Global Politics

IB glopo sl basics!
 Contents

1 Theories & Authors

2 Power & sovereignty

3 Human rights

4 Peace & Conflict

 1
Theories
&
Authors
● Theories
 Realism

Theory that claims to explain the reality of international politics. It emphasises the
constraints on politics that result from humankind's egoistic nature and the
absence of a central authority above the state.

Classical Realism: Explains power politics in terms of human selfishness and

egoism

Neorealism/structural realism: Highlights structural constraints of the

international system and explains the selfishness of institutions -> competition,
anarchic world system and relative gains
 Liberalism

The line of thinking that inspired how our world has been ordered since at least
the 1940s, assumes that domestic and international institutions facilitate
cooperation and peace among countries.

Republican liberalism: benefits of a republican government -> democracy = peace

Liberal institutionalism: role of institutions in the realization of goals

 Critical Theories
Question status quo by focusing on systems of inequality and oppression

● Marxism: anti-capitalist theory that believes that capitalism leads to wealth gaps and
systems of exploitation -> large corporations exploit workers and prosperity is not
possible for most
● Constructivism: There is no objective truth, all reality is constructed, all meaning and
significance is derived from a group
● Post-structuralism: Ideas and concepts are expressed through language -> influence
what people believe. Knowledge->Language-> Power
● Feminism: see later ;)
● Green politics: Ecology and interest in sustainability
● Post-colonialism:Critiques eurocentrism and states that after the colonial era ended,
western-centric policies and beliefs still dominated global relations. It claims that
humanitarian intervention and development initiatives are eurocentric/imperialism.
● Universalism: The belief that it is possible to uncover certain values and principles that
are applicable to all people and all societies regardless of cultural, and other, differences.
● Authors
 Authors
Max Weber: Power

Thomas Hobbes: believed that humans are driven by non rational appetites like fear

Johan Galtung: Norwegian sociologist, mathematician and founder of peace and

conflict studies

Joseph Nye: Co Founded the international relations theory of neoliberalism. Soft, Smart,
Hard Power

Amartya Sen: Capabilities theory (development)

Gene Sharp:

Peter Gelderloos:
 2
Power, sovereignty
and International
relations
● Power
Authors: Joseph Nye & Max Weber
Key concepts: Power
 What is power?

The ability to achieve desired goals and influence others. This can be done
through various means.

Joseph Nye states that there are different forms of power:

➔ Soft power
➔ Hard power
➔ Smart power
 Forms of power

Soft Hard Smart

achieve aims through achieve aims through Mix of soft and hard
persuasion -> “get coercion -> direct and power (payment,
others to want what I open (military force, diplomacy, trade/aid)
want” sanctions)
Its fragile, it can be EX:The nuclear deal
destroyed -> its not Ex: Military action signed between Iran
within a government’s taken against Islamic and P5+1 in July 2015.
control state in Syria and Iraq They used both
Ex: USA aid agency by the US and others in diplomatic negotiations
gives aid to countries 2014 -> soft and smart and a threat of military
whose development power wasn't viable force.
matters for USA’s
interests (Afghanistan)
 Other definitions of Power

Max Weber:

● Power is the ability to impose one's will even against all resistance
● Authority is the right to use that power ->Legitimacy

Joseph Nye:

● Power shifts / transitions

○ Rising power -> BRIC
○ Declining power
○ Power diffusion -> militant non-state groups
There are different sources of power
 Sources of power

Economic Military Cultural

Can be measured in: Ultimate means to Religious, social
➔ GDP force another group to Ex: globalization of
➔ GDP per person comply or change its power
➔ Economic growth behaviour Could have soft power
percentage Measured by: benefits but there is no
Example: Japan and ➔ Size of military proof (I personally think
Germany after WW2 ➔ Military spending it does enhance a
Can be used in: Ex: USA -> involved in states soft power but
➔ Sanctions pretty much every I’m no Joseph nye)
➔ Economic armed conflict
relationships (like NATO -> military
Africa and China alliances
-> complement
each other
 Sources of power

