ST.

CECILIA’S COLLEGE-CEBU INC

College of Criminology
De La Salle Supervised School
Ward 2, Poblacion Minglanilla, Cebu

SUBJECT:
Lie Detection Techniques

COURSE CODE:
FOR 5

PREPARED BY:
JHON APRIL F. DE PAZ, RCrim

 MODULE 1 – Introduction to Forensic Polygraphy, The Concept of Lying and the

Methods Detecting Deception

OBJECTIVES:
 Discuss the nature and concept of Forensic Polygraphy and identify its role and importance in a
criminal investigation as well as in private enterprise
 Define the different terms in Polygraphy
 Discuss the Theories of Lying, Psychology of Lying, Physiological responses of Lying, Practical
ways to detect a lie, and why People lie.
 Identify and discuss the Early and Contemporary Methods of Detecting Deception
CONCEPT OF POLYGRAPHY
Polygraph is derived from two Greek words Poly means many more and Graphos means
writing

Polygraphy is the scientific method of detecting deception with the use of a Polygraph
instrument. Polygraphy is the new term for Lie Detection.

A polygraph instrument is a scientific diagnostic instrument used to record physiological

changes in the blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration, and skin resistance of an examinee
(subject) under controlled conditions. Lie detector on the other hand is the popular term used
but a misleading name of Polygraph.

CONCEPTS OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

It Is used to test an individual for the purpose of deterring deception or verify the truth of
the statement.

Polygraph records, and identify physiological reactions of the subject such as blood
pressure, pulse rate, respiration, and skin resistance.

The effectiveness of the polygraph in recording symptoms of deception is based on the

theory that conscious mental effort on the part of a normal person to deceive causes involuntary
physiological changes that are in effect a body’s reaction to an imminent danger to its well-
being.

THEORY OF LIE DETECTION

It must be recognized that there is no such thing as an instrument that will detect lies.
The popular name, lie detector, given to a collection of certain medical instruments, is somewhat
misleading. No collection of inanimate objects including the very finest and most complicated
modern computer can detect lies on the part of any human being.

What is a polygraph examination?

A polygraph examination is a series of tests conducted on the person involved in the

commission of a crime and referred to the polygraph branch and the formulation of questions
which is answerable by yes or no.

As a general rule, the results of the polygraph test are inadmissible as evidence.

The purpose and importance of Polygraph Examination

To get all the facts of the case regarding the offense under investigation and the purpose
of the polygraph test is to determine whether the subject is telling the truth or not based on the
presence of emotional disturbance of the subject as appearing on the recorded physiological
responses to question relative to the case under investigation.
Polygraph Test Inadmissible as Evidence

Is polygraph examination conclusive? The answer is no, it is only opinionated. The

following are the reasons why the results of the polygraph examination are not admissible as
evidence in court.

 Because it has not been standardized as to instrumentation

 It has not been standardized as to the test or method of questioning procedure and
 As to the qualification of the polygraph examiner

Principal Uses of Polygraph

 It is an aid to the investigator

 It speeds up the process of investigation
 It eliminates innocent suspects and
 The investigator could focus or concentrate on the subject to determine the truth or
deception

Other Uses of Polygraph

1. Criminal investigation – it is a valuable tool of a criminal investigation. It provides fast

means of eliminating innocent suspects, gives clues about the identity of the criminal
suspect, verifies statements of those who are involved, and saves a lot of time and effort
during the process of investigation.

2. Pre-employment screening – it is the fastest and most accurate means of verifying the
statement of a job applicant from derogatory remarks by a previous employer who bears
a personal grudge against him.

3. Periodic screening – it is the best way for the company to determine dishonest
employees who are responsible for company losses and

4. Promotion – there are instances wherein the company has difficulty in deciding between
two or more candidates to be promoted. Polygraph test helps to determine who is the
most qualified as well as employees’ future intents against the company.

The Common Terminologies Used in Polygraphy

 Polygraphy – a scientific method of detecting deception with aid or use of Polygraph.

