Aem 502

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
COURSE CODE: AEM 502
COURSE TITLE:
EXTENSION ORGANISATION, MANAGEMENT AND SUPERVISION
AEM 502: EXTENSION ORGANISATION, MANAGEMENT AND SUPERVISION
1. CONCEPTS, THEORIES, GUIDELINES AND PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
ORGANISATION
2. MANAGEMENT AND SUPERVISION, ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF
VARIOUS LEVELS OF EXTENSION AND OTHER RELATED STAFF
3. STAFF RECRUITMENT, SELECTION, PLACEMENT AND SUPERVISION
4. PRINCIPLES OF MORALE AND MOTIVATION
5. IMPLICATIONS OF EXTENSION STAFF DEVELOPMENT AND PROMOTION
6. CREATING CONDUSIVE WORKING ENVIRONMENT, DISCIPLINE
7. ASSESSMENT OF EXTENSION WORK ENVIRONMENT
8. IMPROVING NIGERIAN EXTENSION SERVICE
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Module 1: Unit 1 Concept of Management in Agricultural Extension Organisations
Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.1 Concept of an Extension Organization
3.2 Concept of management.
3.3 Managerial skills-technical
3.4 Managerial skills – human
3.5 Managerial skills – conceptual and design
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References and Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
Agricultural extension activities are carried out by persons within an organization
specifically designed and put together for extension activities. This unit will help you understand
what an extension organization is, the concept of management and managerial skills required of a
manager of an agricultural extension organisation.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to
1. Define an agricultural extension organization
2. Discuss the concept of management as related to extension organization
3. Understand the necessary managerial skills needed by extension administrators
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3.1 Concept of an Agricultural Extension Organization
Agricultural extension means different things to different people. To the farmers, it is a
form of assistant to help improve their knowledge, efficiency, productivity, profitability and
contribution to the good of their family, community and society. To the politicians, planners and
policy makers, it is a policy instrument to increase agricultural production, to achieve national
food security and at the same time help alleviate rural poverty. To the practitioner, agricultural
extension enhances and accelerates the spread of useful knowledge and technologies to rural
people. These activities are expected to lead to increased and sustained productivity, increased
income and well-being of farm people and to the promotion of national food security and
economic growth.
An agricultural extension organization is therefore a formalized intentional structure of
roles or position targeted at achieving extension activities.
3.2 Concept of management.
Ever since people began forming groups to accomplish aims they could not achieve as
individuals, managing has been essential to enter the coordination of individual efforts.
Management is the process of designing and maintaining an environment in which
individuals working together in groups efficiently accomplish selected aims. There are some
necessary skills required of managers of extension organizations. We shall discuss three of them
in this unit.
3.3 Managerial skills- Technical skills
Technical skill is knowledge and proficiencies in activities involving methods, process and
procedures. Thus, it involves working with tools and specific techniques. Managers of extension
organizations should thus be able to teach their staff specific techniques in doing their job.
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3.4 Human skill
This is the ability to work with people. It is cooperative effort, team works and the creation of
an environment in which people feel secured and free to express their opinions. Managers of
extension organizations should thus be competent in interpersonal relationships. They must be
able to blend the efforts of subordinates who may differ in background, specialization and points
of view into motivated teams of workers.
3.5 Conceptual and Design Skills
This is the ability of the managers to recognize significant elements in a situation and to
understand the relationships among the elements. He must be able to discern the problem of the
farmer in his social, economic and sometimes political context, he must be able to analyse the
information at his disposal. The manager should be able to proffer practical solution to such
problems. This is the aspect of design skill. The design skill is the ability of manager to solve
problems.
4.0 Conclusion
It is necessary that formalized structures be set up to accomplish agricultural extension
activities. Roles also need to be defined for people in such structures so that proper running and
functioning of such organizations can be achieved. Such structures will therefore need people who
have the necessary skills to coordinate such activities. We have discussed these issues in this unit.
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5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have been introduced to what an extension organization is all about as
well as the concept of management. You were also taken through the necessary skills required
for managers of agricultural extension organizations.
1. Define an agricultural extension organization
2. Discuss the concept of management
3. Identify the managerial skills you have learnt in this unit
1. Weihrich, H. and Koontz, H.: Management -A global perspective
2. Newman,W.H.: Administrative Action -The Techniques of Organization and Management
3. FAO: Improving Agricultural Extension -A Reference Manual
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Module 1: Unit 2 Principle of Management I
Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.1 Principles of management- introduction
3.2 Principles of management – division of work
3.3 Principles of management – authority and responsibility
3.4 Principles of management –discipline
3.5 Principles of management – unity of command
4.0Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Every Organisation has principles upon which their activities are conducted. These are
foundational bases for the conduct of such activities. There are many principles of management.
They are flexible, not absolute and must be useable regardless of changing and special conditions.
In this unit, we shall begin to consider some of these principles.
2.0 Objectives
1. Define what principles are and
2. Discuss some principles of management
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3.1 Principles of Management
Principles in management are fundamental truths. They are what are taught to be truths at a
given time explaining relationships between two or more sets of variable, usually an independent
variable and a dependent variable. Principle could be descriptive or predictive but not prescriptive.
They describe how one variable relates to another that is, what all happen when these variables
interact. They do not prescribe what people should do. The following are some of the commonly
used principles:
3.2 Division of work
This is the specialization that economist consider necessary for efficiency in the use of
labour. Division of work stems from the assumption that breaking down the work into smaller
units of activities will help individuals to better focus on them as well as enable them to develop
more skill in doing such activities.
3.3 Authority and Responsibility
Authority is the power inherent in a position. It is a combination of official factors,
deriving from the manager‘s position and personal factors. This is a mix of intelligence,
experience, moral worth; past service etc. Responsibility arises from authority. It has to do with
what he uses the authority to accomplish. Every manager must understand that he is not in
position for any other reason but to ensure compliance to rules and regulations vis a vis
accomplishment of organisational goals. He must hence use the power invested in that position
maximally.
3.4 Discipline
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Discipline is a respect for agreements, which are directed at achieving obedience,
application, energy and the outward marks of respect. Discipline requires good superiors at all
levels implying that those who will discipline must have a high moral justification for doing so.
Discipline also requires that rules and regulations of the system are made explicit for all to know.
3.5 Unity of command
This means that employees should receive orders from one superior officer only. Thus,
employees will be directly responsible to one superior officer per time. This will help prevent
clash of instructions.
4.0 Conclusion
It is necessary to understand the principles upon which activities of organizations are
based. This will help you in understanding how activities in the organization are carried out.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have been able to identify four principles upon which extension
organization activities are based. This includes that of division of work, authority and
responsibility, discipline and unity of command.
1. What do you understand by principles?
2. Why are principles necessary?
3. Discuss four principles of management that you have learnt.
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Module 1: Unit 3 Principle of Management II
Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.1 Principles of management- unity of direction
3.2 Principles of management- subordination of individual to general interest
3.3 Principles of management- remuneration
3.4 Principles of management- centralization
3.5 Principles of management-order
4.0Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
We started considering principles upon which agricultural extension activities are
conducted. In this unit, we shall continue to consider some of those principles.
2.0 Objectives
1. Discuss some more principles of management
3.1 Unity of Direction
This principle informs that each group of activities with the same objective must have one
head and one plan. It relates to the organization of the ‗body corporate‘ rather than to personnel.
Though it does not mean all decision should be made at the top.
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3.2 Subordination of Individual to General Interest
This refers to the submission of individual agenda and plan to the interests and welfare of
the organization. Individuals must be ready to sacrifice their own ideas and interest to that of the
organisation. This will enhance commitment and reduce interference of individual beliefs,
perception etc with organisational goals or other workmates. Nevertheless, when the two are
found to differ, management must reconcile them.
3.3 Remuneration
This principle suggests that remuneration and methods of payment should be fair and
commensurate to services rendered. It should also affect the maximum possible satisfaction to
employees and employer.
3.4 Centralization
This refers to the extent to which authority is concentrated or dispersed. Some agricultural
extension organizations command more influence from management giving organisation a strong
management style ready to face emergencies. Nevertheless, this style reduces and inhibits staff
initiative and participation in management, which could also have detrimental consequences.
However, individual circumstances will determine the degree that will give the best results.
3.5 Order
This is ensuring a place for everything and everyone. There must be materials and social
order. People and resources must be organized/ well arranged to prevent chaos.
4.0 Conclusion
The principles discussed under this unit are essential to the proper functioning of
agricultural extension organizations. This is because agricultural information disseminated must
not be confusing, thus the need for unity of direction, centralization of commands and order. Due
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to the need to ensure that personnel are motivated for work, there is the need to properly consider
remuneration to conform with level of input from each person.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have been taken through four crucial principles of management, which
include centralization, order, remuneration, subordination of general interest to individual interest
and unity of direction.
1. Discuss Five principles of management of agricultural extension organisations you have studied
in this unit
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Module 1: Unit 4 Principle of Management III
Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.1 Principles of management- equity
3.2 Principles of management-stability of tenure
3.3 Principles of management-esprit de corps
3.4 Principles of management- initiative
3.5 Principles of management-scalar chain
4.0Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
We have hitherto discussed nine principles of management in an agricultural extension
organization. In this unit, we shall consider five more essential principles.
2.0 Objective
At the end of this unit, you should be able to discuss about the principles of equity, stability of
tenure, espirit de corps, initiative and scalar chain.
3.1 Equity
Managers should deal with subordinates in kindness and justice. This is to elicit loyalty
and devotion from personnel. There must be fairness in treatment of staff based on established
regulations to prevent favoritism
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3.2 Stability of Tenure
This principle is to ensure that staff are stable on their jobs and the rate of turnover is
reduced to the barest minimum. High turnover poses a danger and increases costs and could also
be both a cause and the effect of bad management.
3.3 Espirit de Corps
This principle is that which believes ―in union there is strength‖. It is an extension of the
principle of unity of command. This principle emphasizes the need for teamwork and the
importance of communication in obtaining it.
3.4 Initiative
This principle encouraged managers to permit their subordinates the opportunity to
exercise their initiative. Initiative is conceived as the thinking out and execution of a plan. This is
one of the keenest satisfactions for an intelligent man to experience. Subordinates should thus be
believed in to be able to use their initiative for the good of the organization.
3.5 Scalar Chain
This principle assumes a chain of superiors from the highest to the lowest ranks. This
chain should not be departed from needlessly but could be short-circulated when to follow its
compulsory would be detrimental.
4.0Conclusion
The unit has made it clear that there is need for management to have a human face in the
running of its affairs. Thus, managers of agricultural extension organizations should be kind and
create an atmosphere where there is commandership. Staff should not be treated as robots or tools
for action they should also be permitted to use their own initiative.
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5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have been taken throuh five more principles in management. These are
principles of equity, stability of tenure, espirit de corps, initiative and scalar chain.
1. What do you understand by the principle of equity?
2. Discuss the principle of initiative?
3. Write briefly on the principle of stability of tenure?
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Module 1: Unit 5 Managerial Functions in an Agricultural Extension Organisation
Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.1 Managerial functions- planning
3.2 Managerial functions- organizing
3.3 Managerial functions- staffing
3.4 Managerial functions-supervision
3.5 Managerial functions- controlling
4.0Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Management of every organization has various statutory functions that they perform on a
day-to-day basis or periodically such that the aims and objectives of the organization can be
achieved. In agricultural extension organizations these functions do not differ from what obtains
in other organization. In this unit, we shall consider those functions that are germane to extension
activities.
2.0 Objective
At the end of this unit, you should be able to
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1. Highlight the major managerial functions of agricultural extension organisations
2. Discuss the major managerial functions of agricultural extension organisations.
3.1 Planning
Planning involves the selection of mission and objectives and the action to achieve them. It
requires decision making, that is, the choosing of future courses of action from among
alternatives.
Organizing
Organizing involves establishing an intentional structure of roles for people to fill in an
organization. It is intentional in the sense of making sure that all the tasks necessary to accomplish
goals are assigned to people who can do them best. This organizational structure helps in creating
an environment for human performance.
Staffing
Staffing involves filling and keeping filled, the position in the organizations structure. This is
done by identifying work-force requirements; inventorying the people available and recruiting,
selecting, placing, promoting, appraising, planning the careers of, compensating and training or
otherwise developing both candidates and current job holders so that tasks are accomplished
effectively and efficiently.
3.4 Leading or supervision
Leading or supervision involves influencing people so that they all contribute to
organization and group goals. It has to do predominantly with the interpersonal aspect of
managing. Leadership involves motivation, leadership styles, approaches and communication.
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3.5 Controlling