Structural Relational Cyber

When states influence Nye identifies 3 types of Empowered new
the political ideas, relational power: groups or actors that
structure and ➔ Threats and aren't states or other
rewards that are state like organizations
frameworks of global likely to encourage
politics itself the state to reach Ex: Wikileaks -> leaked
A.K.A: promote the the desired goal a large volume of secret
model they want for the ➔ Controlling the
diplomatic info from
agenda, limiting
world (democracy, choices of the other the USA
capitalism, state “ “
communism, etc.) ➔ Establishing
preferences, getting
the other state to
want the same goal
 Measuring Power

As resources:

● Armies, economies and populations

● Not accurate as what is important is how they use their resources

As behavioural outcome

● Successful / smart use of power resources

● Judge whether they achieved their desired effect or/and how it affects other
states
 Measuring Power

As resources:

● Armies, economies and populations

● Not accurate as what is important is how they use their resources

As behavioural outcome

● Successful / smart use of power resources

● Judge whether they achieved their desired effect or/and how it affects other
states
 Distribution of Power

Depends on whether the world is Unipolar, Multipolar or Bipolar

Ex: During the cold war, power belong to the URSS and to the USA, the
world was Bipolar
 ● Sovereignty
Authors: -
Key concepts: Sovereignty, Legitimacy, interdependence
 What makes a state sovereign?

States are classified as sovereign if they are independent entities not

controlled by other territories or entities. They are political entities

governed by a single form of government. People living within a sovereign

state are subject to the rules, laws and duties as citizens of the state

entity.
 Sovereign states should have:

➔ Permanent population (Does the population live in a permanent place or

are they refugees?)
◆ Ex: Syria
➔ Defined territory and border (Are borders are determined by
international law?)
◆ Ex: Syria and Iraq, terrorist groups made borders irrelevant
➔ Effective government (Does the government exist? Does it have
authority?)
◆ Ex: Libya
➔ Capacity to enter into relations with other states
◆ Ex: Kosovo (not a UN member)
 Internal vs External sovereignty
Internal External
Sovereignty Sovereignty

The notion of supreme power

within the state is located in a
body that makes decisions
Other countries controls
that are binding on all
what happens within their
citizens, groups and
borders (Ex: USA)
institutions within the states
borders
 Pooled Sovereignty

The status of being recognized as an independent nation

● Montevideo conventions: Used to determine whether a nation is a

sovereign state. For this, they need the qualities mentioned before.
● Constitutive theory of state: The theory that the political existence of a
state is entirely dependent on its recognition by other states
 Other forms of sovereignty
Responsible Economic
Some states are required When the state has
to protect not only their absolute authority over
own people but to all economic life
cooperate across conducted in its borders.
borders to protect global This is only possible with
resources and address discrete national
transnational threats. economies

Relate to R2P
 Examples!

Kosovo:

➔ Declared its independence from the Republic of Serbia (2008)

➔ Many western states supported its independence
➔ Not condemned by the ICJ (international court of justice)
➔ UN does not recognize it as and independent state

South China Sea

➔ China wants to expand its territorial waters

➔ It does not recognize the authority of the ICJ
➔ American warships patrol the waters China claims as its own but the USA claims
that are international
 Examples!

Kashmir (India and Pakistan):

➔ Temporary line of control in the region between India and Pakistan

➔ Designed to keep the troops appart
➔ Both claim the region
➔ Longest peacekeeping operation

EXAMPLES MIGHT BE OUTDATED! CHECK!

 Legitimacy

When an actor or action is commonly considered acceptable and provides a

basis for all forms of governance and other ways of exercising power over
others. Democracy and constitutionalism are the most accepted forms of
legitimacy.
 Failed State vs Fragile State
Failed state Fragile state
Fragile states have
characteristics that
A state that can no
substantially impair their
longer perform its basic
economic and social
security, and performance. These
development functions include weak governance,
and that has no effective limited administrative
control over capacity, chronic
its territory and borders. humanitarian crises,
persistent social tensions,
Ex: Libya and often, violence or the
legacy of armed conflict
and civil war.
Ex: Venezuela
● Civil Society
Authors: Joseph Nye
Key concepts:
 Sectors

