A HISTORY OF STUDY SKILLS:

NOT HOT, BUT NOT FORGOTTEN

JUDY S . RICHARDSON
VALERIE J. ROBNOLT
JOAN A . RHODES

Virginia Commonwealth University

Richmond, VA
Study skills were an early and important topic in reading: how-
ever, since the 1970s, they have received relatively little research
attention. The authors systematically analyzed the research con-
ducted on study skills from 1900 to the present. Several themes
emerged including: (a) motivation and affect; (b) activities
described; (c) metacognition; (d) programs described; (e) assess-
ments created; and ( 0 the use of study skills in electronic
environments. The final theme has made an impact on how stu-
dents study. The authors make the case that students must learn
how to study in a different environment, specifically the elec-
tronic environment, to be competitive in today's world.

Let's face it: the topic of study skills is acquisition of knowledge." Study skills
not glamorous! Jack Cassidy, who has are tbe "techniques and strategies that help
offered a list ofWhat's Hot, What's Not" a person read or listen for specific pur-
since 1997, notes that none of his lists have poses with the intent to remember" (Harris
ever included study skills, although he and Hodges, 1995, p. 245). Lenz, Ellis and
agrees that this topic ought to be included Scanlon ( 1996) distinguish between study
(personal communication, February 8. tactics, a sequence of steps or procedures,
2007). The closest the "Hot" list comes to and a study strategy, which is the learn-
mentioning study skills is with the topics er's overall approach to selecting the best
"technology" or "informational texts" tactics for a study task. Gettinger and Seib-
(Cassidy & Cassidy, 2007; Cassidy, Gar- ert (2002) elaborate: "A strategy is an
rett, & Berrara, 2007). Yet, study skills individual's comprehensive approach to a
may be the "premier practical attainment" task: it includes how a person thinks atid
(McBride, 1994, p. 461) of schooling. In acts when planning and evaluating his or
this article, we present a brief history about her study behavior" (p. 352). Those who
study skills. We posit that, while tnuch has read to learn are employing study strate-
remained consistent, the explosion of com- gies/skills. Learners may use different
puter-based tasks have greatly infiuenced behaviors/tactics to accomplish their study
the behaviors students use, or ought to use, goals. Such an interpretation is important,
while studying. as it helps explain how study skills/ strate-
gies can remain constant over time while
What are Study Skills? study behaviors/tactics may change as the
Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary environment for study changes.
(2007) defines study skills as the "appli- Lists of study skills, consistent over
cation of the mental faculties to the many years, usually include creating and

111
112/ Reading Improvement

understanding visual representations of Study skills, according to these authors,

information, previewing a text before read- contribute to academic competence
ing, locating information, taking notes, because they are cognitive skills and
taking tests, listening and reading with processes for effective learning, requiring
attention and intention to learn. For that one acquire, locate, organize, synthe-
instance. McMurry (1909) proposed as the size, remember and then use information
domain of study skills: learned. Study requires specific techniques,
(a) setting specific purposes for study intent and individual decisions, as well as
(b) identifying supplemental informa- the self-regulatory process discussed by
tion others cited above.
(c) organizing ideas
(d) judging the worth of the material A Brief History of Study Skills
(e) memorizing Our review of the literature included
(f) keeping an open attitude searching reading journals and related data
(g) relying on self-direction in learning bases (ERIC, Google Scholar Search, and
InfoTrac). We looked for any mention of
Sixty-one years later Dechant (1970) study skills that, in our estimation, con-
listed study skills in five categories: tributed significantly to the base of
(a) dictionary knowledge and research. For instance, we
(b) location and reference reviewed comprehension studies that relat-
(c) use of graphics ed to reading and thinking specifically for
(d) use of library resources study/retention purposes (This category is
(e) organization consistently listed among study skills from
the early 1900s on). Our review is pre-
Moore. Readance and Rickelman's sented by decades from 1970 onward, with
(1983) historical review of the literature a concise summary of the time span from
about content area reading noted that study the early 1900s to 1969.
skills included organizing skills, such as
note-taking, underlining, outlining and A Summarv of Study Skills from ¡900-1969
summarizing. Blai (!993) identified com- According to Moore, Readance, and
prehension of main ideas, self-monitoring, Rickleman (1983). study skills was an
physical setting, organization, goal-setting important issue in the early 1900s. As evi-
and pacing as crucial to effective study- dence, they cite many works such as
ing. Gettinger and Seibert (2002) Supervised Study (Hall-Quest. 1916); and
contributed a significant perspective by Directing Study of High School Pupils
proposing that study skills be grouped into (Woodring & Flemming, 1935). In 1908
four clusters. (reprinted in 1968), Huey stated that "Study
(a) repetition-based skills such as library skills and note taking
(b) procedural should be taught as early as possible in the
(c) cognitive-based elementary grades" and "in high school,
(d) metacognitive skills students should be given free reign to read
widely on subjects of interest. This is
 A History of Study Skills... /113