Controlling is measuring and correcting individual and organizational performance to
ensure that events conform to plans. It involves measuring performance against goals and plans,
showing where deviations from standards exist and helping to correct them.
4.0 Conclusion
Managerial functions in agricultural extension organisations begin from the planning stage
in determining the objectives to pursue and how to do it. This leads to the recruiting and
management of staff to ensure that objectives are met.
5.0 Summary
In this unit you have been exposed to the five basic managerial functions of agricultural
extension organizations, which include planning, organizing, staffing, supervision and control
1. Discuss the planning function of managers of agricultural extension organizations
2. Discuss the staffing function of managers of agricultural extension organizations
3. Discuss the organizing function of managers of agricultural extension organizations
4. Discuss the control function of managers of agricultural extension organizations
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Module 2: Unit 1 Theories Used in Agricultural Extension Organisations
Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.1 Definition of theory
3.2 Purpose of theories
3.3 Theories of extension organization-functional theory
3.4 Theories of extension organization-decision making theory
3.5 Theories of extension organization-human relations theory
4.0Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Theories help us to make predictive judgments about what could happen in the occurrence
of certain events. Among humans involved in work relationships, there is the need for those who
manage them to be able to predict actions and reactions of their staff. This will enable better
planning and decision-making. In this unit, we shall begin to examine theories used in the
management of extension organization
2.0 Objective
1. Define what a theory is,
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2. Discuss the usefulness of theories and
3. State some theories of extension organization management
3.1 Definition of Theory
A theory is an explicit and objective statement of which either by summary or speculation
suggests that a relationship exist between data or knowledge and the reasoning from this
observation. It is also a relationship between factors or the ordering of such facts in some
meaningful way. Theory is a speculative idea or plan of how something might be done. It is the
systematic statement of principles involved in some certain observed phenomenon.
3.2 Purpose of theories
Theories are useful in agricultural extension organization management as they help managers
and administrators in the execution of their duties. Theories of Extension organization serve the
following purposes.
1. A basis for research
2. A guideline to administration and organization of action
3. It serves as a guide to the application of new knowledge
4. A basis for decision making operations and action in organization
5. It helps to understand, predict and adjust management behaviour more objectively and
systematically.
However, no single theory can achieve the objectives set above. Thus, the different
theories compliment the other in providing the framework for proper understanding of
management operation. In this subunit, the six theories of management that will be examined are:
1. Functional theory
2. Decision making theory
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3. Human relation theory
4. Fusion theory
5. Social process theory
6. Theory X, Y and Z
3.3 Theories of agricultural extension organization- Functional theory
This theory is accredited to Fredrick Taylor. It explains administrative behaviour in terms
of administration process and formal function of the administrator. The theory divides the function
of an administrator into minute components of
1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Staffing
4. Directing
5. Coordination
6. Reporting
7. Budgeting
The functional theory assumes a division of labour among employers, which leads to three
basic sub-concepts of
1. Division of labour i.e. providing specific responsibilities to individuals i.e. making
them responsible
2. Specialization i.e. making individuals concentrates on one activity to acquire
proficiency and expertise in it.
3. Line-staff relationship i.e. the relationship between the administrators (line) and the
professional (staff)
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Principles underlying the functional theory include
1. Specialization which helps to lead efficiency
2. Staff structure and hierarchy, which reveals each staff responsibility and line or
authority. This also leads to efficiency.
3. Span of control, which helps to ascertain the number of persons that is economically
profitable to the organization
4. Adequate delegation of authority which helps a subordinate to be able to take
responsibility in the absence of her superior
5. Job evaluation by supervisors which helps management assess employee activities and
thus remunerate accordingly
3.4 Decision Making Theory
This theory established decision making in an organization as the complex of human
association, events and activities leading to and including any conclusion for a programme of
policy and or operation. It helps to identify the best course of action from a set of objectives/
alternatives. It suggests that no single individual takes decision alone in any organization. The
decision maker makes decisions within an environment. The goals or ends to be achieved must be
stated. Relevant alternatives to accomplishing the goals must be stated which must be ordered in
preference. The choice is finally made and the decision maker must be ready to accept
responsibility for the decision taken.
3.5 Human Relations Theory
This theory suggests that interaction of people in terms of endeavour and the integration of
people into work situation which motivates them to walk cooperatively and satisfactory. It infers
that individuals should be able to fit into another‘s shoe and be able to see things in another point
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of view. Another aspect of the theory also suggest the primary roles of the administrator as being
concerned with the causal forces which make a group or an individual think or being motivated to
produce effectively and with satisfaction in his/her work.
The theory believes that wages alone do not bring satisfaction to work. Those other non-
physical factors are divided into two (a) hygiene factors and (b) motivator factors.
4.0Conclusion
The theories we have considered in this unit makes it clear that various situations and
circumstances do occur in agricultural extension organization, which administrators will have to
deal with. These theories will help them to make informed decisions even about futuristic actions
of the organization and the individual staff.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have learnt about the definition of theories, usefulness of theories and
three of the theories used by administrators of agricultural extension organisations.
1. What is a theory?
2. What is the usefulness of theories in an organization?
3. Discuss three theories used by administrators of agricultural extension organisations used
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Module 2: Unit 2 Theories Used in Agricultural Extension Organisation II
Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.1 Theories of extension organization-social process theory
3.2 Theories of extension organization-fusion theory
3.3 Theories of extension organization- theory X and Y
3.4 Theories of extension organization- theory Z
4.0Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
In the last unit, we started examining some theories, which administrators of agricultural
extension organisations use in the conduct of their functions. This we have seen to be of great
importance and help in helping them make decisions. In this unit, we shall conclude discussions
on the theories.
2.0 Objective
At the end of this unit you should be able discuss some more theories used by
administrators of agricultural extension organization.
3.1 Theories of extension organization II - Social Process Theory
This theory pioneered by Hawthrone is based on the philosophy that accepts organizational
behaviours as a system of mutually interdependent variables. This theory sees an organization as a
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complex of mutually dependent variables functioning and related to a social field. These variables
include persons and their motives, attitudes, beliefs sentiments, jobs and activities, the physical
work setting and the formal or informal organization itself. These factors and more others are
related in complex whole. This theory makes organizations loose their distinctiveness and find
meanings in terms of human behaviour and the operation of the total system. This theory thus
emphasizes the interaction among the parts rather than the component parts in isolation of each
other.
3.2 Fusion Theory
This theory postulated by Max Weber is based on the concepts of socialization and
personalization. It believes there is a simultaneous operation of the two concepts, where the
organization attempts to restructure the individual as an agent for the accomplishment of its goals
(socialization). On the other hands, the individual also tries to use the organization as a medium
through which to achieve his personal objective that is, personalization. The administrator should
therefore understand this and balance these two forces.
3.3 Theory X and Y
This theory believes that scientific management and administration can predict and control
human behaviour. The theories assert that the behaviour of the individual in any work
environment depends on the type of administration style employed on the individual.
Theory X believer an average person hates work and should be coerced or threatened to
perform at desired level. He avoids responsibility and prefers to be controlled, can only work if he
is going to be punished or rewarded for doing so and in an industrial setting, less than his full
potential is utilized.
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Theory Y is the opposite of theory X and believes an average person has positive attitude
towards work, achieves the highest level of performance though self initiative, has a sense of
responsibility, has basic needs and works through motivation, commitment, satisfaction and self
direction. He actualized his dreams through self-initiative and personal development. Theory X is
based on the principle of control and direction through the exercise of power and authority while
theory Y is based on the creation of a situation in which the individual can achieve its goals
through self-ambition and desire while also meeting organizational objectives.
3.4 Theory Z
This believes there is no ideal situation where we have either situation of theory X and Y
in operation. This theory reconciles the two theories. It believes the individual and organization
are always in conflict because of the dual role of consumer and producer. The role of the
administrator is thus to collate the aggregate demand of individual consumers and producers to
meet that demand necessary for the attainment of organization goals. This theory assumes that by
discipline of the organization and confidence of the individual in the organization, through a
precise system of communication and the assurance that the organization is out to secure the
workers welfare, the lapses of theory X and Y can be overcome.
4.0Conclusion
The theories we have discussed in this unit has revealed that administrators of extension
organisations needs to understand the different variables that influence and motivate staff under
their control. Thus the theories will help to properly manipulate these variables which exists
within the organization and the individual to the accomplishment of organizational goals
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5.0 Summary
In this section, we concluded on the various theories of agricultural extension organization
management. You should now be able to discuss what we mean by the theories of fusion, social
process, X, Y and Z.
1. Discuss the theory of social process
2. What do you understand by theories X, Y and Z?
3. Discuss the fusion theory.
2. Newman, W.H.: Administrative Action -The Techniques of Organization and Management
Module 2: Unit 3 Roles, Responsibilities & Attributes of Agricutural Extension Personnel
Table of Content
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1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.1 Concept of roles and responsibilities of extension personnel
3.2 Roles and responsibilities of the village extension agent.
3.3 Roles and responsibilities of the subject matter specialist
3.4 Roles and responsibilities of the supervisory staff or extension officers
3.5 Critical attributes of extension personnel
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Human resources form the bedrock of the agricultural extension system. This is because
they are the ones that actually do the job of information and technology dissemination. It is thus
necessary to clarify what each person does to enhance effectiveness and reduce clash of roles and
responsibilities. This we shall look into in this unit.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to understand
i. What a job description is
ii. The roles of various personnel in the extension organization and
iii the critical attributes of extension personnel.
3.1 Concept of Roles and Responsibilities of Various Levels of Extension personnele
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A job description gives the details of what is expected from the current jobholder. On the
other hand, key performance areas are specific and show the critical functions relevant at present
and for the future to achieve the objectives. The identification of key performance areas helps in
role clarity as well as in delegation of functions. This in turn aids in performance appraisal and
training. Generally, four or five key areas for a job are identified. The core extension personnel of
developing countries consist of village extension workers, subject-matter specialists and
supervisory staff or extension officers. Examples of key performance areas of core extension
personnel are given below.
3.2 Roles and responsibilities of the Village Extension Workers.
The following constitute the roles and responsibilities of the people in this category
(1) make regular and systematic visits to villages and farms to develop rapport with the
clientele and to understand their problems;
(2) undertake educational activities in the form of meetings, campaigns, demonstrations,
field days, training sessions and exhibitions; and
(3) provide advisory services to the farmers and solve their production problems.
3.3 Roles and responsibilities of the Subject-Matter Specialists.
The following constitute the roles and responsibilities of people in this category
(1) Keep abreast of current recommendations and findings related to farm production by
maintaining continuous contact with agricultural research stations;
(2) Provide feedback to the research system about farmers' problems which need solutions; and
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(3) Train and backstop village extension workers on the latest farm technology and help them in
solving field problems.
3.4 Roles and responsibilities of Supervisory Staff or Extension Officers.
The following constitute the roles and responsibilities of people holding these positions
(1) Plan, organize, coordinate and implement extension programmes and activities;
(2) Supervise and monitor the work of field staff, providing guidance, motivation, and evaluation
of performance; and
(3) Coordinate the programme with inter-and intradepartmental agencies.
3.5 Critical Attributes for Extension Personnel
The key performance areas indicate the important roles and contributions of different
categories of extension personnel. Once the roles are delineated, they can be analysed to indicate
the attributes, which can discriminate an effective from an ineffective role occupant. These critical
attributes consist of qualities such as educational qualifications, skills, experience, physical
characteristics, mental abilities, values, and attitudes needed for extension. The critical attributes
needed for field-level and supervisory extension staffs are necessary formal training in agriculture,
practical skills and experience in farming, and knowledge of modern farm practices. Abilities in
group dynamics, human relations and communication are also important. Basic skills related to
management and leadership are needed by extension supervisors. Values and attitudes such as
faith in rural people, commitment to agricultural development, and concern for the whole
community are important for all extension personnel
4.0 Conclusions
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In every organisation, people have different roles geared towards the fulfillment of
organizational goals. It is thus essential to help every individual to know and understand the part
he/she is to play in the whole arrangement. Such individuals must also possess skills and attributes
that will enable them carry out such roles effectively and efficiently.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have learnt about what a job description entails the roles and
responsibilities of extension personnel within the organization and the critical attributes needed in
extension personnel. A job description gives details of what is expected from a current jobholder.
We also examined various critical attributes needed by extension personnel such as educational
