UNIT 3 CHEMICAL DISASTERS

Structure
3.0 Learning Outcome
3.1 . Introduction
3.2 . Chemical Disasters: Causes and Impacts
3.3 Chemical Disaster Management: Institutional Aspects
3.4 Chemical Disaster Management :Preparedness and Response
3.5 Lessons from the Past- The Bhopal Gas Tragedy
3.6 Conclusion
.. 3.7 Key Concepts
3.8 References and Further Reading
3.9 Activities

3.0 LEARNINGOUTCOME
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
• Understand the causes and impacts of chemical disasters;
• Explain the management of chemical disasters;
• Discuss the essentials of preparedness and response activities for mitigation of chemical
disasters;
• Highlight the essential ingredients of chemical disaster management plans; and.
• Describe the lessons learnt from a prominent past chemical disaster case viz., the Bhopal .
Gas Tragedy.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Since independence, India has seen rapid industrial development. Industries have come up all over
the country based on the availability of raw material, cheap unskilled and skilled labour, means of
transportation and the policies of the State and Central Government. It has also resulted in migration
of rural people to industrial cities for livelihood opportunities. As a result, the traditional industrial
centres have become more congested, and new ones have also come-up. A phenomenal increase
in industrial units of all types, both in organised and unorganised sectors have increased the
vulnerability of people working in industries and also of those staying in the vicinity of industrial
hazards. In this Unit, we will deal with chemical disasters. A chemical disaster is essentially a
massive industrial accident involving chemical agents. Hazardous materials is the term used for
chemicals, which cause accidents or large scale environmental damages.
By definition, chemical disaster simply implies a disaster caused by chemical hazards. A chemical
disaster being essentially a massive industrial accident involving chemical agents, fits into the basic
definition of a disaster, i.e., it needs external help for affected people to cope-up and recover from
the effects of such disasters. This Unit will bring out the causes and impacts of chemical disasters

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Chemical Disasters 29

in India. In addition, it will highlight the institutional arrangements for disaster management. Last but
not the least, in this Unit we will also discuss the lessons learnt from the past. .

3.2 CHEMICAL DISASTERS: CAUSES AND IMPACTS

i) Causes
A Chemical disaster may take place due to anyone or more ofthe following.
• An accident or explosion at the production facility of hazardous material.
• An accident at the storage facility of hazardous material.
• An accident during transportation of hazardous material through population centres.
• Inadequacies in toxic waste management. This results in long-term health effect on
communities. Toxic waste can cause environmental pollution as well as ground water pollution.
• Failures in safety systems of chemical plants.
• Deliberate sabotage of a manufacturing area or storage facility of a hazardous chemical
substance or a sabotage during transportation of such substance.
• Occurrence of natural disasters, such as, earthquakes, cyclones etc. can also trigger chemical
disasters essentially through damage and destruction to chemical industrial units storing or
producing hazardous material.

Chemical Terrorism
Chemical disaster can also be caused due to indiscriminate use of chemical warfare agents by
terrorists. Such chemical agents include Sarin, Chlorine, Sulfur Mustards, Hydrogen, Cyanide and
VXetc.

ii) Impacts
Chemical disasters lead to serious and varied impacts. These can result into explosions and/or
fires. The most hazardous impact of a chemical disaster lies in the extreme pollution of air, water
and food chain upto life-threatening levels even. The long-term health impairment can even extend
to coming generations.
A chemical disaster may result into one or all of the following.

Physical Damage
This includes damage or destruction of structure and infrastructure. A transportation accident may
damage the means of transport used for transporting hazardous material viz. vehicle, rail etc.
Industrial fires, if not contained, may affect large areas.
Casualties
Chemical disaster may result in large-scale casualties. While quick medical relief is essential to
save lives, immediate disposal of dead bodies will also need planning.

Environmental Damage
Chemical disasters affect the environment because oflikely contamination of air, water supply,
land, crops, vegetation and animal life. In some cases 'certain areas may become uninhabitable for
humans and animals. The possibility of mega scale migration/evacuation/resettlement could loom
large.
 30 ' Public Policy and Analysis

3.3 CHEMICAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT:

INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS
i) In India, at the Central Government level, the Ministry of Environment and Forests is the
. nodal agency for management of Chemical disasters. The ministry maintains a nationwide list
" of major hazardous units. I
I

ii) The Department ofEnvironinent of the Ministry and Controller of Explosives are jointly
responsible for setting and monitoring the safety standards. The Central Pollution Control J
Board (CPCB) is responsible for all environmental aspects.
ill) The Chemical Disaster Management procedures are outlined in the Chemical Accidents
(Emergency, Preparedness, Planning and Response) Rules- 1996. A layered structure to
manage such disasters at central, state, district and local levels is stipulated. For this, Crisis
Management Groups are required to be nominated at each level as under:
a) Central Government National Level
b) Chief Secretaries of State State level
c) District Collector District and Lower Levels
iv) As per law, all industrial accidents have to be reported to the Director General Factory
Advice Services and Labour Institute (DGFASLI).

3.4 CHEMICAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT:

-PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE

Hazard Mapping
An accurate information oflocation, type and quantities of hazardous material being stored, used
or produced should be known at district and state levels.

Hazardous Material Identification

The hazardous material should be stored and handled as per laid down norms. These are usually
divided into different categories with eachhaving identification mark for packaging and transportation.

Inspection of Chemical Plants & Storage Facilities

A regular and systematic inspection of chemical plants and storage facilities of hazardous material
is important. Most of the chemical disasters can be avoided iflaid down norms are followed
strictly by all. A common understanding on requirements of safety by government officials and
those running industries with hazardous material is essential.

Monitoring of Toxic Waste Disposal

Disposal oftoxic waste by industrial units must be monitored. There have been cases where toxic -,
wastes dumped underground have resulted in pollution of sub-soil water. Disposal oftoxic waste
in rivers and drains, especially passing through populated areas, needs to be stopped in totality.

