ORIGINAL RESEARCH

published: 10 June 2022

doi: 10.3389/feduc.2022.875860

Comparison of the Effect of Two

Hybrid Models of Problem-Based
Learning Implementation on the
Development of Transversal and
Research Skills and the Learning
Experience
Mar Carrió 1* , Josep-E Baños 1,2 and Gemma Rodríguez 1
1
Health Sciences Education Research Group, Department of Medicine and Life Sciences (MELIS), Universitat Pompeu
Fabra, Barcelona, Spain, 2 Chair of Medical Education, School of Medicine, Universitat de Vic-Universitat Central de
Catalunya, Vic, Spain

Problem-based learning (PBL) provides an encouraging learning environment to develop

Edited by:
transversal and research thinking skills. However, how PBL is implemented into a
Zixing Shen, curriculum can be critical for achieving these outcomes. This study compares two
New Mexico State University, hybrid PBL implementation models applied in a health sciences school: a PBL-module
United States
integrated into the subjects of a traditional curriculum and full interdisciplinary PBL-
Reviewed by:
Babu Raja Maharjan, courses. 651 students were involved, with 330 taking the PBL-module and 277 taking
Patan Academy of Health Sciences, the PBL-courses. Students’ and tutors’ perceptions about the acquisition of the skills
Nepal
Said Said Elshama,
as well as their satisfaction with the learning experience were compared. The results
Suez University, Egypt showed that in the interdisciplinary PBL-courses, both students and tutors perceived a
*Correspondence: significantly higher acquisition of these skills. In addition, they also find the methodology
Mar Carrió more useful and are more satisfied with the learning experience than in the PBL-
[email protected]
modules. A strong correlation was also observed between the acquisition of transversal
Specialty section: and research skills and the perceived usefulness of PBL and overall satisfaction with the
This article was submitted to
experience. This study provides new evidence on the characteristics of PBL that favor
Higher Education,
a section of the journal the development of these skills.
Frontiers in Education
Keywords: problem-based learning (PBL), transversal skills, research skills, implementation, students’
Received: 14 February 2022 satisfaction
Accepted: 19 May 2022
Published: 10 June 2022
Citation: INTRODUCTION
Carrió M, Baños J-E and
Rodríguez G (2022) Comparison The impact of social and cultural factors and peer interactions on cognitive development has been
of the Effect of Two Hybrid Models recognized and suggests that learning takes place through active participation in purposeful and
of Problem-Based Learning
collaborative activities (Piaget, 1977; Downing et al., 2009; Carrió et al., 2016).
Implementation on the Development
of Transversal and Research Skills
Problem-based learning (PBL) empowers learners to conduct research, integrate theory and
and the Learning Experience. practice, and apply knowledge and skills to develop a viable solution to a defined problem
Front. Educ. 7:875860. (Savery, 2006). Researchers define PBL as a focused and experiential learning organized around
doi: 10.3389/feduc.2022.875860 the investigation, explanation, and resolution of meaningful problems, in which students work in

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Carrió et al. Effectiveness of PBL Implementation