qualifications, skills, experience, physical characteristics, mental abilities, values, and attitudes
needed for extension.
6.0 Tutor marked assignment
1. What do you understand by a job description?
2. List the roles of the following
a. village extension agent
b. subject matter specialist and
c. extension officer
3. Identify five necessary attributes of extension personnel
7.0 References and further reading
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Module 2: Unit 4: Staff Recruitment, Selection, Placement and Supervision in Extension
Organisation
Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.1 Staff recruitment in Extension Organisation
3.2 Principles of staff recruitment in Extension Organisation
3.3 Steps in Staff recruitment in Extension Organisation-Job design
3.4 Steps in Staff recruitment in Extension Organisation –Managerial appraisal
3.5 Steps in Staff recruitment in Extension Organisation - Advertisement
4.0Conclusion
5.0Summary
6.0Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0References and Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
People make up organizations. They are the ones who use the available resources to accomplish
organization objectives. To this end managers recruit, select, place and promote people. This will
have to be done within organizational policies as well as the external environment such as laws,
regulations etc
2.0 Objectives
This unit will make you have knowledge of the following
1. how staff is recruited for extension activities
2. how staff are selected for extension activities
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3. how staff are placed for extension activities
4. how to motivate staff in extension organisation
3.1 Staff Recruitment in Extension Organisation
Recruitment is important in selecting the right kind of extension personnel. Since the job of
extension personnel calls for technical skills as well as commitment and willingness to educate
rural people, an appropriate selection system is essential to ensure the right selection. The success
of extension depends heavily upon selection of qualified and motivated personnel. Extension
organizations in developing countries use two major sources of recruitment: from outside and
from within. Entry-level positions such as village extension workers and agricultural extension
officers are filled by outside recruitment, using the services of government placement agencies.
Other channels of recruitment are advertisements, private placement agencies, professional search
firms, and educational institutions. In some countries, farmers are recruited to help extension
agents
Most of the extension departments in developing countries have the policy of promoting or
recruiting within for middle-level and top-level positions. The advantages of this policy are that it
promotes loyalty and provides opportunities for existing extension staff to get high-level positions.
However, its greatest disadvantage is that it prevents the lateral entry of talented extension
personnel and promotes complacency because seniority ensures promotion.
3.2 Principles of staff recruitment in extension organizations
The purpose of staffing is based on two principles. The first principle is the principle of
staffing objectives. This is to ensure that those qualified fill the positions and those who are able
and willing occupy such positions. The second principle is that of staffing. This means the clearer
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the definition of organizations roles, their human requirements, techniques of appraisal and
training, the more assurance of managerial quality. The first principle stresses the importance of
desire and ability to undertake the responsibilities of management and the second principle rests
upon the important body of knowledge concerning management principles. This means that any
organization that does not have established job definition, staff appraisal and system of training
and development will have to rely on coincidence or outside sources to fill positions with people.
3.3 Steps in staff recruitment-Job description
Selection is the process of choosing from among candidates from within the organization
or from outside the most suitable person for the current position or for future positions. The
selection of extension staff starts with a description of the job for which candidates are sought.
The kind of technical or academic qualification, pay and other remuneration must also be set forth
from the beginning.
3.4 Steps in staff recruitment- Managerial appraisal
This step involves the setting of criteria or qualification required for persons who will fill
the position. Educational, technical and other personal attributes of the would be staff are set forth
at this stage. The type and period of experience required of such persons are also decided upon.
3.5 Steps in staff recruitment -Advertisement
After criteria for each position has been set forth, the job opportunities are then made
known to all potential applicants through advertisement. This could be an internal advertisement
i.e. within the organization or an external one i.e. open to those outside the organization or both.
34
The wider the publicity the more assurance that well qualified candidates will be attracted for the
positions. This could be through newspapers, bulletins, magazines of related agricultural
institutions etc. The help of extension workers' training centres, agricultural colleges, rural
institutions and local government agencies may be sought to give wide publicity, as well as to
inform candidates living in rural areas.
4.0Conclusion
For achievement of organizational goals in the most effective and efficient manner, it is
important that personnel involved in such activities be of the right kind and quality. This is the
import of recruitment. Thus, necessary principles need to be followed such that sentiments and
biases are not introduced into the process.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have learnt what recruitment is vis a vis the necessary steps in the recruitment
exercise. Furthermore, principles that guide recruitment exercises have been elucidated and have
also been explained
1. What do you understand by recruitment of staff?
2. What principles should guide the recruitment of personnel for agricultural extension
organisations?
3. Identify the steps in recruitment of staff that you have learnt in this unit.
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Module 2 Unit 5 Steps in Staff recruitment in Extension Organisation II
Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.1 Steps in Staff recruitment in Extension Organisation II -Short listing
3.2 Steps in Staff recruitment in Extension Organisation- Interview
3.3 Steps in Staff recruitment in Extension Organisation- Placement
3.4 Steps in Staff recruitment in Extension Organisation – Induction and orientation
3.5 Steps in Staff recruitment in Extension Organisation – Advantages of induction
4.0Conclusion
5.0Summary
6.0Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0References and Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
We started examining the steps in staff recruitment in extension organizations in the last
unit. In this unit, we shall conclude on the remaining steps for staff recruitment. We shall also
look into staff placement and their supervision.
2.0 Objectives
i. State the remaining steps in the recruitment of staff for extension organizations.
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ii. You should also be able to understand what we mean by supervision.
3.1 Short listing
Short listing is the process of sorting out the applications received to identify those who
met the set requirements. The educational qualifications, type and years of experience etc are
scored and a cut off mark is set. The scores of the candidates may also be arranged in descending
order and the number that fall within that required for the interview are selected.
3.2 Interview
The interview is the most frequently used by management in evaluating potential candidates.
However because selection of extension personnel demands cognitive and non-cognitive abilities,
various tests are also employed to test this areas of the potential candidates.
Testing cognitive ability includes a knowledge test, a skill or ability test, and an aptitude
test. A non-cognitive test is a measure of behavioural dimensions which are important for field-
level extension personnel, including concern for and commitment to rural people, empathy,
problem-solving orientation, high motivation to influence and educate farmers, ability to work
under unsupervised and difficult village conditions, patience and persistence, and team spirit.
The assessment centre approach, originally used during World War II, can also be used to
select extension staff. In this approach, an organization develops its internal resources for
assessing new staff. The candidates to be recruited go through a number of simulation exercises,
and an expert assesses their behaviour. The techniques used are a psychological test, role-play, in-
basket exercise, group discussion, projective test, knowledge test and interviews.
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3.3 Placement of Extension Staff
Best of the candidates who meet the requirements of the organization from the interview
stage are given employment. They are then placed within the organization. Placement of staff is a
decisive step by management, which involves matching what the supervisor reasons the new staff
can do with what the job demands (requirement), the strain and working conditions etc. A
placement approach, where there is no specific requirements for staff to be recruited can also be
used in selection of staff. The staff after being found employable is placed on a job position or
another designed for him based on his strength and weakness as revealed during the selection
process.
3.4 Induction or orientation
After employing people, they should be welcomed by the organization. Induction or
orientation is a formal welcoming wherein new staffs are made to meet the organization i.e.
briefed on what the organization is about, their vision, goals, processes etc. Induction has to do
with indoctrinating the new staff giving in the manner of operations of the organization. It is like a
socialization of the new staff. They are made to understand what is required of them in their new
jobs. It gives a brief over view of what the organization stands for, the facilities and opportunities
available for them etc. the staff are also taken round the establishment to meet people in the
different departments they will be working with.
3.5 Advantages of induction or orientation
Many things could go wrong within an organization even after employing qualified staff.
This could be because of many reasons. Among them is the fact that they are new within the
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organization and despite their prior knowledge of their professional activity, they may not know
the workings of their new environment. This is why induction or orientation is deemed necessary.
Induction and orientation for newly employed staff also have the following advantages
1. It provides the new employee with general information about the organizations policies,
procedures, practices or rules that will affect them.
2. It helps them to rapidly learn to measure up with the standard for performance, thus
increasing the value of the organization in satisfying their human needs for personal growth on the
job.
3. It helps to keep accidents, damage to machineries and equipment vis a vis clash of roles
to the barest minimum
4. Dissatisfactions, complains and absenteeism can be greatly reduced to the barest
minimum as they will know how to go about informing the organization on such issues
5. It helps new staff to quickly adapt itself to the new working environment and also will
be ready to learn new task or skills necessary to meet necessary obligations.
4.0 Conclusion
Every staff after being employed needs to be made to understand the philosophies and
principles guiding the operation of such organisations. This will help them to work in tandem to
the organizational principles and philosophies and not against it. The orientation process will also
assist them to know what benefits they have to gain as they work in such organisations. The
39
activities discussed in this study will help agricultural extension staff to quickly integrate into the
system and achieve organisational goals.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have learnt the remaining steps in the recruitment process, which includes
short listing, interview, placement, induction or orientation as well as the advantages of induction.
1. Identify methods used during the interview stage for agricultural extension organisations.
2. What do you understand by induction and orientation?
3. What are the advantages of induction or orientation?
40
Module 3 Unit 1 Supervision within the Agricultural Extension Organisation.
Table of content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Supervision – concept and principles
3.2 Roles of supervisor
3.3 Functions of supervisor- Direction and organization
3.4 Functions of supervisor-motivating the extension personnel
3.5 Functions of supervisor- work group management
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
When a group of people interacts together within an organisation to achieve a purpose,
there is need for coordination of activities to ensure that activities go on as planned and that
interpersonal interactions are mediated for smooth running of the organisations. Persons
responsible for such functions will also need to understand the principles guiding their interaction
with their subordinates.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you must be knowledgeable about
1. The concept of supervision
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2. The principles guiding supervisory roles
3. The different functions of a supervisor
3.1 Supervision –Concept and principles
Supervision is defined as the art of working with a group of people over whom authority is
exercised in such a way as to achieve their greatest combined effectiveness in getting work done.
It involves the provision of administrative leadership, guidance and delegation of authority
necessary for the satisfactory attainment of both organizational objectives and employee goals.
Traditionally the supervisor defines standard and regulates reward and punishment. He interprets
government policies, coordinates budget and gives enough room for the individual worker to
perform the task of his job. Supervision entails helping workers to greater competency and growth
as individuals. The two major functions of supervision are therefore task orientation (direction and
organization of activities,) and concern for employees (motivation of employees and management
of work groups). Supervision is a purposeful activity. This purpose makes it imperative that
principles necessary to guide their attainment be developed. Principles upon which effective
supervision is based includes
1. A clear understanding of the objectives and roles of supervision in the whole
organization by all extension staff
2. Supervisor must have authority to carry out his responsibilities
3. Supervisory role must be democratic and exercise authority only when situation
demands
4. Supervisor must be confident, shows enthusiasm and takes initiative in directing
the efforts of others in striving towards organizational objectives
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5. Delegation of appropriate authority to individuals who are in the best position
to make decisions appropriate at that level.
6. All supervisors within the organization must share common insight and
willingly accept the team work pattern in supervision
7. Vertical and horizontal communication must be maintained between
supervisors and those with whom they work.
3.2 Roles of the supervisor
The following are some of the roles of the supervisor
1. The coordination of staff and work in different locations and at different levels of the
organization.
2. providing information and communication link between supervisee and management
3. providing administrative and logistic support to staff
4. Interpreting programs and project policies at intermediate level and providing information
for policy formulation at management level.
5. monitoring and appraising production, performance of staff and project
6. planning staff development and training programs
7. providing conducive environment for work
8. Applying sanctions, rewards and punishment where necessary to ensure compliance and
performance in accordance with agreed standards.
3.3 Functions of supervisors-Direction and organization
Two major functions of supervision are task orientation and concern for employees. Therefore,
direction and organization of activities, motivation of employees, and management of work
groups are the important functions of extension supervisors. We shall discuss the first function
43
here. Extension supervisors have to plan the work and maintain a high standard of performance.
The whole process of job analysis, identification of key performance areas, and performance
appraisal will help in planning and organizing extension work. The training and visit system of
extension has introduced mechanisms for defining goals, planning, and scheduling work at the
field level with provisions for monitoring and evaluation. Some of the management techniques
used by extension organizations in overall planning and management of programmes are the
programme evaluation and review technique (PERT/critical path method (CPM), management by
objectives (MBO), programme and performance budgeting system (PPBS), and time management
techniques. These techniques have been practised by extension organizations in Asian and African