preferable to a focused and analytical study emerged including:

of a few texts and authors" (Huey, 1968, (a) motivation and affect
p. 6-7). Gray (1919) was very interested in (b) activities described
the relationship between study and read- (c) metacognition
ing. Gray stated that, "pupils should be (d) programs described
trained to study effectively as they read" (e) assessments created
(Gray, 1937, p. 380). (0 the use of study skills in electronic
Strang (1928, 1937. 1962) published environments
several texts and articles in the 1920s- These themes and the research con-
1960s about improving reading and study ducted in relation to them are described in
in high school. Robinson's introduction of Table l.The role of motivation, discussed
the study strategy SQ3R (1946) is histor- from the 1980s, has been embedded into
ically important because it was designed the discussion of self-regulatory behavior
to put readers in charge of their own study since the late 1990s. Activities for study
of content material. Students were to Sur- have always been popular. The semch for
vey the material, create Questions to guide a perfect study skills program and perfect
their reading, then Read, Recite, and activities will most likely continue, but our
Review. Robinson led the way to other comprehensive view of reading processes
similar study strategies presented over the indicates that attention must be on strate-
next several decades, such as Preview, gic reading versus activities or programs
Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, Review or a simple discussion of motivation.
(PQ4R)(Sanacore,1982). Strategic reading demands the construc-
Even though study skills were an early tion of models that raise literacy to a high
and important topic in reading, research standard, or a high literacy (Bereiter &
declined markedly in the 1950s-1960s. Scardamalia. 1987). Applefield. Huber,
Teacher-preparation textbooks continued to and Moallem (2000) have slated:
discuss study skills (Dechant, 1970), but The field of education has under-
Tierney and Cunningham (1980) found gone a significant shift in thinking ,
almost no studies about how to retain infor- about the nature of human learning
mation in their history of research on and the conditions that best promote
comprehension. An information side-bar the varied dimensions of human
in the Journal of Adolescent and Adult Lit- learning. As in psychology, there has
eracy (JAAL) (Sebasta, 1997) notes the been a paradigm shift in designed
"Hot literacy topics of the past" decades instruction: from behaviorism to
at International Reading Association con- cognitivism and now to construc-
ventions from I960-1990S. Study skills are tivism, (p. 36)
nowhere on this list. In a constructivist model, the reader
actively constructs meaning by relating
A Summary of Study Skills new material to the known, using reason-
from the ¡970s to the New Millennia ing and developing concepts (Applefleld,
As we reviewed the literature from the Huber & Moallem, 2000). While some pro-
1970s to the current decade, several themes grams and courses can be effective, a
114/ Reading Improvement