Monitoring Pollution Levels

Monitoring of pollution levels gives warning oftoxicity in land, water or atmosphere. It can also
forewarn the authorities of any unusual and hazardous substance in the environment. -

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Chemical Disasters 31

Preparation of On-site and Off-site Emergency Management Plans

Emergency management plans need to be prepared for on-site and off-site contingencies. On-site
contingencies are those where the impact of the accident is localised and it is likely to cause
damage or destruction of plant and equipment or injury or loss of life to workers. In off-site
emergencies, the impact of the accident is widespread i.e. beyond the premises of a hazardous
industrial unit.
The chemical disaster management plans should generally include the following aspects:
• Awareness among workers and the people likely to be affected.
• Procedure for warning.
• Immediate action to be taken.
• Specific responsibilities of officials and their training.
• Plan for casualty evacuation and medical aid.
• Fire fighting arrangements.
• Command, Control and Communication system.
• List of specialists, personnel, and organisations who could provide assistance.
• Practice Drills.

Rehearsal of Plans
Emergency plans, both off-site and on-site, should be periodically rehearsed. An honest feedback
and prompt action to plug the gaps observed during such mock drills is one ofthe most important
features of preparedness. .

Awareness
Improvement in awareness of potential hazards particularly in the vulnerable section of population
is essential. This includes workers closely associated with hazardous material or with industrial
units handling hazardous material, and also the people staying in vicinity of such units.

Training
Industry, plants and hazard specific training in safety and handling of emergencies, if any, is essential.
Different training orientation is needed for government officials, managers of industrial units, both
technical and administrative, and the workers.

3.5 LESSONS FROM THE PAST: BHOPAL GAS

TRAGEDY
The accident occurred on the night of2-3 December 1984 at the Union Carbide Factory at
Bhopal producing pesticides. .
About 40 tonnes of Methyl Iso- Cynate (MIC) and other toxic gases including Hydrogen Cyanide
(HCM) leaked from the plant. The gas affected the residents ofBhopal in a big way. Most affected
were those staying in the localities downwind in the vicinity of the plant. About 8000 persons were
killed. Health of more than 530,000 persons were severely affected causing multi-system injuries.
Thirty-six municipal wards were affected. The toxic gas was absorbed into the blood stream of the
people causing lasting and damaging effect to lungs, brain, kidney, reproductive, as well as immune
system of victims.

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 32 Public Policy and Analysis

Causes of Disaster
The Bhopal Gas Disaster was caused by a complex set of independent human, organisational and
technological errors. The salient aspects are summarised below.
Human Factors
,"
• Inadequate safety training of employees.
• Low employee morale.
• Lack of awareness regarding the hazard potential of the plant among the managers and
workers.
• Overlooking minor indicators of a possible accident occurred on earlier occasions. (There
was a technical snag in storage tank E-6l 0 on 21 October 1984 which was ignored and not
investigated)

Organisational Factors
• Lack of resources and inadequate managerial attention, which contributed to lower safety
standards.
• Lack of urgency in preparing contingency plans for possible accidents in the plant.

Technological Factors
• Numerous design errors
• Absence of computerised early warning system.
• Long-term storage of huge quantities of MIC.
• Outmoded manual safety system. (An electronically controlled four stages back-up safety
system was used in similar plants elsewhere).
• Poor maintenance.

Certain Observations on Response to the Disaster

The medical facilities were over stretched. Besides, the doctors in Bhopal were not aware of the
possible cause of the disaster. They were unaware of the type of gas, which had leaked out, and its
toxicity. The plant officials insisted that MIC was not lethal; it was only an irritant.
There was no awareness of the hazard potential of the plant among politicians, government officials,
media and the general population. This resulted in a total lack of preparedness to meet the eventuality
of a disaster of such a magnitude. There was no credible public information system in place that
resulted in total confusion, fear and pani~:
Lessons Learnt
• Environmental impact assessment of hazardous units is an inescapable necessity.
• Public education and awareness towards hazards oftoxic material are important.
• Need for developing high standards of operator skills and safety in industrial units.
• Lack of contingency plan to meet possible emergency situation. It is important to work on,
and be prepared for worst-case scenario.
• Mandatory safety audits should be implemented that will ensure safety ..
• A comprehensive medical emergency plan should be prepared. In addition, the medical fraternity
should also be trained and be prepared to handle mass casualties with prior knowledge ofthe
toxic chemicals causing the disasters and with adequate medicines and supporting systems.
• Requirement of buffer zones around hazardous industrial units.

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 Chemical Disasters 33

3.6 CONCLUSION
A Chemical disaster may take place either due to an accident or explosion involving hazardous
material or due to indiscriminate use of chemical warfare agents by terrorists. This Unit has brought
out the institutional aspects in India. At the Central Government level, the Ministry of Environment
and Forest is the nodal agency for management of chemical disaster. A layered structure to manage
such disasters at the central, state, district and local levels is essential. For this, Crisis Management
Groups are required to be set up at each level.
The severity and impact of chemical disasters depend upon the extent of physical damage, casualties
and environmental damage. Chemical disasters affect the environment because of likely contamination
of air, water supply, land, vegetation and animal life. .
In this Unit, we have identified the preparedness and response measures for chemical disasters,
which include hazard mapping, hazardous material identification, inspection of chemical plants &
"storage facilities, monitoring oftoxic waste disposal, and monitoring pollution levels.
It is suggested that emergency management plans be prepared for on-site and off-site contingencies.
Rehearsal of these plans, improvement in awareness of potential hazards particularly in the vulnerable
section of population, and training is essential for mitigation of chemical disasters. This training
should be specific to Industry, plants and hazards.

3.7 KEY CONCEPTS

Sulfur Mustards
Sulfur mustards are vesicants and alkylating agents, more commonly known as blister agents. They
are colorless when pure but are generally a yellow to brown colour and have a slight garlic or
mustard odour. Sulfur mustard in vapour and liquid forms can be absorbed through the eyes, skin
and mucous membranes.

Health Effects
Sulfur mustards cause skin, eye and respiratory tract injury. They may also cause bone marrow
suppression and neurologic and gastrointestinal toxicity. Although cellular changes occur within
minutes of contact, pain and other clinical effects are delayed for one to 24 hours.

"Antidote
There is no antidote for sulfur mustard toxicity. Decontamination of all potentially exposed areas
within minutes after exposure ~sthe only effective means of decreasing tissue damage.

Hydrogen Cyanide
Hydrogen cyanide is an extremely flammable, colorless gas or liquid. It gives off toxic fumes in a
fire and is highly explosive.

Health Effects
Exposure irritates the eyes, the skin and the respiratory tract. Symptoms are burning and redness
for the skin and eyes, inhalation causes confusion, drowsiness and shortness of breath, leading to
collapse. The substance can affect the central nervous system, resulting in impaired respiratory and
circulatory functions. Exposure can be fatal.