small collaborative groups, and learn what they need to know to created (Carrió et al., 2016). Due to the difficulty of coordinating
solve a problem (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). During this learning cycle, these modules, a new strategy of implementation based on
learners identify knowledge deficiencies related to the problem, interdisciplinary PBL courses was introduced (Carrió et al., 2018).
seek learning resources to acquire this knowledge and apply it to The main difference between the PBL-modules and PBL-courses
address the problem by integrating a wide range of disciplines models was that the first one was an organized activity between
(Savery, 2006; Schmidt et al., 2011). different subjects and the second one was an interdisciplinary
The PBL methodology promotes cognitive, intrapersonal, subject that only used PBL as a teaching method. This new model
interpersonal and technical skills. These have been highlighted as allowed us to improve the effectiveness of its implementation.
21st century skills that must be built into curricula, developed, This study compares these two hybrid PBL implementation
and assessed in higher education (Geisinger, 2016). The models in order to identify the key elements for an effective
PBL learning process addresses the effective development of implementation. For this purpose we rely on the students’ and
transversal and research skills. As a self-regulated learning tutors’ perceptions of competence development, as well as on
method, students are responsible for monitoring the problem- their perceived usefulness and overall satisfaction.
solving process, which includes setting the learning goals,
drawing up a working plan, selecting and evaluating the learning
resources, extracting the most relevant ideas and using them to MATERIALS AND METHODS
develop possible solutions to the problem, and finally, reflecting
on their results. Overall, this process favors the development of Research Context
metacognition skills and increases motivation and engagement In 2004, our School started a pilot study to explore the feasibility
for learning (Downing et al., 2009). Since learning takes of creating a hybrid model of teaching that included PBL and a
place in a collaborative work environment, students can work traditional approach into the Bachelor of Biology. In this study,
intensively on teamwork skills that involve using interpersonal 20% of the teaching time was devoted to PBL, and the remaining
communication skills, responsibility, personal autonomy, time was used for activities such as lectures, lab courses, and
initiative and time management. On the other hand, challenging seminars. An integrated module, with interdisciplinary problems
students with real-life problems allows them to develop critical including learning objectives from the different subjects of
thinking and creativity, as they have to analyze complex problems the term, was designed. The objective of this module was to
from different perspectives and disciplines and work out possible, work on the subject specific skills together with research skills
innovative solutions. To this end, students must critically assess (identification of research questions, formulation of hypotheses,
different sources of information, contrast them, and select the data collection and analysis, and discussion of results) and
most appropriate for their goals. In addition, as PBL promotes transversal skills (communication, teamwork, critical search
students to share their knowledge, experiences, opinions, and for information, time management and autonomy). All faculty
values with other group members, it facilitates the integration members of each subject participated in the PBL scenarios design
of multiple perspectives as part of the problem-solving process and PBL tutorial sessions as tutors. The student workload for
(Rodríguez et al., 2019; Kardoyo et al., 2020). At the end, they the PBL-module was 10 h per week during the whole academic
are often asked to present their results in scientific reports year, distributed in 2 h of tutorial session with tutor, 2 h of group
or oral presentations, which allows them to develop scientific work without tutor and 6 h of students’ self-study (research and
communication skills as well (Sari et al., 2021). In fact, there analysis of information, preparation of sessions and assignments)
seems to be a close connection between the opportunities and students solved a total of nine problems throughout the year.
offered by PBL to develop the skills we have called transversal, In this model, each problem was tutored by a different tutor
covering communication, teamwork, critical use of information, (Carrió et al., 2016). In the context of this article, we called this
time management and self-directed learning, and the skills we pilot study the PBL-module.
have named research skills, which include identifying relevant With the implementation of the new Bachelors of Human
research questions, formulating hypotheses, collecting data, and Biology and of Medicine, following the Higher Education
analyzing and discussing results (Murray-Harvey et al., 2005). European Space in 2008–2009, the hybrid PBL model shifted
The way in which PBL is implemented in the curricula and to the implementation of two interdisciplinary PBL courses in
the educational settings can be critical for its success in achieving Human Biology (Integrated Biomedicine I and II) and three in
the intended learning outcomes. According to the degree of self- Medicine (Integrated Medicine I, II, and IV). Each course had
directedness, learning processes, and problem structuredness, four ECTS, lasted 10 weeks, worked in 6 groups of 8–10 students,
different PBL models have also been used (Barrows, 1996). Issues each group had the same tutor for the whole course and solved
related to human factors, such as behaviors of students and tutors, four interdisciplinary problems. The student workload was 10 h
small group interactions, and resources and workload, might also per week, including a tutorial session of 2 h per week. Different
affect students’ learning outcomes. Thus, when implementing assessment tasks were planned to assess both learning process
PBL, it is important to consider which model will produce the and outcomes, including self- and peer-assessment of student
desired effects by taking into account the learners’ characteristics participation, written reports, oral presentations, and final exams.
and instructional needs (Hung, 2011). Tutors assessed the participation of the students in their group
In our school, PBL was initially implemented with a hybrid and the outcomes of other groups. For each PBL-course, a team
model, in which an integrated module of different subjects was of 6 teachers from different specialities was created who were

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Carrió et al. Effectiveness of PBL Implementation

TABLE 1 | Characteristics of PBL-modules and PBL-courses.