number of students don't want to change ton, 1994) emphasize the importance of
their study skills, while others do not media other than the paper-based book as
helieve in the concept of study skills at all ways to gain knowledge.
{Yukel, 2006). In some cases teachers may
not realize which study procedures their New Directions for Study
students use, nor which could be effective Skills in the Twenty-first Century
behaviors. For these reasons, a construc- Before discussing new directions, we
tivist approach is beneficial for students. must note that our review of the history of
Assessment of study skills has been pri- study skills indicates that almost all themes
marily in the form of checklists and we have cited are "recycled"! The earlier
interviews. Since the 1990s, it appears that decades discussed many of the same issues
instruments to assess study skills have not we are discussing today. However, study
significantly changed, not keeping pace skills have now been imbedded into dis-
with the role of electronic study behaviors, cussions about information text, new
or with metacognitive practices. literacies, reading to leam, and high liter-
A major change reflected in the litera- acy. Models such as EXIT (Wray & Lewis,
ture and in instmctor observations is that 1999) have "absorbed" specific and selec-
computer-based study behaviors are need- tive attention to study skills. We would
ed in today's world. While the literacy argue that explicit attention must be paid
skills required in the technological age are to study skills. For instance, Wray and
not new, the way that electronic materials Lewis {1992) note that children often do
must be read is new. As Reinking (1997) not transfer what they know about a study
noted, although technology itself is neutral, skill such as using an index to what they
the way we use it to leam enables leamers do when they turn book pages versus using
to be more creative and engaged. A read- that index. Because students must make
er still must use comprehension, vocab- •'conscious decisions about which reading
ulary and study skills to constmct mean- strategies to adopt" {Wray & Lewis, 1999,
ing, but the behaviors that students must p. 9). it seems logical that we pay attention
use are different than those required for a explicitly to study strategies rather then
paper-based environment. For instance, simply wrapping them into theories and
when reading from a textbook, one may models of constructivism and self-regu-
write notes on index cards or sticky notes. lated leaming.
When reading on a computer, one may take Study strategies/skills require intensive
notes by inserting remarks into the docu- reading and thinking; the more complex
ment with red font, or by using track editing the strategy, the deeper the processing will
or footnoting. The age of multiliteracies is be. If several tactics or behaviors need to
helping to reintroduce study skills, an area be used, more energy is expended. For
dormant since the early 1900s. Readers instance, to study, one needs to read the
must now be "information literate" (Hen- information and repeat the reading via
derson & Scheffier, 2004), that is, able to note-taking, highlighting, mapping or other
find and use information in any form, means of leaming the information. Then
including paper or electronic forms. "New one needs to organize that information by
Literacies" (Alexander, Kulikowich, & Jet- schematizing it and decide how the infor-
 A History of study Skills... /115

mation applies to the learning goal, per- students to find the value of study skills and
haps by generating questions and linking their own way of accessing study in the
answers from the organized notations. All electronic age. Students today are learn-
during this time of study, the learner must ing increasingly complex literacy practices
be planning, monitoring and assessing how and navigating increasingly complex tech-
the study is progressing and when to alter nologies (Moje. 2002). Are we ready to
a tactic for more effective and efflcient help them with study tactics that work in
study to occur. This entire study process is today's world?
based on an information-processing model, To remain competitive in a global econ-
well explained by Gettinger and Seibert
omy, students must know how to study in
(2002).
a different environment than they have in
As Hubbard and Simpson (2003) sug- the past century. Web-based reading and
gest, we also recommend that assessments study is different than paper-based study,
of study skills for today's students must and sometimes produces less efficient
find out if the strategies students create
study and resultant learning (Eveland &
and use are task-appropriate and deep level.
Dunwoody, 2002). It is not the study skills
Just asking students to complete a check-
that are different, though; it is the tactics
list won't discover students' personal
that a learner must use to study in a com-
theories and applications about learning.
puter-based environment. Studies
Further, assessments have to consider both
the paper and the electronic contexts for conducted by Eveland and Dunwoody
study, and what tactics a student would (2002) and Anderson-Inman, Knox-Quinn
self-select to study in either environment. and Szymanski (1999) show that learners
To rely only on demonstrations and lec- can adapt to computer-based study tactics.
tures about study skills, to assume that We suggest some possible topics for
students can put them into practice inde- future research on study skills:
pendently, or that students will see their (a) What is the impact of self-regulat-
importance, is a fallacy. Purdue and Hat- ing behaviors on study skills in
tie ( i 999), after analyzing 52 studies about electronic environments?
outcomes of and relations between study (b) What are students" attitudes and feel-
skills, concluded that when students learn ings about study in electronic versus
effective study behaviors and incorporate paper-based text?
them into a meaningful approach to learn- (c) Do younger students employ study
ing, they experience academic and affective skills that are similar to those of
results. Self-directed learning, as Sobrol older students?
(1997) noted, benefits most students. When we consider the students of this
Gee (2000) cautioned that working class millennium, and the themes identified
teens see uses of literacy differently than within an historical perspective, the pos-
do upper middle-class teens immersed in sibilities for study that is refreshing,
a more academic world. If we are to help challenging, exciting, and learner-con-
all students study in the age of multiple trolled all contribute to the makings of a
literacy experiences, we must enable all "hot" topic in the fleld of reading.
116/ Reading Improvement