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 34 Public Policy and Analysis

Antidote
Fresh air in the case of inhalation and rinsing with plenty' of water in the case of skin or eye
exposure.

Sarin
. .•
" Sarin is a highly toxic compound in both its liquid and vapour state that attacks the central nervous
system.
Health Effects: Sarin can cause death minutes after exposure. It enters the body by inhalation,
ingestion, through the eyes and the skin. Symptoms vary but commonly include a running nose,
watery eyes, drooling and excessive sweating, difficulty in breathing, dimness of vision, nausea,
vomiting, twitching and headache. It kills by attacking the body's voluntary muscle and gland "on
switch", causing the muscles to tire so they can no longer sustain breathing.
.
,
Antidote
Immediate treatment is decontamination by removing clothing and flushing eyes and skin with
water.
Chlorine
Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas with a pungent odour and is heavier than air. It reacts violently
with "manyorganic compounds, creating a fire and explosion hazard.

Health Effects
Chlorine is corrosive to the eyes and the skin and can cause tearing, blurred vision and bums.
Inhalation may cause laboured breathing and lung edema. The symptoms oflung edema often do
not manifest until a few hours after exposure. High exposure levels may result in death.

Antidote
Fresh air in the case of inhalation and rinsing with plenty of water in case of exposure to skin and
eyes.
Hazardous Material
Hazardous material isthe term used for chemicals which cause accidents or large scale environmental
damages. A Chemical substance can be hazardous ifit is explosive, flammable, corrosive, poisonous,
radioactive or a human disease causing micro-organism. Hazardous materials include pesticides,
fertilizers, and other chemicals as well as petrol, natural gas, and other fuels. Many hazardous-
materials disasters involve truck or train accidents in which a dangerous substance is accidentally
spilled.

3.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Biological and Chemical Weapons at www.CNN.com
Government of India, 2002, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation,
High Powered Committee on Disaster Management Report, New Delhi.
Parasuraman, S. and P.Y.Unnikrishnan (Ed.) ,2000, India Disaster Reports, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi.
Siromony, P. Michael Vetha (Ed.), 2000, Source Book on District Disaster Management,
LBSNAA, Mussoorie
UNDP, 1992, An overview of Disaster Management, 2nd editon, Part 1 Chapter 4.

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 Chemical Disasters 35

3.9 ACTIVITIES
1)· Enlist the causes of chemical disasters arid explain how they differ from other types of
disasters?
2) Visit a chemical industry or the district level agency for disaster management and analyse the
institutional arrangements for chemical disaster management?
3) On the basis of your observation suggest the essential elements of the preparedness and
response activities for mitigation of chemical disasters.

..

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 UNIT 2 NUCLEAR DISASTERS
Structure
2.0 Learning Outcome

2.1 Introduction
"

2.2 Causes of Nuclear Disasters

2.3 Nuclear Disaster Management

2.3.1 Crisis Management Group (CMG)
2.3.2 Do's and Don'ts

2.4 Lessons Learnt

2.4.1 Chemobyl Nuclear Disaster
2.4.2 Nuclear Power Plant Disaster: Three Mile Island Nuclear Disaster

2.5 Conclusion

2.6 Key Concepts

2.7 References and Further Reading

2.8 Activity

2.0 LEARNING OUTCOME

After studying this Unit, you should be able to:

• Understand the causes and impacts of nuclear disasters;

• Explain the system of management of nuclear disasters; and
• Highlight the lessons learnt on the basis of past disasters.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Disasters occurring due to direct consequence of exposure of communities to nuclear hazards
can be termed as nuclear disasters. Nuclear disasters are the high-risk but low probability disasters
attendant with the advancement in nuclear science and technology. The nuclear accidents can
affect large areas often crossing international boundaries. In this Unit, we will describe the causes,
impacts, and mitigation of nuclear disasters. In this regard, we shall discuss the past disasters, that
is, the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in the then USSR and the nuclear power plant disaster at Three
Mile Island in USA.

2.2 CAUSES OF NUCLEAR DISASTERS

Nuclear disasters can essentially occur in two ways.

First of all due to deliberate actions, which include:

• Use of a nuclear weapon against civil population during a war or conflict. In this regard, the
devastation caused by atom bombs at Hiroshima and Nagasaki was unprecedented.
• Use ofnuclearradioactive material by terrorists who seem to be adopting newer methods to
further their cause by adopting violence as a tool to cause disturbance in societies. The attack

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Nuclear Disasters 23

on Twin Towers, in New York city on 09 September 2001, indicates that terrorists are no
more reluctant or even hesitant to cause mass casualties. To that extent, use of nuclear material
by terrorists is now in the realms of possibiFty.
Secondly, the impact of nuclear disasters are seen due to accidental release of nuclear radiation, as
mentioned below:
• Accident at Nuclear Power Plants resulting in release of nuclear radiation.
• Loss or theft of radioactive material from the facilities using nuclear material for application in
research and development, medicines, industry etc.
• Transportation accidents, which involve nuclear material.
• Improper or deficient disposal of radioactive waste material.
Possibilities of nuclear disasters due to use of nuclear weapons are very remote because of various
international treaties and ongoing nuclear disarmament movement and above all due to the deterrent
nature of the consequences. There is, however, a relatively· greater possibility of nuclear disasters
occurring due to accidental causes or terrorist actions. The nuclear installations and disaster
managers, therefore, need to be prepared for such contingencies.

2.3 NUCLEAR DISASTER MANAGEMENT

• In India, the Department of Atomic Energy (D A E) is responsible as the nodal agency for
nuclear emergencies in public domain.
• An emergency in public domain implies that it is potential threat to people, outside the nuclear
power plants.
• All major nuclear facilities, such as, the nuclear power plants have an exclusion zone of 1.6
km surrounding the power station. No habitation is permitted in this exclusion zone
• Area beyond the exclusion zone is termed as public domain. An area of 16 km radius around
the nuclear facility is designated as off-site emergency planning zone (epz).
As a general practice, the DAE is responsible to ensure that elaborate and comprehensive
safety systems are in place for the operation of any nuclear facility. Personnel managing nuclear
emergencies need special protection equipment, such as, integrated Hood Masks, plastic suit,
anti-gas respirators, Iodide tablets, respirators, contamination monitors, water-poison detection
kits and decontamination kits.