 Polygraph – a scientific instrument that is specially designed to record the Psycho and
Physiological changes which occur with the body of the subject, especially when
accompanied by lying. Polygraph records the following changes; Blood Pressure, Pulse
Rate, Respiration, and Skin Resistance of the subject. The word Polygraph originated
from the Greek word “poly” which means many and “Grapho” which means writing chart.
 Fear – is an emotional response to a specific danger that appears to be beyond a
person’s defensive power.
 Stimulus – a force of emotion reaching the organism and exciting the deceptors. In
short, it is a force that arouses the organism of any part to activity.
 Reaction – it is an action in mental attitude evoked by external influence.
 Deception – is an act of deceiving or misleading usually accompanied by lying.
  Detection – an act of discovery existence pressure or fact of something hidden or
obscure.
 Lying – is uttering or conveying falsehood or creating a false statement.
 Response – any activity or in the division of previous activity of an organism or as
effector organ, or part of the organism resulting from stimulation.
 Specific Response – any deviation from the normal tracing of a subject.
 Normal Response – a tracing on the chart wherein the subject answers the irrelevant
question.
 Polygraph Examiner – refers to a person who conducts the test or administers the
examination
 Chart or Polygrams – refers to the composite records of Pneumograph, Galvanograph,
and Cardiosphymograph tracing recorded from a series of questions.

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LYING

Remember that a lying person fears detection and possible ostracism by the offended
community. He may feel that once detected, he could not but accept the bitter results of being
penalized, thus placing his whole life at stake.

A person’s fears, anxieties, and apprehensions are channeled toward the situation that
evokes his instinct of self-preservation to struggle out from the consequences of the wrong he
has already done. He may, once and for all, “grind-the-ax” of his self-defense mechanism come
what may through lies, alibis, and excuses. His conscience is bothered so much on how to hide
everything beyond his senses. And his willpower and emotions are perplexed and varied.

A. KINDS OF LIES

1. White lie or benign lie

This is the kind of lie, the most common of all, which is intended to protect or maintain
harmony or friendship, at home, in-office, or elsewhere.

2. Pathological lie

this is a lie made by persons who cannot distinguish right from wrong. It must be said
that those persons are mentally sick, or of a low mental caliber.

3. Red lie

This involves political interest and motives because this is part of Communist
propaganda strategy. This lie is prevalent in communist countries or communist-infested
nations. Lies of this sort purport to destroy other ideologies using propaganda-brain-washing
and black-mail via espionage and treason.

4. Black lie

A lie that accompanies pretensions and hypocrisies, intriguing can cause dishonor or
discredit one’s good image.
5. Malicious or Judicious lie

This is a very pure and unjustifiable kind of lie. This is intended purely to mislead justice.
The probable result would be “perjury” and pure dishonesty to obstruct justice.

B. TYPES OF LIES

1. Direct Denial – this is the direct denial of the act in question that creates an emotional
sense of disturbance. This disturbance refers to the conflict between what is true and the
attempted deception that creates an internal battle in the mind.

2. Lie of Omission – this is a type of lie that people usually used because it is simple to
tell. Individuals who will make use of this type of lie will tell the truth while omitting details
that could create possible troubles.

3. Lie of Fabrication – this is the most difficult type of lie that a subject could use in an
interview.

4. Lie of Minimization – in this type of lie individual will accept that something has
occurred but downplays the implication. The lie of minimization could be used if a
subject wanted to stay close to the truth; however, he covers the truth for his or her
benefit.

5. Lie of Exaggeration – this is a lie often used to exaggerate things for the hope of
obtaining some advantage. This is also often found on a resume, where the applicant
exaggerates his or her experiences, knowledge, skill, salary, and length of service. The
exaggerated claims can be verified by looking for inconsistencies in the subject’s story.

C. TYPES OF LIARS.

1. Panic Liar

 it is one who lies to avoid the consequences of a confession.

 He/she is afraid of embarrassment to love ones and it is a serious blow to his/her
ego.
 He/she believes that confession will just make the matter worst.

2. Occupational Liar

 Someone laid for spare years

 This person is a practical liar and lies when It has a higher “pay-off” than telling
the truth.