PBL-modules PBL-courses

Curriculum It is an integrated activity of subjects taught in the same The curriculum includes compulsory subjects that are taught entirely with pure
integration term. These are coordinated to design PBL problems that PBL. Each year has 1 PBL course lasting 1 term.
include learning outcomes from different subjects. The
activity is carried out throughout the academic year and is
compulsory for all students.
Problem design Teachers of subjects that are taught in the same module Each PBL-Course has a team of 6 teachers from different disciplines that
design the problems together. design the problems together.
Tutors Short-term tutors: all teachers of every subject participate Long-term tutors: the teachers of the team act as tutors, so that each group
as tutors, so each problem (2–3 weeks of duration) is has a tutor for the whole course (10 weeks).
tutored by a different tutor.
Assessment The assessment represents 10% of the mark for each The assessment includes:
subject. It includes: 1) Student participation in tutorial sessions, assessed by tutors and peers. An
1) Student participation in tutorial sessions, assessed by observation grid of teamwork skills was included and used to give feedback
tutors and peers. to the students and plan improvements.
2) Assignments for each problem, assessed by teachers. 2) Assignments for each problem. Rubrics were included to evaluate the
assignments, these were evaluated by 3 teachers and self- and
peer-assessments were included.
3) Final triple jump exam.

TABLE 2 | Academic characteristics of the students in the PBL-courses. this experience were similar to those of PBL-courses, being the
*Maximum score was 14.
university entrance examinations scores 10.5, 10.7, and 10.5 out
Cohort Students (n) University entrance of 14, respectively. In this study, 330 students and 34 tutors
examinations scores* participated (Carrió et al., 2016, 2018).

HB M HB M
Data Collection
2014–2015 45 49 11.5 11.8
This study used descriptive-evaluative research based on a mixed-
2015–2016 42 46 11.6 12.3
method approach that integrates quantitative and qualitative
2016–2017 46 49 12.1 12.6
data, which complement each other, to gain a clear and in-depth
HB, Human Biology; M, Medicine. understanding of the research problem. Both data were collected
in parallel through an anonymous questionnaire addressed to
students and tutors, which was administered to them at the end of
involved in writing the PBL scenarios, tutoring and evaluating the course. A similar questionnaire to the one used in a previous
the students. Most of them had also already been involved in the study was constructed in order to compare the results with
PBL-modules. This newer strategy is called PBL-courses in the the previous model (PBL-module) (Carrió et al., 2016). To test
context of this article. The differences between PBL-Module and reliability, the questionnaire was piloted with some students and
PBL-Courses are summarized in Table 1. tutors before it was administered. The questionnaire included a
section of closed Likert-type questions and a section of open-
Participants ended questions. In the first section, students had to rate from 0
This project was carried out during the academic years 2014– (not at all) to 10 (very much) the perceived skills development
2015, 2015–2016, and 2016–2017. The students enrolled in these and their satisfaction with the learning experience, with the
academic years were asked to answer a survey; 277 students following questions (Q):
accepted (72%), of which 133 were enrolled in the Bachelor of
Human Biology (HB), and 144 in the Bachelors of Medicine (M). – Perception of transversal skills acquisition (6Q): oral
Students’ sample corresponds to a 3.11% margin of error at a 95% communication, writing ability, teamwork, critical search of
confidence level. All HB participants were first- and second- year information, time management, and self-learning.
students and carried out the courses Integrated Biomedicine I – Perception of research skills acquisition (5Q): identification
and II, while all the M participants were first- and second- year of a relevant research question, hypothesis foundation, data
students and carried out the courses Integrated Medicine I and collection, and analysis and discussion of findings.
II. Based on the university entrance examination scores, students – Learning experience (2Q): satisfaction and usefulness of the
had similar academic profiles (Table 2). Tutors were also asked PBL activity.
to participate in the survey, and 50% (10 out of 20) accepted. For
comparative purposes, some data were obtained from a previous In the second section, students were asked to identify strengths
study based on the pilot experience (PBL module) in the academic and weaknesses of PBL, to explain whether PBL had encouraged
years 2005–2006, 2006–2007, and 2007–2008. Demographic and them to develop scientific creativity and to give their opinions on
academic characteristics of the students who participated in the learning experience.