2.3.1 Crisis Management Group (CMG»

The CMG functions under the DAE. It is responsible for coordinating all actions for meeting a
nuclear emergency between the national crisis management group at national level and the local
administrative authorities in the affected area. The CMG is constituted as under:
Chairman - Additional Seceretary, DAE
Members
Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB)
BhabhaAtomic Energy Commission (BARC)
Heavy Water Board (HWB)
Directorate of Purchase and Stores (DP&S)
Nuclear Power Corporation ofIndia (NPCIL)
Department of Telecommunication (DoT)
DAE Secreteriat

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 24 Understanding Man-Made Disasters

2.3.2 Do's and Don'ts

The DAE has laid down guidelines to be followed by people in case of an incident at a nearby
nuclear facility or for any other nuclear emergency in an area, which may not even involve any
nuclear facility.

"

• Go indoors. Stay inside.

• Close doors / windows.
• .Switch on Radio / TV and look out for public announcements or advice.
• Cover food, water, and consume only such covered items.
• If in the open, cover your face and body with a.wet handkerchief, towel, dhoti or saree.
.
, Return home; change / remove clothes. Have a complete wash and use fresh clothing.
• Extend full cooperation to local authorities and obey their instructions completely - be it for
taking medication, evacuation etc.

Don'ts

• Do not panic.
• Do not believe in rumours.
• Do not stay outside / or go outside.
• As far as possible, avoid water from open wells / ponds, and also crops and vegetables,
food, water or milk exposed to radiation.
• Do not disobey any instruction of the District or Civil Defence Authorities who would be
doing their best to ensure the safety of yourself, your family, and your property.

2.4 LESSONS LEARNT

2.4.1 Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster

Chemobyl is located in Ukraine, erstwhile USSR. On 26th April 1986 one ofthe atomic reactors
in the Chemobyl Nuclear Power Plant had a core melt down. It is believed that the accident
occurred due to human error as at the time of accident the plant was partly shutdown and certain
safety mechanisms had been relaxed or disabled. This accident resulted in a fire at the power plant
and a huge quantity of radioactive isotopes leaked out in the atmosphere and spread in the nearby
areas.

Impacts
• About 134 persons suffered from acute radiation sickness immediately. 28 of them died.
• About 135,000 personnel were evacuated from the areas in the proximity ofthe disaster site.
• The radioactive release is said to have affected 17 million people to varying degrees.
• About 155,000 square kilometres of area containing a population of7 million was affected.
• About 800,000 personnel were pressed into service by the Soviet government for
decontamination. Upto 45 per cent of these persons also received unacceptable doses of
radioactivity.

7
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Nuclear Disasters 25

• Though the disaster occurred due to human error, the design of the plant was also an important
factor.

2.4.2 Nuclear Power Plant Disaster':Three Mile Island-USA

The accident occurred on March 27 and 28, 1979 at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Plant
at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, USA. In this case, a partial melt-down occurred in a nuclear power
plant, which was only six months old. The accident occurred due to human and mechanical failures.
The off-site release of radioactivity was limited though no casualties were reported. Large-scale
evacuation was carried out from the area. It is considered as USA's worst nuclear accident.

The accident was attributed to a series of events both technical failures and human errors as
presented below.

• Cooling system ofthe plant developed a snag due to technical problems.

• Secondary cooling system, which was to compensate for shut down of the primary system,
did not function because of human error.
• Some valves ofthe secondary cooling system were left closed during maintenance, two days
ago.
• Indications ofthe technical snag appearing on the control panel were not timely noticed.
• Ultimately there was a leakage of radioactive water from the around reactor core.
• The containment building was flooded with radioactive water; the reactor core was uncovered
and overheated.
• Timely preventive action, at this stage, by one ofthe workers to stop the flow of water from
the core prevented a complete core meltdown and a likely breach ofthe containment area.

Impact
• As radioactive water escaped the containment building into one ofthe auxiliary buildings of
the plant and a serious damage to the core was becoming evident, a site emergency was
declared.
• No casualties were reported.
• The public was informed of the emergency, and the communities around the plant were
evacuated.

2.5 CONCLUSION
This Unit highlighted the fact that the Disaster Management Administration needs to be prepared
for any emergency, especially due to the radiation. This is a very specialised area. Therefore, for
all nuclear plants in India, the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) prepares and sanctions the
Plan. However, it prepares the Site Emergency Response Plans also. At the state level, the State
Government prepares Off-Site Emergency Plans with inputs from the Nuclear installations within
their areas and subject to review by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) as these
involve nuclear safety of the public. In this regard to coordinate the activities, role of the Crisis
Management Group has been described. In addition, the prominent cases ofChemobyl Nuclear
Disaster and Nuclear Power Plant Disaster in Three Mile Island-USA have been dealt.
1.<.

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 26 Understanding Man-Made Disasters

2.6 KEY CONCEPTS

AERB Atomic Energy Regulatory Board.

CMG Crisis Management Group.

"
DAE Department of Atomic Energy, Government of India.

How does radiation The body's cells contain molecules, many of which are held
cause casualties? together by electrons. When radiation either excites or ionizes
the molecules in cells; chemical bonds may be broken and the
shape of a molecule may be changed. These changes disrupt the
normal chemical processes of the cells, causing the cells to
become abnormal or die.

If radiation affects molecules of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid),

the hereditary material in living cells, it may cause a permanent
change called a mutation. In rare cases, mutations caused by
radiation may pass on undesirable traits to offspring. If the damage
to an organism's genetic material is severe, the cell becomes
cancerous or dies whiletrying to divide. The effect produced
depends on the radiation's ionizing ability, the dose received, and
the type oftissue involved.

Local Emergency Plans These plans are for the contingency of a nuclear emergency within
a nuclear facility. Each of the nuclear power plants in the country
has a plant specific emergency plan.

NCMC National Crisis Management Committee.

Nuclear Radiation Nuclear radiation implies radiation of high-energy particles and

rays given off during a nuclear reaction.