countries with varying success. Personal computers offer good scope for extension managers to
increase certain managerial skills.
3.4 Functions of supervisors- Motivating the extension personnel
The work motivation and morale of extension staff, as reported earlier, are very poor in many
countries. The reasons are many. The bureaucratic structure of extension administration, lack of
rewards and incentives, poor facilities, poor promotional avenues, and the low esteem given to
extension are the major causes of poor motivation and morale. Extension supervisors should have
the ability to motivate and lead the field extension workers so that the field agents perform more
than routine jobs, and supervisors should be involved in attaining excellence in extension work.
This calls for extension managers having an understanding of various theories of motivation as
applicable to frontline extension agents. Therefore, knowledge of major theories of motivation
such as Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory, Herzberg's two-factor theory, McClelland's need
theory, theory X and theory Y, and expectancy theory of motivation is essential. Special training
for developing motivation among field-workers has to be undertaken by supervisors.
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3.5 Functions of supervisors- Work group management
Every organization has formal and informal groups. Formal groups are established by the
management, while informal groups are spontaneous and developed to satisfy mutual interest of
the members. Because work groups have a considerable influence on the work situation,
supervisors should be sensitive to the needs of the group and develop skills to guide and achieve
the group's goal, which will benefit the organization and the members. Effective extension
supervision can use work groups in problem solving because they can provide many creative
solutions. One way to improve supervisory effectiveness in extension work is to develop a
leadership style, which represents the extension workers' group interest at the higher level of
organization. This will increase the confidence and morale of the work group. An understanding
of group dynamics and their implications for increasing work-group performance is essential for
extension supervisors. For example, in the "Hawthorne Effect‖, increased performance due to
special treatment of the group can be effectively used in extension organizations Studies have also
pointed out that well-developed group dynamics result in increased extension performance.
4.0 Conclusion
Supervision provides the administrative leadership, guidance and delegation of authority
necessary for the satisfactory attainment of both organizational objectives and employee goals. It
is thus important that such functions are done in line with the appropriate principles .
5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have learnt the meaning of supervision, the principles guiding supervisory
activities and the functions of supervisors of agricultural extension organisations.
1. What is supervision?
45
2. What are the principles guiding supervisory activities in an agricultural extension organisation?
3. Discuss the functions of a supervisor.
46
Module 3 Unit 2 Staff training and development within the Extension Organization
Table of content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Staff training and development within the Extension Organization
3.2 Learning theories and training
3.3 Approaches to training- traditional approach
3.4 Approaches to training-experiential
3.5 Approaches to training- performance based approach
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Deficiencies in knowledge, skills and ability among extension personnel, particularly those
of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, are remarkable. Statistics revealed that about 39 per cent of
the extension personnel worldwide have a secondary-level and 33 per cent had intermediate-level
education. Moreover, within each region, there is a lot of variation in basic academic
qualifications of the frontline extension workers, SMS, and administrators. Differences in training
received are also wide. In Africa, most frontline extension workers still have only a secondary
47
school diploma. The poor educational background of extension personnel necessitates regular
training.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should have knowledge of
1. Staff training and development within an agricultural extension organisation
2. Learning theories and principles and
3. Approaches to training in an agricultural extension organisation
3.1 Staff training and development within the Extension Organization
Training is the process of acquiring specific skills to perform a job better. It helps people
to become qualified and proficient in doing some jobs. Usually an organization facilitates the
employees' learning through training so that their modified behaviour contributes to the attainment
of the organization's goals and objectives. Training is also defined as the process of teaching,
informing or educating people so that (1) they may become as well qualified as possible to do
their job, and (2) they become qualified to perform in positions of greater difficulty and
responsibility
The training of extension personnel contributes directly to the development of human
resources within extension organizations. "Training programmes are directed towards maintaining
and improving current job performance, while development programmes seek to develop skills for
future jobs". Training has to start with the identification of training needs through job analysis,
performance appraisal, and organisational analysis. Once the training needs of extension personnel
48
have been identified, the next step is to organize training programmes. Methods such as games,
role-playing, simulation exercises and case study can be used in extension organizations to create
learning situations based on experience. Training based on actual field experience should be
emphasized. Emerging new farm technologies such as integrated pest management and improved
practices in horticulture call for actual field experience. Extension agents need training not only in
the technological aspects but also in human relations, problem solving, sensitivity towards
disadvantaged groups and the basic concepts of management.
3.2 Learning theories and training
Learning theories are the basic materials, which are usually applied in all educational and
training activities. The more one understands learning theories, the better he or she will be able to
make decisions and apply them to achieving the objectives. The behaviorists, the cognitivists and
the humanists emphasize different aspects of the teaching-learning process in their approaches.
While the behaviourists stress external conditions (environment) resulting in observations and
measurable changes in behaviour, the cognitivists are more concerned with how the mind works
(mental processes such as coding, categorizing, and representing information in memory). The
humanists, on the other hand, emphasize the affective aspects (e.g., emotions, attitudes) of human
behaviour that influence learning (IRRI, 1990). In extension systems, effective training must be
able to take care of all the theories of learning in order to change the action, belief and knowledge
components of a trainee simultaneously. Andragogy (a theory of adult learning) is usually used
rather than pedagogy (a theory of child learning) in extension training.
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3.3 Approaches to training- traditional approach
There are three approaches to training: (1) the traditional approach, (2) the experiential
approach, and (3) the performance-based approach. We shall be discussing the first approach in
this section. In the traditional approach, the training staff designs the objectives, contents, teaching
techniques, assignments, lesson plans, motivation, tests and evaluation. The focus in this model is
intervention by the training staff.
3.4 Approaches to training-experiential
In the experiential approach, the trainer incorporates experiences where in the learner
becomes active and influences the training process. Unlike the academic approach inherent in the
traditional model, experiential training emphasizes real or simulated situations in which the
trainees will eventually operate. In this model, the trainers and trainees jointly determine the
objectives and other elements of training. Trainers primarily serve as facilitators, catalysts or
resource persons.
3.5 Approaches to training- performance based approach
In the performance-based approach to training, goals are measured through attainment of
a given level of proficiency instead of passing grades of the trainees. Emphasis is given to
acquiring specific observable skills for a task. This performance-based teacher education (PBTE)
model is mostly task or skill centered and is also applicable to non-formal educational
organizations such as extension.
4.0 Conclusion
Training is important in agricultural extension organisations to help improve and refresh
the capabilities of personnel to accomplish targeted goals. More so as new trends emerges even in
50
the field of agriculture due to technological development, agricultural extension personnel
knowledge and skill should be kept updated.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have learnt about staff training and development within an agricultural
extension organization, theories of learning and the approaches to training and staff development
within the organisation.
1. What do you understand about staff development within an agricultural extension organisation?
2. Discus the theories of learning as related to agricultural extension discussed in this unit
3. What are the approaches to training used in an agricultural extension organisation?
51
Module 3 Unit 3 Types of training in Agricultural Extension Organisations
Table of content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Types of training –pre service
3.2 Types of training - in-service
3.3 Types of in-service training- induction or orientation
3.4 Types of in-service training-foundation training
3.5 Types of in-service training-on the job
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Having discussed the approaches to training in the former unit, it is necessary to also know
about the types of training opportunities that are open for use by agricultural extension
organisations. More so, as the organization need to continually, pass current and relevant
messages to their clientele.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to identify as well as discuss the various types
of training programmes
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3.1 Types of training –pre service
Training may broadly be categorized into two types: pre-service training and in-service
training. Pre-service training is more academic in nature and is offered by formal institutions
following definite curricula and syllabuses for a certain duration to offer a formal degree or
diploma. Pre-service training is a process through which individuals are made ready to enter a
certain kind of professional job such as agriculture, medicine or engineering. They have to attend
regular classes in a formal institution and need to complete a definite curriculum and courses
successfully to receive a formal degree or diploma. They are not entitled to get a professional job
unless they earn a certificate, diploma or degree from the appropriate institution. Preservice
training contents emphasize mostly technical subject matter such as crops, animal husbandry, and
fisheries as well as pedagogical skills to prepare the students to work in agriculture.
In general two types of pre-service training are available for agricultural staff. These are (1)
degree level (at least a bachelor's degree in agriculture or related field), which is usually offered
for four years by a university or agricultural college; and (2) diploma level, which is mostly
offered by the schools of agriculture for a period of two to three years. The entry point for the
former is normally twelve years of schooling and for the latter ten years of schooling.
3.2 Types of training - in-service
In-service training, on the other hand, is offered by the organization from time to time for
the development of skills and knowledge of the incumbents. In-service training is a process of
staff development for improving the performance of an incumbent holding a position with
assigned job responsibilities. It promotes the professional growth of individuals. It is a program
designed to strengthen the competencies of extension workers while they are on the job. In-service
53
training is a problem-centered, learner-oriented, and time-bound series of activities, which provide
the opportunity to develop a sense of purpose, broaden perception of the clientele, and increase
capacity to gain knowledge and mastery of techniques.
In-service training may broadly be categorized into five different types: (1) induction or
orientation training, (2) foundation training, (3) on-the-job training, (4) refresher or maintenance
training, and (5) career development training. All of these types of training are needed for the
proper development of extension staff throughout their service life.
3.3 Types of in-service training- induction or orientation
Induction training is given immediately after employment to introduce the new extension staff
members to their positions. It begins on the first day the new employee is on the job. This type of
training is aimed at acquainting the new employee with the organization and its personnel.
Induction training for all new personnel should develop an attitude of personal dedication to the
service of people and the organization. This kind of training supplements whatever pre-service
training the new personnel might have had. When people start to work in an organization for the
first time, they are eager to know what sort of outfit they are getting into, what they are supposed
to do and whom they will work with. They are likely to be more attentive and open-minded than
experienced employees. In fact, the most favourable time for gaining employees' attention and for
moulding good habits among them is when they are new to the job.
3.4 Types of in-service training-foundation training
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Foundation training is in-service training, which is also appropriate for newly recruited
personnel. Besides technical competence and routine instruction about the organization, every
staff member needs some professional knowledge about various rules and regulations of the
government, financial transactions, administrative capability, communication skills, leadership
ability, coordination and cooperation among institutions and their linkage mechanism, report
writing, and so on. Foundation training is made available to employees to strengthen the
foundation of their service career. This training is usually provided at an early stage of service life.
3.5 Types of in-service training-on the job
This is ad hoc or regularly scheduled training, such as fortnightly training under the training
and visit (T&V) system of extension, and is provided by the superior officer or the subject-matter
specialists to the subordinate field staff. This training is generally problem or technology oriented
and may include formal presentations, informal discussion and opportunities to try out new skills
and knowledge in the field. The superior officer, administrator or subject-matter specialist of each
extension department must play a role in providing on-the-job training to the staff while
conducting day-to-day normal activities.
4.0 Conclusion
Training and staff development is one aspect of agricultural extension that must be regular
and continuous as there is a high rate of development in research and technological breakthroughs.
To this end agricultural extension personnel must be kept abreast of such developments which is
accomplished through training.
5.0 Summary
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In this unit you have learnt about training activities in an agricultural extension
organisation which includes pre service training and its various forms as well as In-service
training in its various forms like orientation, foundational training and on the job training.
1. List the two major categories of training
2. Discuss the importance of preservice training
3. What do you understand by induction training?
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Module 3 Unit 4 Training in Agricultural Extension Ogranisation II
Table of content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Types of in-service training –Maintenance or Refresher Training
3.2 Types of in-service training- Career or Development Training
3.3 Phases of training – Planning
3.4 Phases of training -Implementation phase
3.5 Phases of training- Evaluation phase
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
As discussed in the last unit, there are different types of in service training. We shall
continue in this unit to discuss two more types of in-service training and begin outlining the
process that is to be followed in preparing for training activities
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2.0 Objectives
1 Discuss about the remaining two types of in service training
2. Identify the stages in planning training programmes for agricultural extension personnel.
3.1 Maintenance or Refresher Training
This training is offered to update and maintain the specialized subject-matter knowledge of
the incumbents. Refresher training keeps the specialists, administrators, subject-matter officers,
extension supervisors and frontline workers updated and enables them to add to the knowledge