3. Tournament liar

 Loves to lie and is excited by the challenge of not being detected

 This person views an interview as another contest and wants to win
 This person realizes that he or she will probably be convicted but will not give
anyone the satisfaction of hearing him or her confesses
 He wants that people will believe that the law is punishing an innocent person
 4. Psychopathic liar

 the most difficult type

 this person has no conscience. He shows no regret for dishonestly and no
manifestation of guilt

5. Ethnological liar

 One who taught not to be a squealer

 Used by underworld gangs for their member not to reveal any secret of their
organization.

6. Pathological liar

 a person who cannot distinguish right from wrong (his mind is sick)
 is an insane person

7. black liar

 a person who always pretends

 (what he thinks of himself, what kind of person he is, and what he is.)

D. UNDERSTANDING SUBJECT’S AGE CHARACTERISTICS

To further enhance the study of the psychology of the lying person, it is also necessary to
understand the subject’s age characteristics, which are following:

 7 to 12 years – fantastic subject

 12 to 19 years – distinction of fantasy and reality. At this level, the subject is at the age
of limitation and idolatry. His/her ego may start to develop.
 20 to 25 years – his/her ego begins to lessen because he/she thinks he/she is not an
important person. Subjects like him are idealistic and be-principled. They become
responsible and sometimes conscious of their neighbors. The girls may begin to marry at
this age, and they become sociable. The degree of their exposure to society depends on
how they were brought up socially, morally, and spiritually, including family, friends, and
other individual influences.
 26 to 60 years – they serve as best witnesses. They often possess materialism,
maturity, and responsibility. Intellect is fully developed and intelligence is well
coordinated with memory
 61 to death – their memories are fading because some of their senses are defective.
They are no longer good witnesses. They need perspective because they may start to
act like children (senility). They are irritable and sensitive.

E. SOME SIGNS OF LIES AND DECEPTION

Generally, when a person becomes defensive due to fear of detection, one can point out
that any of the signs herein enumerated indicates lies, guilt, or deception, such as:

1. Stammering
 2. Swearing to or before God that he did not commit the crime
3. Pointing his guilt to somebody else
4. Subject refuses to answer questions through alibis and excuses
5. He is all the time absent-minded
6. He is always requesting for repetition of questions
7. He often asks counter-questions and counter-queries
8. He often asks permission to go to the comfort rooms, etc.

LYING AS A COMPLEX PSYCHOLOGICAL PHENOMENON

Lying is a complex psychological phenomenon. At some point in our lives, each of us

has lied to somebody about something. At times, we rationalize it and justify it to ourselves to
put our conscience at ease. Other times, we banish the uncomfortable feelings that persist in
the back of our minds.

SELF-ESTEEM AND LYING

Psychologist Robert Feldman cites self-esteem as one of the biggest culprits in our lying
ways. As soon as people feel that their self-esteem is threatened, they immediately begin to lie
with greater intensity.

HOW OFTEN DO PEOPLE LIE?

In a different study, Feldman and his colleagues found that about 60% of people had lied
at least once during a series of 10-minutes conversations between two strangers. On average, a
subject lied almost three times during the same time.

Furthermore, they also found that lies told by men and women differ in terms of content
but not in terms of quantity, that is, men do not tell more lies than women (or vice versa), but
that they do tell lies in different ways (women lie to feel good, while men lie to make themselves
looks better).

OTHER METHODS TO DETECT LYING

 Offering too many details – the truth is often simple and requires no elaborate
explanation. Anyone who suspiciously offers too many details may be lying.
 Body language – someone who is lying often unconsciously turns away or places an
object in front of him while speaking to another person to hide the lie.
 Forced smile – a fake smile is one way of showing apprehension or one’s
uncomfortable state while trying to hide a lie
 Evading eye contact – a person who fidgets and avoids eye contact while speaking to
another person is showing apprehension and anxiety, which are indicators that one may
be lying
 Excessive sweating – when one is lying, he or she may be nervous, which is physically
manifested through excessive sweating.