Off-Site Emergencies These plans are for the contingency of a nuclear emergency in
Plans the public domain. The local district administration is responsible
for making such plans in consultation with the DAE. In case of a
nuclear emergency in the public domain, the situation is handled
mainly by the civil administration with due assistance and
coordination from the CMG of the DAE and NCMC. The local
administration is also responsible for periodic rehearsals and mock
drills for these plans. Representatives of the DAE and AERB are
also involved in coordination and action on feedback of such
rehearsals .
Radiation si kness . It is the term for a variety of symptoms that follow a person's
exposure to damaging amounts of certain types of radiation. The
radiation may come from nuclear sources and the resulting fallout,
from medical and industrial uses of radioisotopes, or from particle
accelerators or even X-ray machines. Ionization from the
radiation causes a series of reactions in human tissue that results
in damage to the body's cells.

Radioactive Fallout It is radioactive material that settles over the earth's surface
following a nuclear explosion in the atmosphere. It consists of
atoms known as radioactive isotopes or radioisotopes. Fallout

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Nuclear Disasters 27

can be dangerous to plants, animals, and people because ofthe

radioactive elements it contains. These elements include about
200 isotopes of fllore than 30 chemical elements produced by a
nuclear explosion.

After an explosion, the radioisotopes in the air, on the ground,

and in the bodies ofliving things decay (break down) into more
stable .isotopes. They do so by emitting radiation in the form of
alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. The process
goes on for very long periods oftime depending on the nature of
the elements involved. Exposure to large amounts of radiation
can result in immediate sickness and even death. Exposure to
radiation over longer periods can cause cancer and damage genes.

Radioactivity The testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere once produced

large amounts of fallout. Today, underground testing has eliminated
fallout from above ground testing. However, a serious accident
in a nuclear reactor can also create fallout.

It is a process under which a nucleus naturally converts into the

nucleus of another isotope or element. The process is
accompanied by release of energy essentially in the form of
nuclear radiation.

2.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Goel, S.L., 2006, Encyclopedia of Disaster Managerment (3) Management of Man-made
Disasters, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi.

Nuclear Emergency Response at www.dae.gov.in/regulat.htm

Nuclear Safety and Regulation at www.dae.gov. in/ index 1. html

Parasuraman, S. and P'VUnnikrishnan (Ed.), 2000, India Disaster Reports, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi,

Siromony, P. Michael Vetha (Ed.), 2000, Source Book on District Disaster Management,
LBSNAA, Mussoorie.·

Takada, Jun, 2005, Nuclear Hazards in the World: Field Studies on Affected Populations
and Environment, Kodansha Ltd., Tokyo.
World Book Millennium 2000. at www.ibm corp (cd)

2.10 ACTIVITIES
1) Outline the structure of nuclear disaster management in India.
2) Enumerate essential do's and don'ts in case ofa nuclear disaster.

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 UNIT 4 BIOLOGICAL DISASTERS
Structure
4.0 Learning Outcome
4.1 .. Introduction
.
4.2 'Classification of Communicable Diseases
4.3 Factors contributing to Vulnerability
4.4 Typical adverse effects
4.5 Biological Disaster: A Study of Plague at Surat
4.6 Biological Disaster: Preparedness and Mitigation
.
,
4.7 Conclusion
4.8 Key Concepts
4.9 References and Further Reading
4.1 0 Activities

4.0 LEARNINGOUTCOME
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
• Explain the causes of biological disasters;
• Describe the typical adverse effects of biological disasters; and
• Suggest the risk reduction and preparedness measures.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Biological disaster has coexisted with human society since primitive days. With rapid advancement
in medical sciences and prevention and social medicine, the impact and frequency of such disasters
have reduced to some extent in advanced countries. But the poor and developing countries continue
to suffer due to biological disasters. It is, therefore, important to understand the measures of
managing biological disasters and mitigating their impact on communities.

What is a Biological Disaster?

A biological disaster is the disaster, which causes sickness and fatalities in human beings and
animals at mass scale, when they come in contact with biological hazards in the form ofliving
organisms, such as, bacteria, virus, fungi, etc. Destruction of crops and plantation also falls within
the ambit of biological disasters.
All communicable diseases, either of human beings or livestock are potential biological disasters.
They spread widely,affecthuge number of people in communities, sometimes across the geographical
limits of provinces and nations.
Biological Disasters have caused havoc in human settlements in the form of communicable disease
since times immemorial. Plague savaged Europe for 300 years from 1300s to 1600s. About 20-
25 million or about one-third ofthe population was eliminated by the deadly epidemic across the
continent. Plague killed 200 people at Surat in Gujarat in 1994.
 Biological Disasters 37

. The pendemic influenza outbreak caused 20 million deathsacross the world in 1918-1919. Similarly
small pox, ebola, and yellow fever have been causing havoc throughout the world, mainly in
underdeveloped and poor societies. The small pox has been eradicated with its virus. It is preserved
only by some advanced countries for research purposes.
Biological disasters essentially appear in the form of epidemics or.pandemics, which are caused by
microorganisms. Different microorganisms cause different types of communicable diseases. The
micro-organisms, which cause co~unicable disease could be categorized as follows:
• Bacteria - These are small free-living organisms. They can be grown on solid or liquid
culture media. The disease caused by bacteria is usually treatable with specific antibiotic
therapy.
• Virus - These microorganisms replicate in living cells and cause disease, which are mostly
non-responsive to antibiotics. Such disease may sometimes respond to antiviral compounds.
• Rickettsiae - These microorganisms share characteristics of bacteria and virus. In the case
of virus, they grow only within living cell; and in case ofbacteria, they too have cell membranes
and metabolic enzymes. Besides, they use oxygen and are susceptible to antibiotics.
• Chlamydia- these are intracellular microorganisms not capable of generating their own energy
source. They grow in living cells like viruses, and respond to broad-spectrum antibiotics as in
the case of bacteria.
• Fungi - These are primitive plants, which draw nutrition from decaying vegetable matter.
Most fungi form spores, and free living forms are found in soil. Fungal disease normally
responds to anti-microbial drugs.
• Toxins - These are poisonous substances produced by living plants, animals or
microorganisms. Some toxins can be produced by chemical means also.