1st Sector 2nd Sector 3rd Sector

Governments Businesses Civil society

 3rd Sector - Civil society

➔ Movements (Climate for future , Stop Asian Hate, Ni una Menos)

➔ NGOs / Advocacy groups (Green peace, Médicos sin fronteras, BLM)
➔ Associations
◆ Profesional
◆ Religious
◆ Leisure groups
◆ Trade Unions/ interest groups
 Interest Advocacy
Groups Groups
A group that exerts Groups that exerts
pressure on the pressure on the
government to obtain government to obtain
and/or pass laws that support on a specific
benefit them issue that benefits
“the whole society”
Ex: Trade Unions
Ex: NGOs
 NGO example

International Amnesty

● Global
● Deals with:
○ Human Right violations
○ Women -Childrens-Minorities rights
● Role: Getting citizens on board to influence states on specific issues
● Source of information for the UN
● Investigation into Human Right violations
 3
Human Rights
 ● The basics of
Human Rights
Authors: -
Key concepts: Human Rights, Justice, Liberty and Equality
 What are Human Rights?

They are the indivisible rights which all humans are entitled to as a result of
their humanity. They are:

➔ Universal: Human rights do not discriminate, they are for everyone

➔ Interdependent: The protection of one HR helps with the protection of
another
➔ Indivisible: They are all equally as important
➔ Inalienable: HRs can’t be taken away from any human being
 Negative vs Positive rights

Negative Positive
The state must not States must take
act to protect them action to protect
Ex: Freedom from them
torture, right to Ex: Education, food,
privacy housing
 Generations of Rights

1st generation: Civil and political rights that protect individuals liberty from the state.
Mainly negative rights that require the state to step back from the private sphere of an
individual's life and allow them to enjoy basic rights like the right to life, liberty and
property

2nd generation: Economic, social and cultural rights. They are mainly positive.

3rd generation: Cultural and collective rights: focused on the environment, peace and
development.
● Key Human
Right Laws
Authors: -
Key concepts: Human Rights
 Universal declaration of HR

● First international consensus on universal human rights (1948)

● Non-binding
● Influenced and inspired other binding other HR laws at different levels
● Cultural relativists argue that it imposes western /Judeo-christian ideals
of human rights
 European convention on HR

● First regional agreement on human rights (1950)

● Binding
● European Court of Human rights -> Last resort if europeans believe that
their state cannot handle the issue
● Despite being binding, states can ignore the decisions of the court
● Might defy a state’s sovereignty
 Convention against torture and other crude, inhuman
and degrading treatment

● 1984
● Builds on the Universal declaration of HR and the international covenant
on civil and political rights
● Prohibits nation states to rely on evidence gained through torture by
other nation states
● Non-binding even if ratified
 African charter on Human and People’s rights

● 1986
● Allowed the African Union states to agree on new HR
● Recognizes collective rights as well as individual rights
● Non-binding
● Does not have any formal enforcement powers
 Constitution of South Africa

● 1997
● Ex of HR being protected at a national level
● The Bill of rights is enshrined into the constitution
● The will of rights allows judges to interpret certain rights as having limits
rather than being absolute
 Rome Statute

● 1998
● Creates an international court for cases related to the breaches of
international criminal law
● Countries that have not signed it can be investigated if the UN Security
Council agrees to it
● Not all member states have signed and ratified it so they cannot be held
accountable under the International Criminal Court
● Upholding
Human Rights
Authors: -
Key concepts: Human Rights, sovereignty, justice
 Upholding Human Rights

Ensuring that individuals’ human rights are upheld depends on the

relationship between four core responsibilities carried out by international
organizations, states, civil society and other actors:

● Codification
● Protection
● Promotion
● Monitoring
 Codification

HR need to be formalized in law, it provides a legal basis for protection to take place

International : The international covenants of 1966 on Economic, social and cultural

rights; and Civil and political rights formally codified the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights

Regional: Attempts at codification can be prone to modification. States might omit, or

limit certain rights because of cultural relativism. Ex: Cairo Declaration on HR in Islam
neglects freedom of religion. Some nation states argue that their sovereignty is
challenged by regional interpretation of HR law

National: The most powerful mean of codification as states often possess their own
national courts which can adjudicate and take action on HR abuses
 Protection

HR need to actively be protected. The most effective way is for independent courts to
adjudicate on breaches of HR law.