LYING AND EMOTIONS

Psychological literature suggests that there is no regular relationship between one’s

emotional state and propensity to lie. The act of lying may induce various types of responses. In
our daily lives, it is often impossible to navigate the day without lying in one way or another.

Indeed, lying can produce a whole gamut of emotions, such as guilt, anxiety, fear,
sadness, hatred, excitement, satisfaction, and so on.

EMOTIONS AND BODY REACTIONS

The body reacts involuntarily to emotions in many different ways. There are benign or
harmless reactions, such as changes in respiration, skin resistance (perspiration), heart rate,
blood pressure, skin temperature, blood flow, papillary diameter, muscle tension, blood oxygen
saturation, and gastric motility. In some cases, discussing upsetting things can also generate
painful and even dangerous somatic changes such as headache, backache, and production of
blood, bile, and excessive hydrochloride acid in the stomach.

THE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY OF LYING

Essentially, neuropsychologists acknowledge that there is a palpable difference in brain

activity when a subject tells the truth or when he tells a deception. Different parts of the brain
are used when someone is deliberately telling a lie or when someone is telling a lie. Thus, from
a neuropsychological perspective, there is a difference between the two, which makes it easier
to detect deception.

Specifically, when one tells a lie, this act stimulates three sections of the brain: the limbic
system, the frontal lobe, and the temporal lobe. The act of lying activates the limbic system
because of the anxiety produced by the deception, the frontal lobe because of its truth
suppressing process, and the temporal lobe because it is responsible for producing mental
images and retrieving memories.

History of early methods of detecting deception

In the earliest time, our forefathers or ancestor have a practice on how to detect a
person telling the truth or not and this is a barbaric and inhuman practice. The issue of lie
detection is an old man himself back in the ancient times, rulers and their justice courts used
various techniques to catch a liar and establish the truth.
Historical chronicles and ancient written records carry evidence about complex rituals
and sophisticated ordeals otherwise known as “divine justice”. One of the known practices is
trial by combat an accused may take this challenge for him to prove his innocence for instance
the accused may be sent o the jungle without any weapon to defend himself against the wild
animals, if he returns alive to the tribe, he is judged innocent based on the belief that person not
harmed by wild animals he or she is protected by his guardian angel.
The first collection of civil regulation in ancient Rus’ known as “Russkaya Pravda” or
Russian Truth, the law of Rus would be more accurate translation during the rule of Yaroslav
the Wise Grand Prince of Kiev, legalized the use of ordeals in disputes between the individuals,
saying that plaintiff can.. require that the defendant proved his innocence through iron test…
whereas if the claim is less than a half of grivna, then a water test could be used (Triville 2009).
Furthermore, he also said that such barbarian techniques for exposing the truth were used not
only in Russia but in other countries of medieval Europe as well Ordeals were also used in
cultures other than European and until now the ordeals are used. Aside from this early practice,
they have also a method of Trial by Ordeal and these are:
Red Hot Iron Ordeal – the accused was apt to be told to prove his innocence by applying his
tongue to red hot iron nine times if his tongue burns or his mouth becomes dried, he will be
judged guilty.
The ordeal of Balance – this type of practice of testing the veracity of the accused by placing
him on one scale of balance. On one scale the accused was on the other side a counterbalance
the accused then stepped out of the scale listen to a judge deliver an exhortation to the balance
and get back in if he were found to be lighter than before he will judge innocence.
Boiling Water Ordeal – this type of test, the person will be told to immerse his arm in a big pot
full of boiling water, if his arm will not burst, he is innocent.
The ordeal of Rice Chewing – the accused will be given concentrated rice grains and he will
be told to chew and shallow the said rice, if the accused is not able to swallow a single grain he
will be judged as guilty and this by their belief that no person able to swallow the gift of God.
The ordeal of the Red Water – the accused fast for twelve hours swallow the small number of
rice grains then imbibes the dark-colored water sometimes as a gallon as an emetic and if the
suspect ejects all the rice given to him, he is considered innocent.
The sacred ass or Donkey’s tail Ordeal – the donkey will be placed in one room alone and
observed, if the donkey will cry a judge of guilty will be given because of the guiding principle
that an innocent person is always protected by his guardian angel.
OTHER METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION
1. The Observation Methods;
2. Regular Police Methods;
3. Word- Association Test Method;
4. Hypnotism Method;
5. Voice Analysis
6. Electroencephalography (EEG)
7. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
8. Truth Serum