and skills they have already. Maintenance or refresher training usually deals with new information
and new methods, as well as review of older materials. This type of training is needed both to
keep employees at the peak of their possible production and to prevent them from getting into a
rut.
Career or Development Training
This type of in-service training is designed to upgrade the knowledge, skills and ability of
employees to help them assume greater responsibility in higher positions. The training is arranged
departmentally for successful extension workers, at all levels, for their own continuing education
and professional development. Extension services organisations that provide the opportunity for
all staff to prepare a plan for career training will receive the benefits of having longer tenured and
more satisfied employees, which increases both the effectiveness and efficiency of an extension
service. Although extension workers are responsible for designing their own career development
58
education, the extension organization sometimes sets some criteria and provides opportunities for
the staff by offering options.
Phases of training –planning stage
Training is a circular process that begins with needs identification and after a number of steps
ends with evaluation of the training activity. A change or deficiency in any step of the training
process affects the whole system, and therefore it is important for a trainer to have a clear
understanding about all phases and steps of the training process. In the broadest view, there are
three phases of a training process: planning, implementation and evaluation.
The planning phase encompasses several activities, two of which - training needs identification
and curriculum development - are very important.
3.3.1 Training Needs Identification. Training need is a condition where there is a gap between
"what is" and "what should be" in terms of incumbents' knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviour
for a particular situation at one point in time. This gap is called "a problem," which usually occurs
when a difference exists between "desired performance" and "actual performance." The needs
identification process assists trainers in making sure that they have matched a training programme
to a training problem. Training needs identification is possible through different analytical
procedures.
3.3.2 Curriculum Development. This is the most important part in a training programme after a
need for training has been identified. The curriculum specifies what will be taught and how it will
be taught. It provides the framework and foundation of training. The first phase of curriculum
development determines what will be taught, that is, the training content.
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3.4 Phases of training -Implementation phase
Once the planning phase of a training programme is complete, then it is time to implement
the course. Implementation is the point where a trainer activates the training plan, or it is the
process of putting a training programme into operation.
The first step towards implementing a training programme is publicity. Most of the well-
established training centres develop training brochures, which contain course descriptions, prepare
an annual calendar of training opportunities and inform concerned organizations, agencies or
departments well ahead of time about their training plans. Once the training centre and concerned
organizations agree to implement training, the next step is to arrange available resources such as
sufficient funds for the course and facilities for food, lodging, transportation and recreation. All
these resources need to be well managed and coordinated to run the programme smoothly.
3.5 Phases of training- evaluation phase
Evaluation is a process to determine the relevance, effectiveness and impact of activities in
light of their objectives. In evaluating an extension training programme, one needs to consider that
most training activities exist in a larger context of projects, programmes and plans.
Training evaluation is a systematic process of collecting information for and about a training
activity which can then be used for guiding decision making and for assessing the relevance and
effectiveness of various training components."
The following are four criteria to evaluate training programmes: (1) reaction, (2) learning, (3)
behaviour, and (4) results. Each criterion is used to measure the different aspects of a training
programme. Reaction measures how the trainees liked the programme in terms of content,
methods, duration, trainers, facilities and management. Learning measures the trainees' skills and
knowledge, which they were able to absorb at the time of training. Behaviour is concerned with
60
the extent to which the trainees were able to apply their knowledge to real field situations. Results
are concerned with the tangible impact of the training programme on individuals, their job
environment or the organization as a whole.
4.0 Conclusion
Training and staff development in an agricultural extension organisation is a sine qua non.
This is because of the high turnover of new agricultural technology churned out by research. This
will help update the knowledge and skill of their staff to be able to cope effectively with the
reality of the times. It is thus necessary to properly identify what needs to be passed across to the
staff vis a vis how it should be done.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have learnt about refresher training and career development for
agricultural extension staff. You have also learnt how to plan for training programmes.
1. What do you understand by refresher training programmes?
2. Discuss career development programmes for agricultural extension staff
3. Itemize the stages in planning training programmes.
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Module 3 unit 5 Training in Agricultural Extension Ogranisation III
Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.1 Major procedures used in determining training needs-organizational analysis
3.2 Major procedures used in determining training needs- Individual analysis
3.3 Major procedures used in determining training needs-group analysis
3.4 Types of Evaluation
3.5 Selecting a Training Method
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Having discussed the types of training programmes conducted for personnel in agricultural
extension organisation, we also need to critically examine the various ways of determining such
needs. These needs could be on the organisational level, group or individual level. Determination
of needs to be met by training is essential if the training programme will be of benefit both to the
staff as well as to the organisation. After such training, there is also need to evaluate what has
been done to ensure that the goal of such programme has been achieved.
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2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to identify the various ways of identifying the
training needs within an agricultural extension organisation or within a group or that of an
individual. You should also be knowledgeable about how to evaluate training programmes.
3.1 Major procedures used in determining training needs-Organizational analysis
Organizational analysis determines where training emphasis should be placed within the
organization and is based on the objectives of an organization. Concerning what one should do in
analysing an organization. It consists of four steps:
1. Stating the goals and objectives of an organization
2. Analysing the human resources
3. Analysing efficiency indices
4. Analysing the organizational climate
The results of these analyses are then compared with the objectives of the organization. These
comparisons point to specific areas in which training is needed.
3.2 Major procedures used in determining training needs- Individual analysis
Individual analysis aims at identifying specific training needs for an individual or group of
employees so that training can be tailored to their needs. This analysis centres on individuals and
their specific needs concerning the skills, knowledge or attitudes they must develop to perform
their assigned tasks. The possible methods or techniques for individual analysis include
performance appraisal, interviews, questionnaires, tests, analysis of behaviour, informal talks,
checklist, counseling, critical incidents, recording, surveys, and observations.
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3.3 Major procedures used in determining training needs- Group analysis
Group analysis includes a number of techniques in which a group of well-informed
employees discuss different aspects of the organization, the employees, and the tasks to identify
the major discrepancies in achieving predetermined targets for each of them with a view to
assessing training needs as distinguished from other necessary changes for removing these
discrepancies. The major techniques which are used in this approach are brainstorming, buzzing,
cardsorts, advisory committee, conferences, problem clinic, role playing, simulation, task forces,
workshops, and so forth.
Many problems exist in an organization, but some problems cannot be solved by training.
After a preliminary needs analysis, which gives probable causes and solutions, the results should
be verified with the concerned personnel of the organization to determine whether training is an
appropriate action to solve that problem.
3.4 Types of Evaluation
On the basis of the time dimension, evaluation may be classified as (1) formative
evaluation and (2) summative evaluation. Formative evaluation involves the collection of relevant
and useful data while the training programme is being conducted. This information can identify
the drawbacks and unintended outcomes and is helpful in revising the plan and structure of
training programmes to suit the needs of the situation. Summative evaluation is done at the end of
the programme and makes an overall assessment of its effectiveness in relation to achieving the
objectives and goals.
Evaluation could however be also classified into four major types: (1) evaluation for
planning, (2) process evaluation, (3) terminal evaluation, and (4) impact evaluation.
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3.4.1 Evaluation for planning provides information with which planning decisions are made.
Training contents and procedures (methods and materials) are usually planned at this stage in
order to choose or guide the development of instructional aids and strategies.
3.4.2 Process evaluation is conducted to detect or predict defects in the procedural design of a
training activity during the implementation phase. Through this process the key elements of the
training activities are systematically monitored, problems are identified, and attempts are made to
rectify the mistakes before they become serious. Process evaluation is periodically conducted
throughout the entire period of the programme.
3.4.3 Terminal evaluation is conducted to find out the effectiveness of a training programme
after it is completed. The objectives of terminal evaluation are to determine the degree to which
desired benefits and goals have been achieved, along with the causes of failure, if any.
3.4.4 Impact evaluation assesses changes in on-the-job behaviour as a result of training efforts.
It provides feedback from the trainees and supervisors about the outcomes of training. It measures
how appropriate the training was in changing the behaviour of participants in real-life situations.
3.5 Selecting a Training Method
A training programme has a better chance of success when its training methods are
carefully selected. A training method is a strategy or tactic that a trainer uses to deliver the content
so that the trainees achieve the objective. Selecting an appropriate training method is perhaps the
most important step in training activity once the training contents are identified. There are many
training methods, but not all of these are equally suitable for all topics and in all situations. To
achieve the training objective, a trainer should select the most appropriate training method for the
content to involve the trainees in the learning process. Four major factors are considered when
selecting a training method: the learning objective, the content, the trainees and the practical
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requirement. Training methods should be selected because of the degree to which they do the
following:
1. Allow active participation of the learners.
2. Help the learners transfer learning experiences from training to the job situation.
3. Provide the learners with knowledge of results about their attempts to improve.
4. Provide some means for the learners to be reinforced for the appropriate behaviour.
5. Provide the learners with an opportunity to practise and to repeat when needed.
6. Motivate the learners to improve their own performance.
7. Help learners increase their willingness to change.
These criteria indicate that a single training method will not satisfy the objectives of a training
programme.
Varieties of training methods are available to a trainer. The most commonly used methods
include:
1. Instructor presentation. The trainer orally presents new information to the trainees, usually
through lecture. Instructor presentation may include classroom lecture, seminar, workshop, and
the like.
2. Group discussion. The trainer leads the group of trainees in discussing a topic.
3. Demonstration. The trainer shows the correct steps for completing a task, or shows an example
of a correctly completed task.
4. Assigned reading. The trainer gives the trainees reading assignments that provide new
information.
5. Exercise. The trainer assigns problems to be solved either on paper or in real situations related
to the topic of the training activity.
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6. Case study. The trainer gives the trainees information about a situation and directs them to
come to a decision or solve a problem concerning the situation.
7. Role play. Trainees act out a real-life situation in an instructional setting.
8. Field visit and study tour. Trainees are given the opportunity to observe and interact with the
problem being solved or skill being learned.
4.0 Conclusion
Training and appropriate methods of training are prerequisite elements for every
agricultural extension organisation, if they must remain relevant to the needs of its clientele. This
is because the effectiveness of the organisation rests on the knowledge of personnel as well as the
necessary skills needed to make such knowledge bear upon their clientele.
5.0 Summary
In this unit you have learnt about the various way of determining training needs, methods
of executing training programmes as well the different methods of evaluating the training
activities to ascertain whether it fulfilled its objectives
1. Identify three procedures for determining training needs in an agricultural extension
organisation
2. Describe three ways you will use to evaluate training programmes
3. List four factors to be considered in selecting a training method.
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Module 4 Unit 1 Motivation in Agricultural Extension Ogranisation
Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.1 Motivation
3.2 Motivators
3.3 Differentiating between motivation and satisfaction
3.4 Theories of motivation – hierarchy of needs theory
3.5 Theories of motivation- two-factor theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
Introduction
The work motivation and morale of extension staff are very poor in many countries. The
reasons are many. The bureaucratic structure of extension administration, lack of rewards and
incentives, poor facilities, poor promotional avenues, and the low esteem given to extension are the
major causes of poor motivation and morale.Extension supervisors should have the ability to
motivate and lead the field extension workers so that the field agents perform more than routine
jobs, and supervisors should be involved in attaining excellence in extension work. This calls for
extension managers having an understanding of various theories of motivation as applicable to
frontline extension agents.
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Objectives
In this unit, you will learn about motivation and what can be used to motivate staff. The
differences between motivation and satisfaction will also be made clear. You will also be
introduced to the theories of motivation.
3.1 Motivation
Motivation is a general term applying to the entire class of desire, drives, needs, wishes
and similar forces. It is the drive and effort to satisfy a want or goal. When someone is
motivated, it means something was done to satisfy the inert drives and desires in the person,
which now made the person to act in a desired manner. It is the act of creating a situation in
which actions that provide net satisfaction to individual members of the enterprise and which
at the same time make appropriate contribution towards the objectives of the enterprise. It is
trying to increase individual satisfaction or to reduce individual dissatisfaction. It is a form of
inducement to do something, a drive towards an outcome and includes the entire class of
drives, desires, needs, wishes and similar forces. Human motives are based on needs, whether
consciously or subconsciously felt. Some are primary needs, such as the physiological
requirements for water, air, food etc. other needs may be regarded as secondary such as self
esteem, status, affiliation with other, self actualization etc. The causes of motivation may be
unknown or known. A motivator is something that influences an individual‘s behaviour. Staff
can be motivated through higher income, change in social status, promotion etc.