International : Lacks any meaningful protection body. However, some of the most
serious crimes against humanity are dealt in the International Criminal Court or the
International criminal tribunals

Regional: The European court of HR has the power to make binding decisions on some
states, however, they are mainly ignored. Other regional courts in America and Africa
are of last last resort, there is a greater emphasis in solving these issues diplomatically
through HR commissions.

National: States are the most likely violator of HR but they have the principal
responsibility for protecting and enforcing HR
 Promotion

HR need to be actively promoted both before and after they have been effectively
codified. This involved a wide range of groups spreading awareness on a specific HR

International : The UN is a powerful advocate for HR. HR NGOs are also relevant as they
produce regular right-specific reports. However, their power to publicize HR issues does
not match their power to change behaviours

Regional: They are prone to selective investigations. Ex: The African commission of HR
has played a successful role in promoting better treatment of prisoners but has done
little to promote LGBTQ+ rights

National: Same constraints as protection

 Monitoring
HR need to be actively supervised y independent bodies that ensure that the
governments are complying with their own national law and any international law they
have agreed to.

International : The UN HR council and the UN High Commissioner for HR have the
power to conduct in depth review of states HR records and the global protection of
specific rights. The effectiveness of this depends on the receptiveness of the state to
any criticism

Regional: States that abuse HR are usually unstable and/or in conflict, making it unsafe
to conduct investigations. NGOs like HRW are sometimes able to expose abuses
because they source evidence from local civil society activists.

National: States may create their own monitoring agency at a national level. Ex: The
UK’s equality and HR Commision is a high profile and independent voice that challenges
the UK government’s HR record. But again, states are usually the main abusers of HR
Protecting HR through treaties
● Food, education,
health, housing
and work
Authors: Calpham (no c si cuenta cómo author)
Key concepts: Human Rights, equality
 Food

Everyone should have access to food and states should plan for shortages and
distribution problems.

First level obligations: States should plan for the needs of the population Right
should not be violated through the unjustified destruction of crops or any kind of
privation from them.

Second level: Protecting individuals from the interference of this right by other
actors

Third level: Ensuring that people have the resources to access food. States can
help by stimulating employment, engaging in land reform, etc. They may also
provide food and social security to people who cannot access employment.
 Food Security in Ethiopia

There are 5.9 million people with acute food needs. 3.9 million women and
children are nutritionally vulnerable. Ethiopia has made important
development gains over the past two decades, reducing poverty and
expanding investments in basic social services. However, food insecurity and
undernutrition still hinders economic growth. In 2021 Ethiopia is on a food
alert. There is a reductions in household access to food and income, reduced
agricultural production
 Education

Essential to enjoy other rights. It involves not closing schools and/or

discriminating againt pupils

First level: Education has to be available in a functional sense. (Infrastructure and

others)

Second level: States have to ensure that schools are accessible to all. There are
three dimensions: non-discrimination, physycal accessibility and economic
accessibility.

Third level: Carrying out education in a way that is acceptable for both the
parents and the children (material conditions, violence, scheduling, etc)
 Education in India

It has made great strides in improving access to quality education, increasing

elementary school enrollment and reducing the number of out-of-school
children. Out of 100 students, 29 percent of girls and boys drop out of
school before completing the full cycle of elementary education, and often
they are the most marginalized children. Around 50 percent of adolescents
do not complete secondary education, while approximately 20 million
children do not attend pre-school.

Also check, Rohingya in Bangladesh, women in Afghanistan and rural

schools in Argentina
 Health
The right to health is the right to an effective and integrated health system that
should be accessible to everyone.

