Lesson 4: Analysis and Design for Axial Compression

Lesson 4A: Introduction

Compression Members

Compression members are structural elements that are subjected only to axial compressive forces; that is, the loads are
applied along a longitudinal axis through the centroid of the member cross section, and the stress can be taken as f = P/A,
where f is considered to be uniform over the entire cross section.

The most common type of compression member occurring in buildings and bridges is the column, a vertical member
whose primary function is to support vertical loads. In many instances, these members are also subjected to bending, and
in these cases, the member is a beam–column. Compression members are also used in trusses and as components of
bracing systems. Smaller compression members not classified as columns are sometimes referred to as struts.

Column Theory

Consider the long, slender compression member shown in Figure 4.1a. If the axial load P is slowly applied, it will ultimately
become large enough to cause the member to become unstable and assume the shape indicated by the dashed line. The
member is said to have buckled, and the corresponding load is called the critical buckling load. If the member is stockier,
as shown in Figure 4.1b, a larger load will be required to bring the member to the point of instability. For extremely stocky
members, failure may occur by compressive yielding rather than buckling. Prior to failure, the compressive stress P/A will
be uniform over the cross section at any point along the length, whether the failure is by yielding or by buckling. The load
at which buckling occurs is a function of slenderness, and for very slender members this load could be quite small.

If the member is so slender that the stress just before buckling is below the proportional limit—that is, the member is still
elastic—the critical buckling load is given by (4.1)

where E is the modulus of elasticity of the material, I is the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area with respect to
the minor principal axis, and L is the length of the member between points of support. For Equation 4.1 to be valid, the
member must be elastic, and its ends must be free to rotate but not translate laterally. This end condition is satisfied by
hinges or pins, as shown in Figure 4.2.
The critical load is sometimes referred to as the Euler load or the Euler buckling load. For convenience, the member will
be oriented with its longitudinal axis along the x-axis of the coordinate system given in Figure 4.3. The roller support is to
be interpreted as restraining the member from translating either up or down. An axial compressive load is applied and
gradually increased. If a temporary transverse load is applied so as to deflect the member into the shape indicated by the
dashed line, the member will return to its original position when this temporary load is removed if the axial load is less
than the critical buckling load. The critical buckling load, Pcr, is defined as the load that is just large enough to maintain the
deflected shape when the temporary transverse load is removed.

Buckling Mode

The formula considering buckling mode is:

The various values of n correspond to different buckling modes; n = 1 represents the first mode, n = 2 the second, and so
on. A value of zero gives the trivial case of no load. These buckling modes are illustrated in Figure 4.4. Values of n larger
than 1 are not possible unless the compression member is physically restrained from deflecting at the points where the
reversal of curvature would occur.
For the usual case of a compression member with no supports between its ends, n = 1 and the Euler equation is written
as

It is convenient to rewrite Equation 4.3 as

where A is the cross-sectional area and r is the radius of gyration with respect to the axis of buckling. The ratio L / r is the
slenderness ratio and is the measure of a member’s slenderness, with large values corresponding to slender members.

If the critical load is divided by the cross-sectional area, the critical buckling stress is obtained:

At this compressive stress, buckling will occur about the axis corresponding to r. Buckling will take place as soon as the
load reaches the value given by Equation 4.3, and the column will become unstable about the principal axis corresponding
to the largest slenderness ratio. This axis usually is the axis with the smaller moment of inertia (with exceptions to this
condition). Thus, the minimum moment of inertia and radius of gyration of the cross section should ordinarily be used in
Equations 4.3 and 4.4.

Euler’s Equation for Stocky Members

Early researchers soon found that Euler’s equation did not give reliable results for stocky, or less slender, compression
members. The reason is that the small slenderness ratio for members of this type causes a large buckling stress. If the
stress at which buckling occurs is greater than the proportional limit of the mate rial, the relation between stress and
strain is not linear, and the modulus of elasticity E can no longer be used.

This difficulty was initially resolved by Friedrich Engesser, who proposed in 1889 the use of a variable tangent modulus,
Et. For a material with a stress–strain curve like the one shown in Figure 4.5, E is not a constant for stresses greater than
the proportional limit Fpl. The tangent modulus Et is defined as the slope of the tangent to the stress–strain curve for values
of f between Fpl and Fy.
For any material, the critical buckling stress can be plotted as a function of slenderness, as shown in Figure 4.6. The tangent
modulus curve is tangent to the Euler curve at the point corresponding to the proportional limit of the material. The
composite curve, called a column strength curve, completely describes the strength of any column of a given material.
Other than Fy, E, and Et, which are properties of the material, the strength is a function only of the slenderness ratio.

Effective Length

Both the Euler and tangent modulus equations are based on the following assumptions:

1. The column is perfectly straight, with no initial crookedness.

2. The load is axial, with no eccentricity.

3. The column is pinned at both ends.

The first two conditions mean that there is no bending moment in the member before buckling. As mentioned previously,
some accidental moment will be present, but in most cases it can be ignored. The requirement for pinned ends, however,
is a serious limitation, and provisions must be made for other support conditions. The pinned-end condition requires that
the member be restrained from lateral translation, but not rotation, at the ends. Constructing a frictionless pin connection
is virtually impossible, so even this support condition can only be closely approximated at best. Obviously, all columns
must be free to deform axially.

For convenience, the equations for critical buckling load will be written as

where KL is the effective length, and K is the effective length factor. The effective length factor for the fixed-pinned
compression member is 0.70. For the most favorable condition of both ends fixed against rotation and translation, K = 0.5.
Values of K for these and other cases can be determined with the aid of Table C-A-7.1 in the Commentary to AISC
Specification Appendix 7.