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3.2 Motivators
Motivators are things that induce an individual to perform. While motivators reflects
wants, motivators are the identified rewards or incentives that sharpen the drive to satisfy these
wants. An administrators can do much to sharpened motives by establishing an environment
favourable to certain drives. For examples, people in an organization that has developed a
reputation for excellence and high quality, tend to be motivated to contributed to this reputation.
A motivator is thus something that influence an individual behaviour. It makes a difference
in what a person will do. It must be noted that people can often satisfy their wants in a variety of
ways and also they can be motivated in a variety of ways. Administrators should therefore identify
the best mix of alternatives that will provide the necessary inducement for staff. Rewards in the
form of money i.e salary package, bonuses, increase in salary is the most used motivator,
promotions based on performance is also another. Penalties for performance below expectations
like fear of loss of jobs, loss of income, loss of bonuses, demotion etc are also important
motivators. Another motivator is welfare packages for staff like free lunch, free medical care for
the family, opportunities for loans and advances, career development programmes etc.
3.3 Difference between Motivation and Satisfaction
Motivation is the drive and effort to satisfy a want (achieve an outcome) while satisfaction
refers to the contentment experienced when a want is satisfied. Satisfied staff are those who have
been well motivated and were able to achieve their goals.
3.4 Theories of Motivation – Hierarchy of Needs Theory
This theory was put forth by a psychologist Abraham Maslow. He saw needs in the form
of hierarchy ascending from the lowest to the highest and he conclude that when one set of needs
is satisfied, this kind of need ceases to be a motivator.
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The basic human needs placed by Maslow in an ascending order of importance are
discussed below and shown in figure 1.
1. Physiological needs
These are the basic needs for sustaining human life itself, such as food, water, warmth,
shelter and sleep. The assumption is that until these needs are satisfied, to the degree necessary to
maintain life, other needs will not motivate people.
2. Security or safety needs
These are the needs to be free of physical danger, and of the fear of losing a job, food, or
shelter, until a person has food and shelter, he will not think of securing it.
3. Affiliation and Acceptance Needs
When people have the basic needs of life and feel secured, then thy will seek to affiliate
/interact with others in their environment. Since people are social beings, they need to belong to
and be accepted by others.
4. Esteem needs
When people have been able to get themselves accepted, hey tend to have another need, to
be held in esteem by others as well as themselves. This produces the desired for power, prestige,
status and self confidence. They won‘t want to stay away among the crowds.
5. Need for Self Actualization
This is regarded as the highest need and it is the desire to become what is capable of
becoming. It is the need to maximize one‘s potential and to accomplish something. Though this
theory is being refuted in recent times, current research findings nevertheless have established two
levels of needs that is, biological needs and other need. They also confirm that those other needs
only emerge when the biological needs have been met.
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Need for
Self-
actualization
Esteem
needs or
Affiliation
Acceptance Needs
Security or safety needs
Physiological needs
Figure 1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
3.5 Two Factor Theory
The two-factor motivations is a modification of Maslow‘s need approach. It was put forth
by Fredirick Iterzberg and his associates. The two factors they recognized were grouped as
dissatisfiers and satisfiers/ motivators. Dissatisfiers also known as maintenance, hygiene or job
context factors which include company policy and administration, supervision, working
conditions, interpersonal relations, salary status, job security and personal life. When they exist in
a work environment in high quantity, they yield no dissatisfaction. There presence does not
motivate in the sense of yielding satisfaction. However, their lack or absence would result in
dissatisfaction. These factors just keep the work going that is, maintenance.
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The second group identified as satisfiers are related to the job content. They include
achievement, recognition, challenging work, advancement and growth on the jobs. Their existence
will yield feelings of satisfaction or no satisfaction (not dissatisfaction).
4.0 Conclusion
Until certain basic needs of personnel are met, whether personal or that which has to do
with their jobs, nothing else will be able to draw out the best from such workers. The
understanding of what motivates a person is a knowledge, which has helped agricultural extension
organizations to be able to get the best from their staff.
5.0 Summary
In this unit you have learnt
1. What motivation and motivators are?
2. Maslows‘ theory of motivation and
3. The two factor theory of motivation theories
1. What is motivation?
2. Identify five motivators you have learnt in this unit]
3. Discuss the Maslows theory of hierarchy of needs
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Module 4: Unit 2 Motivation in Agricultural Extension Ogranisation II
Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.1 Theory of motivation- expectancy theory
3.2 Theory of motivation- equity theory
3.3 Theory of motivation- reinforcement theory
3.4 Theory of motivation- McClelland‘s needs theory
3.5 Motivational techniques
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Individuals are motivated by various factors at particular times, which may be different
from what motivates another individual giving the same circumstances. This is why we need to
understand the various theories of motivation, so as to have a broad overview of the issue. In this
unit, we shall be concluding our discussions on the theories of motivation.
2.0 Objectives
In this unit, you will learn four more theories relating to motivation. At the end of the unit,
you should be able to explain the following:
1. Expectancy theory
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2. Equity theory
3. Reinforcement theory
4. McClelland‘s needs theory
3.1 Expectancy Theory
This theory was propounded by a psychologist Victor Vroom. He holds that, people will
be motivated to do things to reach a goal if they belief in the worth of that goal and if they can see
that what they do will help them in achieving. In essence, peoples motivation toward doing
anything will be determined by the value they place on the outcome of their effort (whether
positive or negative), multiplied by the confidence they have that their efforts will materially aid
in achieving a goal. Motivation is thus the product of anticipated worth that an individual places
on a goal and the chances he or she sees of achieving that goal. Mathematically, Vrooms theory
can be stated as force = valence x expectancy
Where force is the strength of a person‘s motivation, valence, is the strength of an
individual preference for an action outcome and expectancy as the probability that a particular
action will lead to a deserved outcome. However, a motive to accomplish something might be
determined by a desire to accomplish something else. For example working harder to reach more
farmers for a promotion or rise in pay and not necessary for the value of the outcome of the effort.
3.2 Equity Theory
This theory is based on an individuals subjective judgments about fairness of the reward
she or he got, relative to the inputs (which include many factors such as effort, experience and
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education), in comparison with the rewards of others. Adam J. S has received a great deal of credit
for the formulation of the equity theory. Mathematically put,
Outcomes by a person = Outcomes by another person
Inputs by a person inputs by another person
If individuals feel that they are unequally rewarded, they may be dissatisfied, reduce the
quantity or quality of output or leave the organization. On the other hand, if they perceive the
rewards as equitable, they probably will continue at the same level of output. If they think the
rewards are greater than what is considered equitable, they may work harder. It is however to be
noted that people may overestimate their own contributions and the rewards other receives. Also
certain inequalities may be tolerated for some time by staff, but prolonged feelings of inequality
may result in strong reactions to an apparently minor occurrence. For example, an employee
queried for being a few minutes late may get angry and decide to quite the job. This is not because
of the query, but because of long-standing feelings that the rewards for his or her contributions are
inequitable in comparison with other‘s equals. Likewise, a person may be very satisfied with a
weekly salary of N500 until he or she finds out that another person doing similar work get
N200more.
3.3. Reinforcement theory
The reinforcement theory was developed by another psychologist, B. F. Skinner. His
approach to motivation is also called positive enrichment or behaviour modification. He holds that
individuals can be motivated by proper design of their work environment and praise for their
performance. He also argued that punishment for poor performance produces negative results.
Those who follow this theory, not only praise good performance, they analyse the work situation
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to determine what causes workers to act the way they do and then they initiate changes to
eliminated troublesome areas and obstructions to performance. Specific goals are set with workers
participation and assistance, while prompt, regular feed back of results is made available, and
performance improvements are rewarded with recognition and praise.
In this approach, even when performance does not equal goals, ways are found to help
people and praise them for the good things they do. Giving people full information on
organization problems, especially those in which they are involved, has been also found highly
useful and motivating. This approach strongly lies in its emphasis on the removal of obstructions
to performance careful planning and organizing, control though feedback and the expression of
communication.
3.4 McClelland’s Needs Theory
This theory put forward by David McClelland identified three types of basic motivating
needs. This was classified as (a) the need for power, (b) the need for affiliation and (c) the need
for achievement.
People with high need for power have a great concern for exercising influence and control.
They seek positions of leaderships and are frequently good conversationalist. Though often
argumentative, forceful, outspoken, heard headed and demanding. They enjoy teaching and public
speaking,
People with high need for affiliation usually derive pleasure from being loved and tend to
avoid pain of being rejected by a social group. As individuals, they are likely to be concerned
with maintaining pleasant social relationship. To enjoy a sense of intimacy and understanding.
They are ready to console and help other in trouble and to enjoy friendly interactions with others.
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Individuals with a high need for achievement have an intense desire for success and an
equally intense fear of failure. They want to be challenged and they set moderately difficult (but
not impossible) goals for themselves. They take a realistic approach to risk, they are not likely to
be gamblers but rather prefer to analyse and assess problems, assume personal responsibility for
getting a job done. They also like specific and prompt feedback on how they are doing. They tend
to be restless, like to work long hours and do not worry unduly about failure.
In extension organizations, the need for affiliation is important as it deals primarily with
people and such that coordination of the efforts of individuals working in groups can be effective.
4.0 Conclusion
Having considered the various theories of motivation, it is explicit that various
contributing factors are involved. These stem from both internal and external forces working on
the individual. Managers of agricultural extension organization will thus make a success of their
work if they put these factors into consideration in their administration. Though only one theory
will not be able to fully explain what could motivate an individual, using a mix of these theories
will help accomplish much more.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have learnt about four more theories of motivation. These include
1. Expectancy theory
2. Equity theory
3. Reinforcement theory
4. McClelland‘s needs theory
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1. Explain the expectancy theory of motivation
2. What are the three basic motivating needs put forward by McClelland?
3. Discuss the main ingredients in the reinforcement theory
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Module 4: Unit 3: The Extension Organisation Working Environment
Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.1 Reward system
3.2 Improving working conditions at the field level
3.3 Career planning and development
3.4 Job enrichment and design
3.5 Role intervention
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
An important aspect of human resource management, which needs special attention in
extension organizations, is the creation of a conducive working environment. Extension staff
works within an environment, which consists of different forces that enhance or could hinder the
smooth flow of activities. For management to effectively maximize the abilities of its staff, these
factors need to be considered and moderated within organisation‘s policies and resources to bring
out the best in its employees. Issues like promotion within the organization and development of
staff needs to be taken seriously.
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2.0 Objectives
This unit will help give you knowledge of how to create a conducive working environment for
extension staff.
3.1 Reward system
The reward system has to do in particular with the monetary package of extension
personnel, which should attract, retain and motivate extension personnel. Reward should however
not be limited to monetary terms, it could also include provisions of opportunities for training and
promotion. A reward system which encourages superior performance so that pay and wage
administration will be an effective tool to promote performance, motivation, and satisfaction
should be adopted. A clear job description, performance standards and performance appraisal will
help in evaluating extension work and rewarding people for meritorious service. Non-monetary
rewards such as recognizing the good ideas of field workers or awarding honourable titles will
also help in improving performance. Extension personnel may also be encouraged to form
professional societies to develop and communicate high standards, as well as to recognize superior
performance. A professional monthly journal or newsletter can help extension agents to
communicate innovative ideas and reinforce superior performance.
Promotion may be a reward for out standing performance, past performance or because of the
firm‘s desire to better utilize an individuals skills and abilities. Promotion is a change within the
organization to a higher position that has greater responsibilities and requires skills that are more
advanced. It usually involves higher status and an increase in pay. Care should however be taken
not to promote people into positions where they do not have the required competency. Most of the
extension departments in developing countries have the policy of promoting within for middle-
level and top-level positions. The advantages of this policy are that it promotes good morale,
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loyalty and provides opportunities for existing extension staff to get high-level positions.
However, its greatest disadvantage is that it prevents the lateral entry of talented extension
personnel and promotes complacency because seniority ensures promotion.
3.2 Improved Working Conditions at the Field Level.
Lower level extension workers often have to work under unpleasant and isolated
conditions. A carefully planned system of field allowance should be put in place. The living
conditions of field extension workers must be improved by providing adequate facilities for
housing, transport, medical and educational allowances for children. If personnel will be
motivated to live and work among the rural people, better living conditions should be ensured for
them and their families
3.3. Career Planning and Development for Extension Personnel.
A career refers to all of the jobs that people hold during their working lives. Career
planning is the process by which employees plan their career goals and paths. Career development
refers to all of the technical and managerial skills employees acquire to achieve their career plans.
Career advancement, which gives a picture of future opportunities in terms of promotion, is a
motivating factor for performance and development of skills. As part of career development,
extension personnel should be provided with opportunities to develop their technical and
managerial skills to enable them to occupy higher positions.
3.4. Job Enrichment and Job Design
Job enrichment refers to detailed analysis of the work to know the factors which make it a