The UN's Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural rights interprets the right
to health as three obligations:

1. Respect: requires states to avoid measures that could prevent the enjoyment
of the right. For example, denying or limiting equal access to health, or,
marketing unsafe drugs.
2. Protect: requires states to take measures that prevent third parties from
interfering with the right to adequate health care.
3. Fulfil: requires states to take positive measures to enable individuals and
groups to enjoy the right to health.
 Healthcare in South Korea

It is universal and funded through a combination of government subsidies.

Hospitals and clinics are modern and efficient, and expats will find a variety
of both Western and Eastern treatment options.

Korean public healthcare covers between 50-80% of medical costs

depending on the individual's needs and the treatment they receive. This
includes the costs for medical checkups, general procedures, accident
coverage, and prescription medication.
● Women’s
Rights
Authors: -
Key concepts: Human Rights, equality
 3
Peace & Conflict
● Peace
Authors: Johan Galtung
Key concepts: Peace
 Definitions

● Absence of violence or conflict and the dominance of harmonious

relations
● A balance of forces in the international conflict
● Feminist: Absebce of violence against minorities
● Holistic Gaia peace: Peace with the environment
● Holistic inner and outer peace: Spiritual peace
Johan Galtung states that peace can be Negative and/or positive
 Negative peace

● Absence of organized violence by both the state and non-state groups

● Useful at the first stage of conflict resolution, when the aim is to stop
immediate violence
● Ex: Ceasefires and truces such as:
○ 2015 Minsk Agreement
○ 2016 Colombia peace agreement (with the FARC)
 Positive peace

● What helps sustain peace beyond simply reducing or stopping violence

● Social justice which involves an absence of structural violence
● Governments make efforts to prevent the harming of the population
● Ex:
○ Somalia 2012: re-established a representative parliament and
agreed a new national constitution. Aim: create political equality by
giving all clans a voice
○ Rwanda after 1994: Including Tutsis in society by creating
communal activities between tutsis and Hutus like gardens and
churches. Also, re integrating Tutsi refugees and refugee
descendants
 Theoretical Viewpoints

Realist view:

Negative peace:

The priority is national security over peace as states exist to protect and advocate
their own national interests

Positive peace:

It’s an unrealistic aim as it is natural for states to compete with each other. Equal
status among the states is both impossible and undesirable
 Theoretical Viewpoints

Liberal view:

Negative peace:

It’s a desirable and realistic first objective achieved through diplomacy. It’s the
means to an end, not an end in itself.

Positive peace:

The desired. Realistic and achievable. Both sides should be willing to make bug
concessions on core interests and seek to reconcile and forgive
J. Galtung's Formula of peace

.
 Increasing: Equity and Harmony
Equity: A society must operate on the basis of equality in order to have peace. Newly
created democratic institutions may be designed so that all political parties are involved
in government through a system of power sharing. Ex:

● Northern Ireland Assembly created in 1998 after the Good Friday Agreement.
● Re-establishment of the Somalian representative parliament in 2012.
● Colombia 2016 peace agreement that made the FARC a valid political party

Harmony: A harmonious society is one in which all individuals within a society work
together despite differences. Laws and constitutions may be created or adapted to
protect against discrimination and prejudice. Ex:

● South Africa’s post-apartheid constitution guarantees equality before the law and
freedom from discrimination.
● Rwanda?
 Decreasing: Violence and Trauma

Violence: Physical or psychological harm. It can be caused either by physical force by

groups in conflict, or by structures within society or government causing injury, damage
or death. If both sides in a conflict agree to a ceasefire or truce, violence may be
reduced. Ex:

● 2015 Minsk agreement

● 2016 Colombian peace agreement

Trauma: Emotional shock following the stress of conflict or violence. It can lead to
long-term distress and harm, bitterness and grievance between parties that were in
conflict (grievances left unresolved are likely to cause a return to conflict) Ex:

● Ex FARC members joining other comunist guerrilla groups

 Peace and power

Eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee si queda tiempo lo pongo

 The security dilemma

➔ Realists believe that strong national security and defense should be

every states main priority as it protects states and secures power.
➔ This makes states build their defense.
➔ Other states might see this as aggressive or offensive which will make
THEM to build their OWN defense
➔ The other state, seeing this, will be intimidated and build their defense
EVEN MORE
➔ And then the process repeats itself forever
 …process…

Pathway to peace
 Peace Making

● Stopping violent conflict and creating negative peace.