Person Behind the Development of Polygraph

1. Development of Pneumograph Component

a. Vittorio Benussi (1914) –detected deception with a Pneumograph, an instrument that

graphically measures the inhalation. He demonstrated the changes in breathing patterns
by noting the changes in respiration – expiration ratio during deception.
b. Harold Burtt (1918) –determined that respiratory changes were an indication of
deception. He found out that changes in systolic blood pressure were of greater value in
determining deception than in changes in respiration.
2. Development of Galvanograph

a. Luigi Galvani (1791) –is an Italian physiologist who was accorded the distinction for
developing the galvanic skin reflex (GSR) or the galvanometer, which records electrical
bodily resistance in terms of ohms (the lowest current ever recorded). The GSR
reflected emotional changes in a person’s skin resistance through electricity.
b. Sticker (1897) – made the first suggestion for using Galvanograph for detecting
deception based on the works of several predecessors. He theorized that galvanic skin
reflex is influenced by existing mental impressions and that will have no effect upon it.
c. Veraguth (1907) – he was the 1st one to use the term “psychogalvanic reflex”. He
believed that the electrical phenomenon is due to the activity of sweat glands.

3. Development of Cardio-Sphymograph

a. Angelo Mosso (1895) –studied fear and its influence on the heart. His observation
subsequently formed the basis for detecting lies. He also developed the
sphygmomanometer and “scientific cradle” which was designed to measure the flow of
blood while a person lay on his back in the prone position.
b. Cesare Lombroso (1836 – 1909) –employed the first scientific instrument to detect
deception, which is known as Hydrosphymograph, this instrument measures changes in
the pulse and blood pressure when suspects were asked about their involvement or
knowledge of a specific crime. He was accorded the distinction of being the 1 st person
to utilize an instrument to detect lies.
c. William Moulton Marston (1915) – the self-proclaim the father of polygraphy. He dealt
with the sphygmomanometer and made a research on the usefulness of the
sphygmomanometer in detecting lies, which was used to obtain periodic discontinuous
blood pressure readings during the test. He recorded the respiration and noted the time
of the subject’s verbal responses. He also experimented with a galvanometer to record
skin resistance changes and a gripping device to record tension.
d. John Larson (1921) – he developed an instrument that continually and simultaneously
measures blood pressure pulse and respiration. He designed the “first two recording
channel polygraphs” in history. The 1st mechanical form of detecting deception does not
only have a recording pen for Cardiosphymograph, Pneumography, and Galvanograph
but it also has the muscular movement pen for the arms and thighs.
e. Leonardo keeler – in 1949, he invented the “Keeler Polygraph” which is an
improvement of Larson’s apparatus. With components for recording blood pressure,
pulse rate, and respiration changes. A galvanometer, also known as the galvanic skin
reflex or electrodermal response generally referred to as GSR. He also demised metal
bellows and designed a kymograph that pulled a constant speed, a chart paper under
the recording pens from a roll of chart paper located inside the instrument. Keeler was
credited as the “Father of Modern-Day Polygraph” due to his great contribution to the
use of polygraph instruments.

4. Development of Questioning Technique

a. Keeler (1942) –developed the “relevant – irrelevant” test. The theory of this test is that
the guilty subject reacts only to relevant questions and the innocent subject shows no
 reactions. He also added the “personality embarrassing question” (EPQ) to his relevant
– irrelevant technique, which was designed to elicit a reaction only from the innocent
subject. He also included the un-reviewed question or “surprise question” that serves
the same purpose as the EPQ. Although, EPQ ceased in 1951. The surprise control
question is still part of some relevant/irrelevant techniques used today. Keeler is also
credited with introducing the “card test” and specialized in the “peak of tension test”.
b. John E. Reid (1950) developed the “reviewed control question” consisting of a known
lie incorporated into relevant/irrelevant test. The theory of the test is to stimulate the
innocent subject, to identify the general nervous tension and guilt complex reactor, and
to improve contact between innocent and guilty subjects. He also discovered the “guilt-
complex test” administered to the overly responsive subject.
c. Cleve Backster (1960) – Backster conceived the psychological set theory that forms
the basis of his zone of comparison technique that provides constant monitoring of the
subject’s reactivity and is designed to disclose outside issues. This is known as the
“Backster Zone Comparison Test” technique.