4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

One way to classify the communicable diseases is to list them according to pathogenic agents that
cause the disease, i.e., whether virus, bacteria, or parasite. Communicable diseases, manifesting
themselves in association with natural disaster situations, such as, earthquake, cyclones or floods,
are customarily classified according to the way they are transferred. Following simple classification
is suggested for practical reasons.
• Diseases transmitted by contact
Scabies
Trachoma
Conjunctivitis
Mycosis
• Sexually transmitted
Gonorrhoea
Syphilis
AIDS
• Vector transmitted diseases
Malaria
Dengue

7
 38 Understanding Man-Made Disasters

Recurrent fevers
Trypanosomiasis
Yellow fever
Onchocerciasis
~ Schistosomiasis
.
"

• Diseases transmitted through faecal matter

Non specific diarrhea diseases
Cholera
Amoebiasis
Hepatitis
.
, Typhoid fever
Ascariasis
I

Aneylostomiasis (hookworm disease)

• Diseases transmitted through air
1
Acute respiratory infection
l
Tuberculosis
Measles
I
-::' Meningitis
~
Whooping cough 1
Global efforts to eradicate communicable diseases succeeded to eradicate smallpox among the . J
1
communicable diseases totally eradicated so far. It is a matter of concern that thirty new pathogens
have been identified since eradication of small pox. Some of these have already swept the world in
the form of a pandemic (viz. HIV /AIDS), and for many of these (Ebola, virus, lassa virus etc.)
there is no cure, treatment or vaccine and the possibility of preventing or contesting them. Recently
recognised pathogenic microbes and infections diseases are given in the following table.
1

Table 4.1: Pathogenic Microbes and Infectious Diseases

Year
1973
Microbe
Rotavirus
Type
Virus
Disease
Major cause of infantile diarrhoea
worldwide
j
••
1975 Parvovirus B-19 Virus Aplastic crisis in chronic heamolytic
anaemia I j
1976 Cryptosporidium parvum Parasite Acute and chronic diarrhoea ~
I
1977 Ebola virus Virus Ebola haemorrhagic fever
1977 Legionella pneumophila Bacteria Legionnaires disease
1977 Hantaan Virus Virus Haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. I
(HRFS) I
j
1977 Campylobacter jejuni Bacteria Enteric pathogen distributed globally
1980 Human T- lymphotropic Virus T-cell lymphoma --leukaemia
l
virus I (HTLV-l) .
1981 Toxin producing strains of Bacteria Toxic Shock Syndrome
Staphylococcus aureus

7 I
Biological Disasters 39

1982 Escherichia coli 0157:H7 Bacteria Haemorrhagic colitis; heamolytic Ureamic

syndrome
1982 HTLV-II Virus, Hairy cell leukaemia
1982 Borrelia burgdorferi Bacteria Lyme disease
1983 HIV Virus AIDS
1983 Helicobacter pylori Bacteria Peptic ulcer disease
1985 Enterocytozoon bieneusi Parasite Persistent diarrhoea
1986 Cyclosporacayatanensis Parasite Persistent diarrhoea
1988 Human herpes virus-6 Virus Roseola subitum
(HHV-6)
1988 Hepatitis E Virus Virus Enterically transmitted hepatitis
1989 Ehrilichia chafeensis Bacteria Human ehlichiosis
1989 Hepatitis C Virus Virus Parenterally transmitted liver infection

1991 Guanarito virus VIrus Venezuelan haemorrhagic fever

1991 Encephalitozoon hellem Parasite Conjuctivitis; disseminated disease
1991 New sps. of Babesia Parasite Atypical babesiosis ,
1992 Vibriocho1erae 0139 Bacteria New strain associated with epidemic
cholera
1992 Bartonella henselae Bacteria Cat -scratch disease; bacillary
angiomatosis
1993 Sin nombre virus Virus Adult respiratory distress syndrome
1993 Encephalitozoon cunculi Parasite Disseminated disease
1994 Sabia virus Virus Brazilian haemorrhagic fever
1995 HHV-8 Virus Associated with Kaposi sarcoma in AIDS
patients
1999 Nipah Virus Encephalitis

Source: Global perspective of communicable diseases, Biological Disaster Management Plan, HPC
on Disaster Management, part Vol.-IV.
J Lederberg, "Future of infectus diseases in Drug resistance mechanisms and management",
communicore, 1998, p.5.

4.3 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO VULNERABILITY

In India, urban, semi-urban and rural population all are vulnerable to biological disasters, though
for different reasons and in varying degree. Some of the factors uniformly applicable are:
• Population growth
Leading to sub-standard and unhygienic living conditions, presenting a perfect condition for
epidemic to set in.
• Poverty
A logical consequence of over population limits the capacity of individuals and communities
to limit or nullify the impact of epidemics.
• Lack of Rapid Response Epidemic Control and Containment Mechanisms
Paucity of medical resources coupled with geographical locations and problems of
communication make communities in rural areas comparatively more vulnerable.

r I
 40 Understanding Man-Made Disasters

• Low Public Awareness

Lack ofbasic health and hygiene education and in some cases superstitions add to vulnerability
of certain sections of population. .

• Poor Health and Malnutrition

Poor health and malnutrition lead to depleted body resistance to diseases. Thus, certain
'. groups in urban areas, and women and children in backward rural areas become more
vulnerable .
• ' Poor state of Health Care System
, Callous approach to public health' and safety coupled with meagre resources at the disposal
of civic bodies at all levels also contribute to enhancement of vulnerability to biological disasters.
• Congestion in Urban Areas
.. Congestion in urban areas leads to problem of waste disposal, which provides fertile ground
for various diseases to spread.
, • Bio Terrorism
Ignorance towards emerging threats ofbio-terrorism, in general, enhances the vulnerability.
• Modern Means of Transport and Communication
It is a paradox that modem means of transport and communication have made the world
shrink, which also add vulnerability to communicable diseases because of frequent travel and
greater social mixing.

Bio Terrorism
Possibilities of occurrence ofthe biological disasters due to certain dangerous biological agents,
which are used by terrorist organisations have increased. Biological warfare is nothing but bio-
terrorism and is universally condemned.

Biological Disasters: Causal Phenomenon

Communicable diseases leading to biological disasters often erupt and spread due to poor and
unhygienic living conditions of individuals and families within communities. The general living conditions
and state of medical services coupled with awareness levels of individuals also determine the
vulnerability of individuals and communities to biological hazards. It is very natural, therefore, that
affiuent communities are less vulnerable to biological hazards as cornparedto poor communities.
Causes for epidemics and pandemics may be generalised as under:
• Congested living areas with inadequate hygiene and sanitation arrangements.
• Movement of infected personnel to non-epidemic areas carrying the micro-organisms during
their incubation period.
• Movement of non-immune persons to endemic areas. In case of malaria, for example, the
mortality rate in endemic regions is very high during first two years oflife. In groups from non-
endemic areas who move into endemic regions, all individuals run the risk of developing
severe form of malaria.
• Malnutrition, particularly among children.
• Ecological changes conducive to breeding of vectors.
• Poor or insufficient water supply system, leading to consumption of contaminated water,
leading to water borne diseases.
• Poor Health Services and lack of programmes for immunisation and vector control.