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Carrió et al. Effectiveness of PBL Implementation

FIGURE 1 | Mean scores given by students in the transversal skills dimension in the PBL-module (n = 330 students) and PBL-courses (n = 277 students).
< 0.01 (OC, p = 1.5×10−19 ; WC, p = 4.5×10−25 ; TW, p = 2.4×10−15 ; CSI, p = 1.1×10−25 ; TM, p = 2.2×10−19 ; SL, p = 3.8×10−49 ).
∗∗ p

FIGURE 2 | Mean scores given by students in the research skills dimension in the PBL-module (n = 330 students) and PBL-Courses (n = 277 students). ∗∗ p < 0.01
(IRQ, p = 4.9×10−15 ; FH, p = 3.08×10−13 ; CAD, p = 5.6×10−22 ; FSA, p = 7.4×10−27 ).

In addition, data and results obtained from the previous study students, the independent samples t-test and Mann–Whitney
based on the PBL-Module used the same questionnaire (Carrió U-test were used, depending on the variable (Connolly, 2007).
et al., 2018), making it possible to directly compare the outcome Finally, to analyze the student and tutor open-ended responses,
of the implementation of the two models. the qualitative content analysis approach was used as a technique
within a constructivist paradigm. To do this, we reduced the
Data Analysis data to codes or concepts that described the research findings
Data were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively. The by creating categories. Codes and categories that emerged during
SPSS software was used for statistical analysis. The Pearson analysis were refined after multiple coding iterations of the
correlation was used to analyze the correlation between the content with the support of the research software Atlas.ti (Elo
quantitative variables, as all variables have a linear relation. To et al., 2014; Graneheim et al., 2017). Investigator triangulation
determine whether there were differences between M and HB and peer debriefing were used to ensure reliability.

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Carrió et al. Effectiveness of PBL Implementation

TABLE 3 | Statistical analysis of the scores given by students (S) and tutors (T) on TABLE 4 | Pearson correlation analysis between the student perceptions about
their perceptions on the development of skills included in the transversal and the acquisition of transversal skills and research skills, and their evaluation of
research skills dimensions, as well as the learning experience dimension, in the satisfaction and usefulness, for the PBL-courses (n = 277 students).
PBL-module (n = 330 students, n = 34 tutors) and the PBL-courses (n = 277
students, n = 10 tutors). Transversal skills Research skills Satisfaction Usefulness

Skills development Learning experience Transversal r=1 – – –

skills
PBL- Transversal skills Research skills Satisfaction Usefulness Research skills r = 0.622** r=1 – –
module Satisfaction r = 0.509** r = 0.558** r=1 –
Usefulness r = 0.444** r = 0.567** r = 0.767** r=1
S T S T S T S T
**p = 0.01 (bilateral).
Mean 6.63 7.03 6.57 6.83 5.41 7.52 5.77 7.73
Median 6.80 7.12 6.75 7.00 6.00 8.00 6.00 8.00
SD 1.34 1.14 1.17 1.17 1.97 1.60 2.03 1.55
Notably, the tutors’ perceptions of the acquisition of
Variance 1.81 1.30 1.38 1.37 3.90 2.55 4.14 2.40
transversal and research skills through PBL scored higher than
PBL-courses
students in both PBL-Module and PBL-courses (Table 2).
Mean 7.96 8.13 7.70 8.15 7.75 9.20 8.27 9.30
Significant differences were also observed between the perception
Median 8.00 8.00 7.75 8.25 8.00 9.00 9.00 9.50
of tutors who participated in the PBL-Courses and those who
SD 1.00 0.37 1.25 0.43 1.82 0.63 1.61 0.82
participated in the PBL-Module. Tutors felt that transversal
Variance 1.00 0.14 1.57 0.18 3.32 0.40 2.59 0.68
and research skills were better developed in PBL-courses than
See section “Materials and methods” for details. in the PBL-Module.

Assessment of the Learning Experience

The student and tutor evaluations of satisfaction and usefulness
of the PBL approaches are depicted in Table 2. The students
gave high scores to the variables of satisfaction and usefulness
in the PBL-Courses. These values are significantly higher than
those obtained with the PBL-module. As observed for the skills
evaluation, tutors scored both variables higher than the students
(Table 2). Similar to students, tutors scored the satisfaction
and usefulness of the methodology higher in PBL-Courses
than in PBL-Module.