5. Early Publications of Polygraph

a. Daniel Defoe (1730) – he wrote an essay entitled “An Effectual Scheme for the
Immediate Preventing of Street Robberies and Suppressing all Other Disorders of the
Night” which recommends taking of the pulse as a method of identifying a criminal
b. Sir James Mackenzie (1906) – a famous heart specialist. It was said that “polygraphs”
exist as early as 1906 but it is not being used to detect deception. He 1 st describes the
instrument in an article entitled “The Ink Polygraph” which appeared in the British
Medical Journal in 1908.
c. Vittorio Benussi (1953) – he presented a paper before the 2 nd meeting of the Italian
Society for Psychology in Rome, on the subject of his experiments regarding respiratory
symptoms of lying.
d. Richard O. Archer – the 1st Polygraphist to record simultaneously on regular basis the
chest and abdominal breathing patterns. He was also the 1st one to record
simultaneously two galvanic skin reflexes. In 1966, he founded the Journal of Polygraph
Science, the oldest polygraph publication.
e. Richard I. Golden (19699 –presented a paper at the Annual Seminar of the Polygraph
Association at Houston, Texas regarding his experiments’ using existing control
questions techniques but requiring the subject to answer each question twice. The first
time truthfully and the second time with a lie, to require additional psycho-physiological
data from the examinee by comparing his subjective truthful answer with a known lie to
the same question.

6. Other Pioneers in the Field of Deception Detection

a. Francis Galton (1879) – developed the much-acclaimed psychological test known as

the Word Association Test, whereby the patient is presented with a group of words
sufficiently separated in time to allow the patient to utter his 1 st thought generated by
each word. Dr. Carl Gustav Jung later developed the word and experiment of Galton.
 b. Allen Bell (1972) – an American inventor who developed a device called Psychological
Stress Evaluator (PSE). This instrument detects slight trembling in the voice; this may
be interpreted to determine if a person is telling the truth
c. Anton Mesmer (1778) - was the 1st one to introduce hypnotism as a method of
detecting lie or deception.

7. Modern Polygraph Component

Leonardo Keeler (1925), who has gained 1st hand experience in polygraph interrogations
as a result of working with John Larson at the Berkeley Police Department to devise a
polygraph that uses ink pens for recording the relative changes in subject’s blood pressure,
pulse rate, and respiratory patterns, thus eliminating the need for smoking the paper and
then preserving it with shellac. He also devises a metal bellows with a Rolled Chart Paper.
in 1949, the Keeler Polygraph added a galvanometer for recording a psycho galvanic
skin reflex or electrodermal response. He also works as the assistant of John Larson and
Keeler was credited as the “Father of Modern-Day Polygraph” due to his great contribution
in the use of a polygraph instrument.

John E. Reid (1947), a lawyer from Chicago, Illinois, developed the Control Question
Technique (CQT) a polygraph technique that incorporated control questions. The Reid
Control Question Technique was a breakthrough in polygraph methodology.

MODERN POLYGRAPH

Modern polygraph is a computer outfit with sensors. Sensors are used to measures and
record several physical changes that are elated to the vegetative nervous system. The
reliability of the polygraph is directly related to several measured and recorded inputs; the
more there are inputs the more accurate is the result of decision making, based on all
measurements are taken and individual characteristics are also taken into account.
ACTIVITY.
1. Discuss the concept of Forensic Polygraphy

2. What is the importance of detecting deception?

3. Discuss the Psychology of Lying

4. Why do people lie?

5. Discuss the history of early methods of detecting deception