/
 Biological Disasters 41

4.4 TYPICAL ADVERSE EFFECTS

Typical adverse effects of biological disasters include following aspects:
• Enhances vulnerability due to economic consequences and levels of poverty.

"
• Loss oflivelihood, even for personnel in unorganised sectors due to decline in business and
economic activities in general.
"
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorders (PTSD).
• Crisis of availability oflabourers, who migrate in search of employment in normal conditions
and work in other areas.

4.5 BIOLOGICAL DISASTER: A STUDY OF PLAGUE AT

SURAT
Surat, one ofthe largest industrial towns ofGujarat was hit by plague epidemic in October 1994.
Approximately six hundred people died and about 1/3 ofthe population of the town are believed
to have fled mainly due to fear and panic. The epidemic had far reaching economic repercussions
too.
Some ofthe major observations, which could be noted as lessons for improving biological disaster
response, are listed below.

Conditions before the outbreak of Plague

• Congestion in town.
• Inadequate garbage disposal arrangements.
• Lack of functional disease surveillance organisations.
• Lack of overall preparedness on behalf of civic administration to combat outbreak of an
epidemic of this nature.

Conditions during the outbreak of Plague

• Paucity of drugs.
• Rumour mongering - there was a rumour that water in the city was poisoned.
• Lack of credible public information system.
• Lack of co-ordination within the medical authorities as well as in various government
departments,
• No plans existed for moving people to safer areas.
• No public health programme to educate common masses to cope with plague epidemic was
m vogue,
• Lack of judicial provisions to enforce medical practitioners to fulfill their social obligations. A
number of private medical practitioners fled the town and many private nursing homes closed
down.
• Inadequacy of medical infrastructure to handle a disaster of such a dimension. It was very
creditable on part of medical personnel to work under great odds. At places even the medical
personnel did not have protective gowns and the sanitary staff ofthe municipal corporation
worked without masks and gloves. . '

,
/
 42 Understanding Man-Made Disasters

• Availability of sanitary staff was reduced to about 50 per cent due to prevailing fear and
panic, which affected garbage disposal and removal of carcasses. '.
Thus, it is evident from the study that specific preparedness measures are required to mitigate the
biological disasters, which are mentioned below.

"
4.6 BIOLOGICAL DISASTER: PREPAREDNESS FOR
I
MITIGATION
1
• _ Create a pool of well-trained medical professionals.
• Ensure availability of vaccines and drugs. 1 I

• Ensure adequate stocks and ready availability of diagnostic re-agents. l

• Develop an effective network of surveillance system to detect outbreak of epidemics.
• Improve skills of medical professionals towards early diagnoses and identification of epidemics.
• Improve public awareness to enable people to help the administration and medical authorities
in disaster management.
• Have a reliable and credible public information system for dissemination of factual information
to avoid fear and panic among masses.
The analytical study of plague in Surat revealed the need to immediately implement following
suggestions to mitigate the disaster. Conceptually the epidemic can be resisted and fought against by:
• . Organising mass scale immunisation programme;
• Providing effective and efficient (timely) treatment;
• Maintaining high standards of hygiene and sanitation in the communities;
• Preventing spread of disease; and
• Creating public awareness towards health care. In this regard, following information that
includes symptoms and treatment about certain epidemics will prove to be useful.

Plague
The plague bacterium could be disseminated by aerosol, resulting in the pneumonic form with the
potential for secondary spread of cases through respiratory droplets ofthose infected. J
Symptoms
Within one to six days after exposure, the first signs of illness are fever, headache and weakness,
which can lead to shock and death within two to four days. .

Treatment
Antibiotics within 24 hours of first symptoms.

Botulism
Botulism toxin can be inhaled, viz. contaminated food or water.

Symptoms
Double vision, slurred speech, dries mouth and muscle weakness, which also starts at the top of
the body and works its way down. Symptoms begin from six hours up to two weeks after exposure.
Death can be caused by paralysis ofthe breathing muscles within 24 hours.

I
 Biological Disasters 43

Treatment
Botulism anti-toxin, supplied by the CDC
Prevention
Vaccine
Smallpox
,"
The smallpox virus is relatively stable and the dose required for infection is small, making it a
candidate for aerosol release. It could then be further spread by the saliva droplets of infected
people.

Symptoms
The incubation period is about 12 days following exposure. Symptoms include fever, fatigue and
.
, aches, followed by a rash with lesions and can lead to death within the first two weeks of the
illness.

Treatment
No proven treatment at this time.

Prevention
Vaccine
Tularemia

Humans can become infected with tularemia through bites by infected anthropods, contact with
contiminated water or food, and inhalation of infective aerosols.

Symptoms
Earlier symptoms of infection by aerosol could be similar to those of influenza or a typical pneumonia.
The symptoms can occur within a few days or as long as two weeks after exposure. If treated, the
patient experiences progressive weakness and weight loss, and can die within two weeks.

Treatment
Antibiotics

Prevention
A vaccine is currently under review by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (American Medical
Association)

Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers (VHF)

Many VHF viruses are known to naturally reside in an animal or insect host, however, the hosts of
some VHF viruses remain unknown, including that ofEbola and Marburg viruses. Some VHF
viruses can be transmitted by the body fluids of infected people.

Symptoms
Reactions vary depending on the type of VHF, but symptoms often include fever, fatigue, dizziness,
muscle aches and exhaustion. Severe cases cause bleeding under the skin and in internal organs.
Some types of VHF cause kidney failure.

1
 44 Understanding Man-Made Disasters

Treatment
Generally there are no treatments other than supportive therapy for VHFs:
Prevention
Vaccines are available for only two VHFs: yellow fever and Argentine hemorrhagic fever.
.,
4.7 CONCLUSION
The biological disaster, that is, caused by organisms like bacteria, virus, fungus, and protozoon
leads to epidemics, which occur in large scale. The causative agent could occur naturally or be
created in laboratory and spread as part of warfare and terrorist activity. It has been observed
that the disaster related epidemic arises from the sub-standard living conditions. In this Unit, we
have described the causes, impacts, and management of biological disaster.The Unit has described
the adverse effects of biological disasters, which enhance vulnerability due to economic
consequences and levels of poverty; results in PTSD; loss oflivelihood; and crisis of availability of
labourers, who migrate in search of employment in normal conditions and work in other areas. In
view ofthese problems, we have suggested certain measures for preparedness and mitigation of .
biological disasters.