Analysis of Problem-Based
FIGURE 3 | Scores of student perceptions in the undergraduate bachelors of Learning-Courses
Human Biology (n = 133) and Medicine (n = 144) for the acquisition of
transversal and research skills and learning experience dimensions
Comparison Between Human Biology and Medicine
(satisfaction and usefulness variables) in PBL-courses. Data are expressed as Students
mean and SD. ∗∗ p < 0.01 (satisfaction, p = 0.01; usefulness, p = 0.005). Students’ perceptions of skills acquisition and the learning
experience dimensions are shown in Figure 3. Statistical
differences were found between HB and M students in
satisfaction and usefulness variables: HB students scored them
RESULTS with a 7.40 and 8.02, respectively, while M students scored them
higher, with 8.08 and 8.51, respectively.
Comparison Between the
Problem-Based Learning-Module and Correlations Among Skills Development and Learning
Problem-Based Learning-Courses Experience
Acquisition of Transversal and Research Skills All the correlations between the analyzed variables in PBL courses
Scores were given by students to each skill included under were statistically significant (0.01 level) (Table 4). A strong
transversal skills dimension (Figure 1). Overall, the scores of correlation (> 0.6) was found between the development of
PBL-Courses were significantly higher than those of the PBL- transversal and research skills. Moreover, there was a strong
Module approach. The same was true for research skills: students correlation between the satisfaction with the PBL-courses and
from PBL-Courses gave higher scores than those from PBL- their perceived usefulness. Other significant correlations have
Module (Figure 2). been found between the satisfaction and the development
Students in PBL-Courses assessed the acquisition of of transversal and research skills and between the usefulness
transversal and research skills scored significantly higher of the courses and the development of transversal and
than those of PBL-module (Table 3). research skills.

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Carrió et al. Effectiveness of PBL Implementation

Qualitative Analysis of the Implementation of from the student comments. Five main categories were identified:
Problem-Based Learning-Courses satisfaction, usefulness, role of tutor, evaluation, and limitations.
We also analyzed the development of transversal and research
– Satisfaction: Students were satisfied with the methodology
skills using qualitative data obtained from the BH and M student
and perceived that PBL promotes long-term retention of
comments on the PBL-courses from the first and second year
knowledge and acquisition of skills.
(SC-BH1,2 and SC-M1,2). In this analysis, we identified two main
categories: the learning process and the learning outcomes. This methodology is more effective than traditional
Regarding the learning process category, students highlighted learning because we consolidate knowledge in a better
the benefits of social interactions in the process of knowledge and deeper way [SCM-M2].
construction that takes place in PBL. Specifically, they
commented that working with peers made them integrate – Usefulness: Students consider that PBL is useful for their
each one’s ideas, perspectives, and points of view. They also professional future and that the skills they learn are
recognized that having to analyze cooperatively the situation and important for their development. M students emphasize
propose ideas to apply and integrate knowledge from different this aspect more than HB students.
fields to look for a solution to the problem facilitates their
I think this kind of methodology is very positive and
learning process.
essential for our development as future professionals of
Through cooperative work, we learn to share and health sciences [SC-M2].
collaborate and also to integrate each other’s ideas [SC-
– Role of tutors: Students identified the role of the tutor as
BH2].
relevant. They pointed out that there are different kinds of
We learn while solving a problem in a group with tutors; most considered tutors with previous experience in
knowledge that we have to first look for and then apply [SC- PBL, who guide and act as facilitators, to be ideal.
M1].
It would be nice if all tutors had the same, concrete
Regarding the second category, students identified transversal indications to guide the sessions in a proper way, and
and research skills as the main learning outcomes. They were if too directive tutors could be avoided [SC-BH2].
aware of their own development in transversal skills such
as cooperative work, communication skills, critical search of – Evaluation: Students perceived the evaluation in a positive
information, and self-directed learning. way, although they noted that some criteria are subjective,
and that the tutor can influence the qualifications.
We learn to dialogue and communicate better among
ourselves [SC-BH2]. I think that in some evaluations, some criteria are
subjective and differ according to the tutor [SC-BH1].
It empowers our self-learning capacity, since we have to
know what we have to learn [SC-M2]. – Limitations: Students identified some limitations of the
methodology, such as organizational issues, variability of
They also gained experience in research skills, formulating tutor instructions, and small group issues.
hypothesis from an unstructured scenario, analyzing problems,
looking for solutions, and evaluating their final outcome as Small groups are suitable for performing PBL, however,
shown by statements such as: sometimes there is tension between us [SC-BH1].