satisfying experience. Job enrichment uses the job as the medium of developing employees and
changing organizational practices. Some of the factors which increase job satisfaction are a sense
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of achievement in the job, recognition for the job, the nature of the work itself, and opportunities
to learn new things and grow. The principles of job enrichment, according to Herzberg (1966), are
removing controls while retaining accountability, introducing new tasks, giving a complete unit of
work, granting job freedom, and helping employees to become expert in their tasks. Extension
managers that want to increase the quality of work and job satisfaction among extension personnel
can practise these principles.
Job design lays greater emphasis on human values and refers to structuring a job to satisfy
the technical, organizational, social and human requirements of the person performing the work.
Based on the humanization of work, job design aims at increasing the quality of work life through
treating the employees as human beings and emphasizing their development and involvement in
work decisions. It emphasizes the use of extrinsic and intrinsic job factors, employee participation
in management, autonomy, adaptability and variety.
3.5. Role Interventions
The study of roles, which are the positions employees hold in an organization, as defined
by the expectations of significant persons and the individuals occupying the positions, is a
comparatively neglected aspect of organizations. Roles are an important dimension in increasing
organizational effectiveness. Through their roles, people are linked with the organization. This
linkage increases organizational effectiveness by integrating the individuals with the organization.
Such integration increases mental well-being and personal effectiveness. The purpose of role-
based intervention is to increase the mutuality of roles in organizations. Role-based interventions
are done through learning situations such as process laboratory, group discussion and use of
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questionnaires and schedules. Role-based interventions in extension organizations will result in
increased work commitment, motivation, creativity and team spirit.
4.0 Conclusion
In this section, you have seen that for management to effectively maximize the abilities of
its staff, various organizational and environmental factors need to be considered and moderated
within organization‘s policies and resources to bring out the best in its employees. Therefore, a
conducive working environment is essential for good performance.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have learnt a conducive working environment can be created by
 Having a good reward system
 Improving field level working conditions
 Career planning and development
 Job enrichment and design
 Role intervention
1. Mention ways of creating a conducive working environment in an extension
organization
2. Discuss the reward system in creating a conducive working environment
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Module 4: Unit 4: Appraisal in Agricultural Extension Organisations
Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.1 Concept of appraisal in Extension Organisation
3.2 Purposes and process of appraisal
3.3 Methods of appraisal in Extension Organisation- potential appraisal
3.4 Methods of appraisal in Extension Organisation- performance review and counseling
3.5 Discipline in Extension Organisation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
In the previous sections, we discussed how extension personnel are recruited, trained and
become part of a work group. These are all vital activities. However, the ultimate measure of
effective human resources within an extension organization is the performance of extension
personnel. In this unit, you will learn how to assess staff of extension organizations as well as
disciplinary measures that are used to ensure compliance to organizational goals.
2.0 Objectives
After completing this unit, it is expected that you will
1. Understand the concept of assessment in extension organization
2. Know the reasons behind assessment of staff
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3. Understand discipline in extension organization
3.1 Concept of appraisal in Extension Organisation
Performance appraisal is important for effective human resource management.
Performance appraisal is a process of assessing employee performance in order to guide and
develop the employee's potential. In many extension organizations which are government
departments, the performance appraisal is nothing more than a confidential judgment of work
done and a character report used to facilitate disciplinary action or promotion. The employees do
not get feedback about their performance. Extension organizations need to have an open appraisal
system to provide feedback and opportunities for open discussion with employees on their
performance, because they have immense potential to grow and develop. This system can create a
healthy working climate and employee motivation.
3.2 Purposes and process of appraisal
The performance appraisal, which aims at facilitating employee development, has the following
major purposes: (1) to provide feedback and guidance, (2) to set performance goals, (3) to identify
training needs, and (4) to provide inputs for management in the administration of rewards, and
promotion. The steps involved in effective performance appraisal are (1) identification of key
performance areas and setting yearly objectives under each KPA, (2) identification of critical
attributes for effective performance, (3) periodic review of performance, (4) discussion of
performance with employees and (5) identification of training and developmental needs.
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3.3 Methods of appraisal-Potential Appraisal
The potential appraisal is a future-oriented appraisal by which the potential of an employee
to occupy higher positions and to assume higher responsibilities is evaluated. The potential
appraisal can help the extension staff to know their strengths and weaknesses and can motivate
them to further develop their skills. Thus the potential appraisal helps in planning overall career
development of employees. Some of the techniques used for the appraisal are self-appraisals, peer
rating, the management by objectives (MBO) approach, psychological test and simulated work
exercises, case analyses, and leadership exercises.
3.4 Methods of appraisal -Performance Review and Counseling
An important purpose of the performance appraisal is to counsel and guide employees
towards greater job effectiveness. Thus, a system of performance counseling is needed in
extension organizations. The manager provides performance counseling to the subordinates to
help them in the analysis of job performance, identification of training needs, and finding
solutions to the problems, which hinder job effectiveness. Counseling is an art of communication
involving two people - manager and employee. Counseling differs from training in that the former
involves a dynamic relationship and establishes more mutuality and confidentiality. The success
of performance counseling depends upon the employee's interest, a climate of openness and
mutuality and the counseling process. Extension managers can use directive, nondirective, and
cooperative counseling.
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3.5 Discipline in Extension Organisation
Discipline is the act of ensuring, correcting and restoring deviations of personnel from the
accepted norm. It is needed in every organization because due to factors, which may not be within
the control of management, certain staff could deviate from complying to rules and regulations as
well as in fulfilling their roles and responsibilities. Discipline could be in the form of queries,
which are served deviants and later kept in their files. This could later be a set back for them
during promotions or when staff needed to be recommended for higher position or training
opportunities. Staff could also be demoted in rank or retained at the same level at the next
promotion exercise. The ultimate form of discipline is a sack of the staff, which will serve as a
deterrent to other staff.
4.0 Conclusion
Appraisal of extension personnel is crucial to the continued relevance of the agricultural
extension organization. It is essential that staff is evaluated to check how they are fulfilling their
roles and responsibilities as well as their level of effectiveness and efficiency. It is also to ensure
that they are doing so in line with the principles and philosophies of the organisation. This calls
for discipline as a form of correction and restoration of order into the system.
5.0 Summary
In this unit you have learnt,
1. The meaning of appraisal
2. The purpose of appraisal and
3. The methods of appraisal.
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1. Discuss the concept of appraisal in an agricultural extension organisation
2. Itemize reasons for appraisal of staff
3. Discuss the methods of appraisal you have learnt
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Module 4: Unit 5 Improving the Nigerian Extension System
Table of Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.1 Establishing the policy framework for the provision of agricultural extension services.
3.2 Choosing the right approaches to extension
3.3 Proper planning, monitoring and evaluation
3.4 Choosing effective and affordable methods
3.5 Correct staff selection, training, support and conditions of service
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The Nigerian extension system like any other in developing countries is faced with many
challenges. These varies from policy formulation, linkages between research and extension,
selection of system of extension to be used to problems of targeting the clientele and gender
mainstreaming amongst many others. This unit focuses on steps that are necessary to bring about
improvement in the Nigerian extension system.
2.0 Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to present ways that can be used to improve
the Nigerian extension system.
90
3.1. Establishing the policy framework and legal basis for the provision of agricultural
extension services.
Failure of governments to provide unambiguous policy directives and legislative authority
for extension systems makes the job of the extension administrator extremely difficult and leads to
disappointing extension results. Poor extension advice may flow to farmers from a variety of
sources in an uncoordinated, sporadic, and costly manner. Lack of consistent policy direction and
funding may force the provision of extension on an ad hoc basis, rather than the institutionalised
basis needed to ensure the uninterrupted flow of extension guidance to farmers. The lack of
specific guidance for the extension administrator is particularly serious because there may be no
basis for accountability or for knowing and fulfilling the expectations of agriculture, planning, and
finance policy.
3.2. Choosing the approach (es) and organizational structure for establishing or improving
the extension system.
Government officials contemplating establishment of an extension system, as well as
newly appointed administrators considering comprehensive change in an existing system, need
help in improving the understanding of extension and in exploring alternative approaches to its
provision. The advantages and disadvantages of possible approaches need to be explored in the
settling of government policies, structure, resources and purposes to be achieved. In what
situations can specific approaches—such as training and visit, participatory, general agricultural
extension, and commodity specialized—be considered and recommended? An organizational
structure appropriate for the approaches selected needs to be developed.
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Major debate focuses on whether one extension organisation should cover agriculture as a
whole, including crops, livestock,and such forestry or fisheries as form part of a general farming
operation, or whether there should be separate organizations for each. There is the question of
whether extension and research should be placed together organizationally. To what extent should
the farmers‘ own organizations or commercial entities be involved in providing extension? Should
extension be a function placed within an organization unit—agriculture, forestry, or fisheries
department or commodity organization—and be but one of the duties assigned to a single officer
at the field level? Or should the agricultural extension function be assigned to projects such as
those for integrated agricultural or rural development? Should agricultural colleges and
universities manage extension programmes?
3.3. Planning and managing implementation of the programme, including monitoring and
evaluation.
Perhaps in no other aspect of extension is the need for improvement so widespread as in
management; and better programme planning, monitoring and evaluation are essential elements in
its achievement. Weakness to be addressed include inappropriate programme content because of
programming exclusively by passing down orders from the top rather than by planning that also
involves extension staff, farmers, and researchers at lower administrative and field levels; lack of
specific tasks and programme goals to permit measurement of performance; weak or nonexistent
technical backstopping and supervision of field staff; inappropriate allocation of resources; and
the almost complete absence of systematic monitoring and evaluation. This state of affairs has its
origin in the lack of training in management of those assigned managerial and supervisory
responsibilities and in the failure to provide for discharge of planning, monitoring, and evaluation
functions in the extension organizational structure and staffing pattern.
92
3.4. Choosing effective and affordable extension methods.
There is no shortage of proven methods to choose from for conveying any particular
message to any specified target audience. The problem is that extension workers have either not
been taught the methods or that they are not given the resources to use them. Too few extension
organisation have made provision for developing, testing, and producing extension and teaching
materials and for guidance in the use of modern educational, instructional, and communication
technology. In practical terms, what the individual fieldworker knows and has the resources to
apply are the determinants of the methods employed. There may be methods that are not effective
either in producing learning and motivating farmers or in terms of cost. Another unfavourable
result may be that too few of those who most need help are being reached.
3.5. Staff selection, training, support, and conditions of service
The numbers of extension workers in many countries are grossly inadequate in terms of
the norms. Worldwide, the range is between 1:325 in Europe to about 1:3,000 in Latin America.
Lack of transport, materials and facilities compounds the difficulties posed by insufficient
numbers. At least equally serious in limiting the performance of field staff is the inappropriateness
of their experience and training and the inadequacy of supervisory and subject-matter specialist
support. In this respect, the Global Consultation on Agricultural Extension (1989) reported that
39% of extension personnel worldwide have only secondary level with another 33% at the
intermediate level, leaving 23% and 5% to university degree and post-graduate degree
respectively.
Even extension staff members fortunate enough to have attended intermediate-level agricultural
schools and faculties are rarely well prepared for discharge of extension responsibilities. Some
curricula do not include training in extension methodology, organisation, and management or in
93
farm management, marketing, credit, rural sociology, and the like. Education in technical fields is
frequently lacking in the practical orientation and field experience so essential in preparing
effective extension staff. All of these deficiencies in pre-service education are compounded by the
lack of quality of in-service training, which should be provided on a systematic basis to keep staff
abreast of developments in technology and in training and educational methodology. Both pre-
service and in-service training are adversely affected by the shortage of locally relevant teaching
materials. Attracting and retaining quality staff in extension, particularly at the field level, is a
major problem. Salaries, opportunities for career advancement, and other conditions of service are
often not sufficient to support a family, let alone to compensate for the difficult living conditions
in rural areas. Even for capital or provincial city-based staff, conditions of service compare
unfavourably with those in alternative employment opportunities. Other challenges include
reaching the disadvantaged groups—women and youth, and, more generally, the rural population
living in poverty and establishing linkages with other services and facilities for agricultural and
rural development.
4.0 Conclusion
This section has helped you to understand some of the challenges that the extension system
in Nigeria battles with. It has however proffered solutions as to how to bring about improvement
on what presently exists.
94
5.0 Summary
In this section, you have learnt about
 The challenge of improving the Nigerian extension system
1. To what extent, has staffing affected the performance of the Nigerian agricultural extension
system.
2. Government role in improving the Nigerian agricultural extension system cannot be
overlooked, discuss.
7.0 References
95