4.8 KEY CONCEPTS

Botulism Botulism toxin is the most potent lethal substance, which is
. made by the bacterium clostridium botulinum.
Epiderriic Occurrence of a disease ina particular group or population .
such that a high proportion of persons are affected by the
disease.
Pandemic Large epidemic; an epidemic that spreads worldwide or atleast
across a large region.
Plague The causative agent of plague, Yersinia pestis, is found in
rodents and their fleas.
Parasite An animal or plant living in or on another.
Pathogem Disease producing organism.
Smallpox The variola virus, commonly known as smallpox, was
eradicated from the world in 1977, except for stocks of it
kept in the World Health Organization reference labs.
Smallpox comes in two forms: variola minor or the more deadly
variola major.
Smog When smoke andlor pollution combine with fog, the result is
smog (smoke plus fog). Smog takes longer to dissipate and is
very harmful.
Tularemia The causative agent oftularemia is francisella tularensis, which
is considered as one ofthe most infectious pathogenic bacteria.
Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers Viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHF) refer to a group of illness
caused by several distinct families of viruses. While some of
these viruses cause relatively mild illness, others cause severe
life-threatening ones, such as, ebola. Dengue is a VHF.

1
 Biological Disasters 45

.~--------------------------------~-----------------------------
4.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Biological and Chemical Weapons, at www.CNNcom
"Global perspective of communicable diseases, Biological Disaster Management Plan", HPC on
"
Disaster Management, Vol.-IV, NCDM, IIPA, New Delhi.
Lederberg, 1., "Future of infectious diseases in Drug resistance mechanisms and management",
R.L. Singhal and O.P~Sood (Eds.), 1998 ,communicore.
Nath, Meenakshi," Industrial Disaster: Working Towards oblivion", S. Parasuraman and P.v.
Unnikrishnan(Eds.), 2000, India Disaster Reports, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Perrin, Pierre (Ed.), "Communicable diseases ", Jan de Boer & Marcel Dubouloz, 2000,
Handbook of Disaster Medicine. Hentenaar boek BV, Nieuwegein, Netherlands.
Siromony P. Michael Vetha (Ed.), 2000, Source Book on District Disaster Management,
LBSNAA, Mussoorie .

4.10 ACTIVITIES
1) What arebiological disasters? List out importantmicroorganisms, which could cause biological
disasters.
2) How communicablediseases manifestthemselvesin associationwith naturaldisastersituations?
3) Identify and describe the specific factors, which are contributing to vulnerability of biological
disasters .
. 4) On the basis of your study analyse the Indian condition to mitigate the biological disasters,
and suggest remedial measures.

I
 GLOBAL WARMING

Global Warming is defined as the increase of the average temperature on

Earth. As the Earth is getting hotter, disasters like hurricanes, droughts and
floods are getting more frequent.
Over the last 100 years, the average temperature of the air near the Earth´s
surface has risen a little less than 1° Celsius (0.74 ± 0.18°C, or 1.3 ± 0.32°
Fahrenheit).
It is responsible for the conspicuous increase in storms, floods and raging
forest fires we have seen in the last ten years, though, say scientists.
Earth should be in cool-down-period
But it is not only about how much the Earth is warming, it is also about how
fast it is warming. There have always been natural climate changes – Ice Ages and the
warm intermediate times between them – but those evolved over periods of 50,000 to
100,000 years.
A temperature rise as fast as the one we have seen over the last 30 years has
never happened before, as far as scientists can ascertain. Moreover, normally the
Earth should now be in a cool-down-period, according to natural effects like solar
cycles and volcano activity, not in a heating-up phase.
The Most Important Things You Can Do about Rapid Climate Change:

1. Understand the Problem

2. Do Something Today to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions

The hard fact is that despite what many nations, companies, cities and people
are starting to do to reduce their global warming emissions, the world is putting more
CO2 into the air than ever before. The current amount is 385 parts per million (ppm) --
higher than ever in the past 800,000 years.

At the same time, renowned American climatologist Dr. James Hansen of

NASA says we already have too much CO2 and other greenhouse gases in the air: "If
humanity wishes to preserve a planet similar to that on which civilization developed
and to which life on Earth is adapted CO2 will need to be reduced from its current 385
ppm to at most 350 ppm."

What Is the Greenhouse Effect?

Global warming is perhaps the most important environmental problem in the world
today. Levels of greenhouse gases are increasing in the atmosphere due to human
activities, and are changing the composition of the atmosphere and global warming.
Climate scientists agree that human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels
contribute to the problem.
 Scientists have predicted the phenomemon of global warming for decades.
Unfortunately, some of the adverse effects of global warming, they have also
predicted begin to occur throughout the world, including:
GLOBAL WARMING AND AGRICULTURE

Impact of Global Warming

Increase in Sea level

Melting of glaciers due global warming

Before After
Pest infestation due to global warming
Direct manifestations of a widespread and long-term trend toward warmer
global temperatures

Heat waves and periods of unusually warm weather

Ocean warming, sea-level rise and coastal flooding

Glaciers melting

Arctic and Antarctic warming

Events that foreshadow the types of impacts likely to become more frequent and
widespread with continued warming.

Spreading disease

Earlier spring arrival

Plant and animal range shifts and population changes

Coral reef bleaching

Downpours, heavy snowfalls, and flooding

Droughts and fires

1. Impact of climate change on agriculture

Shortage in grain production

Poverty impacts

Temperature potential effect on growing period

Potential effect of atmospheric carbon dioxide on yield

Effect on quality

Agricultural surfaces and climate changes

Erosion and fertility

Potential effects of global climate change on pests, diseases and weeds

Glacier retreat and disappearance

Ozone and UV-B

ENSO effects on agriculture

2. Impact of agriculture on climate change

Land use
 Livestock

Source: http://www.worldviewofglobalwarming.org/
http://www.ac-nancy-metz.fr/enseign/anglais/Henry/warming40.gif ( agri pic)