We have learned how to analyze complex mechanisms [SC- Some tutors do more commentaries than others tutors.
BH1]. PBL is easier for the groups that have atutor that gives
more guidance [SC-BH2].
We have to think about new questions and discuss what we
know to solve a problem [SC-BH1].
Integrating different perspectives, formulating new ideas, DISCUSSION
relating knowledge from different fields, and doing research
makes students develop their creative thinking, as they also state: This study examines the acquisition of transversal and research
skills through the implementation of interdisciplinary PBL
We ask questions and then research them, so we analyze courses in M and HB students. Based on the assessment of a
knowledge deeply, and we can think and reflect differently previous pilot experience (Carrió et al., 2018), these courses were
than before [SC-M2]. designed to improve the development of transversal and research
skills and increase their satisfaction with the methodology. For
Working with different peers makes us integrate different
this reason, the implementation model shifted from a PBL-
perspectives and think about different hypotheses and
Module within traditional subjects, to fully integrated PBL-
questions [SC-BH2].
Courses. Given the satisfactory results obtained, PBL courses
The students’ learning experiences through the PBL were implemented and they are still used in the training
methodology was also analyzed using qualitative data obtained of our students.

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Carrió et al. Effectiveness of PBL Implementation

Students’ and tutors’ perceptions about the acquisition of (Hmelo-Silver, 2004; Murray-Harvey et al., 2005; Joham and
transversal and research skills were significantly enhanced in Clarke, 2012).
the PBL-Courses. This improvement can be attributed to the Both students and tutors in the PBL-Courses were more
clarification of learning outcomes, skills-oriented evaluation and satisfied overall than those in the PBL-Module, and those in
the role of the tutor as facilitator. In PBL-Courses, learning PBL-Courses scored the usefulness of this pedagogical approach
outcomes are clearly focused on transversal and research skills, higher. Notably, significant differences between the students of
while in PBL-Module, these skills could be blurred within the different bachelors have been found in PBL-Courses. Because
the other learning outcomes from the traditional subjects. satisfaction and usefulness show a strong correlation to each
Consequently, assessment in PBL-Courses is skill-oriented and other, the differences in these two items can be attributed to
uses different tools, such as rubrics and observation grids, to the perception that M students find learning through PBL more
guide the skills development. The results suggest that students in focused for their future professional lives than do HB students.
PBL-Courses have better assimilated the intended learning goals, Students who took the PBL-Courses stated that they were
and that assessment tools might have contributed to improving satisfied with this methodology as it allowed them to develop
their skills acquisition. useful skills, which is also demonstrated by the high correlation
According to Chng et al. (2014), the tutor plays a relevant between satisfaction and usefulness, and the self-perceived
role in facilitating student learning; thus, rather than simply transversal and research skills acquisition. Also, students
conveying knowledge, the tutors question, make suggestions, and perceived that they retained the knowledge gained over the
challenge the ideas raised by students. This task demands a great long term, as has been previously shown (Spronken-Smith and
amount of time and preparation; furthermore, the better the tutor Walker, 2010). These higher cognitive abilities, such as problem-
knows the students and the group interactions, the better he/she solving, collaboration, or creative thinking, will be required to
can guide the students’ learning processes. In PBL-courses, the confront new future and social challenges in our ever-changing
same tutor was present for the full 10-week course; in contrast, world (Justice et al., 2009; Waldrop, 2015; Bosch and Casadevall,
in the PBL-module, tutors changed for every problem, and each 2017).
tutor was only present for 3 weeks. Therefore, we partly attribute Our study has several limitations, the most important of which
the improvement of the students’ skills development to having is related to its own characteristics. The overarching aim of the
long-term tutors. In fact, previous studies have already found that study was to explore whether changing the PBL implementation
students rated long-term tutors higher than short-term tutors model enhanced the perceived improvement of students’ learning
(Curet and Mennin, 2003). So, we felt that this was a key element outcomes and satisfaction with the learning experience. It
for the success of the PBL-Courses implementation model. was performed in a naturalistic academic environment, and
Our results also suggest that both students and tutors no experimental interventions were carried out. In this non-
perceived that the students developed a high level of transversal interventional design, many variables changed between the two
and research skills acquisition in PBL-Courses. Additionally, models that were compared. Consequently, we cannot identify
the results showed a strong correlation between the acquisition which factors contributed the most to enhancing the aspects
of transversal and research skills, which were corroborated by analyzed. For instance, we cannot rule out that students who
the qualitative data collected from students’ comments. The participated in the PBL-courses had a higher acceptance of the
correlation between the development of transversal and research methodology due to a generational factor. It is also possible that
competences was already found in a previous study conducted in the PBL experience acquired by the tutors had a relevant effect
our School in the context of project-based learning (Rodríguez on the improvement of the results. Another limitation is the
et al., 2019). Similar results have also been found in other hybrid lack of evidence of the actual student development in transversal,
PBL curricula. Demirören et al. (2016) reported that students and research skills in each model. This was not possible as the
perceived that they effectively developed self-regulated learning assessment methods used in these models were not comparable;
skills during PBL and that these were related to responsibility for therefore, we focused the study on perceptions of students and
learning, teamwork and self-efficacy. tutors. However, we consider that our results are of interest
Active learning and student-centered methodologies, such as they show significant differences between both models, and
as PBL, imply that learners play an active role in planning, describe how these skills were developed, from the students’ and
monitoring, and evaluating the learning process. Thus, students tutors’ perspectives.
have to consider different ways to approach a task, set clear goals,
select strategies for achieving these goals, anticipate what has to
be done, and evaluate the process and the product of the learning CONCLUSION
cycle (Dolmans et al., 2005). Development of both transversal
and research skills are intrinsically tied to this process. In this We conclude that the shift from PBL-Module to full PBL-
light, the strong correlation between the acquisition of these two Courses improved the students’ and tutors’ perceptions about the
sets of skills is not surprising. In fact, the ability to become a improvement in the acquisition of transversal and research skills,
knowledge seeker, to be able to collaborate and communicate, and their opinion about the educational value of this pedagogical
to self-direct this learning process are essential skills necessary approach and their satisfaction with their learning experience.
for defining a problem, analyzing the situation, and integrating We found that the main educational settings in the PBL-
and applying knowledge to develop solutions for new situations Courses that contributed to this improvement were (i) the use