Table I
1970a to the New Millenia: Trends over Time

TuEod 1989-1989 2000-2007

Moiivuioti Learner should Japanese Students adhered
practice stuJinls' to specific
and AITect autonomy and tnoliYu(ion uid strategics and
inquiry creativity were heiiavicits when
improved when mot 1 valed to
they were study but they did
encouraged [p put prafUcc n i ^
Self- use study sUlt« level decision
nionitoring tS^mùto. making to match
changes as a study
result of study requirements
hgpavioçs • f^pcessing
f^pcessing and (Bfcicti, 2000)
hd using goga a
study
t d y ski
s i UUs Students who
reduced an anxiety crani and
and enhanced [n'ocrastinate
lest seem !o lack
Derformapce motivation and
(Tohias, 1985) tognitise
awareness
(Brint haunt Si
Shui, 2001 )

Relationship
between tesi
anxielv iticl
study skills
pretfiçtcd GPA
(kirkWd & ^
Hoi lands worth,
1979)
Activiiies SQ3R was Seventh graders
fognd to he "•ere mucn less
neither more proficient in their
nffl less ^ note-tnking
effective ihan a racticc than wtui
student's own
techniques
tley self-reDQrted
(Brown, 2005)
(Graham. 19i(2)
Note-tiiking Sr , 1996)
rcreadme were Sema[ttic
toy nil 'OTK
elieelive ¡Dytrr eniiancS] sttidy
Affiiey, 1975) sfcl&lSchewei.

Providing partial
noles, sucn as a
graphic organizer
or outline, was
heiterthan
providmg a full
Sel of tufes, byi a
graphic preanizer
w»i prefemble lo
panial tiotcs
IKatayama &
Robiifwn, 2000)
A summariiinji
iictivity that used
repeated reading
and genetzt i ung
was explamed
(Fneni 2000)
A ,sel of iii-ljvitics
for previewing
were proposcö
(Gartwr-Miller,
20Ö7)
 A History of Study Skills... /117

Meiacognilion ^ hiKusine on Itw Strategie learning

firganization i>f requin» maturE
lexl htmcii wjih ¡uia complex
knowledge

The nioie one

fçels in contnil cif
hn or her
comprehension,
the more self-
regulated about
sjûilv he or she
tnticallV shoiud be
|Waler/& (Bamett, 2000)
W.iters. 1992)
Students wl
Key s!\iijy perfiinned I on
^Iratuiics were tests reeulal
ideniilicd as
effectively
(Kitsantaj. 2002)
To be »iKcessfuI
lelntms, in school, a
actjva|niie and sttident mu^l
changijif possess belters
about leaniing
apd knciutedge
thai are
Topriale (Cole
paiicrnsanU
leamine
(Langcf, 19S6) Siudenls must
interottii^ with betiave actively in
texl requires the their own learning
Ihniuah self-
iuiowlflge and rcgulalion

The "deep" and

"surface
ftpiteEiCi Ihal
biology students
jised nas
skills triùnme m vest i Gated
needs 10 be CHpl!«:nu(:h.
conducted in
the same
rontexi thai the When studeflts
still wiillie used tBsk-
used to prumote appropriate
slralciies in sclf-
ffguläied
leaniiiu!. deep
and reflective
sCraicgies
developed over
time displticed
surface-level

think alouds to
•lupc in^ to
- . * • • . . . . Í . . " . . .

heir (iwii study

^its {Maria &
away.