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

COURSE CODE: AEM 502

1. CONCEPTS, THEORIES, GUIDELINES AND PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION

2. MANAGEMENT AND SUPERVISION, ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF

VARIOUS LEVELS OF EXTENSION AND OTHER RELATED STAFF

3. STAFF RECRUITMENT, SELECTION, PLACEMENT AND SUPERVISION

4. PRINCIPLES OF MORALE AND MOTIVATION

5. IMPLICATIONS OF EXTENSION STAFF DEVELOPMENT AND PROMOTION

6. CREATING CONDUSIVE WORKING ENVIRONMENT, DISCIPLINE

7. ASSESSMENT OF EXTENSION WORK ENVIRONMENT

8. IMPROVING NIGERIAN EXTENSION SERVICE

3.1 Concept of an Extension Organization

3.2 Concept of management.

3.3 Managerial skills-technical

3.4 Managerial skills – human

3.5 Managerial skills – conceptual and design

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

7.0 References and Further Reading

Agricultural extension activities are carried out by persons within an organization

manager of an agricultural extension organisation.

At the end of this unit, you will be able to

1. Define an agricultural extension organization

2. Discuss the concept of management as related to extension organization

3. Understand the necessary managerial skills needed by extension administrators

Agricultural extension means different things to different people. To the farmers, it is a

policy makers, it is a policy instrument to increase agricultural production, to achieve national

An agricultural extension organization is therefore a formalized intentional structure of

roles or position targeted at achieving extension activities.

3.2 Concept of management.

Management is the process of designing and maintaining an environment in which

3.3 Managerial skills- Technical skills

extension organizations should thus be competent in interpersonal relationships. They must be

of view into motivated teams of workers.

3.5 Conceptual and Design Skills

It is necessary that formalized structures be set up to accomplish agricultural extension

for managers of agricultural extension organizations.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

1. Define an agricultural extension organization

2. Discuss the concept of management

3. Identify the managerial skills you have learnt in this unit

7.0 References and Further Reading

1. Weihrich, H. and Koontz, H.: Management -A global perspective

2. Newman,W.H.: Administrative Action -The Techniques of Organization and Management

3. FAO: Improving Agricultural Extension -A Reference Manual

3.1 Principles of management- introduction

3.2 Principles of management – division of work

3.3 Principles of management – authority and responsibility

3.4 Principles of management –discipline

3.5 Principles of management – unity of command

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

7.0 References and Further Reading

In this unit, we shall begin to consider some of these principles.

At the end of this unit, you will be able to

1. Define what principles are and

2. Discuss some principles of management

3.2 Division of work

more skill in doing such activities.

3.3 Authority and Responsibility

Authority is the power inherent in a position. It is a combination of official factors,