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Carrió et al. Effectiveness of PBL Implementation

of assessment tools that facilitate skills development, and (ii) the gave final approval of the version to be published. All authors
maintenance of the same tutor for the entire course duration. contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
Correlation analyses showed the important relationship between
the acquisition of transversal and research skills as well as
between perception of the usefulness of the PBL activities and ETHICS STATEMENT
satisfaction with the experience. This is especially important
as student satisfaction may enhance the student engagement, The Academic Coordination Office Board of the School of
thereby leading to improved learning. Finally, the results of Health and Life Sciences approved the study protocol. The
this study suggest that PBL-Courses are a suitable pedagogical protocol required that participants were informed of the
approach to develop transversal and research skills, which have project’s objectives and methods; participation was voluntary and
been identified as crucial issues in the higher education of the 21st anonymous. Students were informed of the characteristics of the
century (Geisinger, 2016). study, gave their oral consent to participate, and agreed to fulfill
study requirements. Since participation was voluntary and all
data collected were anonymous, written informed consent was
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT considered unnecessary.

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be

made available by the authors, without undue reservation. FUNDING
The project was funded by CLIK (Center for Learning Innovation
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS and Knowledge) at Universitat Pompeu Fabra and it did not play
any role in the study design.
GR made substantial contributions to the study design,
acquisition, analysis, and interpretation of data, was responsible
for surveying the participants through the questionnaires, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
observing the PBL tutorial sessions, and analyzing the data
(quantitative and qualitative), drafted the conclusions, was also We would like to thank all the students and teachers that
involved in writing the manuscript, and also gave final approval participated in this study and accepted to be observed during
of the version to be published. MC contributed to the study the teaching sessions and fill the questionnaires. This study has
design, data collection, analysis, and interpretation of data, been possible thanks to their generosity in sharing the beliefs and
independently carried out the analysis of the data for the opinions about this pedagogical approach.
qualitative data analysis process, then discussed, and agreed
with themes jointly with GR, was the academic coordinator
of the PBL-module and PBL-courses that are analyzed in this SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
research, and was also involved in writing the manuscript,
revising it critically, and giving the final approval of the version The Supplementary Material for this article can be found
to be published. J-EB was involved in writing and revising online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.
the manuscript critically for important intellectual content and 2022.875860/full#supplementary-material

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