Limit to reinforcement of learning,
the learning process motivation, adaptation of performance
and punishment.

5.2.1 - Describe a simple model of information processing

Information processing - the system by which we take information from our surrounding
environment, use it to make a decision and then produce a response

input – decision-making – output – feedback

In response to input stimuli, the performer perceives the stimulus, and recounts by
executing an appropriate output, after their brain goes through the decision making process.
Feedback is then often given, so that the response can be altered to be made better if
necessary.

Example - Penalty kick in football:

Input: the goalie observes the angle of the kicker
Decision Making: the goalie makes a decision on where to dive
Output: the goalie follows with a diving movement
Feedback: the brain receives feedback on the movement, which is apple for the next shot
5.2.2 - Describe Welford’s model of information processing

Welford's model suggests that we:

- take in information through our senses and temporarily store all of these inputs prior
to sorting them out
- the inputs that are seen as relevant to the decision, are then stored in the short-term
memory
- a decision is made by comparing the information in the short-term memory with
previous experiences stored in the long-term memory
- with reference to the long term memory for the required action the decision is
carried out
- the action and the results are stored for future reference
- the whole process then begins again

5.2.3 - Outline the components associated with sensory input

The sensory input is gathered by three forms of receptors in the sensory system:

Exteroceptors - they provide information about the external environment

↳touch, pressure, temperature, light, sound, taste, smell

Proprioceptors - provide information about the position and posture of our body in space
↳ they detect movement

Interoceptors - pass information from within the body’s internal organs such as the heart
and lungs to the brain via the nervous system
5.2.4 - Explain the signal-detection process
- it is the process by which the brain interprets and makes sense of the information it is
receiving from the sensory organs
- likelihood of detection is influenced by sensitivity of sense organs (ex eyes)
- likelihood of detection is influenced by experience with familiar signals
- selective attention can be improved through learning from past experience

detection – comparison – recognition (DCR)

Detection: identification of the stimulus

Comparison: gather stimuli and compare to memory stores
Recognition: the stimuli is matched to one stored in the memory

5.2.5 - Distinguish between the characteristics of short-term sensory store, short-term

memory and long-term memory (limit to capacity, duration and retrieval)

Short-term Sensory Store:

- Information enters the sensory system and is held there for a short period of time
- Separate sections for each sense
- Large capacity but for less than a second
- Filters out irrelevant information so that the system doesn’t overload
- It cannot retrieve previous information

Short-term Memory:
- Holds information for several seconds, it can hold 5-9 items
- Low capacity and short duration
- Deals with present information

Long-term Memory:
- Stores information from past experiences
- Unlimited capacity - not everything can be retrieved
- Information can be stored for a very long time
5.2.6 - Discuss the relationship between selective attention and memory and explain how it
can be applied to a games player

Selective attention - a type of memory where you can only focus on one thing or on two
things that require different areas of the brain
- Memory and selective attention play a role in the competitive play of sport, where
performers must recall and retrieve information from the long-term store of their
memory, but utilize the skill of selective attention in order to only recall the
memories vital for the skill being performed
- Attention filters incoming information, allowing only relevant information into
short-term processing stores
- Selective attention is very important when accuracy or fast responses are required
- It can be improved by learning through past experience and interaction with
long-term memory

Sporting Example:
In a football game when passing the ball, you may remember all of the training you have
done on the skill and other variations of the move, but with the aid of selective attention,
you recall and only think about where you have to go, in the position you are in and the
situation you are in.

5.2.7 - Compare different methods of memory improvement

Rehearsal - repeating a certain skill over and over until it is memorized

Coding - associating information with images so it can be recalled with those associations
Clarity - learning information that is clear and simple will make it easies to remember
Chunking - breaking up information so it is easily remembered
Organization - if information is clear and in a logical format it is easier to recall
Brevity - information should be kept brief so that it can processed easily

5.2.8 - Define the term response time

response time = reaction time + movement

Reaction Time - from the initiation of the stimulus to the initiation of a movement
Movement - from the initiation of the movement to the end of the movement
- Takes part in your brain and nervous system
5.2.9 - Outline factors that determine response time
- Sex and age
- Level of fitness
- Fatigue/tiredness
- Personality type
- Number of stimuli
- Intensity of stimuli
- Length of neural pathways (if you are tall it takes longer)

Hicks Law - the more choices you have the longer it will take to decide

5.2.10 - Evaluate the concept of the psychological refractory period (PRP)

- The task related to the first stimulus must be fully carried out before the second
response can be made. The overlap is called the psychological refractory period
- The PRP is the increase in RT to a second stimulus caused when the second stimulus
has been delivered while the performer is responding to the first stimulus
- Player has to sort out new and correct stimulus, but first they have to disregard the
old and now useless stimulus and this causes the delay
- Brain processes one action at a time causing a time delay in responding to the
second stimulus

Single Channel Hypothesis - you can only deal with one stimulus at the time, so the first
stimulus needs to be attended before you respond to the second stimulus
 Strengths Weaknesses

- can be used to help a performer have - if a performer uses it too often, they will
greater chances of success become predictable and this limits success
- provides a performer with a greater range - anxiety might make the performer get the
of options in their play timing wrong and thus the PRP is not
- external noise eg other players calling, or effective
crowd noise can enhance the effectiveness
of the PRP (Hick’s law)

5.2.11 - Describe a motor programme

Motor programme - a set of movements stored as a whole in the memory regardless of
whether feedback is available or not
- They contain sub sections, which breakdown the actions required in a sport

Whole Plan (executive programme/motor programme) and subroutines:

In order to successfully perform a motor skill, the performer is required to have a whole plan
that specifies the timing and sequence of the movement. This motor programme can be
broken down into smaller actions that are called subroutines.

Coordination of subroutines:
In order for a motor programme to be completed successfully, all subroutines must be
coordinated, both temporally and spatially. This is why skills are initially taught in a closed
environment as performers are less exposed to unpredictable situations.

Releagating executive programmes to subroutines:

A learned skill may initially form a new motor programme, but over time, this skill may be
relegated to a subroutine, i.e. learning to drive a car, but then becoming a race car driver,
you do not have to focus on the skill of actually driving a car.
5.2.12 - Compare motor programmes from both open and closed loop perspectives

Open Loop Perspective:

- Decisions are made in the brain
- Information for one movement is sent in a single message
- The muscles receive the message, where they then perform the movement.
- Feedback may or may not be available but it doesn't control the action
Sporting Example:
- Fast movements such as a tennis serve, golf swing - you can’t use the feedback to
make changes when you are doing the action

Closed Loop Perspective:

- Decisions are made in the brain
- Information is sent to at different times
- Information is received by the muscles to initiate the movement
- Feedback is always available and is necessary for correction of movement patterns
and to adjust to changing needs.
- When the performer detects an error, they use the perceptual trace, which is an
immediate detection of the movement stored in the short term memory, and
compare it to their memory trace
Sporting Example:
- Cycling/running - you can use your feedback to make changes and improve your
action

Memory Trace - selects and initiates an appropriate response

Perceptual Trace - acts as a record of the movement made over many practices.

5.2.13 - Outline the role of feedback in information processing model

- Intrinsic (self given)

- Extrinsic (given by others eg. coach)
- Knowledge of results (was there a goal or was it a miss)
- Knowledge of performance (correct technique, improper technique)
- Positive feedback (encouragement)
- Negative feedback (unconstructive)
- Concurrent feedback (during the task itself)
- Terminal feedback (after task completion)
5.2.14 - Outline the role of feedback with the learning process
- Reinforcement of learning
- Motivation
- Adaptation of performance
- Punishment