Progranu" Stuileiits at a Students

mi^^|«iworic v a t l bcnefued the
tnost froni
lauehilw^
subiect matter file Cj*
Icpchers Qfvrlopmrnl
(Tgbcrer, Program plus
tutonne, and
Prevenia^ive faculty s«med lo
Cojnputcr- intervention jrc the difference
aaMsted study iroËrams' were in ïtuijent study
skills proBTüfii fQund tu be
effetivelCarns
behaviors
I Bender. 2001)
& Cums. 1991;
Dyïemitn, Peer mentoring
1993; LiKky & and discip irie-
Etider. 19WÍ based winksbop
A behavioially Training
iirienicd smdy Dtngrams work: Stúdenu ana '
SKI Us pitiarum CtfBrf mcreu.scd their
Inftimuilion
contó
yiumflcmilly
improve grodcü Apprtvich
Eludy skills
no» ledge anij
of college (Presslcv & El-
ímideni.'j and ^//inf g icj
(Pralher. 1983) tnlttyenuon
"Me/(De,shler
6wasolügy
successful
course
(tesÍEned (hat
mtçgnit^ studv
skilfs wiih content
(Beizer. MiUer,&
Hoemake. 2003)
118/ Reading Improvement

Approaches and
Siujy Skills
Invenlory for
Sliulenis'
(Entwistle, TaJt,

Mfrarogniriv^
Awarpiess of
Rending
Siraiesiti
inventors
iMokhlari &
Rtichaiïï. 2002)
Use
cimcv State
lly &"
S n . 2005)
Revised siudj
skills chccklisi
based im RiiEets
l 9 i 4 n f c
jl9if4noinLnii(
Diilti paper-based
and electfonic
enyironments
(RhiHÎes. Robnoli.
& Richaidson.
mi

SUidy Hahiis
mvenlon
(Junes i ï Slate.
1992: SSite.
Iones. &
Harlan. I99S)
Use of Tlu ^kill¿
computers '•iiidi.'iit:> need I«;
changed Ihe h,mil le elet-lninic
way iluticnis Miiannatiiin
stuuied bec.imc un
( Anderson- irnixinain iiipic-
In man, 1999a. ^ cdo1lilld.
d l
l!W9bi ID. & Masfin.
if; Slaouu.
Sludenls need '2|
specific
ifiitniclion in Sludenlv musí
uie use of
mulliple ^iiulily i>l [inline
lechnology- materuil. realise
based resources [he dilrerence
lo bioadpn their between .citing
perspecuveï and piagiunzing a
when studying source, and apply
f iilliple complex
I'opyriglil laivs in
world (XJoctt &.
Students can use
chat rooms to
discuss iheir
le^irninc
(ATbriglll,
PliriihR, & Walsh.
2002)
Students can
create a semantic

Students con use

on-line
djscussiuns to
dxscuss contení
(Thümas &
Hormeisier, 2003)
Students can learn
and study more
efficiently when
lakme notes on a
laptcip I Ander.ton-
Inman. 2001 )
Parallel mile
lafcintt was
sugge.sled to help
students take
effective on-l)tie
utcs (paplinj.
B lomizi. Forbes.
& PciLii. 2005)
The useof web-
{lïsed biHiliniarks
m ejeincntary
settings was
e\n lamed
(Ff)rbes. 20O4|
Wuy^ fur
elementary
teachers In help
their stucenti
locale
information on
the Inlernet were
roposed (Henry
S 0»)
 A History of Study Skills... / 1 1 9

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