● Pause or end to immediate violence through negotiation.
● The pause from violence allows further mediation and enables
stabilization.
● Ex:
○ Colombia 2016
○ Minsk agreement
 Peace Keeping

● Sustaining negative peace to allow positive peace to be built.

● Peacekeepers, like armed forces, ensure that peace is maintained.
● The priority is monitoring agreements.
● Ex:
○ UN in 2012 sent peacekeepers to Sierra Leone to the African Union
mission to Somalia
 Peace Building

● The building of sustainable positive peace and long-term conflict

● Significant development assistance to improve health and education,
address inequality, rebuild destroyed infrastructure and trial for war
criminals
● Ex:
○ Interventions, 2001-2014, in Afghanistan under NATO and Iraq
under US-led coalition, known as nation building. (The entire
structures of a nation state requires rebuilding)
Approaches to peace building
● Conflict
Authors: Johan Galtung
Key concepts: Conflict, violence, non-violence
 Definition

Conflict: When parties disagree or compete with each other over ideas,
resources or territory. Conflict may be violent or non-violent.
 Non-Violent conflict
● There is a place for dialogue
● Democratic structures allow the population to be consulted and are
seen as legitimate
● Parties involved are dependant and would be harmed if violent
● Violent solutions are against the interests of the parties
● ex:
○ Iran nuclear weapons programme. In 2015 Iran and the US
disagreed over the NWP. They used diplomacy and negotiation to
discuss their conflicting interests and priorities. As a result,
economic sanctions were relaxed in exchange of weapons
inspections. There was a threat to military action was present.
 Violent Conflict

● Most obvious form of violence is direct violence, number of deaths and

injures, physical damage to infrastructure
● Lack of trust
● No structure or place for dialogue
● Violent approaches are seen as the only way to secure core interests
● Ex:
○ Ukraine. Constant conflict because leadership is trying to decide
between the EU and NATO or Russia. In 2014, there were violent
protests in Kiev against the pro-Russian president. Security forces
clashed with protesters and around 100 were killed.
Types of violence
 Direct Violence

When an individual or group is physically or mentally harmed, through direct

action

● Includes crimes against humanity, where systematic direct violence is

directed at an ethnic group. Ex: genocide in Rwanda in 1994, Rohignyas
2017
● It is straightforward and easy identify
● It possible to investigate it and establish a responsible
 Structural Violence

When a government or form of power functions in a way that results in physical,

metal or other harm. It may be through inequalities that deny people fundamental
rights.
Just war theory
 Just war theory

● Created in the medieval times -> used in crusades

● Adopted and legalized by the UN
● Opposes Pacifism -> War can be justified
● In recent years, it has been highly debated if it should be expanded
● The R2P (responsibility to protect) doctrine provides an expansion to
Just war theory
● Just war theory is divided in Just ad Bellum (reasons) and Just in Belo
(during conflict)
 Jus Ad Bellum

The basic criteria for a war to be fought for the right reasons are:

● Competent authority: It requires a “competent authority” to declare and

wage the war
● Just Cause: The war is fought in the pursuit of a “just cause”
● Right intention: The war is fought with the right intention
● Last Resort: The war is used as a last resort
● Proportionality: Waging the war is proportional to the act that triggered it
● Reasonable hope of success: There is a reasonable hope of success.
 Jus In Bello

The basic criteria to be followed during a war:

● Principle of proportion: The military actions undertaken within the context of

the whole operation are just the necessary for the realisation of the
corresponding specific military objectives
● Principle of discrimination: Prohibits, absolutely, killing or allowing innocents
to be killed in war.
● Necessity or minimal force: Medio q la mezcla de las dos anteriores
 ● Reconciliation
Authors: -
Key concepts: Conflict, violence, non-violence, peace, justice
● Protests
Authors: Gene Sharp, Peter
Key concepts: Conflict, violence, non-violence, peace